The Effect of Heredity, Epigenetics and Gene x Environment (G x E) Interaction on Human Development
Heredity and the environment therefore collaborate to produce an
Behavior genetics seeks to understand the influence of heredity and the
environment on human development. This is done by evaluating twin and
adoption studies. (Jaffee, 2016) Heredity is the passing of physical or
psychological characteristics from one generation to the next. This
depends on the segregation and recombination of genes during sexual
reproduction, a process known as meiosis. The gene recombination
results in genotype, or the genetic makeup of an individual and the
phenotype, or the physical characteristics of an individual. (Vischer, Hill,
Wray, 2008) Research indicates that some psychological and
developmental disorders may be heritable. (Kendler, Prescott, 2006)
In 2007 Gilbert Gottlieb proposed an epigenetic view of development,
which states that development is an on going, bidirectional interchange
between heredity and the environment. This view is particularly important
during prenatal and infantile development. During this period
environmental factors such as: nutrition, toxins, stress, learning and
reinforcement, can influence the expression of genes. Modification of the
genetic activity directly impacts the activity of the nervous system,
thereby influencing behavior. (Gottlieb, 2007)
Efforts to optimize epigenetic activity to improve health throughout
individuals: health, well being, temperament, athletic ability and
intellectual ability. (Gottlieb, 2007)
Current research is assessing the Gene x Environment (G x E) Interaction.
These aim to identify specific DNA sequences, that may be activated or
inactivated by the environment and result in genetic changes. Several
studies have focused on the 5-HTTLPR serotonin gene. These studies have
found that those who poses the shortened version of the 5-HTTLPR gene
and were exposed to chronic environmental stress were found to have an
increase probability to develop depression, higher cortisol reactivity and
were more likely to have unresolved attachment issues as adults. (Miller &
others, 2013) The long variation of the 5-HTTLPR gene however was
correlated with better adjustment and coping with parental loss. (Caspers
& others, 2009)
Although there is exciting findings in this field of study, its important to
note the weaknesses of the research. This research is very new and is still
making discoveries. Due to the nature of the research its difficult to
replicate, it may over simplify extremely complex developmental
processes and it may have inflated claims. (Manuck & McCaffery, 2014)
Its also important to note that although there is evidence for the 5-HTTPLR
gene, there is most likely many other genes that have not been
controlled for that are contributing to the complex psychological
disfunction described in these studies. Future research is required to make
definitive statements about these interacts.
the lifespan are also being researched. These include modifiable
lifestyle factors that are in our direct control, such as: diet, physical
activity, obesity, exposure to some environmental pollutants,
psychological stress, working night shifts and using alcohol/tobacco
products. Studies have focused on how these factors impact
histones, the sub-packaging unit of DNA, and miRNA, or microRNA
that silence and or provide post-transctriptional regulation control of
gene expression. Researchers hypothesize that completing activities
that benefit our cells and minimizing those that damage out cells
may program our bodies to express genes that will improve our over
all health and allow us to pass those genes onto our offspring.
However more research is required to make causal statements.
(Alegria-Torres, Baccarelli, Bollati, 2011)
Citations
• Alegria-Torres, J. A., Baccarelli, A., Bollati, V. (2011) Epigenetics and
lifestyle. Epigenomics, 3(3), 267-277
• Caspers, K.M., & others (2009). Association between the serotonin
transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and adult unresolved
attachment. Developmental psychology, 45, 64-76.
• Gottlieb, G. (2007) Probabilistic epigenesis. Developmental
Science, 10, 1-11.
• Kendler K. S., & Prescott, C. A., (2006) Genes, Environment, and
Psychopathology: Understanding the Causes of Psychiatric and
Substance Use Disorders. Psychological Medicine, 37(7), 1061-1061.
doi:10.1017/S0033291707000037
• Manuck, S.B., & McCaffery, J.M. (2014). Gene-environment
interaction. Annual Review of Psychology (Vol. 65).
• Visscher PM; Hill WG; Wray NR (2008). "Heritability in the genomics
era—concepts and misconceptions". Nat. Rev. Genet. 9 (4): 255–
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