Welding Metallurgy

Metallurgical Effects of
.the Weld Thermal Cycle

Lecture 9 p1
 Lecture Scope (

• Metallurgical phenomena involved in welding.

• Effects on weld and HAZ properties

9 p2
 Weld and Heat Affected Zone

A welded joint consists of:

• weld metal
- melted and re-solidified base metal mixed with filler metal
(if added)

• heat affected zone (HAZ)

- the region around the weld whose properties or
microstructure are affected by the thennal cycle
- reheating also alters the structure of under1ying weld
metal in multi-pass welds

• and base metal

Lecture 9 p3
 Metallurgical Phenomena (

• Welding is a complex process that involves:

- Gas-metal & slag-metal reactions
- Solidification
- Metallurgical reactions in the solid state
• annealing & recovery
• grain growth
• precipitation
• phase transformation

• These metallurgical phenomena control weld

strength and ductility

9 p4
 Gas-Metal Reactions
• Reactive gases (especially N2, 02, H2) may be present in
the arc atmosphere due to surface contamination,
imperfect shielding, or purposeful additions.
• These gases dissociate in the arc and react rapidly with
the high temperature, turbulent liquid metal in the weld
pool.
• Once dissolved in the metal, oxygen and nitrogen combine
with deoxidizers such as Si or AI. The resulting oxides or
nitrides remain as small indusions in the weld metal.
• Excess dissolved gas is rejected during solidification and
may cause porosity (e.g. hydrogen in AI)
• Dissolved hydrogen can cause cracking in steels

Lecture 9 p~
 Slag-Metal Reactions (

• Fluxes and slags interact with the molten weld metal

• The slags used in flux shielded processes are designed to
absorb deoxidation products and other contaminants -
• The cleanliness and properties of the weld metal depend on
the oxidation potential of the arc atmosphere and on the
type of flux
• Highly basic fluxes reduce weld metal oxygen content and
give superior notch toughness. Acid fluxes tend to give
higher oxygen contents and poor notch toughness.
• Fluxes may also be used to modify weld metal composition
by transfer of alloying elements from the slag to the liquid
metal

9 p6

--~---- -
 Dilution
• Dilution results from mixing of filler and base metals
- .Dilution ratio is the mass of base metal melted divided by the total mass of
melted metal
• Weld pool mixing results in a uniform fused zone, except when
large differences exist between filler and parent composition
• A sharp boundary lies between the fused zone and base metal
• Dilution is influenced by joint preparation, welding process and
procedure

Lowdilution ~

High dilution ~

Lecture 9 P7
 Solidification (

• Factors controlling the solidification modes

of metals are:
- temperature gradient
- composition
- rate of solidification

9 p8
 Constitutional Undercooling
The variation in composition, temperature, and freezing
temperature in front of a solid liquid interface can make a
plane interface unstable

Distance
T
_-~,-.:;==--- TL

Distance

Lecture 9 p9
 Cellular growth (

A bulge in the solid projects into the more undercooled

liquid and so grows more. One effect is the cellular
structure shown

,9 P 10
 Cellular Dendrite
Greater undercooling, e.g. due to reduced temperature
gradients, produces a cellular dendritic structure

-...
Growth

Lecture 9 pH
 Equiaxed dendritic growth (,

Continued increases in undercooling

- result in solidification of the melt by
dendrite formation and growth

Dendrite

9 p12
 Solidification Modes
Factors controlling crystal growth mode
Equi·axed dendritic Columnar dendriti

t • G =Temperature
C Cellular dendritic gradient in direction of
2c: solidification
o • R = Rate of advance of
()
solidification front
2:::J
"0 Cellular
(J)
iii
c:
°E
o
z

Solidification parameter G/R

----

Lecture 9 P 13
 Epitaxial Growth (
base metal solidified weld melal grains
I
.• The crystals in solidifying
weld metal nucleate on
grains in the surrounding·
solid.
• Crystals whose orientations
(a} (b) cellular are favourable for growth
planar
dominate.
• Termed "competitive
epitaxial growth."
• Results in a directional
solidification structure.
,I
(d) columnar (c) cellular
dendritic dendritic J.F. Lancaster Metallurgy of Welding
George Allen & Unwin, 1980

·9 p14
 Weld Solidification Macrostructure

(a) Axial (2.5 mmls) (b) Stray (3.3 mmls)

. . . . .. ,...-.
~,.~~~~,c:

:. '.". ".' .. :
: ) i!i;:;,i .': , )
(c) Competitive columnar (d) Partially Equi-axed (8.3 mmls)
(7.5 mmls)

>
\ »i!J1lU:rm:=!:i.:il2Z:::::::: _ .
ll....l..!..»n
m
(e) Centreline (16.7mmls)
)

J.E Lancaster Melall..-gy of Welding

George Allen & Unwin, 1980

Lecture 9 p15
 Reactions in the solid phase (

• Annealing, recrystallization & grain growth

• Precipitation hardening
• Phase transformation

9 p16
 Annealing and Recrystallization

• Welding has little effect on the properties of annealed

single phase alloys that are strengthened by solutkJn
strengthening
- e.g. hot rolled low carbon steels, austenitic stainless
steels, commercially pure aluminum, titanium and
zirconium.
• However, when such materials are strengthened by cold
work, the weld thermal cycle induces recrystallization and
grain growth
• The welding heat anneals the heat affected zone, reducing
its strength and increasing ductility

Lecture 9 pH
 Stages in Recrystallisation (

Top from left: cold worked grains, nucleation of new undeformed grains
Bottom: growth of new grains, completely recrystallized microstructure

9 p18
 )-nnw ± _of f", l"-M

Effect of Cold Work and Annealing

~StresS Anneal
Relief ...... ~I
I Recovery Recrystallize Grain Growth J

OUc'U\i~ ouc\i\i~

~
til
C.
e
Q..
Strength

10 30 40 60 10 200 400 800 lDOD 1200

Cold Work % Temperature, F

Lecture 9 pH,
 Precipitation Hardening (

• Precipitation hardening alloys are strengthened-byfine

precipitates dispersed in the matrix -
- AI, Cu, stainless steel
• PH alloys are hardened by heating to a high temperature,
at which the solutes are taken into solution, and
quenching, followed by ageing at a lower temperature to
permit the development of fine precipitates.

I
.9 p20
-------------------------------_....__..... _-----~""""'-.;;,.-:-"""-..-".,.,-

Weld & HAZ in PH alloys

z .....
Qz
lIlO
~N
Z --------
Ow
F=z
30 ll:! T,
0'"
!!L ~
«_
lew a::
00 ~~~
OO"O<N
~
:::;:
cr-B
0 .. - .....
'Iun fil I-
~:::.-::: ti ....
•••••••• UI:H
........
••••••• ll:
~(/)
~
.-

:> A %B-- B

Lecture 9 p21
 Effects of Welding on PH Alloys (

• The weld thennal cycle disrupts the microstructure of alloys

welded in the hardened condition
• The weld metal and high-temperature HAZ are in effect -
solution treated.
• In parts of the HAZ that reach temperatures below the
solution temperature, the precipitates coarsen, causing loss
of strength. This over-ageing can be recovered only by full
heat treatment
• However, precipitation hardening alloys can be welded with
reasonable success in the solution-treated condition,
followed by an ageing treatment after welding

"e9 p22
 Phase Transformations

• The properties of steels are influenced by the phase

transformations they undergo on heating and coOling
• Iron solidifies as a body-centred crystal structure named
delta-ferrite
• On further cooling it transforms to a face-centred cubic
crystalline phase called gamma iron or austenite
• The austenite subsequently transforms back to a
body-centred cubic form known as alpha iron or ferrite

Lecture 9 p22
Phase Transformations (

• Austenite can dissolve up to 2% carbon, whereas-ferrite can

hold only 0.025% carbon in solution
• On transformation to from austenite to ferrite, carbon in
solution in austenite in excess of 0..025% forms carbide
precipitates.
• The austenite to ferrite transformation and the behaviour of
carbon are the most important determinants of the
properties of steels.

p24
 Fe-C of 2800
1600
°c
Phase /)
2400
Uquid
1400

Diagram 1200
2000 y
• The concentration of (Austenite)
1000
carbon alters the Y +csbides
1600
temperatures at 800
which phase changes"3
OCCU[ 1200
600
• This phase diagrams
show the equilibrium 800 a (Ferrite) + carbides 400
phases at various
compositions and 400 200
temperatures
1 2 3 4 5
Weight % Carbon

Lecture 9 p25
 Kinetic effects (
• During rapid heating and cooling, non-equilibrium phase
structures develop.
• The iron-carbon phase diagram does not provide -
information about:
- the transformation of austenite to non-equilibrium phase
structures,
- give details on the kinetics of transformation,
- show the relationship between transformation temperature
and products.
• The time-temperature transformation diagram (TTT
diagram) is useful for these purposes

~9 p26

.. _ - - - _ .... _-
Lecture 9 p27
 Transformation products in steel (

Pearlite
~
nucl.....

C-enrithcd T
Upper
bainite
I: (oe l .
11-
rerrile
nucl....
""Q tide
~ , J
1'.,[,' 'CtS,I'cv
.J

Lower
bainite
I

89 p28
 Continuous Cooling
Transformation (CCT) Diag.;..ra_m~_

800

500

0400
S!-----:l:lO,.-----:!:I}!::----:40~~S)=--=IO,..-J
Time(s)
J.F. Lancaster Melall"ll)' of Welding
George Allen & UnwIn, 19S0

Lecture 9 P 2f.
 CCT diagram (

a. inclusion formation
b. solidification of liquid to delta ferrite
c. fully austenitic structure
d. nucleation of elleUiQAlQ",llie ferrite
e. growth of ferrite
f. Widmanstatten ferrite fonnation
g. acicular ferrite formation

~ I - -J
.I" t ..
10'" ~ 10'
-(0)
K. Munclra, T. DeBroy, 5.5. Babu and SA OaYld: Waking
JollllOl R....'ch SUpplomont April 1997, 1635-171.

e9 p30
 Effect of Transformation Temp
200 400 600 800 C
180
12' ro
~ 160 a..
.s::::; :::2:
...... 140 10< .s::::;
C> ......
H"rd"lrss ? C
~
...... UO
C>
C
en
.S!2
"Ci)
100
•
IIlJ(

-~
en
.S!2
c 80 eo< "Ci)
~ c
~
.$ 80
MARTCNsL ' FERRITE
I
<IQ(
ro .$
E
E
=>
40
B~NnEfEARLnE :zo
E
ro
+=>
20 5
01.-....J...--'''--..J...--lL.-.J....~:-:-I
400 800 1200 1600 F
Temperature of Maximum Rate of
Transformation
1'V)c.~~O''''"''
~""COOLl(l(,. k/I-r-r

Lecture 9 p31
 HAZ Structure in Steels (
T, OF T, 'c
1700

1500
MAXIMUM 1
TEMPERATURE 1300

'100
/

IF ~~--"''f-=--------1700
I
I
FERRITE + CARBIDE
I
900

500

432 ',yz&./ 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

O.30%C STEEL ,~ %C
BASE METAL 'HAZ IRON.cARBON DIAGRAM

,9 p32

---------.- - - - -
 HAZ Structure in Steels

• In the preceding figure, Regions 1 and 2 were heated above

A3 and were transformed fully into austenite and back on
cooling -
• Region 1 exceeded the temperature at which the carbide
particles that pin the austenite grain boundaries dissolve,
causing austenite grain growth
• Region 3 was heated between the A1 and A3 temperatures
and partially transformed to austenite
• Region 4 did not exceed A1 and is termed the "sub-critical
HAZ." Some annealing or tempering may occur in this
region.

Lecture 9 p33
 ~ ',- f

METALLOGRAPHY
01' WELDS
IN CARBON-
MANGANESE
STEELS
Slide set number 7

~mTIrnrnrnrnrnTIrnrn)1 mrnTI~~ ,
I

~/i The Welding Institute

Abington Hall Abington CambrIdge CB 1 6AL UK
 numbe
ISBN 0 85300142 1
INTRODUCTION 1

Weld metals
Principal microstructures of weld metals 3
Slide number
0701 Single pass welds 5
0702 } Acicular ferrite 6
0703 { and grain boundary
ferrite 7
0704, 0705 Ferrite with aligned M-A-C 8
0706 Retained martensite and
austenite 9~
0707 }
0708
High heat input welds
{ ~~\
0709 Heat treatment 13
0710 } Multipass welds 14
0711 { 15

Heat affected zones

0712 Heat affected zone 16"
0713 Coarse grained super-
critical HAZ 18
0714 Fine grained super-
critical HAZ 19
0715 Intercritical HAZ 20
0716 Subcritical HAZ 2l:
Principal microstructunal constituents
in HAZs 23'
Typical microstructures in HAZs 2t
0717- Most <rapid cooling ~
0722 Least. rapid cooling :11
Slides. wallcharts 3J
Key to identification letters :Ill

~
.'"'""'\.
-.'.- ~- -"~--'~-'-"--~'-------
lNTKOlJUCTlON

Steels alloyed with carbon (C) (0.1-0.25%) and

manganese (Mn) (1-2%) are used in many applica-
tions as economical constructional materials, and
are often welded.
The mechanical properties of weld metals in
C-Mn steels (such as strength and toughness) are
determined primarily by microstructure, which is
dependent on factors such as chemical composition,
thermal history and the type and quantity of any
non-metallic inclusions. The microstructure is
revealed by the standard metallographic technique
of sectioning, polishing and etching, followed by
examination under a microscope. The normal etchant
is nital (2% nitric acid in ethyl alcohol, requiring
established safety precautions), and was used in
the preparation of all the samples except that
shown in slide 0706.
In assessing the properties of C-Mn steel weld
metals. it is important to be able to recognise the
various microstructural types; these slides illustrate
their normal appearances.
The terminology for describing weld metal
microstructures can vary considerably. but this
chart follows that currently proposed by the
International Institute of Welding (Commission
IX-J) .
The second part of this slide set deals with
the effect of welding on the adjacent unmelted
parent metal designated the heat affected zone or
HAZ.
HAZ microstructures in C-Mn steels are
governed by the steel chemistry and the thermal
cycle experienced. Increase~ in the alloy content.
the peak temperature. time at peak temperature
and the cooling rate through the transformation
temperature range will all promote the formation of
higher hardness constituents in the microstructure.
The thermal cycle at any point in the HAZ is
highly dependent on the heat input and the
distance from the fusion boundary. As this

1
reducea. glVlIl& VJ."U~1·t:Hjb.Vt:1Y ~UU.t::l· UU\,O.I:V·· "" 11"" ...
"~& IU", . _ ..... _ ... _ .

structures. This is shown In slide 0712, which

illustrates the whole heat affected zone. startin g
with the fusion boundary on the left.
ACICULAR FERRITE
Acicular ferrite consists of small laths of ferrite. of
low aspect ratio. which occur in several distinct
orientations. and which therefore give the appear-
ance of an interlocking microstructure. This mlcro-
structure is usually associated with excellent
toughness. The laths are formed in intragranular
regions. and it is believed that transformatlen is
nucleated at fairly high temperatures (about806OC).

FERRITE WITH ALIGNED MARTENSITE/AUSTENITE/

CARBIDES (M-A-C)
This microstructure can be easily distinguished
from acicular ferrite. because the individual laths
lie parallel to each other. have a much larger
aspect ratio. and are usually nucleated at an
austenitic grain boundary. One or more minor
phases (martensite. austenite and carbides) are
always found on the interlath boundaries. Ferrite
with aligned M-A-C is generally associated with
poor toughness. except in lower strength we;lds.
FERRITE-CARBIDE AGGREGATES (INCLUDING
PEARLITE)
In high heat Input welds, which have a slow cooling,
rate. formation of polygonal ferrite leads to 1"ele<:ti.
of carbon by the advancing transformation Interface.
and eventually the carbon content can rise suf-
ficiently to transform by eutectoid decomposition.
giving either pearlite or a ferrite /carbide aggrega~
containing equiaxed carbidl!s in a ferritic matrix i

Continued oyerl...

3
2

~
~
"-----.. _--" _._---------------
POLYCh..•• AL FERRITE SINGLE PASS WELDS

Grain Boundary Ferrite

Intragranular Ferrite
Polygonal ferrite can nucleate both at austenite
grain boundaries, and in intragranular regions. It
Is the product of transformation at high tempera-
tures, and Its formation Is therefore favoured In
high heat Input welds. Large amounts of grain
boundary polygonal ferrite are not generally
considered beneficial for toughness. especially In
higher strength steels. although Intragranular .
,

polygonal ferrite Is never present in sufficient i

>
quantity to influence properties significantly. It Is t
generally of lower strength than other transformation >
;:
,
products. >'>,
'>

MARTENSITE
,,,
~;
:)

Complete transformation of C-Mn steel weld metal I

to martensite Is unusual, but not unknown. It can
happen in conditions where the cooling rate is
artificially enhanced (i.e. in underwater welding),
and is promoted by the use of low heat input. The
toughness Is generally very poor. and the strength
very high.
MINOR PHASES
Because of segregation during solidification, the
last regions to solidify often have a much higher
content of alloying elements than the rest of the
weld; such regions do not always transform from
austenite, or may transform at such a temperature
that martensite Is formed.
~,
)'
In all fusion welding processes. the weld metal i
exhibits a predominantly columnar grain structure.
elongated in the direction of maximum heat flow
from the weld. The grain structure revealed by the
usual nltal etch does not represent the solidification f:
structure, but rather the structure of the austenite
grains when they started to decompose to ferrite
(prior austenite structure). The solidification
structure can be revealed by suitable segregatlon-
seeking etches, and shows a very much finer ~
structure than the austenitic grain structure. "
Retained phases usually, lie on solidification
boundaries. I

4 5
The micrographs above and on the next page show
acicular ferrite. AF and grain boundary ferrite GF.
Note the interlocking appearance of the acicular
ferrite. its low aspect ratio. and the fairly clearly
defined orientations along which the laths lie. The
amount of grain boundary ferrite can vary
considerably.

7
6

/- ,-- 1"'"'\
"0._... _
FERRI. _ WITH ALIGNED M·A·C Rl:l AINED MARTENSITE P~H I I,v:, I t.1\l1 "

... .... , .'

':,'/:<.'': \;~~., ,
'

'l
• " j
•
,
,
, .
~ ...... ,. "'-""~..
. , .J .. _ • •

'. ,
.::'~'~>. .~(~:; ~;; OJ:.: C,,':.'
. ....- " i

,
,
... f' (;~ .. :~.,...;.
.. 'f' ~ . . t'
• \ . • t /

" -. .. )' ,.

\.
. .• •

,'
p ••••

--.
;

.
.... 1", •• ... ~ ,:~, '-
' •• J
. .
t'_ • ...
.,'
.
.;' -, ~
".
...........;, "

, "

0706 'IIi ©' The Welding Institute UK 1984 ~

The micrographs above and below show typical
examples of ferrite with aligned M-A-C AC. The
appearance of this phase can vary SUbstantially as
shown in these two examples.
The presence of 'retained' phases (austenite and
martensite) is revealed using a picral (5% picric
acid in ethyl alcohol) etch. The volume fraction
of these phases can be quite substantial, but they
are often difficult to detect if con ven tional nital
etches are used.

!;
(
~

8 9
 HIGH HEAT INPUT WELDS

. , -- ,". '.... ....:.

~,' .~ , \ .~ '~.<~/·. :,,'·:-·l·il ~ .. 1;~,.,,. •. -"'~)"J' ~~'.l "l;:"'" :':\

~~, ~ .•" ""-.'.

~ "J~.r
':"
~ J. .~•. , ~.;.. ~:j.-'"
. ..• '4'''/ "
\~.
,~ ~..,.
. " ,.;
~,
. f " " -,'"
~'-:~i"~ ~~ ; .y" -,.,1'_ ..':

~..... " ~.~:.,).) -;'\,.'-. v.... .C~· -~·;N':>'i'

...
. ... .• ". _ 40 :l,l,
'. ... '" '"

~ ·~~:'-h'".~ ~ .t~~
.. '.,'\\;''':~''i''<'~'''''!l\ ~ t'S!;"1·. ":~'''''.'')
P, .........
,),\.~~~ ,'-. '.,~, •• \ .', X.\" ".*",. . _..,.., •• ,
.·:";~I~- '1:-. "f~ \,;:O:;J~ ••\V~::;.·j~'··'~~''''''M~_~~~-,,-_,
\11'
<'.·r
::,'~ :!;.....
It V" ...~.<~4,:~.'. .,'.1\' GF ...· 'y .."l2..·:t~..
.f~'" ~ :'J4~. .,;.\ ~r~-.
. \ ;-,,, ~~~~ 1;
...... ~ ":'.,..~~
, --c~·,· ~;\~,/~, t .' ... )c\r"~!.I.· ,ti~ ..:
""~ ." "~."'..t . ."" .~;o.'J~. . ,. I..... I

:rf~, . ~ ~~YJ . .*·, \~~;~;~:~~ \i,.....~~

,I 'I- \.''N

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... ~>:~t, .rI~ "~~. ~~f,,··,l.';r~' ~ ~ (.~'-tit;!~r;
l,¢·.~>.rW
~., ··~,I
. (.~t.;,,·'~1-~
~+'''''
F~~~Vl:,,~').I. "fL~' ~~>t~< l.'"+ii.l
AF •. I."",~ 'Ca'''''':;
m
I '.'

.:~...! ... ·..

~ "'';'7'''':: . . : .... ~ .4fF·.J'.:;. '.\\
""
,iI : .::;;" '1<
N ... ·$,

;:.,< ~.~.~.~;;;{.~-.., ...-" ~~i.l }"":"'J<4'.I"ll~ "-:"t . ~{.".t~

.~ ~......... ~~":"'''s.-.. ~,,;:
~"""":'-~".,~.'
.. • '.M>".. ~""I'''''
I . ;} ,~~
.'~'J'\
••. ~ ...
~ ~.-.,'~• ...:......!!···..:y~··L x,~ '."t~.~
'~:'_4:S: '~"'
J' " ')1 '. ''111== . - +0

s• I'~"1".""-
'
.··.··8 . ...
......
;"i.,1
-,'
'.' ...,
-
f,;......... . • . -. ". :. . .

This micrograph. again from a high heat Input

electroslag weld. shows isolated regions of polygonal
The above microstructure. from a high heat input ferrite PF in a matrix of acicular ferrite. Because
electroslag weld. shows development of grain of the slower cooling rate. greater carbide
boundary ferrite GF and pearlite P on austenite rejection has occurred during transformation.
grain boundaries, and both acicular ferrite and resulting in small colonies of pearlite being formed
ferrite with aligned M-A-C in intragranular regions, between the Individual ferrite laths. Note that the
Other ferrite carbide aggregates Fe which etch acicular ferrite is much coarser in this example
lighter than pearlite can also be seen . than in others in this series. which were made at
lower heat input.

10 11
,-
.-
.... _. "'-" ..... - .... - .. - ."'"'\
 HEAT TREATMENT

Conventional post-weld normalising does not give

such a fine microstructure as normalising by
sUbsequent welding, as the thermal cycle is much
longer. This microstructure, from a thick section
plate, shows a typical ferrite F pearlite P structure.
The pearlite regions are generally associated with
the solidification boundaries, more noticeably in
high heat input welds where initial segregation is
probably greater. Stress relief by heat treatment is
not readily visible·in the microstructure. It can lead
to transformation of retained phases. precipitation
of carbides etc .• and spheroidisation of pearlite
in high heat input welds.

12 13

....-.- . ~- ,
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,~>,.{t .:>~.~""'"'..!>'.~.,,,;I .~:r.".' -I-,""?H~" """-..~:. ""'Ji~\
~~, .. J'(-,.,.. ~!i"'"'~:l.;, "';'?" )1'1" .• '~"'I>i;'
. ":I." :\~~... :..« . f~r~:-"~' ~. ".:,'"
t· ",g'~.- ,,.;:>o;,,.:'It" '
,l>"';~ >,:::;r..e;:'~,,- ... ~_: --:<.'! r'"d;,
."\,It~;~'.r
'Y.tl.,::.....-t. . ..:.~, .'~'
-,~·~~,:tf~H/'~4~" . /.~'~"':<,,<.,.Z!~,l¢
')oo
. ...

.N");~!:· .... I ....~ r-o_':.o\: ;'1-,'" 't:t,s·

t\- 4 .......~1~r:"1\t .. "
. ..~: ·~.fl~· i:~)}$ ''::' ~..~!{t:t~ :.:.~y~ . J~'~~ ,~·~~'..;.<(;·..: .. r.~e·

Weld metal which has been reheated above AC 3 by

a SUbsequent weld pass has a rapid therme.l cycle.
resulting in a very fine ferritic transformation
Where a joint is welded in more than one run. the structure. Such a microstructure is normally
microstructure of the early runs can be completely associated with very good toughness,
altered by the heat from SUbsequent passes. Where
the temperature rises above a critical value (Ac 3 )
in the region of 875 c C. then complete transforma-
tion to austenite will occur. which results in a
refined structure which is essentially similar to a
normalised structure, i.e. containing only equiaxed
ferrite and carbides. As the thermal gradients due
to successive passes are steep. the microstructures
in reheated regions can vary considerably over
short distances.

15
14

~.

----.-.._... ~
 HEAT I-\t'FECTED ZONE

The thermal cycle at any point in the HAZ is highly 1 formation range are reducetl. giving progressively
dependent on the heat input and the distance from softer microstructures. This is shown above, which
the fusion boundary. As this distance increases, the illustrates the whole heat affected zone, starting
peak temperature and cooling rate through the trans- with the fusion boundary on the left.

16 17

A view at higher magnification of part of the heat
affected zone shown in slide 0712, near the fusion
boundary. heated to a temperature sufficient to
permit rapid austenite grain growth, typically
above 1000 oC.
A view at higher magnification of part of the hea~
affected zone shown in slide 0712, towards the
fusion boundary, but farther from it than slide
heated to a temperature above Ac 3 • but insufficient
to produce rapid austenite grain growth.

18 19

~ .. """""-,
,.
INTERCRITICAL HAZ
A view at higher magnification of part of the heat
affected zone shown in slide 0712. towards the
parent metal. but farther from it than the next
picture. heated to a temperature between Ac 1 and
AC3' resulting in only partial transformation to
austenite. SUbstantial refinement occurs.
20
SUBCRITICAL HAZ
A view at higher magnification of part of the heat
affected zone shown in slide 0712. near the parent
metal. maximum temperature less than Ac l ' Pearlite
may be spheroidised.
21
 MARTENSITE
Although this constituent M is promoted by
increased alloy content, it can also be found in
common C-Mn steels welded at low heat input. It
is hard, usually of poor toughness. and can give
rise to HA Z hydrogen cracking. Complete transfor-
mation to martensite is unusual in the HAZs of
C-Mn steels. and only occurs when cooling is very
rapid.
FERRITE WITH MARTENSITE/AUSTENITE/
CARBIDES (M-A-C)
This is generally the predominant microstructural
constituent ,in C-Mn steels, occurring over a wide
range of heat, inputs. The illustrations show that
ferrite with M-A-C can have an aligned AC or
non-aligned FN appearance, but this variation is
probably largely a sectioning effect.

INTRAGRANULAR WIDMANSTATTEN FERRITE

Intragranular Widmanstatten ferrite WF may be
formed with high heat input. It cari be distinguished
from ferrite with M-A-C by the small aspect ratio
of the ferrite laths, and the characteristic basket
weave type of structure. It resembles acicular
ferrite commonly found in weld metal. Intragran~r
Widmanstatten ferrite forms at higher transforma-
tion temperatures, and is favoured by the slower
coollng ra,tes associated with high heat input.

PRO-EUTECTOID FERRITE I
This constituent FP is often formed on prior
austenite grain boundaries, esp'ecially with high:.!:
heat input. Its formation is suppressed by aIloyihg
elements Which lower the austenite decomposition,
temperature.

Continued ~f

22 23
.."

,..,",

....•..... ~._----------
 I Yt'I~AL MIl;HUSI HUt; I UH!:S 11'\1 HtA I Al-fl: ';U
This con .uent P is associated with very high
heat input, such as in electroslag welding, and is ZONES
suppressed by alloying elements which depress the
austenite decomposition temperature. It is generally Slides 0712-0716 show one HAZ with a limited
found only in association with pro-eutectoid ferrite. range of cooling rates; the following six photo-
graphs, slides 0717-0722, illustrate a wide range
FERRlTE-CARB IDE AGGREGATES of HAZ microstructures arranged in order of
This phase Fe appears in regions away from prior cooling rate, starting with the most rapid.
austenite boundaries, and is the result of the
eutectoid decomposition reaction. At very high Most rapid cooling - low heat input :;
magnifications. It appears as a dispersion of
carbides in ferrite. 0717 ::t
0718 ~
0719 t:
0720 Ii
0721
0722 fJ
"'I
Least rapid cooling - highest heat input t:
Ii
~
!

Il
,l
:j'
;"
t
,
~,
'i;
",>.
¥
~
,ft
~

,~
I·;

i:j
~.
,~
.
.''
.";
~
(;

24
25
 '..
\ c
. ~~
; /$'
.~
''- ..\.' .
. .,
.f. '
", "

The ferrite with aligned M-A-C, AC. is nucleated

primarily at prior austenite grain boundaries.
In this exampll'!, transformation to martensite is
Martensite M is also present.
virtual1y complete.

26
27

")
-,-~,._._-. ".-~-.~-- <--'''''''''."""",---"
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.... ~~:~\ '1· I ..... /' .~~.. ,.:.~
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:a....:.:;.1.J~~.~\. \. :<<':"~ I..: .. ,·\f~~.. ~l;~~;;~ 'l't::;f~ ._~~:-~.~~':~1.~'~\''':::::' ,"-,._. ... '/ <.
?t.¥.Z.~~:~~:{~~~~~\·>:~~~:):1~1~~1~1~~I#)~·~~~~\;~~~~:·
:o~ •.,." ...~_......, q. ~":~"'.'.~':."lt.. ::~ l~;,," .", ......~V.~l-_ ~':o~~i"i:--: •• C,.r:.1.t.. ~,:.:..~~;....
";" ..:.l)t;O:;·iUf"\,·.~ .,''"':'':..... :~ ..... '·'';'j.\P~'l''·~:'''''::;}'~'';ir,...'';u''''··'~ ..··IJ.~I:--:~~~~'
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...,: ~"'_Jf2:.7:'..:c\\" ....- t ,I' .. :., ~.~~~/
ii::.. . !~~::: ..~~-;~:t "'Il'" ~,.e-,.IIo,~" t ..~.:..~,~.~;.:.o:
.
"'\t.. :..,,,~.t"~(1"'''' ''l' 1 .. """ .,t~' ..\:..?-""",~\ ~.t'~..4.-;j
,n '-:-:~~(i" ,".l ~t:',-~j';"~ 1': \. • :l~lf.r."""#"'" ~;:'-',,: ~~(•• ~\ :1.::;).., ~~ \'~)"
)."f:~".. "J"""l~j ~~r~ 1-'
"'l'" ;!'l··~.t· ~"'~ .-.' FN "",1)1,f'i........J..:,Io;!..!.,::.~i7·, !tt,' ~.!t\\, · ~v ,'~v:~~\.\ ~..oS,';,
~.·.lli'i·._ . . r • .r<l'.~/;I-, .. ,; .... :'.: .... ,,'ltc'
\ .."/1."" ~,1';J' ...~~
,:,,#~~ .,:. ..{ ~:,,· ... t·,;.-=: 'C, •• )~f.:. r·r.'.::·~";$ ·~:wl,l. ..2 ·'~«i 'ti 1~ ..~.,·;,·"tl·••l:>;l,
;....,;,J-....·t ..;,. ':Of ,.... :.~.:-.t':':·pS'~:.J:.~1r.• !r .~!-'''~'.~!,1'Ii ~'... Z~. ,:/'f: .-J; .\ .~/.1.",:"'.I"~
..... -~ ... ·,;·~,..·: ... 11t, .. ·-~·, ~t .... ,'.,""'\~·-:~·· ...~ ~ •.. ; j '• '.~~~ll,.\v. .......
•••" ..

Fine ferrite with M-A-C. showing aligned AC and Coarser ferrite with M-A-C than in slide o?;sin
non-aligned FN modes. In this example. grain present in both modes. aligned AC and n<
boundary ferrite is suppressed. aligned FN.

28 29
Coarse ferrite with M-A-C is present in both
aligned AC and non -aligned FN modes. as in slide
0720. Pro-eutectoid ferrite FP and intragranular
Widmanstatten ferrite WF are also present. Pearlite P and ferrite-carbide aggregates FC are
shown here. in a high heat input electroslag weld:
they are generally associated with a high proportion
of pro-eutectoid ferrite FP .

30 31
',.
,
J>'

/'""'1
'.,., ...." . ' ' ' ' .. ,._~. ,._---.,----------------------------
KEY
Carbides J
Identification . Discussed Shown - dispersion 24
letters Constituent on page on page - equiaxed 14
- precipitation 13
AC Ferrite with aligned 3,23 8,27,28, - rejection 11
M-A-C 29,30 Coarse grained HAZ 18
AF Acicular ferrite 3 6,7,10, Columnar structure 5
11 Electroslag weld 10,11
F Ferrite 13 Equiaxed 14
FC Ferrite-carbide 3,24 10,30, Etches
aggregates 31 - segregation-seeking 5
FN Ferrite with 23 28,29, Etching 1
non-aligned M-A-C 31 Ethyl alcohol 1,9
FP Pro-eutectoid ferrite 23 30 Eutectoid decomposition 3,24
GF Grain boundary 4 6,7,8, Ferrite 13
10 - acicular 3,6,10,11
M Martensite 23 26,27 - equiaxed 14
P Pearlite 3,24 10,13, - grain boundary 4,6,10
31 - intragranular 3,4,23,30
PF Polygonal ferrite 4 11 - laths 11
WF Intragranular 23 30 - polygonal 3,4,10,11
Widmanstatten ferrite - proeutectoid 23,24,30,31
- transformation 15
- with M-A-C 3,8,23,27,28,29,30
INDEX Ferrite-carbide aggregates 3,10,24,31
Fine grained HAZ 19
Shown Fusion boundary 16
Constituent Grain boundary ferrite 4,6,10,28
on page
Grain growth 18
Acicular ferrite 3,6,10 Heat affected zone 1,16 on
ACl 20,21 Heat input 16,23,25
AC3 14,15,19,20 Heat treatment 13
Aligned M-A-C 3,28,29,30 High heat input welds 4,10,11,13,23,30
Aspect ratio 3,6,23 Hydrogen cracking 23
Austenite 3,5,14,20 International Institute of Weldirlg 1
- decomposition temperature 23,24 Intercritical HAZ 20
- grain boundary 10 Intergranular regions 3
- grain growth 18,19 Interlath boundaries .3
Basket weave structure 23 Interlocking microstructure 3,6
Carbon 1 Intragranular-
- ferrite 4,10
- Widmanstatten ferrite 23,30
34
35
 .u ..... ··6 .....·· ... _ ...
Martensite 3,4,23,26,27
Minor phases 4
MUltipass welds 14
Nital 1,5,9
Nitric acid 1
Non-aligned M-A-C 28,29,30
Normalising 13
Pearlite 3,10,11,13,24,31
- spheroidisation 13,21
Picral 9
Picric acid 9
polishing 1
polygonal ferrite 3,4,11
Prior austenite 5,23,27
Pro-eutectoid ferrite 23,24,30,31
Reheated regions 14
Refinement 20
Retained phases 5,9,13
- austenite 9
- martensite 9
- transformation 13
Sectioning 1
Segregation 13
Single pass welds 5
Solidification boundaries 5,13
Spheroidisation 13,21
Strength 1
Stress reilef 13
Subcritical HAZ 21
Supercritical HAZ 18,19
Thermal cycle 1,13,15,16 ~·,l
";.iI!
Thermal gradient 14 '::ii
Thick section 13 ··;;S
1,15,23 .. "'~
Toughness ,;(:,'
Transformation 14,15,20,26 . ~"""

Underwater welding 4 ",""

Widmanstatten ferrite 23,30

A

·.· .·t··;

.
36

s·
,j

. '
;'"

-_.__ ..~... _...•..._--.

'"
__.._----------------......,..------