Decisions made by managers are crucial to the success or failure of a business.

Roles
played by business managers are becoming increasingly more challenging as
complexity in the business world grows. Business decisions are increasingly dependent
on constraints imposed from outside the economy in which a particular business is
based—both in terms of production of goods as well as the markets for the goods
produced. The impact of rapid technological change on innovation in products and
processes, as well as in marketing and sales techniques, figures prominently among the
factors contributing to the increasing complexity of the business environment.
Moreover, because of increased globalization of the marketplace, there is more
volatility in both input and product prices. The continuous changes in the economic and
business environment make it ever more difficult to accurately evaluate the outcome of
a business decision. In such a changing environment, sound economic analysis becomes
all the more important as a basis of decision making. Managerial economics is a
discipline that is designed to provide a solid foundation of economic understanding in
order for business managers to make well-informed and well-analyzed managerial
decisions.
THE NATURE OF MANAGERIAL
ECONOMICS
There are a number of issues relevant to businesses that are based on economic thinking
or analysis. Examples of questions that managerial economics attempts to answer are:
What determines whether an aspiring business firm should enter a particular industry or
simply start producing a new product or service? Should a firm continue to be in
business in an industry in which it is currently engaged or cut its losses and exit the
industry? Why do some professions pay handsome salaries, whereas some others pay
barely enough to survive? How can the business best motivate the employees of a firm?
The issues relevant to managerial economics can be further focused by expanding on
the first two of the preceding questions. Let us consider the first question in which a
firm (or a would-be firm) is considering entering an industry. For example, what led
Frederick W. Smith the founder of Federal Express, to start his overnight mail service?
A service of this nature did not exist in any significant form in the United States, and
people seemed to be doing just fine without overnight mail service provided by a
private corporation. One can also consider why there are now so many overnight mail
carriers such as United Parcel Service and Airborne Express. The second example
pertains to the exit from an industry, specifically, the airline industry in the United
States. Pan Am, a pioneer in public air transportation, is no longer in operation, while
some airlines such as TWA (Trans World Airlines) are on the verge of exiting the
airlines industry. Why, then, have many airlines that operate on international routes
fallen on hard times, while small regional airlines seem to be doing just fine?
Managerial economics provides answers to these questions.
In order to answer pertinent questions, managerial economics applies economic
theories, tools, and techniques to administrative and business decision-making. The
first step in the decision-making process is to collect relevant economic data carefully
and to organize the economic information contained in data collected in such a way as
to establish a clear basis for managerial decisions. The goals of the particular business
organization must then be clearly spelled out. Based on these stated goals, suitable
managerial objectives are formulated. The issue of central concern in the decision-
making process is that the desired objectives be reached in the best possible manner.
The term "best" in the decision-making context primarily refers to achieving the goals
in the most efficient manner, with the minimum use of available resources—implying
there be no waste of resources. Managerial economics helps the manager to make good
decisions by providing information on waste associated with a proposed decision.
APPLICATIONS OF MANAGERIAL
ECONOMICS
Some examples of managerial decisions have been provided above. The application of
managerial economics is, by no means, limited to these examples. Tools of managerial
economics can be used to achieve virtually all the goals of a business organization in an
efficient manner. Typical managerial decision making may involve one of the following
issues:
• Deciding the price of a product and the quantity of the commodity to be produced
• Deciding whether to manufacture a product or to buy from another manufacturer
• Choosing the production technique to be employed in the production of a given
product
• Deciding on the level of inventory a firm will maintain of a product or raw
material
• Deciding on the advertising media and the intensity of the advertising campaign
• Making employment and training decisions
• Making decisions regarding further business investment and the mode of
financing the investment
It should be noted that the application of managerial economics is not limited to profit-
seeking business organizations. Tools of managerial economics can be applied equally
well to decision problems of nonprofit organizations. Mark Hirschey and James L.
Pappas cite the example of a nonprofit hospital. While a nonprofit hospital is not like a
typical firm seeking to maximize its profits, a hospital does strive to provide its patients
the best medical care possible given its limited staff (doctors, nurses, and support staff),
equipment, space, and other resources. The hospital administrator can use the concepts
and tools of managerial economics to determine the optimal allocation of the limited
resources available to the hospital. In addition to nonprofit business organizations,
government agencies and other nonprofit organizations (such as cooperatives, schools,
and museums) can use the techniques of managerial decision making to achieve goals in
the most efficient manner.
While managerial economics is helpful in making optimal decisions, one should be
aware that it only describes the predictable economic consequences of a managerial
decision. For example, tools of managerial economics can explain the effects of
imposing automobile import quotas on the availability of domestic cars, prices charged
for automobiles, and the extent of competition in the auto industry. Analysis of
managerial economics will reveal that fewer cars will be available, prices of
automobiles will increase, and the extent of competition will be reduced. Managerial
economics does not address, however, whether imposing automobile import quotas is
good government policy. This latter question encompasses broader political
considerations involving what economists call value judgments.
ECONOMIC CONCEPTS USED IN
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
Managerial economics uses a wide variety of economic concepts, tools, and techniques
in the decision-making process. These concepts can be placed in three broad categories:
(1) the theory of the firm, which describes how businesses make a variety of decisions;
(2) the theory of consumer behavior, which describes decision making by consumers;
and (3) the theory of market structure and pricing, which describes the structure and
characteristics of different market forms under which business firms operate.
THE THEORY OF THE FIRM
Discussing the theory of the firm is an useful way to begin the study of managerial
economics, since the theory provides a broad framework within which issues relevant to
managerial decisions are analyzed. A firm can be considered a combination of people,
physical and financial resources, and a variety of information. Firms exist because they
perform useful functions in society by producing and distributing goods and services. In
the process of accomplishing this, they use society's scarce resources, provide
employment, and pay taxes. If economic activities of society can be simply put into two
categories—production and consumption—firms are considered the most basic
economic entities on the production side, while consumers form the basic economic
entities on the consumption side.
The behavior of firms is usually analyzed in the context of an economic model, an
idealized version of a real-world firm. The basic economic model of a business
enterprise is called the theory of the firm.
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION AND THE FIRM.
Under the simplest version of the theory of the firm it is assumed that profit
maximization is its primary goal. In this version of the theory, the firm's owner is the
manager of the firm, and thus, the firm's owner-manager is assumed to maximize the
firm's short-term profits (current profits and profits in the near future). Today, even
when the profit maximizing assumption is maintained, the notion of profits has been
broadened to take into account uncertainty faced by the firm (in realizing profits) and
the time value of money (where the value of a dollar further and further in the future is
increasingly smaller than a dollar today). In this more complete model, the goal of
maximizing short-term profits is replaced by goal of maximizing long-term profits, the
present value of expected profits, of the business firm.
Defining present value of expected profits is based on first defining "value" and then
defining "present value." Many concepts of value, such as book value, market value,
going-concern value, break-up value, and liquidating value, are encountered in business
and economics. The value of the firm is defined as the present value of expected future
profits (net cash flows) of the firm. Thus, to obtain an estimate of the present value of
expected profits, one must identify the stream of net cash flow in future years. Once this
is accomplished, these expected future profit values are converted into present value by
discounting these values by an appropriate interest rate. For illustration, assume that a
firm expects a profit of $10,000 in one year and $20,000 in the second year it is
assumed that the firm earns no profits after two years. Let us assume that the prevailing
interest rate is 10 percent per annum. Thus, $10,000 in a year from now is only equal to
about $9,091 at the present ([$10,000/(1 +0.1)] = $9,091)—that is, the present value of
a $10,000 profit expected in a year from now is about $9,091. Similarly, the present
value of an expected profit of $20,000 in two years from now is equal to about $16,529
(since [$20,000/(1 + 0.1)2] = $16,529). Therefore, the present value of future expected
profits is $25,620 (equal to the sum of $9,091 and $16,529). The present value of
expected profits is a key concept in understanding the theory of the firm, and
maximizing this profit is considered the primary goal of a firm in most models.
It should be noted that expected profit in any one period can itself be considered as the
difference between the total revenue and the total cost in that period. Thus, one can,
alternatively, find the present value of expected future profits by subtracting the present
value of expected future costs from the present value of expected future revenues.
THE CONSTRAINED PROFIT MAXIMIZATION.
Profit maximization is subject to various constraints faced by the firm. These
constraints relate to resource scarcity, technology, contractual obligations, and laws and
government regulations. In their attempt to maximize the present value of profits,
business managers must consider not only the short-term and long-term implications of
decisions made within the firm, but also various external constraints that may limit the
firm's ability to achieve its organizational goals.
The first external constraint of resource scarcity refers to the limited availability of
essential inputs (including skilled labor), key raw materials, energy, specialized
machinery and equipment, warehouse space, and other resources. Moreover, managers
often face constraints on plant capacity that are exacerbated by limited investment funds
available for expansion or modernization. Contractual obligations also constrain
managerial decisions. Labor contracts, for example, may constrain managers' flexibility
in worker scheduling and work assignment. Labor contracts may also determine the
number of workers employed at any time, thereby establishing a floor for minimum
labor costs. Finally, laws and regulations have to be observed. The legal restrictions can
constrain decisions regarding both production and marketing activities. Examples of
laws and regulations that limit managerial flexibility are: the minimum wage, health
and safety standards, fuel efficiency requirements, antipollution regulations, and fair
pricing and marketing practices.
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION VERSUS OTHER MOTIVATIONS
BEHIND MANAGERIAL DECISIONS.
The present value maximization criterion as a basis for the study of the firm's behavior
has come under severe criticism from some economists. The critics argue that business
managers are interested, at least partly, in factors other than the firm's profits. In
particular, they may be interested in power, prestige, leisure, employee welfare,
community well-being, and the welfare of the larger society. The act of maximization
itself has been criticized; there is a feeling that managers often aim merely to "satisfice"
(seek solutions that are considered satisfactory), rather than really try to optimize or
maximize (seek to find the best possible solution, given the constraints). This question
is often rhetorically posed as: does a manager really try to find the sharpest needle in a
haystack or does he or she merely stop upon finding a needle sharp enough for sewing
needs?
Under the structure of a modern firm, it is hard to determine the true motives of
managers. A modem firm is frequently organized as a corporation in which
shareholders are the legal owners of the firm, and the manager acts on their behalf.
Under such a structure, it is difficult to determine whether a manager merely tries to
satisfy the stockholders of the firm while pursuing other goals, rather than truly
attempting to maximize the value (the discounted present value) of the firm. It is, for
example, difficult to interpret company support for a charitable organization as an
integral part of the firm's long-term value maximization. Similarly, if the firm's size is
increasing, but profits are not, can one attribute the manager's decision to expand as
being motivated by the increased prestige associated with larger firms, or as an attempt
to make the firm more noticeable in the marketplace? As it is virtually impossible to
provide definitive answers to these and similar questions, the attempt to analyze these
issues has led to the development of alternative theories of firm behavior. Some of the
preeminent alternate models assume one of the following: (1) a firm attempts primarily
to maximize its size or growth, rather than its present value; (2) the managers of firms
aim at maximizing their own personal utility or welfare; and (3) the firm is a collection
of individuals with widely divergent goals, rather than a single common, identifiable
goal.
While each of the alternative theories of the firm has increased our understanding of
how a modern firm behaves, none has been able to completely take the place of the
basic profit maximization assumption for several reasons. Numerous academic studies
have shown that intense competition in the markets for goods and services of the firm
usually forces the manager to make value maximization decisions; if a firm does not
decide on the most efficient alternative (implying the need to seek the minimum costs
for each output level, given the market price of the commodity the firm is producing),
others can outcompete the firm and drive it out of existence. Competition also has its
effects through the capital markets. As one would expect, stockholders are primarily
interested in their returns on stocks and stock prices, which in turn, are determined by
the firm's value (the discounted present value of expected profits). Thus, managers are
forced to maximize profits in order to maximize firm value, an important basis for
returns on common stocks in the long run. Managers who insist on goals other than
maximizing shareholder wealth risk being replaced. An inefficiently managed firm may
also be bought out; in almost all such hostile takeovers, managers pursuing their own
interests will most likely be replaced. Moreover, a number of academic studies indicate
that managerial compensation is closely correlated to the profits generated for the firm.
Thus, managers themselves have strong financial incentives to seek profit maximization
for their firms.
Before arriving at the decision whether to maximize profits or to satisfice, managers
(like other economic entities) have to analyze the costs and benefits of their decisions.
Sometimes, when all costs are taken into account, decisions that appear merely aimed at
a satisfactory level of performance turn out to be consistent with value-maximizing
behavior. Similarly, short-term firm-growth maximization strategies have often been
found to be consistent with long-term value maximization behavior, since large firms
have advantages in production, distribution, and sales promotion. Thus, many other
goals that do not seem to be oriented to maximizing profits may be intimately linked to
value or profit maximization—so much so that the value maximization model even
provides an insight into a firm's voluntary participation in charity or other socially
responsible behavior.
BUSINESS VERSUS ECONOMIC PROFITS.
As discussed above, profits are central to the goals of a firm and managerial decision
making. Thus, to understand the theory of firm behavior properly, one must have a clear
understanding of profits. While the term profit is very widely used, an economist's
definition of profit differs from the one used by accountants (which is also usually used
by the general public and the business community). Profit in accounting is defined as
the excess of sales revenue over the explicit accounting costs of doing business. This
surplus is available to the firm for various purposes.
An economist also defines profit as the difference between sales revenue and costs of
doing business, but includes more items in figuring costs, rather than considering only
explicit accounting costs. For example, inputs supplied by owners (including labor,
capital, and space) are accounted for in determining costs in the definition used by an
economist. These costs are sometimes referred to as implicit costs—their value is
imputed based on a notion of opportunity costs widely used by economists. In other
words, costs of inputs supplied by an owner are based on the values these inputs would
have received in the next best alternative activity. For illustration, assume that the
owner of the firm works for ten hours a day at his business. If the owner does not
receive any salary, an accountant would not consider the owner's effort as a cost item.
An economist would, however, value the owner's service to his firm at what his labor
would have earned had he worked elsewhere. Thus, to compute the true profit, an
economist will subtract the implicit costs from business profit; the resulting profit is
often referred to as economic profit. It is this concept of profit that is used by
economists to explain the behavior of a firm. The concept of economic profit essentially
recognizes that owner-supplied inputs must also be paid for. Thus, the owner of a firm
will not be in business in the long run until he recovers the implicit costs (also known as
normal profit), in addition to recovering the explicit costs, of doing business.
As pointed out earlier, a given firm attempts to maximize profits. Other firms do the
same. Ultimately, profits decline for all firms. If all firms are operating under a
competitive market structure, in equilibrium, economic profits (the excess of accounting
profits over implicit costs) would be equal to zero; accounting profits (equal to explicit
costs), however would be positive. When a firm makes profits above the normal profits
level, it is said to be reaping above-normal profits.
HOW A FIRM ARRIVES AT A PROFIT-MAXIMIZING POINT.
Let us assume throughout the discussion that a firm uses an economist's definition of
profits. Assume that profit is the excess of sales revenue over cost (now assumed to be
composed of both explicit and implicit costs). It can also be assumed, as discussed
above, that the profit maximization is the firm's primary goal. Given this objective,
important questions remain: How does the firm decide on the output level that
maximizes its profits? Should the firm continue to produce at all if it is not profitable?
A manufacturing firm, motivated by profit maximization, calculates the total cost of
producing any given output level. The total cost is made up of total fixed cost (due to
the expenditure on fixed inputs) and total variable cost (due to the expenditure on
variable inputs). Of course, the total fixed cost does not vary over the short run—only
the total variable cost does. It is important for the firm to also calculate the cost per unit
of output, called the average cost. In addition to the average cost, the firm calculates the
marginal cost. The marginal cost at any level of output is the increase in the total cost
due to an increase in production by one unit—essentially, the marginal cost is the
additional cost of producing the last unit of output.
The average cost is made up of two components: the average fixed cost (the total fixed
cost divided by the number of units of the output produced) and the average variable
cost (the total variable cost divided by the number of units of the output produced). As
the fixed costs remain fixed over the short run, the average fixed cost declines as the
level of production increases. The average variable cost, on the other hand, first
decreases and then increases; economists refer to this as the U-shaped nature of the
average variable cost. The U-shape of the average variable cost curve is explained as
follows. Given the fixed inputs, output of the relevant product increases more than
proportionately as the levels of variable inputs used increase. This is caused by
increased efficiency due to specialization and other reasons. As more and more variable
inputs are used in conjunction with the given fixed inputs, however, efficiency gains
reach a maximum—the decline in the average variable cost eventually comes to a halt.
After this point, the average variable cost starts increasing as the level of production
continues to increase, given the fixed inputs. First decreasing and then increasing
average variable cost lead to the U-shape for the average variable cost. The combination
of the declining average fixed cost (true for the entire range of production) and the U-
shaped average variable cost results into an U-shaped behavior of the average total cost,
often simply called the average cost.
The marginal cost also displays a U-shaped pattern—it first decreases and then
increases. The logic for the shape of the marginal cost curve is similar to that for the
average variable cost—both relate to variable costs. But while the marginal cost refers
to the increase in total variable cost due to an increase in the production by one unit, the
average variable cost refers to the average variable cost per unit of output produced. It
is important to notice, without going into finer details, that the marginal cost curve
intersects the average and the average variable cost curves at their minimum cost points.
In a graphic rendering of this concept there would be a horizontal line, in addition to the
three cost curves. It is assumed that the firm can sell as many units as it wants at the
given market price indicated by this horizontal line. Essentially, the horizontal line is
the demand curve a perfectly competitive firm faces in the market—it can sell as many
units of output as it deems profitable at price "p" per unit (p, for example, can be $10
per unit of the product under consideration). In other words, p is the firm's average
revenue per unit of output. Since the firm receives p dollars for every successive unit it
sells, p is also the marginal revenue for the firm.
A firm maximizes profits, in general, when its marginal revenue equals marginal cost. If
the firm produces beyond this point of equality between the marginal revenue and
marginal cost, the marginal cost will be higher than the marginal revenue. In other
words, the addition to total production beyond the point where marginal revenue equals
marginal cost, leads to lower, not higher, profits. While every firm's primary motive is
to maximize profits, its output decision (consistent with the profit maximizing
objective), depends on the structure of the market it is operating under. Before we
discuss important market structures, we briefly examine another key economic concept,
the theory of consumer behavior.
THE THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Consumers play an important role in the economy since they spend most of their
incomes on goods and services produced by firms. In other words, they consume what
firms produce. Thus, studying the theory of consumer behavior is quite important. What
is the ultimate objective of a consumer? Economists have an optimization model for
consumers, similar to that applied to firms or producers. While firms are assumed to be
maximizing profits, consumers are assumed to be maximizing their utility or
satisfaction. Of course, more goods and services will, in general, provide greater utility
to a consumer. Nevertheless, consumers, like firms, are subject to constraints—their
consumption and choices are limited by a number of factors, including the amount of
disposable income (the residual income after income taxes are paid for). The decision to
consume by consumers is described by economists within a theoretical framework
usually termed the theory of demand.
The demand for a particular product by an individual consumer is based on four
important factors. First, the price of the product determines how much of the product
the consumer buys, given that all other factors remain unchanged. In general, the lower
the product's price the more a consumer buys. Second, the consumer's income also
determines how much of the product the consumer is able to buy, given that all other
factors remain constant. In general, a consumer buys more of a commodity the greater
is his or her income. Third, prices of related products are also important in determining
the consumer's demand for the product. Finally, consumer tastes and preferences also
affect consumer demand. The total of all consumer demands yields the market demand
for a particular commodity; the market demand curve shows quantities of the
commodity demanded at different prices, given all other factors. As price increases,
quantity demanded falls.
Individual consumer demands thus provide the basis for the market demand for a
product. The market demand plays a crucial role in shaping decisions made by firms.
Most important of all, it helps in determining the market price of the product under
consideration which, in turn, forms the basis for profits for the firm producing that
product.
The amount supplied by an individual firm depends on profit and cost considerations.
As mentioned earlier, in general, a producer produces the profit maximizing output.
Again, the total of individual supplies yields the market supply for a particular
commodity; the market supply curve shows quantities of the commodity supplied at
different prices, given all other factors. As price increases, the quantity supplied
increases.
The interaction between market demand and supply determines the equilibrium or
market price (where demand equals supply). Shifts in demand curve and/or supply
curve lead to changes in the equilibrium price. The market price and the price
mechanism play a crucial role in the capitalist system—they send signals both to
producers and consumers.
THEORIES ASSOCIATED WITH
DIFFERENT MARKET STRUCTURES
As mentioned earlier, firms' profit maximizing output decisions take into account the
market structure under which they are operating. There are four kinds of market
organizations: perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly.
PERFECT COMPETITION.
Perfect competition is the idealized version of the market structure that provides a
foundation for understanding how markets work in a capitalist economy. Three
conditions need to be satisfied before a market structure is considered perfectly
competitive: homogeneity of the product sold in the industry, existence of many buyers
and sellers, and perfect mobility of resources or factors of production. The first
condition, the homogeneity of product, requires that the product sold by any one seller
is identical with the product sold by any other supplier—if products of different sellers
are identical, buyers do not care from whom they buy so long as the price charged is
also the same. The second condition, existence of many buyers and sellers, also leads to
an important outcome: each individual buyer or seller is so small relative to the entire
market that he or she does not have any power to influence the price of the product
under consideration. Each individual simply decides how much to buy or sell at the
given market price. The implication of the third condition is that resources move to the
most profitable industry.
There is no industry in the world that can be considered perfectly competitive in the
strictest sense of the term. However, there are token examples of industries that come
quite close to having perfectly competitive markets. Some markets for agricultural
commodities, while not meeting all three conditions, come reasonably close to being
characterized as perfectly competitive markets. The market for wheat, for example, can
be considered a reasonable approximation.
As pointed out earlier, in order to maximize profits, a supplier has to look at the cost
and revenue sides; a perfectly competitive firm will stop production where marginal
revenue equals marginal cost. In the case of a perfectly competitive firm, the market
price for the product is also the marginal revenue, as the firm can sell additional units at
the going market price. This is not so for a monopolist. A monopolist must reduce price
to increase sales. As a result, a monopolist's price is always above the marginal revenue.
Thus, even though a monopolist firm also produces the profit maximizing output, where
marginal revenue equals marginal cost, it does not produce to the point where price
equals marginal cost (as does a perfectly competitive firm).
Regarding entry and exit decisions; one can now state that additional firms would enter
an industry—whenever existing firms are making above normal profits (that is, when
the horizontal line is above the average cost at the profit maximizing output). A firm
would exit the market if at the profit maximizing point the horizontal line is below the
average cost curve; it will actually shut down the production right away if the price is
less than the average variable cost.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION.
Many industries that we often deal with have market structures that are characterized by
monopolistic competition or oligopoly. Apparel retail stores (with many stores and
differentiated products) provide an example of monopolistic competition. As in the case
of perfect competition, monopolistic competition is characterized by the existence of
many sellers. Usually if an industry has 50 or more firms (producing products that are
close substitutes of each other), it is said to have a large number of firms. The sellers
under monopolistic competition differentiate their product; unlike under perfect
competition, the products are not considered identical. This characteristic is often called
product differentiation. In addition, relative ease of entry into the industry is considered
another important requirement of a monopolistically competitive market organization.
As in the case of perfect competition, a firm under monopolistic competition determines
the quantity of the product to produce based on the profit maximization principle—it
stops production where marginal revenue equals marginal cost of production. There is,
however, one very important difference between perfect competition and monopolistic
competition. A firm under monopolistic competition has a bit of control over the price it
charges, since the firm differentiates its products from those of others. The price
associated with the product (at the equilibrium or profit maximizing output) is higher
than marginal cost (which equals marginal revenue). Thus, production under
monopolistic competition does not take place to the point where price equals marginal
cost of production. The net result of the profit maximizing decisions of
monopolistically competitive firms is that price charged under monopolistic
competition is higher than under perfect competition, and the quantity produced is
simultaneously lower.
OLIGOPOLY.
Oligopoly is a fairly common market organization. In the United States, both the steel
and automobile industries (with three or so large firms) provide good examples of
oligopolistic market structures. Probably the most important characteristic of an
oligopolistic market structure is the interdependence of firms in the industry. The
interdependence, actual or perceived, arises from the small number of firms in the
industry. Unlike under monopolistic competition, however, if an oligopolistic firm
changes its price or output, it has perceptible effects on the sales and profits of its
competitors in the industry. Thus, an oligopolist always considers the reactions of its
rivals in formulating its pricing or output decisions.
There are huge, though not insurmountable, barriers to entry to an oligopolistic market.
These barriers can exist because of large financial requirements, availability of raw
materials, access to the relevant technology, or simply existence of patent rights with
the firms currently in the industry. Several industries in the United States provide good
examples of oligopolistic market structures with obvious barriers to entry, such as the
automobile industry, where significant financial barriers to entry exist.
An oligopolistic industry is also typically characterized by economies of scale.
Economies of scale in production implies that as the level of production rises, the cost
per unit of product falls from the use of any plant (generally, up to a point). Thus,
economies of scale lead to an obvious advantage for a large producer.
There is no single theoretical framework that provides answers to output and pricing
decisions under an oligopolistic market structure. Analyses exist only for special sets of
circumstances. One of these circumstances refers to an oligopoly in which there are
asymmetric reactions of its rivals when a particular oligopolist formulates policies. If an
oligopolistic firm cuts its price, it is met with price reductions by competing firms; if it
raises the price of its product, however, rivals do not match the price increase. For this
reason, prices may remain stable in an oligopolistic industry for a prolonged period.
MONOPOLY.
Monopoly can be considered as the polar opposite of perfect competition. It is a market
form in which there is only one seller. While, at first glance, a monopolistic form may
appear to be rarely found market structure, several industries in the United States have
monopolies. Local electricity companies provide an example of a monopolist.
There are many factors that give rise to a monopoly. Patents can give rise to a
monopoly situation, as can ownership of critical raw materials (to produce a good) by a
single firm. A monopoly, however, can also be legally created by a government agency
when it sells a market franchise to sell a particular product or to provide a particular
service. Often a monopoly so established is also regulated by the appropriate
government agency. Provision of local telephone services in the United States provides
an example of such a monopoly. Finally, a monopoly may arise due to declining cost of
production for a particular product. In such a case the average cost of production keeps
falling and reaches a minimum at an output level that is sufficient to satisfy the entire
market. In such an industry, rival firms will be eliminated until only the strongest firm
(now the monopolist) is left in the market. Such an industry is popularly dubbed as the
case of a natural monopoly. A good example of a natural monopoly is the electricity
industry, which reaps the benefits of economies of scale and yields decreasing average
cost. Natural monopolies are usually regulated by the government.
Generally speaking, price and output decisions of a monopolist are similar to a
monopolistically competitive firm, with the major distinction that there are a large
number of firms under monopolistic competition and only one firm under monopoly.
Nevertheless, at any output level, the price charged by a monopolist is higher than the
marginal revenue. As a result, a monopolist also does not produce to the point where
price equals marginal cost (a condition met under a perfectly competitive market
structure).
MARKET STRUCTURES AND MANAGERIAL DECISIONS.
Managerial decisions both in the short run and in the long run are partly shaped by the
market structure relevant to the firm. While the preceding discussion of market
structures does not cover the full range of managerial decisions, it nevertheless suggests
that managerial decisions are necessarily constrained by the market structure under
which a firm operates.
TOOLS OF DECISION SCIENCES AND
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
Managerial decision making uses both economic concepts and tools, and techniques of
analysis provided by decision sciences. The major categories of these tools and
techniques are: optimization, statistical estimation, forecasting, numerical analysis, and
game theory. While most of these methodologies are fairly technical, the first three are
briefly explained below to illustrate how tools of decision sciences are used in
managerial decision making.
OPTIMIZATION.
Optimization techniques are probably the most crucial to managerial decision making.
Given that alternative courses of action are available, the manager attempts to produce
the most optimal decision, consistent with stated managerial objectives. Thus, an
optimization problem can be stated as maximizing an objective (called the objective
function by mathematicians) subject to specified constraints. In determining the output
level consistent with the maximum profit, the firm maximizes profits, constrained by
cost and capacity considerations. While a manager does not solve the optimization
problem, he or she may use the results of mathematical analysis. In the profit
maximization example, the profit maximizing condition requires that the firm choose
the production level at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost. This condition is
obtained from an optimization exercise. Depending on the problem a manager is trying
to solve, the conditions for the optimal decision may be different.
STATISTICAL ESTIMATION.
A number of statistical techniques are used to estimate economic variables of interest to
a manager. In some cases, statistical estimation techniques employed are simple. In
other cases, they are much more advanced. Thus, a manager may want to know the
average price received by his competitors in the industry, as well as the standard
deviation (a measure of variation across units) of the product price under consideration.
In this case, the simple statistical concepts of mean (average) and standard deviation are
used.
Estimating a relationship among variables requires a more advanced statistical
technique. For example, a firm may want to estimate its cost function, the relationship
between a cost concept and the level of output. A firm may also want to know the
demand function of its product, that is, the relationship between the demand for its
product and different factors that influence it. The estimates of costs and demand are
usually based on data supplied by the firm. The statistical estimation technique
employed is called regression analysis, and is used to develop a mathematical model
showing how a set of variables are related. This mathematical relationship can also be
used to generate forecasts.
An automobile industry example can be used for the purpose of illustrating the
forecasting method that employs simple regression analysis. Suppose a statistician has
data on sales of American-made automobiles in the United States for the last 25 years.
He or she has also determined that the sale of automobiles is related to the real
disposable income of individuals. The statistician also has available the time series (for
the last 25 years) on real disposable income. Assume that the relationship between the
time series on sales of American-made automobiles and the real disposable income of
consumers is actually linear and it can thus be represented by a straight line. A fairly
rigorous mathematical technique is used to find the straight line that most accurately
represents the relationship between the time series on auto sales and disposable income.
FORECASTING.
Forecasting is a method or a technique used to predict many future aspects of a business
or any other operation. For example, a retailing firm that has been in business for the
last 25 years may be interested in forecasting the likely sales volume for the coming
year. There are numerous forecasting techniques that can be used to accomplish this
goal. A forecasting technique, for example, can provide such a projection based on the
experience of the firm during the last 25 years; that is, this forecasting technique bases
the future forecast on the past data.
While the term "forecasting" may appear to be rather technical, planning for the future
is a critical aspect of managing any organization—business, nonprofit, or otherwise. In
fact, the long-term success of any organization is closely tied to how well the
management of the organization is able to foresee its future and develop appropriate
strategies to deal with the likely future scenarios. Intuition, good judgment, and an
awareness of how well the economy is doing may give the manager of a business firm a
rough idea (or "feeling") of what is likely to happen in the future. It is not easy,
however, to convert a feeling about the future outcome into a precise number that can
be used, for instance, as a projection for next year's sales volume. Forecasting methods
can help predict many future aspects of a business operation, such as forthcoming years'
sales volume projections.
Suppose that a forecast expert has been asked to provide quarterly estimates of the sales
volume for a particular product for the next four quarters. How should one go about
preparing the quarterly sales volume forecasts? One will certainly want to review the
actual sales data for the product in question for past periods. Suppose that the forecaster
has access to actual sales data for each quarter during the 25-year period the firm has
been in business. Using these historical data, the forecaster can identify the general
level of sales. He or she can also determine whether there is a pattern or trend, such as
an increase or decrease in sales volume over time. A further review of the data may
reveal some type of seasonal pattern, such as, peak sales occurring around the holiday
season. Thus by reviewing historical data, the forecaster can often develop a good
understanding of the pattern of sales in the past periods. Understanding such a pattern
can often lead to better forecasts of future sales of the product. In addition, if the
forecaster is able to identify the factors that influence sales, historical data on these
factors (variables) can also be used to generate forecasts of future sales.
There are many forecasting techniques available to the person assisting the business in
planning its sales. For illustration, consider a forecasting method in which a statistician
forecasting future values of a variable of business interest—sales, for example—
examines the cause-and-effect relationships of this variable with other relevant
variables, such as the level of consumer confidence, changes in consumers' disposable
incomes, the interest rate at which consumers can finance their excess spending through
borrowing, and the state of the economy represented by the percentage of the labor
force unemployed. Thus, this category of forecasting techniques uses past time series on
many relevant variables to forecast the volume of sales in the future. Under this
forecasting technique, a regression equation is estimated to generate future forecasts
(based on the past relationship among variables).

Read more: Managerial Economics - benefits

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Economics.html#ixzz0hO1TK4lt
Managerial Economics is often interchangeable with Business Economics, though there is some
difference between these two terms:
i) Business Economics - means Economics necessary to be understood for running any business.
ii) Managerial Economics - lays more emphasis on the managerial functions in any business firm.
Managerial functions are decision making and forward planning.

DEAN, author of the first managerial economics text books defines managerial economics as "the use
of economic analysis in the formulation of business policies"

SCOPE & IMPORTANCE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS:

Out of two major managerial functions served by the subject matter under managerial economics are
decision making and forward planning:

Lets explore the scope for decision making:

1. Decision relating to demand.

2. Decision related to Cost and production.

3. Decision relating to price and market.

4. Decision relating to profit management.

5. Macro economic factor.

Role of managerial economist

When an economist needs a price, interest rate or other

quantity to use in an analysis, he will tend to look to the

product and financial markets for an answer rather than

"building it up" from accounting costs.

Economists are trained to think in terms of marginal change

Economists are generally well-versed in mathematics and

statistics and tend to approach problems using those tools.

Economists also are comfortable with probabilities and will

build models incorporating them. We are trained in doing

simulation studies.

When an economist needs a price, interest rate or other quantity to use in an analysis, he will tend to
look to the product and financial markets for an answer rather than "building it up" from accounting
costs.Economists are trained to think in terms of marginal changeEconomists are generally well-versed
in mathematics and statistics and tend to approach problems using those tools.Economists also are
comfortable with probabilities and will build models incorporating them. We are trained in doing
simulation studies.
Roles and responsibilities of managirial economist

A Managerial Economist is well acquainted with Micro and Macro aspects of the
Economy. He/She is well aware of the Economical Aspects combined with Business
Decision Making.
That makes a managerial economist well equipped with Theorotical and practical
(application based) knowledge.

For any company, it is very critical to keep track of

Changing Consumer Preferences

Potential Product Demand
Resource Availabilty and Supply Constraints, if any
Domestic and Overseas Competition

A managerial economist helps in such critical factor analysis.

Most important of all, whether at all a company needs to invest in a certain product
based on External Factors is a Crucial Decision to make.
A managerial economist can judge these factors and provide a practical decision based
on Cost-Benefit Analysis.

Knowing the Micro and Macro economics is the edge where any managerial economist
scores over others.