v OUT LINES:

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Conduction heat transfer

1.3. Convection heat transfer

1.4. Radiation heat transfer

1.5. Diffusion mass transfer

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 Cont…

v Heat can be transferred in three different modes/mechanisms:

1. Conduction,

2. Convection, and

3. Radiation.

v All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature

difference, and

v In all modes/mechanisms heat is transfer from the high-temperature

medium to a lower-temperature one.

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Example: Cont…

q A cold canned drink in a warm room, eventually warms up to the room

temperature as a result of heat transfer from the room to the drink through the
aluminum can by conduction.
v The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the:
• geometry of the medium,
• thickness of the medium, and
• the material type of the medium,
• temperature difference across the medium.
v Consider steady heat conduction through a large plane wall of
Thickness Δ x = L and area A, as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig-1.1: Heat conduction through a large plane wall of thickness Δx and area A.
v The temperature difference across the wall is ΔT = T2 - T1.
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 Cont…
v The rate of heat conduction (Qcond): through a plane layer is proportional
to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area,
but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer. That is,

Or/

vWhere: the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the

material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat.

v In the limiting case of Δx →0, the equation above reduces to the differential form:

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction

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 Cont…
v dT/dx = is the temperature gradient,

v The negative sign indicates that heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature.

v Therefore temperature gradient (dT/dx) becomes negative when

temperature decreases with increasing x.

Figure: 1.2

vThe heat transfer area A is always normal to the direction of heat transfer.
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Cont…

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EXAMPLE-1

1. The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.25m thick

fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 w/m.K. measurements
made during steady-state operation reveal tempratures of 1400 K and
1200 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the of heat
loss and heat flux through a wall that is 1m by 1.5m on a side?

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Cont…

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 Cont…

v Another example of free and forced convection heat transfer: hot

components on a vertical array of circuit boards in air.

a) Forced convection b) free/Natural convection

Figure 1.6: The cooling of circuit boards by forced and free convections
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 Cont…
3. Mixed (Combined) : when both the free and forced heat convection
exist, it is known as mixed/combined convection.

Example: Figure 1.7: Boiling and condensation process of the fluid.

c) Boiling d) Condensation
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Cont…

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 Cont…

v The convective heat flux (q”) is convection heat transfer per unit
surface area:

v Where:

§ q” = the convective heat flux (w/m2)

§ Ts = the surface temperature

§ T∞ = fluid temperature

§ h = is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C .

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 EXAMPLE 1–2: Measuring Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

1. A 2m-long, 0.3cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at

15°C, as shown in Fig. below. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of
resistance heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is
measured to be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and
electric current through the wire are measured to be 60V and 1.5A,
respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer
surface of the wire and the air in the room.

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Cont…

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 Cont…

v Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity, α.

v It is the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is

absorbed by the surface.

v Like emissivity, its value is in the range:

v A blackbody is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as it is a perfect emitter.

v In general, both  and α of a surface depend on the temperature and

the wavelength of the radiation.

v Kirchhoff ’s law: of radiation states that the emissivity and the

absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and wavelength are
equal.

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 Cont…
v The rate at which a opaque surface absorbs radiation is determined:

v Where: Qincident = is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface

and α is the absorptivity of the surface.
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 Cont…
v When a surface of emissivity () and surface area (A s ) at an absolute
temperature (Ts) is completely enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface
at absolute temperature (Tsurr) separated by a gas (such as air) that does
not intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer
between these two surfaces is:

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Fig 1.7: Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
 Cont…
v Radiation may also be incident on surface from its surroundings.

v The radiation may originate from a special source, such as the sun, or from
other surfaces to which the surface of interest is exposed.

v The rate at which all such radiation is incident on a unit area of the surface is
know as Irradiation (G).

vThe rate at which radiant energy is absorbed per unit surface area may be
evaluated as:

Where: ------------ (W/m^2)

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v There are three mechanisms of heat transfer, but not all three can exist
simultaneously in a medium.

v Although there are three mechanisms of heat transfer, a medium may

involve only two of them simultaneously. See fig below

v For example for heat transfer simultaneously by convection and

radiation, and the total heat transfer rate from the surface is:
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 Example 1-3: Heat Loss from a Person
1. Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine
the total rate of heat transfer from this person if the exposed
surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the
person are 1.6m^2 and 29°C, respectively, and the convection heat
transfer coefficient is 6 W/m^2·°C see fig below. The emissivity of a
person is 0.95.

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1.6.1. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
v The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of
energy principle, states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only change forms.

v The conservation of energy principle (or the energy balance) for any
system undergoing any process may be expressed as follows:

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 Cont. …
vThe energy balance for any system undergoing any process can be
expressed as:

or, in the rate form, as:

v The energy change of a system is zero (Esystem = 0) if the state of the

system does not change during the process, that is, the process is steady.
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 Cont…

v The energy balance in this case reduces to:

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 1.6.2. Conservation of Energy for closed system (Fixed Mass)

v A closed system consists of a fixed mass.

v For a closed system there are only heat transfer through the boundaries
and work done on/by the system. See fig below.

a) Control mass/closed system b) Control volume/open system

Where: Eg = is thermal energy generation and

Est = Energy storage of the system 28

 Cont…
v Conservation of energy for a steady - flow, open system

vThe simplified steady-flow thermal energy equation with no work is:

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 1.6.3. MASS FLOW RATE

vThe amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a flow device

per unit time is called the mass flow rate, and is denoted by

vA fluid may flow in and out of a control volume through pipes or ducts.

vThe mass flow rate of a fluid flowing in a pipe or duct is proportional to

the cross-sectional area Ac of the pipe or duct, the density , and the
average velocity of the fluid.

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 Cont…
v For a steady-flow system with one inlet and one exit, the rate of mass
flow into the control volume must be equal to the rate of mass flow out
of it. That is,

v When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible,

which is usually the case, and there is no work interaction,

v The energy balance for such a steady-flow system reduces to:

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