SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

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VATTAMALAIPALAYAM, N.G.G.O. COLONY POST, COIMBATORE – 641 022.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

12EC2E28-INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

ANSWER KEY

PART-A (10*1=10 Marks)

1. Has low leakage current

2. large reverse breakdown voltage
3. 500 W
4. Both (iii) and (iv)
5.α/Ton
6. Average voltage is zero
7. DC motors
8. Less than running torque
9. All the above
10. Chopper
PART- B (5*2=10 Marks)

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PART- C (5*16=80 Marks)

16. a) i) Power Mosfet: 8 Marks

Diagram : 4 Marks
Explanation : 4 Marks

Structures and Characteristics

Since Power MOSFETs operate principally as majority-carrier devices, they are not affected
by minority carriers. This is in contrast to the situation with minority-carrier devices such
as bipolar transistors where such effects create more serious design problems. Also, the
input impedance of power MOSFETs is basically higher than that of junction FETs.
Even though power MOSFETs excel in speed, in the beginning of their development, it was thought that
achieving low on-state resistance, high breakdown voltage and high power would be difficult. In recent years,
however, we have witnessed major improvement in the performance of power MOSFETs with the prevalence
of a planar gate double diffusion structure, followed by trench gate and superjunction (SJ) structures. Power
MOSFETs with these new structures deliver higher speed, lower on-state resistance, and higher breakdown
voltage. Today, power MOSFETs are widely used as switching devices in commercial, industrial, automotive
and other applications.

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Characteristics of Power MOSFETs
The general characteristics of power MOSFETs are listed below.
(1) Basically, MOSFETs are majority-carrier devices and operationally different from bipolar
transistors that are minority-carrier devices.
(2) While bipolar transistors are current-controlled devices, MOSFETs are voltage-controlled
devices that are controlled by gate-source voltage.
(3) Since MOSFETs are majority-carrier devices, they do not suffer delay due to the carrier
storage effect, making high frequency switching possible.
(4) In bipolar transistors, current concentrates in the high voltage region, making them
vulnerable to junction destruction due to secondary breakdown. Operating conditions are
de-rated as necessary to prevent junction destruction. In contrast, power MOSFETs are
much more immune to secondary breakdown and therefore more rugged. However, the
electrical characteristics of recent MOSFET devices should be carefully examined as some
of them are vulnerable to secondary breakdown.
(5) Since power MOSFETs have a positive temperature coefficient of on-state resistance,
RDS(ON) at high temperatures should be considered during thermal design.

16. a) ii) BJT as a switch: 8 Marks

Diagram : 4 Marks
Explanation : 4 Marks

Transistor as a Switch
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The transistor is used as a switch therefore it is used only between saturation
and cutoff.
From fig. 5 we can write the following equations

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16. b) i) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor: 8 Marks
Diagram : 4 Marks
Explanation : 4 Marks

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross
between a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor,
(MOSFET) making it ideal as a semiconductor switching device.

The IGBT Transistor takes the best parts of these two types of common transistors, the high input
impedance and high switching speeds of a MOSFET with the low saturation voltage of a bipolar
transistor, and combines them together to produce another type of transistor switching device
that is capable of handling large collector-emitter currents with virtually zero gate current drive.

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) combines the insulated gate (hence the first part
of its name) technology of the MOSFET with the output performance characteristics of a
conventional bipolar transistor, (hence the second part of its name).

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The result of this hybrid combination is that the “IGBT Transistor” has the output switching and
conduction characteristics of a bipolar transistor but is voltage-controlled like a MOSFET.

IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as inverters, converters and power
supplies, were the demands of the solid state switching device are not fully met by power
bipolars and power MOSFETs. High-current and high-voltage bipolars are available, but their
switching speeds are slow, while power MOSFETs may have higher switching speeds, but high-
voltage and high-current devices are expensive and hard to achieve.

The advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a BJT or MOSFET is
that it offers greater power gain than the standard bipolar type transistor combined with the
higher voltage operation and lower input losses of the MOSFET. In effect it is an FET integrated
with a bipolar transistor in a form of Darlington type configuration as shown.

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance device
that combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor output
connected in a type of Darlington configuration.

As a result the terminals are labelled as: Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of its terminals (C-
E) are associated with the conductance path which passes current, while its third terminal (G)
controls the device.

The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio between
its output signal and its input signal. For a conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the
amount of gain is approximately equal to the ratio of the output current to the input current,
called Beta.

For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current as
the gate is isolated from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FET’s gain is equal to
the ratio of output current change to input voltage change, making it a transconductance device
and this is also true of the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current
is provided by a MOSFET.

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in much
the same way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low
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conduction loss of a BJT with the high switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid
state switch exists which is ideal for use in power electronics applications.

Also, the IGBT has a much lower “on-state” resistance, RON than an equivalent MOSFET. This
means that the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching current is much
lower. The forward blocking operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.

When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and
current ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate
in an IGBT makes it a lot simpler to drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.

An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned “ON” or “OFF” by activating and
deactivating its Gate terminal. Applying a positive input voltage signal across the Gate and the
Emitter will keep the device in its “ON” state, while making the input gate signal zero or slightly
negative will cause it to turn “OFF” in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET.
Another advantage of the IGBT is that it has a much lower on-state channel resistance than a
standard MOSFET.

Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the Gate to
maintain conduction through the device unlike BJT’s which require that the Base current is
continuously supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation.

Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the “forward
direction”, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFET’s which have bi-directional current
switching capabilities (controlled in the forward direction and uncontrolled in the reverse
direction).

The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar transistor are
very similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic difference is that the resistance
offered by the main conducting channel when current flows through the device in its “ON” state
is very much smaller in the IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings are much higher when
compared with an equivalent power MOSFET.

The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over other types of transistor
devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance, ease of drive, relatively fast switching speeds
and combined with zero gate drive current makes it a good choice for moderate speed, high voltage
applications such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM), variable speed control, switch-mode power

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supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and frequency converter applications operating in the
hundreds of kilohertz range.

We have seen that the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is semiconductor switching device
that has the output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor, BJT, but is controlled like a
metal oxide field effect transistor, MOSFET.

One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity by which it can be driven
“ON” by applying a positive gate voltage, or switched “OFF” by making the gate signal zero or
slightly negative allowing it to be used in a variety of switching applications. It can also be
driven in its linear active region for use in power amplifiers.

With its lower on-state resistance and conduction losses as well as its ability to switch high
voltages at high frequencies without damage makes the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ideal
for driving inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors.

16. b) ii) Significance of protective circuits and opto couplers: 8 Marks

Diagram : 4 Marks
Explanation : 4 Marks

Electronic isolation is a means of preventing the transfer of direct current (dc) and unwanted
alternating current (ac) between two parts of a system while still enabling signal and power
transfer between those two parts. This kind of isolation is required in a number of instances, such
as:

 Protecting industrial operators from high voltage.

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  Protecting expensive processors and related circuits from high voltage.
 Preventing ground loops in communications networks.
 Improving noise immunity.
 Communicating with high-side devices in a motor drive or power-converter systems.

Industrial equipment that requires isolation includes programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
motor drives, medical equipment, solar inverters, electrical vehicles (EVs), and some special
power supplies.

There’s a need for an efficient, affordable, and compact isolation solution for industrial
equipment. A fully integrated signal and power isolation product that’s now available brings a
number of benefits to system design, including reduced board space, ease of certification, and
simpler design. This article introduces isolation methods and a modern integrated approach.

Isolation Methods

One rather obvious method of electrical isolation is to use a transformer. The primary and
secondary windings are electrically separate, and power transfer is strictly by way of magnetic
induction rather than current flow. A transformer is still a key part of isolation methods, and is
the approach of choice for dc power isolation.

While transformers can be used for signal transfer, they’re limited in speed, and are bulky and
expensive. Other choices are available, though. One isolation method that’s been around for
years is optical isolation, and it involves an integrated circuit called an optocoupler. It’s made up
of an infrared LED and phototransistor, usually a BJT with an open collector. In some devices, a
separate photodiode detector is used (Fig. 1).

An optocoupler uses an IR LED and a phototransistor to provide a signal path, but with high-
voltage isolation.

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With no input signal, the LED is dark and the phototransistor is off, so the external pull-up
resistor produces a high output. When an input signal is applied, the LED turns on, the base of
the phototransistor is illuminated, and it produces the bias that turns the transistor on. This
causes the output to go low.

Optocouplers work well and provide good high-voltage isolation up to 5 to 10 kV. Their main
disadvantage is speed of operation in some digital systems. Today, a newer form of isolator using
capacitive connectivity is now available.

Digital isolators use silicon-dioxide dielectric capacitors as the isolation method. However,
because the capacitance is restricted by the physical limitations of an integrated circuit, special
techniques are used to ensure the fast transfer of energy. One technique is edge-based and the
other employs on-off keying (OOK) modulation.

17. a) i) Single phase cyclo converters: 8 Marks

Diagram : 4 Marks
Explanation : 4 Marks

The basic principle of operation of a cyclo-converter is explained with reference to an equivalent

circuit shown in Fig. 29.1. Each two-quadrant converter (phase-controlled) is represented as an
alternating voltage source, which corresponds to the fundamental voltage component obtained at
its output terminals. The diodes connected in series with each voltage source, show the
unidirectional conduction of each converter, whose output voltage can be either positive or
negative, being a two-quadrant one, but the direction of current is in the direction as shown in the
circuit, as only thyristors − unidirectional switching devices, are used in the two converters.
Normally, the ripple content in the output voltage is neglected.

The control principle used in an ideal cyclo-converter is to continuously modulate the firing angles of
the individual converters, so that each produces the same sinusoidal (ac) voltage at its output
terminals. Thus, the voltages of the two generators (Fig. 29.1) have the same amplitude, frequency
and phase, and the voltage of the cyclo-converter is equal to the voltage of either of these generators.

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It is possible for the mean power to flow either ‘to’ or ‘from’ the output terminals, and the cyclo-
converter is inherently capable of operation with loads of any phase angle − inductive or capacitive.
Because of the uni-directional current carrying property of the individual converters, it is inherent
that the positive half-cycle of load current must always be carried by the positive converter, and the
negative half-cycle by the negative converter, regardless of the phase of the current with respect to
the voltage. This means that each two-quadrant converter operates both in its rectifying (converting)
and in its inverting region during the period of its associated half-cycle of current.

The output voltage and current waveforms, illustrating the operation of an ideal cyclo-converter
circuit with loads of various displacement angles, are shown in Fig. 29.2. The displacement angle of
the load (current) is (Fig. 29.2a). In this case, each converter carries the load current only, when it
operates in its rectifying region, and it remains idle throughout the whole period in which its terminal
voltage is in the inverting region of operation. In Fig. 29.2b, the displacement angle of the load is
lagging. During the first period of each half-cycle of load current, the associated converter operates
in its rectifying region, and delivers power to the load. During the latter period in the half-cycle, the
associated converter operates in its inverting region, and under this condition, the load is regenerating
power back into the cyclo-converter output terminals, and hence, into the ac system at the input side.
These two are illustrative cases only. Any other case, say capacitive load, with the displacement
angle as leading, the operation changes with inverting region in the first period of the half-cycle as
per displacement angle, and the latter period operating in rectifying region.

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17. a) ii) Problem: 8 Marks

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