Hydrological Sciences Journal

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Several methods for discharge measurements of

floods / Plusieures méthodes de mesure du débit
des crues

OGNJEN BONACCI

To cite this article: OGNJEN BONACCI (1983) Several methods for discharge measurements of
floods / Plusieures méthodes de mesure du débit des crues, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 28:4,
513-524, DOI: 10.1080/02626668309491992

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02626668309491992

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 Hydrological Sciences -~ Journal - des Sciences Hydrologiques, 28, 4, 12/1983

Several methods for discharge measurements

of floods

OGNJEN BONACCI
Faculty of Civil Engineering Sciences,
Split, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT Flow discharge measurements during floods are

of considerable importance. These data are very valuable
and particularly difficult to obtain. In addition, such
measurements are very expensive and often the lives of
the people carrying them out are endangered. The paper
describes several methods of discharge measurements
during floods. It also presents some practical experience
with the following types of measurements as variants of
the moving boat method: discharge measurements of the
whole flood wave using one or two boats employing only
the current meter; and the rising floats of different
rise speed.

Plusieures méthodes de mesure du débit des crues

RESUME Les mesures du débit lors des crues sont d'une
importance capitale. Ces données sont du plus grand
intérêt mais très difficiles à obtenir et les gens qui
s'en chargent s'exposent très souvent à des dangers
extrêmes . Notre travail traite de plusieurs méthodes de
mesure du débit des crues. On expose les principes de
fonctionnement et les expériences pratiques concernant les
méthodes suivantes: méthode intégrée, mesure de l'hydrogramme
complet avec une ou deux embarcations et la méthode de
mesure en cas de très fortes crues avec deux flotteurs
ayant des vitesses d'émergence différentes.

INTRODUCTION
The objective of this paper is to present several methods for
discharge measurement of floods. It is often very difficult to
carry out such measurements, for the procedure is time-consuming and
the lives of the people carrying them out may be at risk. On the
other hand, data on discharge measurements and other dynamic
characteristics of open streamflow are particularly important in
such difficult situations. Under such conditions measurements
should above all be accurate but must also be as brief as possible
even if this partly affects the accuracy. The main reason for this
is that we have to define the complete discharge curves within total
amplitude of water level oscillations. In Yugoslavia discharge
measurements fail to cover on the average ca 20-30% of this
amplitude (Bonacci & Snur, 1971). In most cases the upper part of
the amplitude, i.e. the flood period, is the part omitted.
Experience in many African countries shows that discharge measure-
ments in these countries fail to cover up to 60-80% of the water
513
514 Ognjen Bonacci

level oscillation amplitude. Most often the currents in question

have a flood wave of very short duration (ranging from a few hours
to a few days) and the discharge varies from Q = 0 to Q = 1000-3000
3 — 1
m s . The need to carry out discharge measurements as often as
possible during flood periods is especially evident if we bear in
mind the fact that constant changes in the shape and dimensions of
the river bed caused by flood waves lead to variations in the stage-
discharge curves. Cruette (1975) has presented a methodology for
measurements of flood waves particularly suited to African rivers
with sudden, highly unpredictable and very short periods of
concentration. His paper deals with the organization of discharge
measurements by means of current meters.

I MIGRATED METHOD

The integrated method of discharge measurements in open streamflows

is essentially a predecessor of the moving boat method and can be
considered as one of its modifications, but it does not call for
special hydrometric equipment.
The integrated method has proved to be almost indispensable
especially in developing countries since there are many situations
in which the standard area-velocity method yields inaccurate or at
least inadequate results because of the extended duration of the
measurement process. Employing the integrated method we reduced
the duration of measurements 1.5 to 10 times compared to that
required for standard methods, depending on the procedure used.
Dementjev (1963) gives some data on the possibility of reducing
the measurements' duration 20 or even 30 times. The integrated
method can also be used for wide streamflows where the speed of
measurements is not affected by sudden changes in water stage but
by the duration of measurements. The most significant advantage of
the integrated method is its accuracy, which is not much lower than
in standard methods which last much longer. The accuracy of results
obtained by this method depends almost exclusively on adherence to
certain principles when carrying out the measurements: the staff
must be experienced and knowledge of the shape of the cross section
on which the measurements are being taken must be adequate.
Another advantage of this method is that the processing of data
obtained is much shorter and simpler than the processing of data
obtained by any other method.
Integrated discharge measurements in open streamflows can be
carried out as explained below, by defining:
(a) average velocity on the verticals or horizontals,
(b) average surface velocity,
(c) average velocity of the whole cross section.
Figure 1 presents the trajectories of current meter movement
across the cross section of open streamflows for the above listed
variations of the integrated method.

Average velocity on the verticals or horizontals

If we carry out measurements according to these variants we do not
significantly reduce the duration of the measurements but accuracy
 Several methods for discharge measurements of floods 515

Fig. 1 Variations of the integrated method for discharge measurements.

A1 Integrated velocity along the verticals;
A2 integrated velocity along the horizontals;
B integrated surface velocity;
C1 combined method (by Simbirsky);
C2 combined method (by Demetjev).

is maximized being the same (and sometimes even higher) than the
accuracy obtained by the standard area-velocity method of discharge
measurements. The procedure consists in moving the current meter at
a uniform speed from the surface to the bottom (or vice versa),
while we simultaneously measure time t and write down the number of
signals n. Employing equation (1) of the current meter calibration
we determine the mean velocity on the vertical Vy :
v v = a + bO (1)
where
0 = nk/t (2)
where a, b are constants of the calibration equation and n is the
number of current meter revolutions between two signals. Diconne
(1972) showed that this kind of measurement almost completely
eliminates the influence of velocity pulsations caused by turbulence
in the flow. The effect on discharge measurement accuracy is
positive. Using this method it is not usually necessary to correct
velocities, as the velocity of the meter moved along the measurement
verticals is usually much lower than the flow velocity. Similar
results are obtained by integrating the velocity along the horizontals
(Fig.l, A2). This procedure is particularly suitable for wide
516 Ognjen Bonacci

streams and in cases where the hydro-metric profile is equipped with

a cableway. The theoretical aspect of the problem, as well as its
practical results, have been presented by Chen Rihua (1982). The
accuracy of measurements obtained by integration along the horizontals
is somewhat lower (most often negligibly) than the accuracy obtained
by integration along the verticals, whereas the measurement process
is twice as fast.

Average surface velocity

This integrated method for measuring average surface velocity is
applied in rare situations when it is necessary to effect discharge
measurements very quickly. According to equation (1), with measure-
ment time t and number of signals n , we determine the average velocity
of the surface at the cross section,Vg. This velocity has to be
theoretically corrected because of the influence exerted by the speed
component of moving the current meter across the cross section.
Practically the correction is negligible, as such measurements are
carried out exclusively for floods, i.e. for high velocities,
particularly surface ones.
The profile of a section with surface width B = 1000 m can be
measured in c. 2500 s with the crossing speed of the current meter
v = 0.4 m s~ . According to the measured vg and the known profile
area A we determine the fictitious discharge Q s according to equation
(3):

Qs = v s A (3)

In order to determine the actual discharge Q it is necessary to know

the relation between Q s /Q, which is always greater than 1 (for the
cross section measured). This is determined according to a series
of previous measurements.

Average velocity of the whole cross section

This method of discharge measurements is carried out (in the field)
by moving the current meter without stopping across the width and
the depth of the cross section. Two trajectories of current meter
movement across the cross section, used in practice by hydrologists
in USSR (Dementjev, 1963) are presented (CI and C2) in Fig.l. In
this variant we also measure the travelling time of the meter t and
the number of signals n from the beginning to the end of the move-
ment across the cross section. Introducing the measured values into
equation (1) we compute the average profile velocity v.. Discharge
is determined by multiplying the average cross section velocity
with the area of the cross section A according to equation (4):

Q* = Av A (4)

The accurate value of discharge Q is determined by making a correction

using:

Q = Q* (1 - Ai - A 2 ) (5)
 Several methods for discharge measurements of floods 517

where Ai is the correction to the discharge necessary due to the

measurements of a higher average profile velocity, for it is not
possible to measure low velocities near the bottom. A2 is the
correction to the discharge because of the fact that using this
variant we do not measure only the flow velocity, but also the
resultant between the flow velocity and the velocity of the current
meter movement along the cross section. Values of the given
corrections as percentages of the apparent discharge Q are given in
Table 1 (Dementjev, 1 9 6 3 ) .

Table 1

hi/h2 0.025 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40

A, (%) 1 2 4 8 11 14

v/v A 0.0- 0.11- 0.17- 0.23- 0.26- 0.30- 0.33- 0.35- 0.38- 0.41- 0.43-
0.10 0.16 0.22 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.44
A2 (%) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

hi Depth reached by measurements with current meter (measured from the river bed);
h2 section of the vertical on which measurements are carried out;
h = hi + h 2 depth of the vertical;
v velocity of current meter movement along the cross section;
vA average cross-section velocity.

According to practical experience the recommended velocity of

the current meter movement along the vertical should be between 0.03
and 0.20 m s - 1 , and the velocity of movement along the horizontal
0.05 to 0.50 m s - , but greater than one quarter of the average
flow velocity v.. The duration of one measurement on a 800-m wide
river with an average depth of 2.2 m and mean flow velocity of 1.5
m s - 1 is usually 20 min with the horizontal velocity of movement
being 0.5 m s - 1 , and the vertical velocity 0.10 m s - 1 . In such
situations the meter comes near the bottom ca 25 times. The number
of people carrying out measurements depends on the size of the
stream, its discharge, the available hydrometric equipment and
the experience of the staff, which usually includes two to four
people.
The accuracy of measurements depends almost exclusively on the
uniform movement of the meter across the cross section. Measurements
will be most accurate (will give the most accurate discharge) if the
measurement time in each part of the cross section of the same area
is the same, and if the whole area is considered uniformly, i.e. if
we measure velocities at the surface, in the middle and at the
bottom.
Bonacci (1975) has analysed the influence of the trajectory
shape on the accuracy of measurements obtained by the complete
integrated method. Figure 2 presents seven examined trajectories of
meter movement along a rectangular cross section 20 m wide and 1 m
deep. Maximally different combinations of velocity distribution
along the verticals and cross section were assumed. Computations
showed that the best accuracy is obtained with the trajectories
518 Ognjen Bonacci

numbered 3 and 7 in Fig.2. The mean errors M are: M 3 = 1.1% and

0.-

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS OF THE TOTAL FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

The method was described by Hinrich (1974) and the discharge measure-
ments were carried out on the River Rhine. Mudrenovic (1977) gives
a few suggestions for improving this method. Measurements are

(a)

t> m
(b) „ v-0.10 m s"' SPEED OF CURRENT MI MOVING

1 l- 22.4 m
t-224 s
,'h[m]

1-22.4 m
t-224 s

L-28.1 m
t - 281 s

L-27.2 m
t- 272 s

L-23.6m
t- 236 s

L-26.8 m
t- 268 s

L-25.4m
0.9 m t-254s

Fig. 2 Trajectories of current meter movement using the combined method.

(a) Scheme of the measured cross section; (b) trajectories of movement.

conducted using a current meter and the application of this method

does not call for any additional equipment. The basic objective
of the procedure is to measure the total flood hydrograph in such
a way that duration of the measurement process does not eliminate
the effects of nonstationary flows. Such organization of measure-
ments makes it possible to define the loop on the stage-discharge curve
for the measured flood hydrograph. This method is recommended
(a) for streamflows with rapid rises and falls of the water stage (for
nonsteady flow) and where loops are formed on the stage-discharge
curve, or (b) for very wide rivers with less expressed nonsteady
features (e.g. lower Danube). Measurements can be carried out with
only one boat or, if fast measurements are required, with two boats
 Several methods for discharge measurements of floods 519

each measuring its half of the streamflow. Velocity measurements

should be carried out on previously chosen verticals. The choice
of the optimal position of verticals has been dealt with by Bonacci
(1979). Figure 3(b) presents a hydrograph for which the discharge
should be measured in time period t-^ to t 2 . Figure 3(c) presents
average flow velocities on the verticals as a function of time.
Velocity data are measured at discrete times whereas for other times
they are obtained by interpolation and extrapolation. Thus we
define the distribution of average velocities on all measurement
verticals along the cross section at any moment for the whole
period of discharge measurement from t-, to t 2 • The conditions are
established for defining discharge Q in the same period. When
carrying out measurements in the field, numerous variants can

L . _ _ _ & ___

11 1 IV V VI
t> > > f> f> BOAT 2
4 — V - 7 ^ H ,

Vi - MEAN VELOCITY ON VTC. i

o-MEASURED VELOCITY BY BOAT 2
—o-MEASURED VELOCITY BYBOAT 1
INTERPOLATED VELOCITIES
EXTRAPOLATED VELOCITIES
Fig. 3 Discharge measurements of the whole f l o o d wave w i t h t w o boats, (a) Scheme of the measured
cross section; (b) hydrograph in the measurement period; (c) average velocities along the verticals as a
f u n c t i o n of measurement t i m e .

be applied. In very wide rivers both boats can effect measurements

along the whole cross section, and the moving boat technique is to
be recommended. The minimum number of boat traverses across the
whole cross section is three, whereas five traverses are recommended
depending on the duration period, i.e. on the interval t-,-t„ .
According to our experience in measurements on rivers less than 100 m
wide (Mudrenovic, 1977) it is possible to achieve an accuracy of
discharge measurements from ±5 to 8%.

RISING FLOAT METHODS

Kuprianov (1978) described several modifications to the rising float
method. Aerial methods are used for measuring discharge on the
great rivers in the Asian part of the USSR. During spring floods
it is not possible to reach gauging stations on these rivers.
Karasev (1980), writing about discharge measurements by planes and
helicopters, states that experimental measurements started after
the Second World War and that Urivajev initiated these measurements
in the field by giving the first principles and the methodological
basis for them. The basic principle consists in throwing out of
the plane or helicopter boxes with paint, oil or two kinds of floats
520 Ognjen Bonacci

(with different rise speed). When they reach the bottom the boxes
explode and release the mass they contain, which then rises to the
surface. By a system of photographs the velocity either on the
water surface or the elementary discharge is determined. The
accuracy achieved by this method is from ±10 to 15% which is quite
satisfactory considering the difficult conditions under which the
measurements are carried out. One of the drawbacks of this method
is that the measurements are quite expensive and the staff have to
be especially well-trained. These aerial methods actually belong
to the rising float techniques for discharge measurements. Dyer
(1970) has described in detail the theoretical basis and some
practical experience in the application of this technique. Sargent
(1982) describes his experiences with one specific aspect of this
technique that uses air bubbles. This method has been successfully
applied in discharge measurements on smaller rivers. Experience
with very complex and dangerous hydrometric measurements on African
rivers has pointed out some of the advantages, as well as the
drawbacks, of rising float techniques. Measurement problems become
particularly complex in rivers with sudden discharge rises from
0 to â 3000 m 3 s - 1 . The whole wave usually lasts only a few hours,
which makes it impossible to apply standard hydrometric methods
owing to its short duration and power of destruction. The following
type of rising float technique is recommended in such situations.
In the period of low water stage we place on the bottom of the river
several boxes containing floats with different rise speed (Fig.4).
When the flood hydrograph passes it is necessary to release the
floats from a box either simultaneously or as a function of
depth and flow velocity. When all the floats emerge to the surface
several photographs are taken. According to those photographs we
define the area A as shown in Fig.4(c). With our knowledge of uj
and u„, the rising speeds of floats 1 and 2 in m s - 1 in calm water,
and the use of the equation (6) (Bonacci, 1981) we determine the
fictitious discharge Qp (see Appendix):

-> TRAJECTORY WITH RISING SPEED u 2

(ci TRAJECTORY WITH RISING SPEED u,

h \ N

FLOW
fM
DIRECTION . iv A [m2fc BOX CONTAINING
FLOATS

/ S
Fig. 4 Principles of discharge measurement w i t h t w o floats having different rise
speeds, (a) Cross section; (b) f l o a t trajectories at instant t 2 of f l o a t 2's rise t o the
surface; (c) situation on the river at the instant when all floats have risen t o the surface.
 Several methods for discharge measurements of floods 521

Q^A (-L-Jj-)-! ( JL_ u-i (6)

The fictitious discharge Q p actually corresponds to the discharge

defined according to flow velocity on the surface of the cross
section. In order to determine the actual discharge Q we should
know the coefficient K = Q/Qp. Its value can be obtained according
to a series of preliminary discharge measurements under less adverse
conditions. In the literature there are numerous theoretical and
empirical expressions for calculating the coefficient K. Most often
K is given as a function of stage H, and it undergoes a slight
linear increase with water stage increment. Measurement can be
carried out with only one float but in that case we should know the
exact moment the float is released from the box at the bottom, and
we should take a photo at the exact moment of its appearance at
the surface. As this moment is different for each vertical, this
type of measurement calls for the application of precise (most often
electronic) equipment and specially trained personnel. As these two
facts present the most frequent problems and difficulties in
hydrological measurements we should prefer simpler methods which,
however, do not essentially affect the degree of accuracy. If we
wanted to measure discharge several times during one flood wave it
would be necessary to design boxes containing a number of floats to
be released as and when we wish. The boxes should be made of steel
or concrete and firmly placed on the bottom to be safe from the
influence of bed load and bottom erosion. The error in discharge
measurement with floats is 2 to 3 times greater than the error in
results obtained by the current meter integrated method along the
verticals. The reason for this difference is that the float
integrator in its rise from the bottom to the surface is subject to
random movement caused by turbulence in the open streamflow. There-
fore the dispersion of results of discharge measurements by float
integrators is significantly greater than the dispersion of results
obtained by other types of measurements. Regardless of the above-
mentioned drawbacks, the advantages of their use in practice are
obvious and consist of the reduction of measurement time and the
avoidance of direct contact of the staff with the river in flood
conditions. One of the most important factors for obtaining
accurate data is the choice of the float shape (most often it is a
sphere), dimension and density. These characteristics of the float
are dependent on the flow velocity, and on the quantity of suspended
load, if any, so that the choice of an optimal float should be
analysed for each gauging station. Float inertia leads to greater
random error i.e. it increases as the rise speed decreases.

CONCLUSION

This paper reviews three methods for discharge measurements in flood

conditions in situations when such measurements are particularly
difficult to carry out and when data on discharges are particularly
important. Each method is suitable for a particular type of river
and the choice of method is left to the people engaged in measure-
522 Ognjen Bonacci

merits. Hydrological practice (especially in developing countries)

shows that there is a significant lack of information on discharge
in flood periods, and we know from experience that even very complex
methods and precise equipment very often prove inadequate. Therefore
we suggest relatively simple measurement methods using standard
equipment which make it possible to shorten the period of metering
duration and to make contact with the river as brief as possible.
The rising float technique entirely eliminates contact between the
staff and the water, and this seems to be one of the advantages
governing its application in the future.

REFERENCES
Bonacci, 0 & Snur, M. (1971) Hidrometrijski aspket problema velikih
voda (Hydrometric approach to the problem of the flood flows).
Vodoprivreda 3 (13-14), 768-776.
Bonacci, 0. (1975) Integraciona metoda mjerenja protoke vode u
otvorenim vodotocima (An integration method of the discharge
measurements in open streamflows) . Vodoprivreda. 7 (33), 3-8.
Bonacci, 0. (1979) Influence of turbulence on the accuracy of
discharge measurements in natural streamflows. J. Hydro!• 42,
347-367.
Bonacci, 0. (1981) Hidrometrijski aspekti mjerenja i pracenja velikih
voda u prirodnim vodotocima (Hydrometric aspects of measurements
and observation of floods in natural streamflows). Vodoprivreda
13 (74). 479-484.
Chen Rihua (1982) The multilayer width-integrated velocity measure-
ment method. In: Advances in Hydrometry (Proc. Exeter Symp.,
July 1982), 75-85. IAHS Publ. no. 134.
Cruette, J. (1975) Méthodologie pour la mesure des crues brutales.
Cah. 0RST0M, Série Hidrol. XII (1), 3-12.
Dementjev, B.B. (1963) 0 tochnosti integracionovo sposoba izmjerenija
rashodov u estestvenih rekah (Accuracy of the integrated method
in discharge measurements of natural streamflow). Trudi GGI
106, 36-71.
Diconne, M.A. (1972) Les jaugeages des débits des cours d'eau au
moulinet hydrométrique par la méthode d'intégration. La Houille
Blanche 1, 35-44.
Dyer, A.J. (1970) River discharge measurement by the rising float
technique. J. Hydrol. 11, 201-212.
Herchy, R.W. (1976) New methods of river gauging. In: Facets of
Hydrology (ed. by J.C.Rodda), 119-162. John Wiley, Chichester,
UK.
Hinrich, H. (1974) Ermittlund des Abschlusses und der Abflussumme
Gewassern bei kunfristing stark steigenden Oder fallenden
Wasserstanden (Discharge measurements in rivers with sudden rise
of the water stage). Wasserwixtschaft 64 (6), 1985-1986.
Karasev, I.F. (1980) Rechnaja gidrometrija i uchet vodnih resursov
(River hydrometry and account of water resources), 310.
Gidrometeoizdat.
Kuprianov, V.V. (1978) Aerial methods of measuring river flow. In:
Hydrometry (ed. by R.W.Herschy) , 438-478. John Wiley, Chichester,
UK.
 Several methods for discharge measurements of floods 523

Mudrenovic, S. (1977) Hidrometrijski postupak za odredivanje

proticaja u vodotocima sa kratkovremenom i naglom promenom
vodostaja (Hydrometrical determination of discharge for stream
with short and rapid level variation). Vodoprivreda 9 (48-49).
183-186.
Sargent, D.M. (1982) The rising air float technique for the measure-
ment of stream discharge. In: Advances in Hydrometry (Proc.
Exeter Symp. , July 1982), 153-164. IAHS Publ. no. 134.

APPENDIX
DETERMINATION OF FICTITIOUS DISCHARGE Q F ACCORDING TO RISING FLOATS
AND PHOTOGRAPHS (SEE FIG.4)
t, rise time of float 1 (the faster one)
t2 rise time of float 2 (the slower one)
u^ rise speed of float 1 in calm water
U£ rise speed of float 2 in calm water
Vy average flow velocity at the measurement vertical
vg surface velocity at the measurement vertical and downstream from
it (taken to be constant)
n number of verticals (box containing floats)

1 L = ^V *1
L t
2 = vv 2

3 L = v s ( t 2 ~ *i>

4L = v v t 1 + v s (t 2 - t x )

L = 4 L - 2 L = vv t 1 + v s (t2 - t±) - vy t 2 =

= v s <*2 - *1>

t-^ = H/u-, ; t 2 = H/u2

L = H (—
u
2
" ^ > (V
s "V
qF = vg H

q = vv H

L = ( -u i - ^ ) (qF - q)
2
A = Tn LiABi = (-i- - i ) (Y11 qp AB. - ln q.AB. ) =
X X u u F x X X
1=1 2 l ^i=l i 1=1
= (— - ~ ) (QF - Q) = Qp (~ - —) (1 - K)
u u F F u u
2 l 2 l
where
K = Q/Q F
524 Ognjen Bonacci

F i l l
u K
2 «1
Received 4 February 1983; accepted 5 May 1983.