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Wednesday, August 19, 2015 9:38 AM
Course Announcements:
Homework #1 is due September 4th at Noon.
Note: This homework (located in the "Assignments" section of MyWPI) will help you review basic
concepts in the radiological sciences and will build upon what we do in class today and next week...
Health Physics is the science concerned with the recognition, understanding, evaluation, and control of
the health hazards that could arise from exposure to ionizing radiation. To perform such an evaluation,
we will initially focus on understanding how ionizing radiation is produced and how it transports through
and interacts with different materials.
Which brings up the question: what is meant by "ionizing radiation"?
Note: An atom missing one of its atomic electrons is called an ion. The electron emitted from the atom is
called a "free electron".
Example B: example of how an
Example A: Basic example of electron gains or loses energy Example C: example of how an
Bohr atomic model in Bohr atomic model energetic photon could ionize an
atom. With the removal of the
atomic electron, the atom is now an
ion.
As you may remember from your introduction to Quantum Mechanics course or
your modern physics course, it takes 13.6 eV of energy to ionize a hydrogen‐1 (1H)
atom.
This is very interesting because, on average, it takes about 33.7 eV to ionize a
molecule of water (or air) ‐ While it is true that hydrogen has the most "tightly
bound valence electron", the inner shell electrons in oxygen, for example, are
bound more tightly than Oxygen's valence shell electrons (or hydrogen's electron)
due to inter‐electron shielding (among other things). So the average electron
binding energy for oxygen will be slightly higher than that of hydrogen (but
oxygen's valence electron will have a lower binding energy than hydrogen).
If we compare the ionization energy (IE) of atoms in the Periodic table, we begin
to see two patterns:
1) The ionization energy generally increases as one moves from left to right
within a given row (period).
2) The ionization energy generally decreases as one moves from row (period) 1
to period 7 down any given column. Note: this is not intuitive ‐ this happens
because outer (valence) electron shell of each period is progressively further
away from the nucleus yet the total number of valence electrons in the given
period remains constant.
From <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_energy>
Creation of Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation can take two forms: particulate (alpha, beta) and electromagnetic
(gamma, x‐ray) radiation. Ionizing radiation is created when an energetically unstable
Here are examples of unstable nuclei emitting ionizing radiation to become more stable
Beta Decay
Gamma Decay
Gamma ray
Side Note: At this point, It may be beneficial to explain the difference between
x‐rays and gamma rays since I mention them above…
Gamma Rays are ionizing [radiation comprised of] photons that are created /
emitted by the atomic nucleus
X‐rays are ionizing photons that are created /emitted by atomic electrons
Up to now, we've been discussing the differences between gamma radiation and
x‐ray radiation. The fact is that x‐ray radiation that is created from the de‐
excitation of atomic electrons are much less energetic that gammas created by
the de‐excitation of the nucleons of a nucleus. This idea carries through the
concept of energy production.
People often do not understand the scope of nuclear energy in comparison to
other energy types. The key here is that there is a whole lot more energy stored in
the nucleus than in atomic electrons (protons and neutrons are more tightly
"bound" in the nucleus than electrons are in the atom.
So, let's compare the energy released by nuclear fission against that released by
burning methane gas. (NOTE: I am not advocating either method, I only wish to
impart the difference in energy release between the two).
If you were to fission Uranium‐235 (235U), that fission would release about 200
MeV of energy. Let's compare that to burning methane gas.
If you were to burn one mole of Methane gas, that would release 1640 kJ (kilo‐
joules)of energy (note: burning oxidation)
REMEMBER:
1 J = 6.24 x 1018 eV
1 mole = 6.02 x1023 atoms
So if you work it out, methane releases ~15 eV of energy for each oxidized
(burned) molecule ‐ this is a whole lot less than that of a single fission event!
Let's compare the two directly.
The Ratio of chemical energy produced through burning methane gas to that of
nuclear fission is:
[15 eV/molecule Methane] / [200,000,000 eV/atom U‐235] = 7.5E‐8
That is: the energy released by burning methane is 0.0000075% that of U‐235
fission! This means that one must burn 1.3E7 molecules of methane to produce
the same energy as that of a single 235U fission.
The difference between the energy released from an atomic vs nuclear reaction
makes perfect sense. Atomic electrons are bound to the nucleus via the electro‐
magnetic force while protons and neutrons are bound by the strong force.
Therefore, it takes significantly more energy to separate a proton or neutron from
an atomic nucleus (MeV) than it does an atomic electron (eV). Which means that
energy created from the breaking of atomic bonds will be orders of magnitude less
than that created by the splitting of an atomic nucleus.
Collision vs. Absorption of Ionizing Radiation When we think of ionizing radiation, we
pretty much expect the radiation to be energetic enough so that if it collides/interacts
with an atom, it can directly transfer around 33.7 eV or more of energy to the atom to
cause the atom to become ionized. This is almost always the case.
Here is an exception: THERMAL NEUTRONS
Thermal neutrons are neutrons that have the same energy as that of room temperature
air molecules (which is defined to be 0.025 eV). Therefore, if the neutron collides with an
atom, it cannot (by the fundamental laws of physics and a normal person's common sense)
impart the 33.7 eV (or so) of energy needed to ionize that atom ‐ yet thermal neutrons are
considered to be ionizing radiation… Why?
Answer: because thermal neutrons can be absorbed and added to the nucleons in
an atomic nucleus. This can cause a stable nucleus to become radioactive…
Consider this: 1H is thought of as being "hydrogen". It is technically called
protium. Protium is stable and, in nature, 99.9885% of natural hydrogen is
"protium while only 0.0115% is the isotope deuterium (also stable). YET there are
three isotopes of hydrogen that can exist. The third, 3H, is called tritium. Tritium is
not naturally found in nature because it is energetically unstable (too many
neutrons). It decays with a half‐life of 12.3 years by emitting a beta particle. By
emitting the beta particle, 3H becomes 3He ‐ which is energetically stable.
SO, back to thermal neutrons. ..
CONSIDER THIS: if a deuterium atom (a stable isotope of hydrogen) were to
absorb a thermal neutron, it would turn into radioactive tritium. That is, a thermal
neutron can convert a non‐radioactive isotope into a radioactive isotope. When
the radioactive decays (emit radiation) it will become ionized in the process (as
we will see).
Proton absorption vs Neutron absorption
So we've discussed how a free neutron can be absorbed by an atom's nucleus
because neutrons are a component of the nucleus.
Therefore, can we 1) conclude that free protons (i.e. a hydrogen nucleus) can be
absorbed by an atom?
The answer to #1 is YES but the answer to #2 is NO
Protons can be absorbed by a nucleus (and could also cause a stable isotope to
become radioactive). BUT ONLY IF THE PROTON has enough energy to overcome
the Coulomb (electro‐magnetic) repulsion between the proton and the nucleus.
Obviously, this repulsion does not occur with neutrons…
So, a proton must have a minimum kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb
repulsion of a nucleus if it is to be absorbed by that nucleus. A neutron, on the
other hand, does not have a minimum energy at which it could be absorbed by
the nucleus.
That said, the propensity (or probability) of a neutron or proton to be absorbed by
a nucleus is called its absorption cross section.
Calculation: What is the minimum energy that a proton must have to overcome
To answer this question, we first must assume the scenario that the proton that
has a head‐on collision with the Cl‐nucleus…
As a rule of thumb, the radius of a nucleus can be estimated as:
1.3 10
So:
1.3 1 10 1.3 10
1.3 35 10 4.3 10
Also: the proton has a unit charge of e = 1.6×10‐19 C,
while Chlorine (z=17) has a charge of 17e
Therefore, at a separation of 5.6×10‐15m, the Coulomb Repulsion is calculated as:
1
·
4
1
4 17 1.6 × 10‐19 C) · 1 1.6 × 10‐19 C)
5.6 × 10‐15m
7.0 10
4.4
Therefore, we estimate that a proton must have at least 4.4 MeV of kinetic energy
to overcome the Coulomb Repulsion of a Chlorine nucleus. Note: Quantum
Mechanically, we know that there is a finite probability that the proton will
penetrate the Coulomb barrier. As such, absorption can and does occur at lower
energies ‐ as an example, deuterium‐deuterium fusion can occur at 20 keV, which
is much smaller than that one could calculate with our method above.