Ae412 - Avd PDF

Aerospace Vehicle Design
Dr. Dhayalan. R
Department of Aerospace Engineering,

Indian Institute of Space Science Technology,
Odd Semester, 2018
Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

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Space Science Technology, Odd Semester, 2018) 1 / 175
Outline
1 Conceptual Design
2 Preliminary Design
3 Wing Area and Engine Sizing
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

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Design Flow Chart

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Conceptual Design
An appropriate starting point at the conceptual level
To select a path forward for the preferred configuration
The preference of configuration is based on the design

requirements

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Conceptual Design - Flow Chart

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Wing Configurations

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Tail and Fuselage Configurations

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Engine and Landing Gear Configurations

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Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

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Preliminary Design
The primary objective of this section is to determine a few

fundamental parameters of the aircraft
Maximum Take-off weight, WTO
Wing reference area, Sref or S
Engine Thrust or Power, T or P

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Preliminary Design - Flow Chart

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Estimation of WTO
General Technique
Referring to historical database for the same class of aircraft
under design
The weight fractions are estimated from the available data.
The data to be referred needs to contemporary to get more
meaningful value
Use performance calculations in the later stage to bring more
accuracy

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Estimation of WTO
WTO = WPL + WC + WF + WE
WPL - Payload weight

WC - Crew weight
WF - Fuel weight
WE - Empty weight

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Estimation of WTO
The weight fractions are introduced for fuel and empty weight,
since they both can alter the WTO during the design process.

WF WE
WTO = WPL + WC + WTO + WTO
WTO WTO
solving for WTO
W +W
WTO = PL C
1 − WWTO
F
− WWTO
E

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Payload Weight (WPL )
Follow the DGCA regulations to get the average adult weight

for passenger weight calculation.
The number depends on the design requirement.
Include the weight of winter clothes to consider worst-case

scenario.
Luggage and carry-on bags are decided based on the aviation

agency’s regulations and operating cost constraints.

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Crew Weight (WC )
Crew number is decided based on the class of aircraft along

with DGCA regulations.
Depends on the class and size of the aircraft.
Modern cockpit needs less number of crew to operate the

aircraft.
Serving crew decided on the guidelines given by the DGCA.

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Fuel Weight

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Fuel Weight (WF )
WF = WTO − WLanding
WLanding W − WF
= TO
WTO WTO
Converting as segment weight fractions,
WF W
= 1− 6
WTO W1
W6 W W W W W
= 2 3 4 5 6
W1 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5

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Fuel Weight (WF )
Each segment weight fractions needed to be estimated.

Identify the segments where the fuel burnt is negligible
compared with WTO .
Taxi, take-off, climb, descent, approach and landing have less
fuel burnt compared with WTO .
The weight fractions for these segments has to be estimated
from statistics.
For the remaining segments, like cruise/loiter are determined
through calculations from performance equations

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Typical Segment Weight Fractions
The following segments are considered
Mission segment Wi+1 /Wi

Taxi and Take-off, (1-2) 0.98
Climb, (2-3) 0.97
Descent, (4-5) 0.99
Approach and Landing, (5-6) 0.997
Adding extra fuel for safety purposes,

WF W6
= 1.05 1 −
WTO W1

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Cruise Weight Fraction
For ease of calculation in the preliminary stage, we use the second

condition, which is Breguet Range Equation
Jet Aircraft

V L Wi
Rmax = L/Dmax ln
c D max Wi+1
Propeller Aircraft
L

ηP D max Wi
Rmax = ln
c Wi+1

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Cruise Fuel Weight Fraction (WF )
An optimal velocity to fly close to the VL/Dmax is chosen to reduce

trip duration.
VC = 1.32VL/Dmax
The maximum aerodynamic efficiency will also change

accordingly.
√
L 3 L
=
D cruise 2 D max
The range equation is modified as

VC L Wi
R= ln
c D cruise Wi+1

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Cruise Fuel Weight Fraction (WF )
The cruise weight fraction for jet aircraft is determined as follows

!
Wi + 1 −Rc
= exp
0.866VC DL max

W1
The cruise weight fraction for propeller aircraft is determined as

follows
!
Wi+1 −Rc
= exp
ηP DL max

W1

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L

Typical Values - D max
L

Aircaft Type D max
Glider 20-35
Jet Transport 12-20
GA 10-15
Subsonic Military 8-11
Supersonic Fighter 5-8
Helicopter 2-4
Ultralight 8-15

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Loiter Weight Fraction
Loiter is the phase flight mainly used by aircrafts for missions

like reconnaissance, surveillance and border monitoring.
The loiter is mainly characterized as the flight at a specified

altitude for long duration.
Endurance is used to characterize the loiter.

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Loiter Weight Fraction - Jet Aircraft
Endurance for jet aircraft

L

D max Wi
Emax = ln
c Wi+1
The loiter weight fraction is determined as follows

!
Wi+1 −Ec
= exp L

W1 D max

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Loiter Weight Fraction - Propeller Aircraft
Endurance for propeller aircraft
ηP DL Emax

Wi
Emax = ln
cVEmax Wi+1
For propeller aircraft,

L L
= 0.866
D Emax D max
The loiter weight fraction is determined as follows

!
Wi+1 −EcVEmax
= exp
0.866ηP DL max

W1
Velocity for maximum endurance
VEmax =V Min.Power ≈ 1.2V − 1.4VS S

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Typical Values - Specific Fuel Consumption
Engine Type Cruise Loiter Unit

Turbojet 0.9 0.8 N/Nh
Low-bypass ratio Turbofan 0.7 0.8 N/Nh
High-bypass ratio Turbofan 0.4 0.5 N/Nh
Turboprop 2.98 - 4.77 3.58 - 4.77 N/KWh
Piston (Fixed Pitch) 2.4 - 4.77 2.98 - 4.2 N/KWh
Piston (Variable Pitch) 2.4 - 4.77 2.4 - 4.2 N/KWh

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Empty Weight - WE
The geometry and size are not available during the

preliminary phase.
No detailed mathematical relation of Empty weight to any of
the flight segments.
Use historical and statistical data.
Empirical relation between empty weight and MTOW can be
used to get an initial estimate.
WE
= aWTO + b
WTO

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Empty Weight Fraction

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Steps Involved
1 Flight Mission profile and Mission Segments

2 Crew Weight (WC ) and Payload Weight (WP )
3 Fuel Weight fractions for individual segments (Except
Cruise/Loiter)
4 Fuel Weight Fractions for cruise using expressions derived
!
Wi+1 −Rc
= exp
0.866VC DL max

W1 jet
!
Wi+1 −Rc
= exp L

W1 prop ηP D max

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Steps Involved - Continued
5 Fuel Weight Fractions for cruise using expressions derived
!
Wi+1 −Ec
= exp L

W1 jet D max
!
Wi+1 −EcVEmax
= exp
0.866ηP DL max

W1 prop
6 Establish the overall fuel weight fraction
W6 W W W W W
= 2 3 4 5 6
W1 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5

WF W6
= 1.05 1 −
WTO W1
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Steps Involved - Continued
7 Establish the Empty Weight fraction, using the statistical data
WE
= aWTO + b
WTO
8 The equation for MTOW is now used simultaneously with the
above equation to solve for WTO and WWTO
E
W +W
WTO = PL C
1 − WWTO
F
− WWTO
E
WE
The unknowns here are WTO and WTO , with two simultaneous
equations.

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Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

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Wing Area and Engine Sizing
Primary Objectives are to determine

Wing Area, S
Engine Thrust, T/ Power, P
Following Performance requirements are used
Stall Speed, VS
Maximum Speed, Vmax
Maximum Rate of Climb, RCmax
Take-off Distance, STO
Ceiling, hC

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Steps
T W W
Derive the relation between W ( P ) and wing loading, S for all
the performance requirements
Plot the relations in single graph
Identify the acceptable region in the plot
T
/ W W

Determine the optimum point ( W D P D, S D) in the
region
The optimum point usually corresponds to the smallest value
of power or thrust.
Using the determined max. take-off weight, WTO , find the
Thrust/Power and Wing Area from the optimum design point.

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Stall Speed

W 1
= ρVS 2 CLmax
S VS 2

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Maximum Speed - Jet Engine
aV 2

T b W
= Wmax + 2
W Vmax S
Vmax S
where, a = 12 ρCD0 and b = 2Kρ

Zero-lift drag coefficient (CD0 ) can be determined from the
statistical aircraft data.

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Take-off Distance - Jet Engine
CDG
h
i
1

T
µ− µ+ CLR exp 0.6ρgCDG STO W/S
=
W STO 1
1 − exp 0.6ρgCDG STO W/S
2mg
where, CDG = CDTO − µCLTO , CLR = ρSVR2
Coefficient of friction (µ) chosen from type of the runway.

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Rate of Climb - Jet Engine

T ROC 1
=s +
W ROC 2(W/S)
r
(L/D)max
CD
ρ 0
K
The climb is assumed to happening under maximum aerodynamic

efficiency, hence the VClimb = VDmin

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Ceiling - Jet Engine
Absolute Ceiling, hac ; ROCac = 0
Service Ceiling, hsc ; ROCsc = 100 fpm
Cruise Ceiling, hcrc ; ROCcrc = 300 fpm
Combat Ceiling, hcoc ; ROCcoc = 500 fpm

W 1
=
S hac (L/D)max

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Jet Engine

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Maximum Speed - Propeller Engine

W ηP
= 3
P aVmax b W

Vmax W + Vmax S
( )
S
where, a = 12 ρCD0 and b = 2Kρ

Zero-lift drag coefficient (CD0 ) can be determined from the
statistical aircraft data.

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Take-off Distance - Propeller Engine

1
1 − exp 0.6ρgCDG STO W
(S)

W ηP
=
P STO
CD

1 VTO
µ − µ + CLRG exp 0.6ρgCDG STO
( WS )
2mg
where, CDG = CDTO − µCLTO , CLR = ρSVR2
Coefficient of friction (µ) chosen from type of the runway.

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Rate of Climb - Propeller Engine

W 1
= s
P ROC ROC
+ r2 W
1.155
ηP 3CD S (L/D)max ηP
ρ 0
K
The climb is assumed to happening under Minimum Power

Required, hence the VClimb = VPRmin

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Ceiling - Propeller Engine

W 1
=s
P hac r2 W
1.155
3CD S (L/D)max ηP
ρ 0
K

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Propeller Engine

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Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

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Wing Design

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Number of Wings

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Wing Position

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High Wing
Disadvantages
Advantages Longitudinally Unstable due

to wing position
Cargo loading and unloading
is easier Lesser ground effect, large
take-off run
Higher Engine Clearance
Landing gear installation is
Facilitates strut installation complicated
Increase in Dihedral effect Difficult view in
(Laterally Stable) higher-than-horizon for pilot
More lift due to less Higher Induced Drag
interference on wing lift
Downwash higher at the
Better view in horizontal tail
lower-than-horizon for pilot
Lesser Lateral control
Heavier structure

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Low Wing
Advantages
Better Take-off performance
Better view in Disadvantages
higher-than-horizon for pilot Less lift due to wing-body
Ease in landing gear retraction interference
Lighter Structure Higher Stall speed
Lesser induced drag Lesser dihedral effect, laterally
Better lateral control less stable
Tail is more effective due to Larger landing run, due to less
less downwash CLmax
Longitudinally Stable due to
wing position

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Mid Wing and Parasol Wing
Mid Wing
Advantages Disadvantages
Features in between high and Wing has to cut into two
low wing halves
Aerodynamically streamed Higher weight to
than the high and low wing reinforcement of wing root
Less interference Manufacturing is costly
Parasol Wing
Similar to high wing, but with extra strut to support the wing. Usually
this configuration is used in hang gliders and amphibian aircraft.

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Selection Table
Design Weight (%) High Low Mid Parasol

Objectives Wing Wing Wing Wing
Stability 20
Control 15
Cost 10
Production 10
Operations 40
Other 5
Summation 100 83 96 64 68

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High Lift Devices
To maximize the payload weight

Minimize the stall speed
Used to maximize the capability of the wing to generate lift
Only in-flight method to maximize lift
Utilized mainly during the take-off and landing of the aircraft
Airworthiness standards specify the relationship between stall
speed and take-off/landing speeds. A general rule followed
VTO = k ∗ VS
k = 1.1, for fighter aircraft

k = 1.2, for jet transport and GA aircrafts

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High Lift Devices
Cl is increased
Cm is changed
Clmax is increased
Cd is increased
α0 is changed
Clα is increased
Stall angle, αs is changed

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High Lift Devices

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CLmax during landing and take off
Aircraft Take-off Landing

Cessna 172 1.5 2.1
Piper Cherokee 1.3 1.74
Short Skyvan 3 2.07 2.71
Gulfstream II 1.4 1.8
DC-9 1.9 2.4
Boeing 727 2.35 2.75
Airbus 300 2.7 3
Learjet 25 1.37 1.37

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HLD - Trailing Edge Flaps - 1
Plain Flap Split Flap
Implemented by rotating the Bottom surface of flap is

wing trailing edge hinged
Increases lift by modifying the Less change in pitching
effective camber moment
Simple in design and Produces more drag
manufacturing Employed mainly in the 30s
Employed in smaller and and 50s.
cheaper aircrafts

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Single-slotted Flap Double-slotted Flap
Modify and stabilize the LE

boundary layer Similar to single slotted flap
Increases effective chord and Doubles the advantages
effective wing area Higher cost and complex
Higher lift than plain and split fabrication
flap Employed mainly in modern
Higher cost, more complex turboprop and jet transport
fabrication aircrafts
Employed in modern light GA
aircrafts
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Triple-slotted Flap Fowler Flap
Three slots Deflects downward while

More complex design and tracks the trailing edge of the
fabrication wing
Lift increment is highest Increases the exposed wing
Higher cost area, more lift and modifies Clα
Employed in heavy transport Can be combined with double
aircrafts and triple slotted flaps

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HLD - Leading Edge Flaps
Leading edge Flap Leading edge slat
Highly cambered section

employed forward of the LE
Its a LE flap but with an
Plain flap installed at the
unsealed gap, when deployed
leading edge
A secondary flow takes place
Increases the effective camber
between slat and wing LE
by pivoting the leading edge
Delays the flow separation
Wing α0 is shifted to right
over the wing
Lift increment is low
Lower lift increment
Employed in Modern jet
aircrafts
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HLD - Leading Edge Flaps
Kruger Flap
A thinner leading edge slat

Useful for thinner wing sections

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HLD - Lift Increment
High Lift Device ∆CL

Plain Flap 0.7-0.9
Split flap 0.7-0.9
Fowler Flap 1-1.3
Slotted Flap 1.3 cf /c
Double-slotted Flap 1.6 cf /c
Tripl-slotted Flap 1.9 cf /c
Leading Edge Flap 0.2-0.3
Leading Edge Slat 0.3-0.4
Kruger Flap 0.3-0.4

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HLD - Parameters

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HLD - Design Parameters
Location along the wing span
Type
Chord, cf
Span, bf
Max deflection, δfmax

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Sweep Angle, Λ

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Sweep Angle, Λ

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Outcome of Sweep
Improved aerodynamic characteristics for high speed aircafts
Adjustment in center of gravity
Improved lateral stability
Impact in longitudinal and directional stability
Better view for pilot (mainly for fighter aircrafts)

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Sweep - Selection
Low Subsonic Aircraft:

If Mach number is less than 0.3, no sweep angle is needed
It adds less complexity in manufacturing, hence less cost
High Subsonic and Supersonic Aircraft:
Initial value can be estimated using the Mach angle relation

1
µ = sin−1
M
Λ = 1.2 ∗ (90 − µ)
The final value will be obtained from the total analysis of the
aerodynamic characteristics
It adds complexity in designing and fabricating the
wing-fuselage interference, hence more cost

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Dihedral Angle, Γ
Dihedral Anhedral
No Gust After Gust

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Advantages and Disadvantages
Dihedral Anhedral
Improved lateral/roll control
Improved lateral stability The other wing parameters
(sweep angle and vertical
Ease in handling side winds
position) contribute to the
More spiral-stability lateral stability
More ground clearance for a Improves the high wing
low wing configuration advantages with better control
Larger control force need for a Introduced to reduce the
roll motion dihedral effect from sweep
angle in military aircrafts
The initial values taken from the data of similar class of

aircafts, but ultimately decided from stability and control
analysis.

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Typical values of dihedral angle, Λ◦
Wing Low Mid High Parasol

Wing Wing Wing Wing
5 to 10 3 to 6 -4 to -10 -5 to -12
Unswept
Low-Subsonic 2 to 5 -3 to 3 -3 to -6 -4 to -8
Swept
High-Subsonic 3 to 8 -4 to 2 -5 to -10 -6 to -12
Swept
Supersonic 0 to -3 1 to -4 0 to -5 NA
Swept
Hypersonic 1 to 0 0 to -1 -1 to -2 NA
Swept

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Aspect Ratio, AR
The aspect ratio of a wing is defined as the ratio of square of the

wing span to its planform area. For a rectangular wing, it
transforms to the ratio of span to the chord of the wing.
b2
AR =
S
b
ARrec =
c

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Aspect Ratio, AR
Aspect ratio signifies the aerodynamic characteristics of a 3-D

wing
Its variation changed the aerodynamic features significantly
As AR is increased, the following changes happen
CLα and CLmax increase
αS and CDi decreases
L
D increases
Downwash effect on horizontal tail decreases
Aileron arm increases, leading to increased roll control
IX increases, leading to less manoeuvrability
Wing stiffness reduces, as AR increases, leading to dropping of
wing tip during take-off and rising during high speeds.
High strength is need for high er AR wings, leading to more
manufacturing cost

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Aspect Ratio - Typical values
Type Aspect Ratio

Hang Glider 4-8
Glider 20-40
Home-built 4-7
General Aviation 5-9
Jet trainer 4-8
Low-subsonic Transport 6-9
High-subsonic Transport 8-12
Supersonic Fighter 2-4
Tactical Missile 0.3-1
Hypersonic aircraft 1-3

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Taper Ratio, λ
Taper ratio is defined as the ratio of tip chord to the root chord.
ct
λ=
cr

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Taper Ratio - Lift Distribution
Used to modify the span-wise lift distribution of the wing
Reduce the weight of the wing
IX reduces considerably due to tapered wing
Lift at the tip section is lesser, leading to reduced induced drag
Increases manufacturing cost

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Mean Aerodynamic Chord, c̄
Mean Aerodynamic chord (MAC) is the chord on the wing mainly

used to determine the aerodynamic center of the wing.
2 b/2
Z
c̄ = (c(y))2 dy
S 0
1 + λ + λ2

2
c̄ = cr
3 1+λ
The second equation is used for trapezoidal planform

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MAC span-wise location
2 b/2
Z
yMAC = (c(y) ∗ y) dy
S 0

b 1 + 2λ
yMAC =
6 1+λ
The second equation is used for trapezoidal planform

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Lift and Load Distributions
Eliptic Wing

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Lift and Load Distributions

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Airfoils - Nomenclature

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Center of Pressure

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Lift vs angle of attack

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Stall behaviour

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Pitching Moment
Cmc/4 vs α
Cma.c vs Cl
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Drag
Cd vs Cl Cd vs Cl (Laminar Airfoil)

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Aerodynamic Efficiency

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Airfoils - Selection Criteria

Cl
Highest : Clmax , Clα , Cd max
Lowest : Cdmin , Cm
Proper stall behaviour
Enough thick to place the spars

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Airfoils - NACA
Four Digits: NACA 4412
First digit: Maximum camber is 0.04c
Second digit: Position of the maximum camber is at 0.4c
Last two digits : (t/c)max is 0.12c
Five Digits: NACA 23012
First digit: 2/3 of the design lift in tenths; the design lift for this
is 0.3.
Second digit: Position of the maximum camber is at
0.3/2 = 0.15c
Six Digits: NACA 653 -418
First digit: Series Designation
Second digit: Minimum pressure ar 0.5c
Subscript: The drag minimum coefficient is over a range of 0.3
above and below the design Cl
Third digit: Design lift coefficient is 0.4

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Airfoils - NACA
NACA 4 series
NACA 5 series
NACA
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Airfoils - Data

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Steps for Airfoil selection
Determine average aircraft weight in cruise condition
1
Wavg = Wi + Wf
2
Calculate ideal cruise lift coefficient, CLc
2Wavg
CLc =
ρVc2 S
Calculate the wing cruise lift coefficient, CLcw
CLc
CLcw =
0.95
Calculate the wing airfoil ideal lift coefficient, Cli
CLcw
Cli =
0.9
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Steps for Airfoil selection ...
Calculate the aircraft maximum lift coefficient, CLmax
2WTO
CLmax =
ρ0 VS2 S
Calculate the wing maximum lift coefficient, CLwmax
CLmax
CLwmax =
0.95
Calculate gross airfoil maximum lift coefficient, Clgrossmax
CLwmax
Clgrossmax =
0.9
Identify the HLD type and determine its lift contribution,
∆ClHLD

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Steps for Airfoil selection ...
Calculate the wing airfoil maximum lift coefficient, Clmax
Clmax = Clgrossmax − ∆ClHLD
Identify the airfoil that delivers the Cli and Clmax

If the aircraft is designed for high subsonic aircraft, select the
thinnest airfoil
Collect the Cli and Clmax and plot.

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Cli Vs Clmax

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Selection Table
Design Weight Airfoil Airfoil Airfoil Airfoil

Objectives % 1 2 3 4
Cdmin 25
Cm0 15
αs 15
α0 10
(Cl /Cd )max 10
Clα 5
Stall Type 20
Summation 100 83 96 64 68

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Wing Twist
Geometric Twist Aerodynamic Twist
Lift Distribution
Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Tail Design
Need for Tail
Equilibrium: Trim Flight
Stability: Static and Dynamic
Control
Horizontal Tail: Longitudinal Trim and Dynamics
∑ FX = 0
∑ FZ = 0
∑ Mcg = 0
Vertical Tail: Directional (-Lateral) Trim and Dynamics
∑ FY = 0
∑ Ncg = 0
(∑ Lcg = 0)
Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Static Stability Conditions
Cm vs α Cm vs α

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Typical Values
Mode Requirement Derivative Typical Value

Static Cm α -0.3 to -1.5
Longitudinal ¯
Static N̄0 − XC.G 0.1 - 0.3
Stability
Dynamic Cmq -5 to -40
Directional Static Cn β 0.05 - 0.4
Stability Dynamic Cnr -0.1 to -1

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Tail Configurations
Aft HT, 1 VT Aft HT, 2 VT Canard HT, 1 VT
Canard HT, 2 VT Canard and Aft HT Wing Alone with

VT

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Aft Tail Configurations
Conventional T-Tail Cruicifrom H-Tail
V-tail Y-Tail Twin VT Boom Mounted

Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Deep Stall

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Location of the tail

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VehicleofDesign
Prop Wash

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VehicleofDesign
Tail Setting Configurations
Fixed Adjustible
All moving

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Aircraft V¯H V̄v
Gliders 0.6 0.03
Home-built 0.5 0.04
GA, Single Prop engine 0.7 0.04
GA, Twin Prop engine 0.8 0.07
GA with canard 0.6 0.05
Agricultural 0.5 0.04
Twin Turboprop 0.9 0.08
Jet Trainer 0.7 0.06
Fighter Aircraft .4 0.07
Fighter with canard 0.1 0.06
Military Transport 1 0.08
Jet Transport 1.1 0.9

Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Stability Parameters

l St de
Cm α = awf (X̄CG − X̄AC ) − at ηt − X̄CG 1−
c̄S dα

St l
Cm0 = Cm0wf + CL0w (X̄CG − X̄AC ) − at ηt − X̄CG (α + it − e0 )
S c̄

dσ
Cnβ = Kf av 1 − ηv Vv
dβ

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Design Steps
Choose Tail Configuration
Select Tail volume ratio, (VH or Vv )
Find optimum tail moment arm, (lopt ), Same for lv
Fix the initial C.G location
Calculate CLt in case of Horizontal Tail
Choose airfoil section based on CLt for HT
In case of VT, choose the airfoil for higher CLαv
Select geometric parameters, λ, Λ, Γ, AR
Determine αt and tail incidence angle, it
Calculate the lift for the above parameters for HT
Find Cmα and Cm0 for HT
Find Cnβ and for VT
Analyze the dynamic stability conditions for both the cases

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Functional Analysis
Functions Description
Features
Primary Function Accommodate the payload
Accommodate crew members
Accommodate flight attendants and
Secondary Function other technical personnel
Space for landing gears and engine
Room for systems
Structural Arm for empennage
Lower drag and low weight
Enough comfort for crew, passenger and pilots
Carry structural loads
Desired features External symmetry
Effective loading and unloading
Safety against environmental hazards

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Design Requirements
Accommodation
Operational and mission
Airworthiness, Crash-worthiness
Aerodynamic and Aircraft Stability
Low weight, Low wetted and side area
Symmetry, Strength and Structural integrity
Manufacturability and maintainability
Cost, durability and radar detectability

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Generic Fuselage configurations
Large Transport Fighter
Light GA aircraft Glider

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VehicleofDesign
Internal Arrangement
Low-wing passenger
Fighter Aircraft
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VehicleofDesign
Cockpit Design
Number of Pilots and Crew

Mission
Comfort/Hardship level
Pilot personal equipment
Control Equipment
Measurement Equipment
Automation
External constraints

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Measurement panel
Air temperature indicator
Clock with digital presentation
Direction indicator
Airspeed indicator
Altimeter
Rate of climb indicator
Rate of turn indicator
Bank and Pitch indicator
Direction Indicator
Speed Warning device
Machmeter
GPS
Engine Instruments
Weather radar
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VehicleofDesign
Core panel
Core panel
Cessna Boeing B-757

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Cockpit for Large transport aircraft

Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Cockpit for Fighter aircraft

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Passenger Cabin
Seat adjust-ability, legroom and headroom

Aisle room
Lavatories, wash-rooms and lounges
Flight attendant services
Air conditioning and pressurization
Interiors - Light, sound and entertainment
Number of flight attendants

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Cabin Parameters
Seat Pitch, PS
Seat Width, WS
Aisle Width, WA

Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Cabin Recommendations
Table: Dimensions in cm
Transport Aircraft
Cabin GA
Economy First Class
Parameter Aircraft
High Density Tourist
Seat Width, WS 38-43 42-46 48-55 60-75
Seat Pitch, PS 55-65 65-72 75-86 92-104
Headroom 120-130 150-160 160-170 170-185
Aisle Width, WA 35-40 40-50 43-53 60-70
Seat-back 10-13 13-17 15-20 20-30
angle (deg)

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Seating Chart

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Cabin - Top view
3
LC = ∑ ∑ nr i
PSi
i−1
WC = nS WS + nA WA
Diameter of the cross-section is determined from WC

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Cargo Section
VC = nt Vb
Vb is the baggage volume of each traveller, with the limit of 158 cm of

combined dimension of length, width and height of the baggage.
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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Cargo containers
Container Width Height Depth Volume Max. Load

(in.) (in.) (in.) (ft3 ) (lb)
LD1 92 64 60 173 3500
LD2 61.5 64 47 120 1200
LD3 79 64 60.4 159 3500
LD6 160 64 60.4 316 7000
LD7 125 64 80 381 13300
LD8 125 64 60.4 243 5400

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Cargo Arrangements
W2

1
Vbottom = π C LC
2 4

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VehicleofDesign
Optimum length to diameter ratio
Lowest zero-lift drag

Lowest wetted area
Lightest fuselage
Maximum internal volume
Lowest mass moment of inertia
Better aircraft stability
Lower fabrication cost

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Swetf
CD0−f = Cf fld fM
Sref

60 l
fld = 1 + 3
+ 0.0025
(l/d) d
Finding the minimum of fld yields,
(l/d)opt = 16.3

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Df = WC + 2TW
Lf = LC + LCP + LN + LR
r
4Across
Dequ =
π

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Fuselage Internal Segments
Water drainage and pipe lines
Fuel Tanks
−RcT

mf = 1.2 mTO 1 − exp
V (L/D)
−Rc

mf = 1.2 mTO 1 − exp
ηP (L/D)

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Fuselage Internal Segments
Radar dish
Wing box
Power Transmission systems

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Aerodynamic Considerations

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Area Ruling
Area Rule Modifications

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Fuselage Rear Section
Upsweep Angle
C-17 Globemaster Boeing 777-300
F-16 Falcon Cessna 172

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Functional Analysis
Category Function
Primary Function Generate Propulsive force
Secondary Function Generate power/energy for subsystems
such as hydraulic and electric systems
Stability contributing
Comfort reduction due to noise
Comfort compromise due to heat exchange
Contributing Functions Safety compromise in case of
one engine inoperative
Operating Cost
Structural Impact due to vibrations

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Design Requirements
Aircraft Performance and Stability

Operational and manufacturing cost
Weight and Size constraints
Flight Safety
Efficiency
Heat exchange, Noise and vibrations
Passenger comfort/appeal
Manufacturability and maintainability
Stealth and installation constraints

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Classification

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VehicleofDesign
Absolute Ceiling and Flight Mach Number

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VehicleofDesign
Propulsive Efficiency

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VehicleofDesign
Specific Fuel Consumption

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VehicleofDesign
Engine Weight
Engine Type Specific Weight

Piston Engine 1.5 lb/hp
Turboprop Engine 0.4 lg/hp
Turbofan Engine 0.2 lb/lb
Turbojet Engine 0.3 lb/lb

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Other Considerations
Passenger Appeal
Noise and Vibration
Engine Maintainability
Engine Size
Production Cost

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Engine Location and Considerations
Buried
Fuselage nose
Fuselage main section
Rear Fuselage
Wing
Podded
Over the wing
On the wing tip
Under the wing
Over the Fuselage
Rear section of the fuselage
Under Wing Over Wing On the Wing

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Podded vs. Buried
Podded Buried
Podded Bending Moment

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VehicleofDesign
Pusher vs. Tractor
Podded Buried

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VehicleofDesign
Twin Jet Engine
Under the wing Rear-Fuselage

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Engine Installation - Propeller Engine
Prop-Drive Rear-Fuselage

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Engine Installation - Jet Engine

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Outline
1 Conceptual Design
4 Wing Design
5 Tail Design
6 Fuselage Design
7 Propulsion Design
8 Control Surfaces

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Design of Control Surfaces
Primary Control Surfaces Secondary Control Surfaces

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Conventions
Control Surface Deflection Convention Resulting Moment

Elevator, δe +ve : Down Nose down,
−ve Pitching moment
Aileron, δa +ve : Right aileron up Right wing down,
+ve Rolling moment
Rudder, δr +ve - Left Right Wing back,
−ve Yawing moment

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Design Process

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Handling Qualities
Qualities of an aircraft which govern the ease and precision with which a
pilot is able to perform his mission
Quantification of pilot effort to handle the aircraft for a

particular mission
Study and evaluation of stability and control characteristics of
the aircraft
Levels of Quality are defined based on class and phase of the
flight
The interaction between pilot and the his aircraft is very
crucial in terms of safety
The pilot effort and experience is quantified by the dynamic
characteristics
Time constant, Damping ratio, un-damped natural frequency

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VehicleofDesign
Aircraft Classes
Class Aircraft Characteristics

I Small, Light Aircraft with low maneuverability
(Max. take-off mass less than 6000 kg)
II Medium weight and low-to-medium maneuverability
(Max. take-off mass between 6000 - 30000 kg)
III Large , heavy and low-to-medium maneuverability
(Max. take-off mass more than 30000 kg)
IV Highly Maneuverable
(Acrobatic and Fighter Aircraft, Missiles)

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign
Flight Phases
Category Flight operations
(i) Air-to-air combat (CO); (ii) Ground attack (GA)

(iii) Weapon Delivery/Launch (WD); (iv) Aerial Recovery (AR)
A (v) In-flight Refuelling receiver (RR); (vi) Terrain Following (TR)
(vii) Anti-submarine Search (AS); (viii) Close Formation Flying (FF)
(ix) Low-Altitude Parachute Extraction system delivery (LAPSES)
(i) Climb (CL); (ii) Cruise (CR); (iii) Loiter (LO); (iv) Descent (D)
B (v) In-flight Refuelling Tanker (RT); (vi) Aerial Delivery (AD);
(vii) Emergency Descent (ED); (viii) Emergency Deceleration (DE)
C (i) Take-off (TO) ; (ii) Catapult Take-off (CT); (iii) Powered Approach (PA)
(iv) Wave-off/ Go-around (WO); (v) Landing (L)

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VehicleofDesign
Levels of Acceptability
Level Definition
1 Flying qualities clearly adequate for mission flight phase
Flying qualities adequate to accomplish mission flight phase,
2 but some increase in pilot qorkload or degradation
in mission effectiveness, or both, exists
Flying qualities such that the airplane can be controlled safely,
but pilot workload is excessive or mission effectiveness
3 is inadequate, or both. Category A flight phases can be
terminated safely, Category B and C flight phases
can be completed
Level Interpretation Pilot Comfort Level

1 Very Comfortable 1-3
2 Hardly Comfortable 4-6
3 Uncomfortable 7-10

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Longitudinal Dynamics
Short Period
Phugoid
Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Longitudinal Control
Aircraft Type Rotation time Angular Acceleration

(s) (deg/s2 )
Highly Manueverable 0.2 -0.7 12-20
Utility GA 1-2 10-15
Normal GA 1-3 8-10
Small Transport 2-4 6-8
Large Transport 3-5 4-6
UAV 1-2 10-15

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VehicleofDesign
Longitudinal Requirement
Level of Acceptability Requirement
1 ζ ph ≥ 0.04
2 ζ ph ≥ 0.0
3 t2a 55 seconds
Phugoid
Short-Period Damping ratio (ζ s )

Flight Phase Level 1 Level 2 Level 2
Min Max Min Max Min Max
A 0.35 1.3 0.25 2.0 0.15 NIL
B 0.3 2.0 0.2 2.0 0.15 NIL
C 0.35 1.3 0.25 2.0 0.15 NIL
Short Period

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Lateral-Directional Dynamics

Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Lateral-Directional Dynamics - Dutch-Roll

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VehicleofDesign
Roll Control
Flight Phase
Level A B C
T to 60◦ T to 45◦ T to 30◦
Class I
1 1.3 1.7 1.3
2 1.7 2.5 1.8
3 2.6 3.4 2.6
Flight Phase
Level Runway A B C C
T to 60◦ T to 45◦ T to 30◦ T to 25◦
1 Land 1.4 1.9 1.8 -
Class II Carrier 1.4 1.9 2.5 -
2 Land 1.9 2.8 3.6 -
Carrier 1.9 2.8 - 1.0
3 Land 2.8 3.8 - 1.5
Carrier 2.8 3.8 - 2.0

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VehicleofDesign
Roll Control
Flight Phase
Level Speed Range A B C
Low 1.8 2.3 2.5
1 Medium 1.5 2.0 2.5
Class III High 2.0 2.3 2.5
Low 2.4 3.9 4.0
2 Medium 2.0 3.3 4.0
High 2.5 3.9 4.0
3 All 3.0 5.0 6.0
Time to achieve 30◦ bank angle

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Institute
VehicleofDesign
Roll Control
Flight Phase
Level Speed A B C
30◦ 50◦ 90◦ 90◦ 30◦
Very Low 1.1 - - 2.0 1.1
Low 1.1 - - 1.7 1.1
1
Medium - - 1.3 1.7 1.1
High - 1.1 - 1.7 1.1
Class IV Very Low 1.6 - - 2.8 1.3
Low 1.5 - - 2.5 1.3
2
Medium - - 1.7 2.5 1.3
High - 1.3 - 2.5 1.3
Very Low 2.6 - - 3.7 2.0
Low 2.0 - - 3.4 2.0
3
Medium - - 2.6 3.4 2.0
High - 2.6 - 3.4 2.0

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Directional Control
Sufficiently sensitive to pilot input

Enough to meet the force requirements without high pedal forces
Should be easy enough to control in presence of the asymmetric
thrust and cross-winds
Must possible to take-off and land with normal pilot skill and
technique in 90◦
Level Class Cross-Wind

I 20 knots
1
II,III and IV 30 knots
I 20 knots
2
II,III and IV 30 knots
3 I,II,III and IV 10 knots

Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Lateral-Directional requirement
Flight Phase Aircraft Class TR
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
I,IV 1.0 1.4 10
A
II,III 1.4 3.0 10
B All 1.4 3.0 10
I,IV 1.0 1.4 10
C
II,III 1.4 3.0 10
Roll Mode
Class Flight Phase Min. Time to double the amplitude

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A 12 8 4
I & IV
B&C 20 8 4
B All 1.4 3.0 10
II & III A, B, C 20 8 4
Spiral Mode
Aerospace
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VehicleofDesign
Lateral-Directional requirement
Level Flight Phase Aircraft Class Min. ζ d Min ζ d ωnd Min ωnd
A I, IV 0.19 0.35 1
A II, III 0.19 0.35 0.4
1 B All 0.08 0.15 0.4
C I,II, IV 0.08 0.15 1
C III 0.08 0.15 0.4
2 All All 0.02 0.05 0.4
3 All All 0.02 No limit 0.4
Dutch-Roll Mode

Aerospace
Institute
VehicleofDesign

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Aerospace Vehicle Design

Department of Aerospace Engineering,

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

3 Wing Area and Engine Sizing

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

An appropriate starting point at the conceptual level

To select a path forward for the preferred configuration

The preference of configuration is based on the design

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

3 Wing Area and Engine Sizing

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

The primary objective of this section is to determine a few

Wing reference area, Sref or S

Engine Thrust or Power, T or P

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

WPL - Payload weight

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

solving for WTO

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Follow the DGCA regulations to get the average adult weight

The number depends on the design requirement.

Include the weight of winter clothes to consider worst-case

Luggage and carry-on bags are decided based on the aviation

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Crew number is decided based on the class of aircraft along

Depends on the class and size of the aircraft.

Modern cockpit needs less number of crew to operate the

Serving crew decided on the guidelines given by the DGCA.

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Converting as segment weight fractions,

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Each segment weight fractions needed to be estimated.

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

The following segments are considered

Mission segment Wi+1 /Wi

Adding extra fuel for safety purposes,

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

For ease of calculation in the preliminary stage, we use the second

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

An optimal velocity to fly close to the VL/Dmax is chosen to reduce

The maximum aerodynamic efficiency will also change

The range equation is modified as

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

The cruise weight fraction for jet aircraft is determined as follows

The cruise weight fraction for propeller aircraft is determined as

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Loiter is the phase flight mainly used by aircrafts for missions

The loiter is mainly characterized as the flight at a specified

Endurance is used to characterize the loiter.

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

Endurance for jet aircraft

The loiter weight fraction is determined as follows

Dr. Dhayalan. R (Department of Aerospace Engineering,Indian

For propeller aircraft,