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Printed in Canada Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Nau, Henry R., 1941~ author. Title: Perspectives on international relations : power, institutions, and ideas / Henry R. Nau. Description: Sixth edition. | Los Angeles : CQ Press, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017045663 | ISBN 978-1-5069-9622-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) ‘Subjects: LCSH: International relations. | World politics. Classification: LOC JZ1305 .NG4 2007 | DDC 327.101 —de23 LC record available at httpsi//lccn.loc.gov/2017045663, This book is printed on acid-free paper. 18 192021 2210987654321ABOUT THE AUTHOR Henry R. Nau has taught political science for nearly fifty years. He is currently professor of political science and inter national affairs at the Elliott School of International Affairs, George Washington University. He taught previously at Wil- liams College and held visiting appointments at Johns Hop- kins School of Advanced International Studies, Stanford University, and Columbia University. From 1989 to 2016, he directed the U.S.-Japa 2 But/THe Ga01 Program, semiannual meetings among members of the U.S. eee es Congress, the Japanese Diet, and the South Kor !-South Korea Legislative Exchange National Assembly, In 2016, the Japanese government awarded him the Order of the Rising Sun, Neck Ribbon with Gold Rays, the highest honor for aca- demic leaders, in recognition of his work on this Exchange. ‘Naw also served in government twice, once from 1975 to 1977 as special assistant to the undersecretary for economic affairs in the U.S. Department of State and again from 1981 to 1983 asa senior staff member of the National Security Council under President Reagan, responsible for international economic affairs. He was the White House aide, or Sherpa, for the annual G7 economic summits in Ottawa (1981), Versailles (1982), and Williamsburg (1983), and for the special summit with developing countries in Cancun (1982). He is a former member of the UN Committee for Development Planning and the U.S. Department of State’s Advisory Committee on International Investment. From 1977 to 1981, Nau served on the Board of Editors of the journal International Orga- nization. He has received research grants from, among, others, the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, the National Science Foundation, the Council on For- ign Relations, the Smith-Richardson Foundation, the Century Foundation, the Japan- u, Friendship Commission, the Hoover Institution, the Rumsfeld Foundation, and the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, From 1963 to 1965, he served as a lieutenant in the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Nau’s published books include, among others, Conservative Internationalism: Armed Diplomacy under Jefferson, Polk, Truman, and Reagan (Princeton University Press, 2013, and paperback with new preface, 2015}; At Home Abroai in American Foreign Policy (Cornell University Press, 2002); Trade and Security: USS, Policies at Cross-Purposes (American Enterprise Institute, 1995); The Myth of America’s Decline: Leading the World Economy into the 1990s (Oxford University Identity and PowerPERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Press, 1990); and National Politics and International Technology: Peaceful Nuclear Reactor Development in Western Europe (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974). His ‘most recent edited book is Worldviews of Aspiring Powers: Domestic Foreign Policy Debates in China, India, Iran, Japan, and Russia, coedited with Deepa M. Ollapally (Oxford University Press, 2012). Recent articles and chapters in edited books include “Trump's Conservative Internationalism,” National Review, August 2017; “America’s International Nationalism,” American Interest, January/February 2017; “The Difference Reagan Made,” Claremont Review of Books, Winter 2016-2017; “How Restraint Leads to War: The Real Danger of the Iran Deal,” Commentary (July/August, 2015); “Ideas Have Consequences: The Cold War and Today,” International Politics 48 (July! September 201 1}: 460-81; “No Alternative to Isms,” International Studies Quarterly 55,no.2 (June 2011): 487-915 The ‘Great Expansion’: The Economic Legacy of Ronald Reagan,” in Reagan's Legacy in a Transformed World, edited by Jeffrey L. Chidester and Paul Kengor (Harvard University Press, 2015); “Scholarship and Policy-Making: Who Speaks Truth to Whom?,” in The Oxford Handbook of International Relations, edited by Christian Reus-Smit and Duncan Snidal (Oxford University Press, 2008); and “Iraq and Previous Transatlantic Crises: Divided by Threat, Not Institutions or Values,” in The End of the West? Crisis and Change in the Atlantic Order, edited by Jeffrey Anderson, G. John tkenberry, and Thomas Risse (Cornell University Press, 2008).BRIEF CONTENTS About the Author Figures, Maps, Parallel Timelines, and Tables Preface Introduction. Why We Disagree about International Relations 1. How to Think about International Relations: Perspectives, Levels of Analysis, and Causal Arrows PART |. HISTORICAL PATTERNS 2. World War I: World on Fire 3. World War Il: Why Did War Happen Again? 4, The Origins and End of the Cold War PART II. THE CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM 5. Realist Perspectives on Today’s World: Unipolarity, Balance of Power, and State Actors 6. Liberal Perspectives on Today’s World: Collective Security, Diplomacy, International Institutions, and Law 7. \dentity Perspectives on Today’s World: Democracy, Religion, Nationalism, and Human Rights PART Ill. GLOBALIZATION AND CHANGE 8. Realist and Liberal Perspectives on Globalization: Security, Domestic Economy, Trade, Investment, and Finance 9. Identity Perspectives on Globalization: Development and Environment 91 122 160 21 213 310 355 357 ai10. Critical Theory Perspectives on Globalization; Inequality, Imperialism, and Injustice Conclusion. Applying Perspectives and Leve The Case of the Democratic Peace Notes Glossary of Key Concepts Index els of Analysis: 477 501 Na G4 MMDETAILED CONTENTS About the Author al Figures, Maps, Parallel Timelines, and Tables xix Preface xxiv Introduction. Why We Disagree about International Relations 1 The Crisis in Syria 1 Some of the Facts 2 Sorting Out the Facts 4 Different Causes or Explanations 6 Studying International Relations 10 The Roles of Perspectives, Levels of Analysis, and Causal Arrows 2 ‘The Role of History 14 Contemporary Foreign Policy Disputes: The 9/11 Attacks 15 Realist: Weak versus Strong at Different Levels of Analysis 16 Liberal: Failed Relationships at Different Levels of Analysis 17 Identity: Democratic Reform of Governments at Different Levels of Analysis 18 Critical Theory: Pervasive Violence at Different Levels of Analysis 20 The Role of Methods 20 Rationalist versus Constructivist 21 Sovereignty: Caused or Constituted 2 Correlation, Causation, and Process Tracing 23 ‘Counterfactual Reasoning 3 One Rensgecive or Micthnd Best? ™ “Woe Ranke of udgmncnn B “The Role of Eihics and Morality % Relativist Values 26 Universal Values 7 Pragmatic Values 7 Moral Choice 28 Summary 28 Key Concepts 29 Srudy Questions1. How to Think about International Relations: Perspectives, Levels of Analysis, and Causal Arrows Prisoner’s Dilemma The Prisoner's Dilemma from the Realist Perspective The Prisoner's Dilemma from the Liberal Perspective The Prisoner’s Dilemma from the Identity Perspective The Realist Perspective Anarchy and Self-Help State Actors and Sovereignty Power Security Dilemma Balance of Power Polarity and Alliances War ‘The Liberal Perspective Reciprocity and Interdependence Technological Change and Modernization: Nongovernmental Organizations Diplomacy Cooperation and Bargaining Collective Goods International Institutions International Law ‘The Identity Perspective Ideas and the Construction of Identities Constructivism Anarchy Is What States Make of It Relative Identities Distribution of Identities Mapping Identities Democratic Peace Other Identity Approaches Feminism Critical Theory Perspectives Marxism Postmodernism Levels of Analysis Systemic Level of Analysis Domestic Level of Analysis Individual Level of Analysis Foreign Policy Level of Analysis -ausal Arrows Revisiting Explanations of World War I Key Concepts Study Questions 31 34 34 36 al 2 43 44 45 46 47 49 50 52 5S 56 57 58 58 59 61 62 65 67 68 69 70PART I. HISTORICAL PATTERNS 2. World War I: World on Fire Europe in 1914 Realist Explanations The Rise of German Power Power Balancing: Triple Entente and Triple Alliance Rigid Alliances and Preemptive War Future Balances and Preventive War Power Transition and Hegemonic Decline Cartelized Domestic Politics and German Aggression Liberal Explanations Secret Diplomacy: Bismarck Clumsy Diplomacy: Wilhelm IT Misperceptions and Mobilization Plans The Last Move Weak Domestic Institutions Insufficient Interdependence: Trade and the Hague Conferences Identity Explanations Militant and Racist Nationalism Liberal Nationalism Socialist Nationalism Social Darwinism Critical Theory Explanations Summary Key Concepts Study Questions 3. World War Il: Why Did War Happen Again? Causes of Madness Liberal Accounts Collective Security, Not Balance of Power The League of Nations Why the League of Nations Failed Realist Accounts Versailles Treaty Rapallo and Locarno Germany Expands Another Two-Front War Japan and the Pacific War Why Don’t Hegemons Stop? Role of Misperceptions in Realist Accounts Identity Matters Cultural Nationalism 8 92 96 98. 100 101 103 104 104 106 108 109 110 11 112 114 14 115 116 116 7 120 120 120 122 123 126 126 127 130 133 135 137 138 139 140 142 146 147 149)Liberal and Social Democracy American Exceptionalism Communist Nationalism Fascist and Racist Nationalism Ideological Constructions and Chasms Critical Theory Perspective Summary Key Concepts Study Questions 4, The Origins and End of the Cold War ‘The Long Telegram Snapshot of the Cold War Realist Explanations How the Cold War Started How the Cold War Expanded How the Cold War Ended Identity Explanations How Ideas Started the Cold War How Ideas Ended the Cold War Liberal Explanations United Nations Truman's Blundering Diplomacy NATO and the European Community Cuban Missile Crisis from a Liberal Perspective Détente and the Helsinki Accords ‘The Information Revolution and the End of the Cold War Critical Theory Perspective Summary Key Concepts Study Questions PART Il. THE CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM 5. Realist Perspectives on Today's World: Unipolarity, Balance of Power, and State Actors Unipolarity Power Transition Realist Power Balancing Realists Minimal or National Realists Hegemony versus Equilibrium Balancing Power Terrorism and Asymmetric Warfare Rising Powers Alliances 150 151 152 13. 153 156 158 159 159 160 161 162 164 166 171 181 186 186 191 195 196 197 198 200 203 204 205 208 209 209 21 213 215 216 217 218 219 221 221 224 231War Iraq War, 2002-2006 Aftermath of Iraq War: 2009 to Present Cyber Warfare Domestic State Actors Sovereignty Foreign Policy Decision-Making Process Failed States Partition: Tivo State Arab-Israeli Solution Summary Key Concepts Study Questions Liberal Perspectives on Today’s World: Collective Security, Diplomacy, International Institutions, and Law Collective Security The First Persian Gulf War Somalia and Libya Diplomacy Peacefiul Conflict Resolution: Oslo Accords Legitimacy: Bosnia and Kosovo Bargaining: 2003 trag War Interdependence: China and Iran International Institutions United Nations International Economic Institutions Regional Institutions European Union Asian Regional Institutions Nongovernmental Organizations International Law Law and Democracy International Courts Summary Key Concepts Study Questions Identity Perspectives on Today’s World: Democracy, Religion, Nationalism, and Human Rights Democracy End of History Democracy in the Middle East Arab Spring Resurgence of Authoritarianism 234 235 236 238 241 241 242 246 250 252 253 253 257 259 260 264 264 266 268 270 273 273 282 288 290 298 299 304 304 305 308) 309 309 310 312. 313 316 318 322Religion Clash of Civilizations Religion Trumps Democracy Islam and the Muslim World Whither the West and Radical Islam? Nationalism What Is Nationalism? Civic Identity Nation Building: Iraq and Afghanistan Human Rights Universal Human Rights UN Human Rights Commission/Council Convention on Women’s Rights Convention on the Rights of the Child European Human Rights Regime Other Regional Human Rights Regimes Summary Key Concepts Study Questions PART Ill. GLOBALIZATION AND CHANGE 8. Realist and Liberal Perspectives on Globalization: Security, Domestic Economy, Trade, Investment, and Finance Snapshot of Globalization Security and Economies Domestic Economic Policies Macroeconomic Policies Microeconomic Policies Trade Specialization and the Division of Labor Comparative Advantage Exceptions to Unrestricted Trade Strategic Trade Theory Trade and Jobs Trade Negotiations Investment Resource-Based Foreign Investments Manufacturing Foreign Investments Service-Sector Foreign Investments ‘Multinational Corporations Immigration Policies Finance Exchange Rates Currency Markets Balance of Payments Debt Markets 324 325 327 328 331 333 334 337 339 341 341 344 345, 346 347 350 392 352 353 357 359 360 363 363 367 369 369 370 372 373 376 382 386 387 389) 392 393 394 396 397 398 400 40210. Global Financial Crisis Eurozone Crisis Summary Key Concepts Study Questions Identity Perspectives on Globalization: Development and Environment Asia Economic Miracle Stable Governments/Unstable Region Sound Economic Policies Export-Led Development Limits to Export-Led Growth Asian Values Latin America Lost Decade Early Decolonization/Unstable Governments Import Substitution Policies Opening Markets Social Inequality Sub-Saharan Africa Poor and Divided Continent Political Reforms Economic Reforms Human Development Millennium Initiative and Foreign Aid Middle East and North Africa Political Reforms/Regional Peace Settlements Resource (Oil) Curse ‘Women in Muslim Societies Environment Population Resources Pollution and Global Warming Pandemics Summary Key Concepts Study Questions Critical Theory Perspectives on Globalization: Inequality, Imperialism, and Injustice Colonialism and Imperialism Dep ‘World Systems Multinational Corporations and Exploitation of Labor ndency 403 406 409) 410 410 4a 416 417 419 421 422 423 426 428 428 431 432 434 436 439 439 44a 444 447 449 450 453 454 456 458 458 461 465 469 474 475 476 477 481 484 486 488Marginalized Minorities: Glob: Persisting Global Inequality Summary al Injustice Key Concepts Study Questions Conclusion. Applying Perspectives and Levels of The Case of the Democratic Peace Evidence Explanations Summary Analysis: Coda Key Concepts Study Questions Notes Glossary of Key Concepts Index 492 496 500 500 500 501 503 505 509 510 Su sul N-A GAFIGURES, MAPS, PARALLEL TIMELINES, AND TABLES Figures Intro-L ‘What Level of Analysis Do the Causes of the Conflict with ISIS Come From? Intro-2, ‘What Perspective (Cause) Is Driving the Outcomes of the Conflict with ISIS? 6 Intro-3 ‘The Cause of the ISIS Conflict According to the Realist Perspective, Systemic Level of Analysis 7 | Intro-4 ‘The Cause of the ISIS Conflict According to the Identity Perspective, Domestic Level of Analysis 8 Intro-5 “The Cause of the ISIS Conflict According to the Realist Perspective, Individual Level of Analysis 8 Intro-6 ‘The Cause of the ISIS Conflict According to the Liberal Perspective, Regional Level of Analysis 9 Intro-7 ‘The Cause of the ISIS Conflict According to the Identity Perspective, Domestic Level of Analysis 9 Intro-8 Perspectives and Levels of Analysis: A Synopsis a3) Intro-9 ‘The Causes of the 9/11 Attacks: From the Realist Perspective 7 Intro-10 “The Causes of the 9/11 Attacks: From the Liberal Perspective 18 Intro-11 ‘The Causes of the 9/11 Attacks: From the Identity Perspective 19 Intro-12, ‘The Causes of the 9/11 Attacks: From the Critical Theory Perspective 20 Intro-13 How One Thinks about International Relations 29 1-1 ‘Causal Arrows: The Realist View 36 12 ‘Causal Arrows: The Liberal View 40 13 Causal Arrows: The Identity View 42 1-4 ‘The Realist Worldview 4g 1s ‘The Liberal Worldview 57 1-6 ‘The Identity Worldview 64 17 Causal Arrows: Realist Explanations for World War | 85 18 ‘Causal Arrows: Liberal Explanations for World War 1 86 19 Causal Arrows: Identity Explanations for World War I 87 2 ‘The Causes of World War I: The Realist Perspective and Levels of Analysis los22 23 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 52 PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ‘The Causes of World War I: The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis, ‘The Causes of World War I: Levels of Analysis, ‘The Causes of World War I: and Levels of Analysis ‘The Causes of World War Il: The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis ‘The Causes of World War Il: The Realist Perspective and Levels of Analysis, “The Causes of World War Il: The Identity Perspective and, the Kdentity Perspective and he Critical Theory Perspective Levels of Analysis “The Causes of World War Il: The Critical Theory Perspective and Levels of Analysis First Page of George Kennan’s Long Telegram “The Causes of the Origins and Expansion of the Cold War: ‘The Realist Perspective and Levels of Analysis ‘The Buildup of Nuclear Warheads, United States and Russia, 1945-1990 ‘The Causes of the End of the Cold War: The Realist Perspective and Levels of Analysis, “The Causes of the Origins of the Cold War: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis, ‘The Causes of the End of the Cold War: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis The Causes of the Origins of the Cold War: The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis, ‘The Causes of the End of the Cold War: The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis ‘The Causes of the Origins and End of the Cold War: The Critical Theory Perspective and Levels of Analysis Polarity: The Realist Perspective from Different Levels of Analysis Global Terrorist Attacks, 1970-2016 Rising China Balancing Power and War: The Realist Perspective from Different Levels of Analysis State Actors: The Realist Perspective and Levels of Analysis, Domestic Power Struggles: The Realist Perspective and Levels of Analysis ‘The Growth of Liberal Institutions Collective Security in Today's World: The Liberal Persp and Levels of Analysis 113, 118 119 134 148, 158 163 183 185 186 191 195 202 206 207 221 225 226 240 247 252 258 263FIGURES, MAPS, PARALLEL TIMELINES, AND TABLES 63 6-4 65 6-6 67 68 72 73 7S 84 82 83 85 8-6 87 88 9-4 92 9-3 9-4 9-5 96 International Negotiations in Today's World: The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis ‘The United Nations The European Union: Key Institutions A Sampling of Transnational NGOs, by Field or Mission Fo International and Regional Institutions in Today's World: ‘The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis, Legal Institutions in Today's World: The Liberal Perspective and Levels of Analysis, Freedom in Muslim-Majority Countries versus World Countries Having a Democratic Political System Is... Democracy in Today's World: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis Religion in Today's World: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis Nation Building and Human Rights in Today’s World: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis Globalization: Go with the Flow ‘Wages of U.S. Trading Partners as a Share of U.S. Wages, Manufacturing Manufacturing Wages in China on the Rise Key Issues in Trade: The Realist and Liberal Perspectives and Levels of Analysis Foreign Direct Investment Inflows: Global and by Group of Economies, 1984-2016 Key Issues in Investment: The Realist and Liberal Perspectives and Levels of Analysis Instruments of International Economic Policy Key Issues in Finance: The Realist and Liberal Perspectives and Levels of Analysis Key Factors in Asian Development:'The Identity Perspective nd Levels of Analysis Key Factors in Latin American Development: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis Key Factors in Su The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis, Key Factors in MENA Development: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Anal Saharan African Development: mnsumption, 2003. Key Factors in the Environment: The Identity Perspective and Levels of Analysis, Projected Energy 272 274 295 301 303 308, 319 320 324 334 351 364 378 379 386 390 396 408 409 427 438 457 462 47410-1 10-2 Maps 21 22 34 3-2. 3 34 41 42 43 Sl 52 53 54 7A 72 81 o1 9-2 93 94 95 9-6 10-1 Conelusion-1 PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Critical Theory Perspective on Globalization: Globalization as Consequence, Not Cause “The Causes of Globalization and Development: The Critical ‘Theory Perspective and Levels of Analysis Europe prior to German Unification in 1871 Europe and Germany in 1914 Germany before World War Il, 1938, Germany and Occupied Territories, 1942 Japan and Japanese-Controlled Territories, 1942, Japanese and Other Territorial Holdings in the Pacific, 1939 The Division of Berlin ‘The Korean War, 1950-1953 Laos, Cambodia, North and South Vietnam China’s Nine Dash Line Russia, Crimea, and Ukraine Israel Palestinian Territories Freedom in the World ‘The Clash of Civilizations Labor Patterns Worldwide Global Development: Country GDP (PPP) per Capita Income Distribution: Persistent Inequalities and New Opportunities Asia’s Regions Latin America’s Regions Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Regions Climate Vulnerability Colonialism in the Modern World, cirea 1900 “Measures of the Democratic Peace: Democratization, Trade, and Participation in International Organizations Parallel Timelines 2 Events Leading to World War I from Different Perspectives 34 Events Leading to World War II from Different Perspectives, 41 Events Leading to the Origins and End of the Cold War Tables 1 Prisoner's Dilemma: A Realist Game 12 Situation of Prisoner’s Dilemma from Liberal Perspective: Repeated Communications 481 499. 96 98, 135 136 137 141 168, 173 181 227 229 251 251 BIS 326 380 413 414 418 429 440 470 483 so7 95 12s 165 35 37FIGURES, MAPS, PARALLEL TIMELINES, AND TABLES 13 17 61 62 71 Eat 8.2 Situation of Prisoner’s Dilemma from Liberal Perspective: ‘Change Goals (Frustrate the Warden} Situation of Prisoner’s Dilemma from Liberal Perspective: Change Payoffs (Increase Costs of Defection/Conflict) Situation of Prisoner's Dilemma from Liberal Perspective: Change Payoffs (Reduce Costs of Cooperation) Change Identity Relative and Shared National Identities Lending and Spending: World Bank Expenditures (in USS millions) Membership in Key Regional Organizations Human Rights: Key Indicators Comparative Advantage USS. Balance of Payments, 2008 (in billions of dollars) Comparing Development Experiences situation of Prisoner's Dilemma from Identity Perspective: 38. 39 40 41 ma 286 289 343 371 400 475Confucius, the Chinese philosopher, once said, “To learn without thinking is in vain; to thinke without learning is dangerous.” Learning or knowing anything requires both thought and investigation, theory and facts. I confirmed Confucius’s insight when I took a break from teaching to serve in govern- ment from 1975 to 1977 and again from 1981 to 1983. At that point, having spent a decade in the classroom, I thought I would learn at last about how policy was really ‘made, | would have access to all the facts, even the secret ones kept by intelligence agen- . My first awaken- cies, and I would understand how those facts relate to policy choie ing came when an officer from one of the intelligence agencies paid me a visit, not to sive me the facts I so wanted, but to ask me which facts I might be interested in, Oh, I suddenly realized, “the facts” depend on what my questions are and what theory or ideas I might wish to test. Now I had to do some thinking. What did I really want to know? Well, of course, I wanted to know what was happening. But I didn’t have time to learn about what was happening everywhere, so I had to focus on certain areas and issues, And I wanted to know not just facts but what caused these facts. I learned subsequently that intelligence officers often do not agree on the facts, let alone on the interpretation or the causes of those facts. There is no one theory that explains policy, no one set of facts that defines any given situation objectively. There are many theories and many facts—far t00 many for me to take them all into account. When I let the government, [ understood better than ever that the policy world is not all thar different from the classroom. Both require theoretical commitment. You have to decide what you want to learn, what interests you. And that’s a function of your e empirical effort. You thinking—or perspective—and your values. And both requi assemble and investigate as many facts as you can, then you test your ideas against the facts. But, in the end, you make judgments about which questions and which answers are most important. The one big, difference is that you have more time to deliberate and choose in the classroom, In government, you have to act quickly because events move quickly and you lose the opportunity to influence outcomes if you wait too long. As a colleague once said to me, you consume thought in government; you accumulate it in the classroom, The idea for this textbook began the day I left government. I wanted to demonstrate for students the relationship between perspectives and facts for understanding international relations, It was a long way from there to here, but ultimately the book emerged through happenstance and history.PREFACE “The happenstance part occurred when I began teaching a large introductory course in jneernational relations a few years after leaving the government. | was eager to do this, but it also coincided with efforts at George Washington University’s Elliote School of Inrernational Affaits to design a more coherent interdisciplinary introductory course for undergraduate majors in international affairs. My task was to come up with a course thar not only shepherded students through the nurs and bolts of world polities but also ight them how to look at world problems through different disciplinary lenses. 1 knew idered my strengths to lie a lor about economics and loved history, and had always con more on the conceptual than the methodological side of political science, but was I ready fa demanding task: ei for such a demanding task? ‘The history part had to do with waiting until 1 was fully prepared to write this book. ‘My academic research interests progressed over the years from a relatively narrow focus con the technological aspects of U.S. foreign policy and international affairs to broader economic aspects and finally, in the 1990s, to strategic and military aspects. As I broadened my focus, taught the introductory course in increasingly bolder strokes, exposing students, to alternative theoretical perspectives—the realist, liberal, and constructivist approaches in particular—as well as hefty doses of historical narrative and how economic policy mechanisms work. I worried initially thar the design expected too much of students, Bur I refused to underestimate young people and worked hard to simplify and illustrate complex. issues, especially the role of perspectives, levels of analysis, and causal arrows. The text is full of examples thar illustrate how perspectives and levels of analysis influence both scholarly discourse and everyday debates about world politics. And because all perspectives and levels of analysis are present in any real-world situation, the causal arrows tell us which perspective and level of analysis are most important in a specific argument ‘To my joy, the students really cottoned to this approach. They grasped the big ideas -s fo illustrate the different and applied them, often bringing me newspaper arti perspectives, levels of analysis, and causal arrows. After fifteen years of teaching the lening my research interests, happenstance introductory course and thirty years of broa and history came together, and | put pen to paper. Happily for me, and hopefully for students, 100, this book is the fruit of that labor >> Approach of the Book “The purpose of this book is to teach students how to think evtically about the subject mateer of international relations. To that end, I introduce readers to the principal con- ceptual tools used by students of politics, namely, the main theoretical perspectives of international relations, the levels of analysis from which we analyze global problems, and the crucial idea of causality. Throughout the book I apply the perspectives and levels of analysis as evenhandedly as possible, including the most recent constructivist perspec- tives, and I integrate the disciplines of history, economics, and political science into the ing and challenging, presentation, Knowing that this material is both intrinsically inte Ido my best co write in an uncomplicated and engaging style.PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS First, the book uses the concepts of perspectives and levels of analysis to address all aspects of international affairs. While most textbooks introduce theories in an open- ing chapter, they seldom apply or even mention those theories in subsequent chapters. Some start with a history chapter before they introduce theory, as if there is only one objective account of history. By contrast, I start with theories but simplify them using the student-friendly concept of perspectives. Perspectives focus on certain facts and emphasize certain causes. For example, realist perspectives point toward powerful actors and emphasize the distribution of power as the primary cause of world events, liberal perspectives focus on interactions and emphasize the rules and roles of institutions as primary causes, and constructivist perspectives highlight ideas and how actors identify themselves and others as the principal causes. Similarly, the book addresses multiple levels of analysis within each perspective. While perspectives highlight the causes of events, the levels of analysis highlight the location from which these causes come: the individual or decision-making level; the country or domestic level; and the international system as a whole or the systemic level. There are multiple levels in between, such as the foreign policy level, which links domestic and systemic levels. I then use these two analytical devices of perspectives and levels of analysis to discuss and illuminate the different conclusions that scholars and students of international affairs draw concerning historical events as well as con- temporary issues. All serious study of international affairs addresses simultaneously all perspectives (power, institutions, and ideas) and all levels of analysis (individual, domestic, and systemic). The Perspectives and levels of analysis constitute alternative hypotheses about the nature and direction of the causes of international events, Critical thinking demands that we apply at least two or more hypotheses to assess empirical evidence. But the point of including multiple hypotheses at the outset is to weigh the relative importance of each variable and assess the causal relationship between the variables in drawing conclusions. Thus, the book gives special attention to the direction of causality among the principal vari- ables of the different perspectives and levels of analysis. For this purpose, L use a device Tall causal arrows. The realist perspective, for example, does not ignore ideas; it just ‘concludes that power is the primary cause of ideas—big powers think one way, small Powers another. Liberalism does not ignore the balance of powers it just sees diplomacy and international institutions as the primary means to constrain and eventually reduce the role ofthe balance of power in world affairs. And constructivism does not diminish institutions or material power; it just sees identities and discourse as interpreting and giving meaning to material and institutional realities. The causal arrows show which per- spective (power, institutions, or ideas) and level of analysis are primary in influencing the others. A fourth perspective, critical theory, casts doubt on whether we can actually iso- late the primary causes of events, Ir argues instead that events must be understood in the broadest historical context and are often caused by deep-seated forces that we can master only, if at all, by achieving new forms of self-consciousness, not by manipulating indi- lual variables. Critical theory is a reminder that we may not be able to slice and dice reality into separable causes as our Western positivist or rationalist methods prescribe.PREFACE Second, the book treats the principal realist, liberal, and constructivist or identity per- spectives evenhandedly. | avoid organizing the topics primarily around one perspective or level of analysis. Scholars often have a preference for one perspective or level of analy- sis, Some textbooks, for example, treat realism primarily at the systemic level of analysis, focusing on states, and liberalism primarily at the domestic level of analysis, focusing on. democracy. This shortchanges realism and loads the dice in favor of liberalism. Other texts start with “problems,” such as cooperation or war and peace, and assume we can know whata problem is before we have a theory or perspective of the world that tells us why itis a problem. But problems don't just exist objectively; they are identified by per- spectives, Realism sees conflict as the problem; liberalism sees cooperation as the prob- lems constructivism sees shared or separate identities as the problem. So any approach that starts with a problem winds up hiding rather than highlighting perspectives. ‘Students will encounter opinions throughout their lives that differ from their own, and they need conceptual equipment to help them appreciate other opinions. One frightful piece of information from the American Institutes for Research tells us that only 38 per- cent of college graduates can successfully perform tasks such as comparing, viewpoints in two newspaper editorials (see Thomas Toch and Kevin Carey, “Where Colleges Don’t Excel,” Washington Post, April 6, 2007, A21). Somewhere, we as instructors are drop- ping the ball. ‘Thus, this book does not start with the presumption that one perspective is best or that topies or problems can be listed without an understanding of the perspective from which these topics are considered to be important. Rather, I lead the student into different worlds, looking at the same reality from different angles. This approach, I believe, is the essence of a liberal arts education, equipping students to think critically—that is, by alternatives—and to make their own intellectual choices. I have my own preferences, to be sure, as does any other instructor, but I believe that all perspectives have a coherent Jogic and are supported by important evidence from history and contemporary world affairs. Thus, I strive to pres sympathetically the alternative perspectives not only accurately but also Third, by taking into account more recent constructivist perspectives on international relations, the book updates the field. It includes the ideational or identity perspective. This perspective emphasizes the causal role of ideas, belief systems, norms, values, speech acts, and social discourse in international affairs. These factors affect the identi ties of actors and thus define their material interests as well as their behavior in interac- tions and institutions. The identity perspective revives the study of ideas in international affairs, which was neglected for several decades when realist and liberal perspectives were favored. Fourth, the book is genuinely interdisciplinary. It includes a good deal of history and economics. Too often in international affairs we do not sufficiently understand other dis- ciplines, or we simply append them to our instruction in a multidiseiplinary rather than interdisciplinary fashion. In this book, the student learns history and economics through,PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS the relevant political science concepts. For example, the student explores the major wars cation and the bal- yeue of the twentieth century through the realist concept of German unit ance of power (World War I), the liberal concept of collective security and the Li of Nations (World War II, and the identity concept of relative political ideologies— ‘communism and capitalism (the Cold War). Economics is also presented practically and historically. The student sees the underlying concepts at work in day-to-day practices of slobalization—for example, when an American consumer uses domestic tax cuts to pur- chase imports or borrows money to refinance a mortgage from capital made available by China’s purchases of U.S. Treasury securities. Policies (including fiscal and monetary) and concepts such as comparative advantage and strategic trade are explained through historical examples and disputes rather than through abstract formulas. Fifth, this book reinforces an emerging trend toward less encyclopedic, more focused texts, but it does more than that by tying the discussion together with a coherent and central theme about how the world works from the vantage points of different persp tives. The book, in short, has a pedagogical “plot”; it is not just a series of “one-act plays” or topics. I hope that students will experience this book as an adventure, like a good novel or historical biography: inviting, evolving, and delivering insights that move the reader forward toward greater and greater understanding. If that happens, the book succeeds in educating as well as instructing and becomes potentially a reference work that students retain and revisit as they encounter international issues in more advanced. ‘courses and throughout their lives. Sixth, and to this end, I employ a direct and engaging writing style that avoids pro- fessional jargon and textbook ennui. Students are easily bored by concepts and topics Presented in an obligatory fashion, much like an endless list of addresses in a telephone book. They sense the difference between professional and pedantic instruction. The prose in this book is professional yet light and, [ hope, occasionally humorous. It seeks to reach a generation raised on the internet by enticing and entertaining, as well as by teaching. >>> New to the Sixth Edition ‘The sixth edition retains the same organization of the fifth edition bur sharpens fur- ther the causal arrow feature. The text now discusses each causal arrow that appears in the margins and helps the student understand the causal argument illustrated by that arrow. As a way to get students started on this approach, begin by having them identify the levels of analysis from which various events are coming. Then, after they become ‘more proficient in that exercise, ask them to label these events by identifying the various ‘causes or perspectives at work—formation of an alliance coded as power, a diplomatic conference coded as institutions, or the Arab Spring coded as ideas. Finally, get them to exercise judgment in deciding, based on the evidence, which way or ways the causal arrows might run between the various perspectives and levels of analysis. (Atsome pointPREFACE in the semester, let them jump ahead to the Conclusion to see how this is done in the case of the democratic peace.) The sixth edition of the textbook begins with this kind of three-step exercise applied to the ISIS confit in the Middle East. ‘This edition retains the deep historical coverage of World War I, World War Il, and the Cold War, not only because that history is still relevant today bur also because these wars, provide such rich and illuminating cases of the way perspectives, levels of analysis, and causal arrows lead historians to disagree about the causes of these wars even when they Jook ar the same facts. The sixth edition also updates substantially the middle chapters of the book in Part Hl, which focuses on the contemporary international system. The discussion takes into account recent developments dealing with the rise of nationalism, mounting terror attacks, the Islamic caliphate, Iran, North Korea, Russian aggression in Ukraine, Chinese assertiveness in the Pacific islands, cyber warfare, Great Britain’s exit from the European Union, and the use of social media in political protests around the world. In Part II, I devote a single chapter to each perspective’s view of the contemporary world from the different levels of analysis. This approach reduces the number of moving parts the student has to consider. He or she can see the world primarily from a realist perspective in Chapter 5, then jump to Chapter 6 to see it primarily from a liberal perspective, and move on to Chapter 7 to see it from an ideational perspective. By the end of this middle section, the student has a clear idea of how the perspectives differ when examining the contemporary world, ‘The new edition further updates the globalization section (Part Ill). Here I address changing events such as populist reactions to global trade, growing debt problems. around the world, sluggish energy markets, slowing global growth, accelerating migrant and refugee flows, and the latest developments affecting climate change. Part II retains the separation between material aspects of development examined in Chapter 8, namely the relative and absolute gains that realist and liberal perspectives emphasize, and the normative aspects of growth, namely growth for whom and what that identity perspec- tives emphasize. This division helps the student sce the continuing relevance of perspec- tives in the economics section of the cours . The book retains the chapter on critical theory perspectives on development, which is an essential critique of the rationalist focus on Western and material aspects of development. ‘The sixth edition continues to feature the beautiful full-color, eye-catching design that captures the student's attention and facilitates the grasp of key concepts. Of particular note are the handful of new color maps, some of which show topographical detail in order to help students understand how geography matters to polities. The design also offers a visually distinct way of portraying the causal arrows for perspectives and levels of analysis. in this way the student is reminded throughout the text of the two key con- cepts that distinguish this text from all others. The new edition also includes more than seventy photos and visually appealing maps, tables, and graphs thar display important concepts and key data and empirical findings. Happily, this new design comes at no additional cost ro students.xxx PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, >> Key Features Each of the book's pedagogical features contributes directly to the balance and coher- ence of the volume by helping students keep track of the different perspectives and levels of analysis and allowing students to see how these are applied in contemporary debates: n of the inter- there is explicit discu: . The arrows help students ‘* The book's causal arrows appear wher actions among perspectives and levels of analy hhone their ability to see which perspective or level of analysis a scholar or world leader is emphasizing as the cause of a particular problem or world event, Students see, for instance, whether power struggles (realist), weak institutions (liberal), or cultural differences (identity) weigh more CAUSAL ARROW: PERSPECTIVES importantly in explaining ethnic conflicts. The causal arrows Pra Ce ari pec geeurty 5 Seton have been refined so that they do more than just point to instances of causality in the text; now they explicitly lay out the order of causality showing how one perspective and level of analysis dominates in a particular argument. The causal arrow on this page illustrates, for example, the argument that the interdependence created by the Helsinki Accords in the mid-1970s diminished the distrust between the Soviet Union and the United States and created the space for New Thinking, that eventually contributed to the end of the Cold War. We take great care to locate the arrows directly adjacent to where they are discussed in the text to nplify those discussions of causality and ensure that stuclents 'UBERAL REALIST Yoewry help instructors a ‘grasp the concepts. * Also further refined are the “Perspective and Levels of Analysis” figures, which help students summarize and keep track of the various explanations of events covered from the different perspectives and levels of analysis. Their new layout is designed to help students better grasp the flow of ideas from each level of analysis, * Graphic Parallel Timelines appear in the historical chapters, offering, simul- tancous chronologies of major historical events and movements and placing the different events under the particular perspectives that would most likely emphasize them. © A marginal glossary provides succinct explanations of key concepts, with a definition in the margin the first time each term (in boldface) is discussed at length. * Twenty-four unique maps help students absorb important geopolitical, demo- graphic, and thematic information, © Nearly seventy full-color photos greatly enhance the book’s art program and help students visualize important events and issues. + Key concepts appear in boldface when frst discussed in the book and are listed at the ends of chapters with their page reference for ease of review.PREFACE © Thought-provoking study questions ar the end of each chapter provide a basis for in-class discussions and help gauge student comprehension. + Acomplete glossary at the end of the book fully defines each key term and helps students prepare for exams. >> SAGE edge for CO Press SAG! resources for review, study, and further exploration, SAG! ‘edge offers a robust online forum featuring an impressive array of tools and E edlge content is open access and available on demand at http://edge.sagepub.com/nau6e. SAGE edge for Students helps enhance learning and offers a personalized approach to ‘coursework in an easy-to-use environment. © Mobile-friendly eFlashcards strengthen understanding of key terms and concepts. * ~Mobile-friendly practice quizzes allow for independent assessment by students oftheir mastery of course material. + Learning objectives reinforce the most important material # Exciusive! Access is provided to full-text SAGE journal articles that have been carefully selected to support and expand on the concepts presented in each chapter. SAGE edge for Instructors supports teaching by making it easy to integrate quality content and create a rich learning environment that helps students perform at a higher Go to http://edge.sagepub.com/nauée and click on “instructor's resources” to register and begin downloading resources. «Test banks provide a diverse range of prewritten options as well as the oppor tunity to edit any question and/or insert personalized questions to effectively assess students’ progress and understanding, + Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint slides offer complete flexibility for ereat- ing a multimedia presentation for the course. © Aminstructor’s manual features chapter overviews and objectives, lecture start- ers, ideas for class activities, and discussion questions. ‘+ A set ofall the graphics from the text, including all the maps, tables, and figures, is available in PowerPoint, PDE, and JP formats for class presentations. + Exciusivet Access is provided ro full-text SAGE journal articles that have been carefully selected to support and expand on the concepts presented in each chapter to encourage students to think critically. + A Transition Guide provides a chapter-by-chaprer outline of key changes from the fifth edition to the sixth,PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS >> Acknowledgments I dedicate the book to all my former students, both graduate and undergraduate, who inspired me to teach better. I mention five in particular: Alan D. Buckley, who teaches at Santa Monica College; Ann Becker, who runs her own consulting firm in Chicago; Gabriel Szekely, who taught at El Colegio de Mexico and served in past years as chief of staff to the Mexican minister of tourism; Jim (or James P.) Lester, who taught at Colorado State University until his untimely death; and Roy H. Ginsberg, who is pro- fessor emeritus at Skidmore College. Their friendship and success are the true rewards of teaching. Colleagues who have helped are far too numerous for me to mention them all. Several, however, were particularly encouraging and read the whole or portions of the manu- script and contributed comments. One even volunteered to use an early draft of the manuscript in his undergraduate class; that was especially helpful. I am deeply grate~ ful to them all: Alan D. Buckley, Santa Monica College; Colin Dueck, George Mason University; Marty Finnemore, George Washington University; David Forsythe, University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Roy Ginsberg, Skidmore College; Jolyon Howorth, Yale University; Aida Hozic, University of Florida; Bruce Jentleson, Duke University; Peter Katzenstein, Cornell University; Stuart Kaufman, University of Delaware; Bob Keohane, Princeton University; Charles Lipson, University of Chicagos John ‘Mearsheimer, University of Chicago; Scott David Or, Texas Lutheran University; Robert Paarlberg, Wellesley Colleges Thomas Risse, Free University of Berlin; Randy Schweller, Ohio State University; David Shambaugh, George Washington University; Janice Stein, University of Toronto; and J. Ann Tickner, University of Southern California. Other colleagues who offered helpful advice at various stages include Christine Barbour, Indiana University; Larry Berman, University of California-Davis; Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, New York University and the Hoover Institution; Dan Caldwell, Pepperdine University; Gary Jacobson, University of California-San Diego; Sam Kernell, University of California-San Diego; Robert Lieber, Georgetown University; Mike Sodaro, George Washington University; C. William Walldorf, Wake Forest University; and Steve Wayne, Georgetown University. I had a string of research assistants to help me on this project. I thank, in particular, Mark Romaniw, Bethany Remely, and Jordyn Cosmé. For earlier editions, | owe a special debr to Jamie Kebely, Sandy Snider Pugh, David Tarre, Ikuko ‘Turner, Michael Wain Alex Forster, and Andrea Powell, who helped me balance this project with other obligations and thus preserve my sanity through very intense months of work, Thave never worked with a more professional and pleasant staff than the one at CQ Press. And they have been with me throughout the life of the book. Charisse Kiino was ny first contact with CQ Press about this book. I never thought negotiating a contract could be done without stress, but it was with Charisse. Elise Frasier made so many contributions to the original book and subsequent editions that it would not be what it is without her. She and, in the early editions, Charisse not only solicited numerousPREFACE xxi detailed and thoughtful critiques of the manuscript from outside reviewers, but they also dived into the details of the project, drafted summaries and tables of issues raised, and diset ssed these issues with me during numerous extended brainstorming sessions, I was astonished at their professionalism—they must have had good instructors in {ternational relations—and deeply grateful, even when they pinned my ears back on professionals have assisted in zht page. I was warned that a many needed adjustments. Other CQ and now SAGE subsequent editions. They are identified on the copy! textbook writer's nightmare is to have editors interfere either too much or not enough. Tlived a dream because the CQ Press touch was absolutely perfect. I can’t thank my past and current reviewers enough. They were the most thorough, and tough I have encountered in any peer-review process. Some have consented to be mentioned here: Julian Allison, University of California-Riverside Richard Arnold, Muskingum University Richard Anderson, University of California-Los Angeles Leslie Baker, Mississippi State University Lauren Balasco, Pittsburgh State University Alan D. Bu ley, Santa Monica College Mai’a K. Davis Cross, Northeastern University Roberto Dominguez, Suffolk University Jennifer L. Dumas, Tulane University Heba E, El-Shazli, George Mason University’s Schar School of Policy and Government Jennifer L. Epley, Texas AGM University-Corpus Christi Mare Genest, U.S. Naval War College Amy Gurowitz, University of California-Berkeley Kathleen Hancock, University of Texas-San Antonio Eric Hines, University of Montana-Missoula Matthew Hoffmann, University of Toronto Paul Holman, University of Maine Ian Hurd, Northwestern University Ivan Dinev Ivanov, University of Cincinnatixxx PERSPECTIVES OW INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Nathan Jones, Rice University Nathan Jensen, Washington University in St. Lomis Peter Katzenstein, Cornell University Stuart Kaufman, University of Delaware ‘Alan Kessler, University of Texas at Austin Richard Maas, University of Evansville John Masker, Temple University James McCormick, lowa State University Heather Elko McKibben, University of California—Davis Michael McKoy, Rutgers University Patrice McMahon, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Niall Michelsen, Western Carolina University Waltraud Morales, University of Central Florida ‘Travis Nelson, University of Wisconsin-Platteville Richard Nolan, University of Florida ‘Timothy Nordstrom, University of Mississippi John Owen, University of Virginia Ausra Park, Siena College Rita Peters, University of Massachusetts-Boston Robert Poirier, Northern Arizona University Richard Price, University of British Columbia Brian C. Schmidt, Carleton University Randall Schweller, Ohio State University James Scott, Indiana State University Nicole Simonelli, Purdue University Michael Struett, North Carolina State University Nina Tannenwald, Brown University Clayton Thyne, University of Kentucky Daniel C. Tirone, Louisiana State University