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PHYSICS
[SUBJECT CODE: PHY1001]
COMMON COURSE MATERIAL FOR FIRST YEAR BTech STUDENTS
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MANIPAL UNIVERSITY
SYLLABUS
PHY 1001: ENGINEERING PHYSICS [2 1 0 3]
Optics: Two source interference, Double slit interference, Coherence, Intensity in double slit
interference using phasor method, Interference from thin films, Newton’s rings, Diffraction
and wave theory of light, Single-slit diffraction, Intensity in single-slit diffraction using phasor
method, Diffraction at a circular aperture, Double-slit interference and diffraction combined-
Intensity in double-slit diffraction (Qualitative approach), qualitative description of multiple slits
and diffraction grating [9]
Applied Optics: Spontaneous and stimulated transitions, He-Ne and Ruby laser, Applications of
lasers, Optical fiber, Total internal reflection, angle of acceptance and numerical aperture, types
of optical fiber, types of attenuation, applications of optical fibers. [5]
Quantum Physics: Black body radiation and Planck’s hypothesis, Stefan’s Law, Wein’s
displacement law, Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Photons and electromagnetic waves,
Wave properties of particles, de-Broglie hypothesis, Quantum particle (wave packet, phase
speed, group speed). The double-slit experiment revisited, the uncertainty principle [8]
Solid State Physics: Free electron theory of metals, Band theory of solids, Electrical conduction
in metals, Insulators and Semiconductors, Superconductivity-Properties and Applications [6]
Reference books
1. Halliday, Resnick, Krane; PHYSICS: Volume 2, (5e), John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2009
2. Serway & Jewett; PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, (9e),
Thomson, 2013
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To understand the wave properties of light and thereby applications of interference and
diffraction of light.
To study the working principles of optical fibers and lasers.
To understand the basic principles of quantum physics.
To understand the mechanism of bonding and electrical conductivity in solids.
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of this course students will be able to:
Explain the principles of optical methods of testing and measuring of various physical
parameters.
Describe the construction and working of optical fibers and lasers.
Discuss the principles of dual nature of particles and light.
Describe quantum mechanical properties of micro particles such as energy quantization,
tunneling, and quantum mechanical model of hydrogen atom.
Explain electrical conduction properties of materials.
TEACHING PLAN
L/T No. TOPICS TO BE COVERED
L0 Introduction : course contents, assessments, AMS, availability etc.
Light as an EM (electro-magnetic) wave. Interference of light waves. Coherence. Double-slit
L01
interference
L02 Intensity in double-slit interference.
L13 Types of optical fiber. Attenuation in optical fibers. Applications of optical fibers.
L19 Photons and electromagnetic waves. The wave properties of particles. de Broglie hypothesis.
EVALUATION SCHEME
Light is a transverse electro-magnetic wave in which electric (E) and magnetic fields (B)
oscillate in phase, perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. The visual sensation of light is due to its E- field and as such in discussing
interference phenomena, one considers superposition of electric fields.
When two or more waves superpose in a region of space, the resultant amplitude of E-field at
any point is the vector sum of the individual amplitudes of the waves and the intensity at that
point is proportional to the square of this E-field amplitude. When waves from two
independent sources superpose, the resultant intensity at any point is the sum of the
intensities due to individual sources and is same throughout the region of superposition. On
the other hand, when two similar waves traveling almost in the same direction superpose,
intensity variation take place in the region of superposition. This redistribution of light
intensity when two or more similar waves superpose is called interference and such similar
waves are called coherent waves.
• Two waves are said to be coherent when they maintain a constant phase difference
between them. For this is to be true the waves must have same wavelength (and hence
same frequency, since velocity of all em waves are same and is equal to 3× 108m/s)
and travel almost in the same direction. Coherence is a necessary condition for
producing stable interference pattern. Suppose phase difference between two waves
keeps changing, the positions of maximum and minimum amplitudes vary with time.
As a result rapid intensity fluctuations will occur which cannot be followed by the eye(
normal eye can resolve fluctuations ~ 16).
• Coherence depends on the length of the wave trains. Longer the wave train, degree
of coherence is more. Common light sources emit light wave trains of finite length (few
millimeters) accordingly the degree of coherence is less.
Fig. 1.1 Section of infinite wave train and a wave train of finite length
Waves from two independent sources cannot be coherent. Because in these sources the
fundamental light emission processes occur in individual atoms, and these atoms do not act
together in a co-operative way (that is, incoherent).
i) Division of wave front: For example, Young double slit experiment (Figure 1.2).Here, two
different portions of a same wave front is made to pass through two narrow slits separated by
large distance d (d>>). Huygen wavelets from the two slits are perfectly coherent.
When the two coherent waves overlap (i.e., when they travel almost in the same direction)
they produce interference pattern on the screen placed on their path. The fringe pattern
consists of alternating series of bright and dark bands known as interference fringes. For good
contrast of these fringes, the amplitude of the two coherent waves must be comparable.
The interference is constructive when the net intensity is greater than the individual intensities
(Figure 1.4a). The interference is destructive when the net intensity is less than individual
intensities (Figure 1.4b).
Fig. 1.4 (a) Constructive interference of two waves that are in phase (b) Destructive
interference of two waves that are 1800 out of phase
Maximal constructive interference of two waves occurs when their phase difference is 0, 2,
4, .… (the waves are in-phase). During the period of one oscillation ( phase change of 2π or
360˚), the wave disturbance travels a distance of λ, and hence the path and phase difference
are related as
Complete destructive interference of two waves occur when their phase differences are ,
3, 5 , … (the waves are 180o out of phase) or path differences of λ/2, 2λ/2, 3λ/2 .…
Thus, condition for destructive interference is, path difference = (m+1/2) λ , where m =
0, 1, 2 …
A train of plane light waves is incident on two narrow parallel slits of widths a (<<) separated
by distance d (>>). Each slits emit Huygen wavelets and behave like two independent
coherent sources. The interference pattern on the screen at a distance D consists of bright and
dark fringes.
For D>>d, we can approximate rays r1 and r2 as being parallel. Path difference between two
waves from S1 & S2 on reaching a point P on a screen is S1b = d sin .
Fig. 1.6 (a) Schematic of double slit arrangement, (b) Showing the path difference between
two rays r1 and r2
S1b = m
d sin ( m 21 )
m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
y
sin tan
D
In such a case, the path difference
yd
d sin S1b
D
For mth maximum located at ym , we can write
Separation between adjacent maxima (for small ) known as fringe width/band width is,
y ym1 ym
D D
( m 1) m
d d
D
y
d is independent of m.
The spacing between the adjacent minima is same as the spacing between adjacent maxima.
Double slit experiment was first performed by Thomas Young in 1801. So double slit
experiment is known as Young’s Experiment. He used sun light as source for the experiment.
In his experiment, he allowed sun light to pass through narrow opening (S0) and then through
two openings (S1and S2).
E1= E0 sin ωt andE2= E0 sin (ωt + ) respectively, where is the phase difference between
them.
Fig. 1.9 (a) Phasor representation of two waves, (b) Another way of drawing (a)
E=E1+E2
= E sin(t + )
= 2E0cos sin(t + )
So, intensity at an arbitrary point P on the screen due to interference of two waves having
phase difference;
4 E 02 cos 2
2
4 0 cos2
2
where 0 E 02 is intensity due to single source.
Since 2dsin/ ,
2 d sin
4 0 cos
From above equation,
At maxima : 2 m or d sin m
At minima : ( 2 m 1) or d sin (m 1 )
2
where m 0, 1, 2, . . .
A film is said to be thin when its thickness is comparable with the wavelength of the light, i.e,
of the order of a micron. Greater thickness spoils the coherence of the light. In Figure 1.11b,
the region ac looks bright or dark for an observer depending on the path difference between
the rays r1 and r2.
Fig. 1.11 Thin film interference (a) A soapy water film, (b) Ray diagram
Phase change on Reflection: It has been observed that if the medium beyond the interface
has a higher index of refraction, the reflected wave undergoes a phase change of (=180o). If
the medium beyond the interface has a lower index of refraction, there is no phase change of
the reflected wave. No phase change occur for transmitted light.
Fig. 1.12 Phase changes on reflection at a junction between two strings of different linear
mass densities (a) The incident pulse is in the heavier string, (b) The incident pulse is in the
lighter string
When light pass from one medium to another, its velocity changes and accordingly its
wavelength changes. The type of interference in thin films is determined by the wavelength
n in the film and not the wavelength in air. If n is wavelength in the film of refractive
index n and is the wavelength in vacuum then n = / n
It is therefore optical path length difference that is of interest and not the geometrical path
length difference in discussing interference from thin films.
Hence, ct = nd
nd is the optical path corresponding to geometrical path d and is the distance traveled by light
in vacuum in the time ‘t’ that it takes to travel path d.
Path difference = 2 d + (½) n (?) + (½) n (?). The terms with question marks are to be used if
there are phase changes at front and rear surfaces respectively.
Assuming air on either side of the film (Figure 1.11b), conditions for -
It can be noted that, it is possible to suppress the unwanted reflections from glass at a chosen
wavelength by coating the glass with a film of proper thickness and in such a case the film is
known as antireflection coating. Moreover, the film may reflect or transmit preferentially a
particular wavelength and in such a case the film is called a monochromator.
Wedge shaped film: When light falls on wedge shaped thin film, it undergoes partial
reflections from upper and lower part of the film thereby producing coherent waves.
Since the film is thin, the reflected waves are close by and are in a position to interfere.
Constructive interference occurs in certain part of the film [2 d + (½) n= m n] and destructive
interference in others[2 d + (½)n = (m+½)n]. Then bands of maximum and minimum intensity
Newton’s rings: When a plano-convex lens is kept on an optically flat glass plate, a thin film of
air is formed between the two. Monochromatic light falling on this system partly reflects from
upper and lower surfaces of the film (Figure 1.14a). These two coherent waves interfere
constructively or destructively depending on the thickness of the air film. The locus of the
points having the same thickness is a circle and hence alternate bright and dark concentric
circular fringes are formed (Figure 1.15).
Fig.1.14 (a) Newton’s ring set up, (b) the geometry of the set up.
d R R2 r 2
1
r 2 2
R R 1
R
r R 1 using binomialexpansion
1 r 2 r2
d R R 1 . . .
2 R 2R
Substituting d , in 2d = (m - ½) we get,
r m 12 R
m 1, 2, . . . for maxima and is known as the order of the rings.
EXERCISE
QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the path difference between two coherent waves in terms of their wavelengths,
for phase differences of – i) 60° ii) 270°.
Ans: i) /6 ii) 3/4
Ans: 100 nm
10. If the wavelength of the incident light is λ = 572 nm, rays A and B in Fig 41-24 are
out of phase by 1.50 λ. Find the thickness d of the film.
Ans: 215 nm
11. A broad source of light (wavelength = 680nm) illuminates normally two glass plates 120
mm long that touch at one end and are separated by a wire 0.048mm in diameter at the
other end. How many bright fringes appear over 120 mm distance?
Ans: 141
12. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of curvature R of the lens is 5.0m and its
diameter is 20mm. wavelength= 589nm
How many rings are produced?
How many rings would be seen if the arrangement is immersed in water (n = 1.33)?
Ans: 34, 45
When light passes through a narrow slit (of width comparable to the wave length of light), the
light not only flare out far beyond the geometrical shadow of the slit; they also gives rise to a
series of alternating light and dark bands. This observation can be explained by assuming that
light must travel as waves and as such bend at the edges of apertures or obstacles on their
path. The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of obstacles or slits, and hence
its encroachment into the region of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction. As a result of
bending of light waves, the edges of shadows are not very sharp as expected by the rectilinear
propagation of light. Diffraction effects are seen more prominently when the size of the object
causing diffraction have dimensions comparable to the wavelength of light falling on the
object.
Fig. 1.16 Diffraction pattern (a) Poisson spot and (b) razor blade viewed in monochromatic
light
1. Very small separation- when C is very close to B(irrespective of source distance) the waves
travel only a short distance after leaving the aperture and rays diverge very little. The
effects of diffraction are negligible, and the pattern on the screen is the geometrical
shadow of the aperture.
2. Both S and C are at large distance- i.e., both incident and the emerging wave-fronts are
plane (the rays are parallel). One can achieve this condition by using two converging lenses.
This class of diffraction is called Fraunhofer diffraction(Figure 1.18a and b).
3. S and C are at finite distance from the aperture - i.e., incident and emerging wave fronts
are spherical or cylindrical. Diffraction produced in this case is called Fresnel class (Figure
1.18c).
Fig. 1.18 Diffraction (a) and (b) Fraunhofer type, (c) Fresnel type
All the diffracted rays arriving at P0travel equal optical paths and hence are in-phase (Figure
1.19). Hence they interfere constructively and produce maximum (central maximum) of
intensity I0 at P0.
Consider another point P1 on the screen where the rays leaving the slit at an angle , meet
(Figure 1.20). Ray r1 originates on the top of the slit and ray r2 at its center. If is chosen such
that the path difference between r1 and r2 is (a/2) sin = /2, a condition for destructive
interference of rays r1 and r2.
In such a situation, this condition is satisfied for every pair of rays, one from upper half of the
slit and the other corresponding ray from lower half of the slit. Hence each pair of
corresponding rays cancelling each other producing first minima.
This equation shows that, the central maximum becomes wider as the slit is made narrower.
If the slit width is as small as one wavelength ( a= ), the first minimum occurs at = 90° which
implies that the central maxima fills the entire forward hemisphere.
In fig. 1.21, the slit is divided into four equal zones with rays r1, r2 , r3 and r4 leaving the top of
each zone. Let be such that the path difference (a/4) sin, between r1and r2 is (a/4)
sin = /2.
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4. As a result, while the
corresponding rays from first and second quarters of the slit interferes destructively so does
the rays from third and fourth quarters. As a whole, the secondary wavelets from different
parts of the slit interfere destructively resulting in minimum intensity at P 2. Thus, condition for
second minima is, (a/4) sin = /2 or, a sin = 2
There is a maximum approximately half way between each adjacent pair of minima.
Divide the slit of width a into N parallel strips each of width x (this also means that their
separation is also x). The strips are very narrow and can be regarded as radiator of Huygen
wavelets and all the light from a given strip arrives at point P with same phase (Figure 1.22).
Fig. 1.22 A slit of width a divided into N parallel strips each of width x (Inset shows the
condition at second strip)
The phase difference between waves arriving at point P from two adjacent strips have the
same constant phase difference
2
x sin
The wave disturbance at any point due to each strip can be represented by a vector. To find
the resultant intensity, we have to lay N vectors each of length δEo head to tail, each differing
in direction from the previous one by . The resultant phasor amplitude is found by vector
addition.
Fig. 1.23 Phasor diagram to calculate the intensity in single slit diffraction
is the phase difference between rays from the top and bottom of the slit. Thus,
2
a sin
a
So, sin
2
sin
2
The intensity E 2
E 2
m
sin
2
From the above eqn., for minima, sin 0
Hence m where m 1 ,2, 3,.....
or, a sin m where m 1, 2, 3,.....
Fig. 1.25The intensity distribution in single-slit diffraction for three different values of a/.
The mathematical analysis of diffraction by a circular aperture shows that the first minimum
occurs at an angle from the central axis given by-
sin 1.22 where d is the diameter of aperture.
d
The equation for first minimum in single slit diffractio n is
sin where a is the slit width
a
In case of circular aperture, the factor 1.22 arises when we divide the aperture into elementary
Huygens sources and integrate over the aperture.
The fact that lens images are diffraction patterns is important when we wish to distinguish two
distant point objects whose angular separation is small. The condition for resolution of such
close objects is known as Rayleigh’s criterion for optical resolution: The images of two closely
spaced sources is said to be just resolved if the angular separation of the two point sources is
such that the central maximum of the diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first
minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other.
R sin 1 1.22
d
since R is very small, it can be appoximated as
R 1.22
d
R is the smallest angular separation for which we can resolve the images of two objects.
Fig. 1.27 Images of two distant point sources formed by a converging lens (a) Well
resolved (b) Just resolved (c) Not resolved
In our analysis of double slit interference we assumed that the slits were arbitrarily narrow
i.e., a<<λ. For such narrow slits, the central part of the screen is uniformly illuminated by the
diffracted waves from each slit. When such waves interfere, they produce interference fringes
of uniform intensity. But, in practice the condition a<<λ is usually not met. For such relatively
wide slits, the intensity of interference fringes is not uniform. Instead, the intensity of the
fringes varies within an envelope due to the diffraction pattern of a single slit as shown in the
Figure 1.28.
Ignoring diffraction effects, the intensity of interference fringes is given byI, INT = Im,INT cos2
Ignoring interference effects, the intensity of diffraction pattern is given by I, DIF =
Im,DIF(sin/)2
sin α
2
The combined effect is the product of the two and is given by Iθ Ι m ( cos ) 2
α
Fig. 1.29 Intensity sketches to illustrate the combined effect of interference and diffraction
In principle, one can use a double slit interference pattern to measure the wavelength, but
fringes being wide there involves an uncertainty in locating their mid points. It has been
observed that increase in the slit number reduces the fringe widths and the precision of
wavelength measurement improves. The second effect of increasing the number of slits is the
appearance of faint secondary maxima, (N-2) in number, as shown in the Figure 1.30.
Fig. 1.30 Intensity pattern for (a) Two-slit diffraction (b) Five-slit diffraction
Following figure shows five slit grating illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength. A
principal maximum occurs when the path difference between rays from any pair of adjacent
Width of the maxima: Consider the Figure 1.32 in which the mth principal maximum occurs at
an angle . We move away from this maximum through an angular displacement to arrive
at the next minimum. This angle is the measure of angular width of the mth maximum.
2
where N is the number of slits, since N phasors form a closed loop
N
Corresponding path difference is,
L
2 N
For the first minimum at ( + ) after the mth principal maximum is therefore
λ
d sin ( δ ) mλ
N
d sin cos cos sin m
N
1
d sin (d cos ) m N
m (d cos ) m N
is the angular half width of mth principal maximum at .
N d cos
It is seen that, the principal maximum become sharper as number of slits (N) increases as
mentioned earlier. Width of central maximum will be .
Nd
1.2.6 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
The diffraction grating, is a useful device for analysing light sources. It consists of a large
number of equally spaced parallel slits. A typical grating might contain N= 10,000 slits
distributed over a width of a few centimetres. They are of two kind: i) Transmission gratings
ii) Reflection gratings. A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on a
glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves are transparent
to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection grating can be made by cutting parallel
grooves on the surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light from the spaces between
the grooves is specular, and the reflection from the grooves is diffuse.
Most gratings used for visible light, whether of the transmission or reflection type, are phase
gratings i.e, there is a periodic change in phase (and a negligible change in amplitude) of the
light as a function of position across the grating. The grating equation is same as that of
multiple slits i.e, d sin = m , d is the slit separation, m 1,2,3,..... and is called order of
the spectra.
EXERCISE
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the term diffraction of light. What are the factors that determine
diffraction pattern? [3]
2. Discuss qualitatively, the Fraunhofer diffraction at a single-slit. [5]
3. Derive an expression for intensity of diffraction pattern in the case of
single-slit, using phasor diagram. [5]
4. Draw a schematic plot of the intensity of light in single slit diffraction
against phase difference. [2]
5. Explain briefly diffraction at a circular aperture. [2]
6. State and explain Rayleigh’s criterion for optical resolution. [2]
7. Effect of diffraction is ignored in the case of Young’s double slit
interference. Give reason. [2]
8. Arrive at the equation for the intensity of double slit diffraction pattern. [2]
9. Discuss qualitatively, the diffraction due to multiple slits. [3]
10 Obtain an expression for the half angular width of any principal
maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits. [5]
11 What is diffraction grating? Write the grating equation. [2]
PROBLEMS
1. A slit of width “a“ is illuminated by white light. For what value of “a” does the minimum
for red light ( = 650nm) fall at = 15o?
Ans: 2.51 μm
2. In the above problem what is the wavelength ’ of the light whose first diffraction
maximum (not counting the central maximum) falls at 15o, thus coinciding with the first
minimum of red light?
Ans: 430 nm
Laser light is highly monochromatic, coherent, directional and can be sharply focused. Each of
these characteristics that are not normally found in ordinary light makes laser a unique and
the most powerful tool. Lasers find a wide variety of applications in the field of scientific
research, engineering and medicine.
Spontaneous Emission: The average life time of the atomic system in the excited state
is of the order of 10–8 s. After the life time of the atomic system in the excited state,
it comes back to the state of lower energy on its own accord by emitting a photon of
energy hf = E2– E1 .
All the three processes are taking place simultaneously to varying degrees, in the matter when
it is irradiated by radiation of suitable frequency.
Population inversion: From Boltzmann statistics, the ratio of population of atoms in two
energy states E1 and E2at equilibrium temperature T is,
nE 2 E E1
exp 2
nE 1 k T
[2.1]
where k is Boltzmann constant, n(E1) is the number density of atoms with energy E1 , n(E2)
is the number density of atoms with energy E2 . Under normal condition, where populations
are determined only by the action of thermal agitation, population of the atoms in upper
energy state is less than that in lower energy state (i.e.n(E2)<n(E1), Figure 2.4a).
Fig. 2.4 (a) Normal thermal equilibrium distribution of atomic systems (b) An inverted
population, obtained using special techniques
For the stimulated emission rate to exceed the absorption rate it is necessary to have
higher population of upper energy state than that of lower energy state. This condition
is called population inversion(n(E2)>n(E1), Figure 2.4b). This is a non-equilibrium condition
and is facilitated by the presence of energy states called ‘metastable states’ where the
average life time of the atom is 10-3 s which is much longer than that of the ordinary excited
state ( 10-8s).
Principle of laser: Lasing medium or active medium, resonant cavity and pumping system are
the essential parts of any lasing system (Figure 2.5). Lasing medium has atomic systems
(active centers), with special energy levels which are suitable for laser action. This
medium may be a gas, or a liquid, or a crystal or a semiconductor. The atomic systems
in this may have energy levels including a ground state (E1), an excited state (E3) and
a metastable state (E2). The resonant cavity is a pair of parallel mirrors to reflect the
radiation back into the lasing medium. Pumping is a process of exciting more number
of atoms in the ground state to higher energy states, which is required for attaining
the population inversion.
In a ruby laser, the lasing medium is a ruby crystal taken in the form of a rod. Pure ruby is
Al2O3. For using it in laser, it is doped with Cr2O3. Cr3+ ions are the active centers, which
has approximately similar energy level structure as shown in Figure 2.7. The ends of the
rod are cut exactly parallel and polished. One end face is fully silvered and the other partially.
The rod along with the silvered end faces serve as a resonant cavity. A helical flash lamp
surrounds the rod. When a current pulse is made to pass through lamp, it flashes an intense
pulse of light. Cr3+ ions in their ground level E1 absorb these photons and are excited to level
E3. The atoms in the state E3 may come down to state E1 by spontaneous emission or
they may come down to meta-stable state (E2) by collision. The atoms in the state E2
come down to state E1 by stimulated emission. When population inversion takes place
at E2, a stray photon of right energy stimulates chain reaction, accumulates more photons,
all coherent. The reflecting ends turn the coherent beam back into active region so
that the regenerative process continues and part of the light beam comes out from the
partially silvered mirror as a laser pulse. The output is an intense pulse of coherent light of
wavelength 693.3nm.
He-Ne Laser has a glass discharge tube filled with He (80%) and Ne (20%) at low
pressure. Helium gas is the “pumping” medium and Neon gas is the “lasing” medium
(Figure 2.8). The simplified energy level diagram (Figure 2.9) shows four levels: Eo, E1,
E2and E3. Electrons and ions in the electrical gas discharge occasionally collide with He-
atoms, raising them to level E3 (a meta-stable state). During collisions between He- and
Ne- atoms, the excitation energy of He-atom is transferred to Ne-atom (level E2),
selectively populating E2 due to resonant energy transfer. Thus, population inversion occurs
between levels E2and E1. This population inversion is maintained because (i) the
metastability of level E3 ensures a ready supply of Ne-atoms in level E2 and (ii) level E1
decays rapidly to Eo. Stimulated emission from level E2 to level E1 predominates, and
red laser light of wavelength 632.8nm is generated. The mirror M1 is fully reflective and
the mirror M2 is partially reflective to allow the laser beam to come out. The Brewster’s
windows W ‘s are at polarizing angles to the mirrors, to reduce the reflection loss.
Fig. 2.9 Atomic levels involved in the operation of He-Ne gas laser
Principle of working : Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection of light.
When a beam of light traveling in an optically denser medium falls on interface separating
denser medium from relatively less dense medium, if the angle of incidence is greater than
particular angle called critical angle(C) for the pair of media, the light undergoes total internal
reflection(Figure 2.11). Total internal reflection is the most superior type of reflection.
Reflection is total in the sense that almost the entire energy is returned to the first medium
through reflection without any loss of energy. Due to this the optical fibers are able to sustain
light signal transmission over very long distances despite large number of reflections.
Consider an optical fiber with refractive index of the material of the core n1and cladding n2
placed in a surrounding medium of refractive index n0. Let a ray AO of light enter the core of
the fiber at an angle 0. Let this ray after refraction through an angle 1at O strikes the
interface between the core and the cladding at the critical angle such that the refracted ray
grazes the interface.
1
sin 0 n12 n22 [2.4]
n0
0is called the acceptance angle or half angle of the acceptance cone. The acceptance angle
is generally about 5 for a single mode fiber & 10 to 15 for multi mode fibers. The term sin0is
called numerical aperture (NA), which indicates the light gathering power of the optical fiber.
It is evident that any ray that enters the fiber at an angle less than 0, strikes the core-cladding
interface at angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection each
time it strikes the interface. The optical fiber sustains the light signal transmission over a long
distance.
Fractional refractive index change (): It is the ratio of the difference in the refractive indices
(n1n2) between the core & the cladding to the refractive index n1 of the core.
( n1 n2 )
[2.5]
n1
The light accepting capacity of a fiber can be increased by making large. But there are
practical limitations to achieve this. Also a very large may cause signal distortion.
Skip distance (Ls): Skip distance is the distance between two successive reflections of the ray
of light which propagates through the optical fiber. Consider a portion of the optical fiber
through which a light signal is transmitted.
Ls d cot 1 d cos ec 2 1 1
n12 n0
Ls d 1 ( sin 1 sin ) [2.7]
n02 sin 2 n1
The measure of number of modes that are supported (and thereby the fractional power that
can be transmitted) for propagation through an optical fiber is determined by a parameter
called V- number (V), given by
d
V n0 n12 n22 where d is the diameter of the core and is the wavelength of the light
V2
propagated. If V >>1, then the number of successfully propagated modes are .
2
Single mode step index optical fiber: A single mode optical fiber consists of a core having a
uniform refractive index n1 that abruptly decreases at the core-cladding interface to a lower
value n2,the refractive index of the cladding. The diameter of the core is narrow (5-10m)
generally a few times the wavelength of the light propagating through it. Only rays nearly
parallel to the fiber axis will travel through. It supports a single mode propagation because of
its narrow core.
Graded-Index Multimode fiber (GRIN): It consists of a core whose refractive index decreases
gradually from its axis radially outward and becomes equal to the refractive index of the
cladding at the core-cladding interface. The refractive index of the cladding remains uniform.
Dimensions of the core and cladding are similar to that of step index multimode fibers. It
supports a large number of modes for propagation because of its large core diameter.
Attenuation is the loss of power of the light signal that occurs during its propagation through
the optical fiber. The main sources of attenuation are
1. absorption
2. scattering
3. other losses
Absorption: Absorption of light during propagation occurs due to the impurities present in the
fiber material and also due to the intrinsic nature of the material itself.
The impurities generally present are
a) Transition metals such as iron, chromium, cobalt, copper etc present in the starting
materials.
b) The hydroxy ions (OH-) that enter into the fiber material at the time of fabrication.
The photons absorbed by the impurities may be lost as heat or may be reemitted as light
energy of different wavelengths and different phase from the one that is propagated. Hence
it results in a loss. Intrinsic absorption occurs by the pure material itself even if the material is
free from impurities and in-homogeneities. Intrinsic absorption though quite less compared
to the loss due to the impurities, it cannot be eliminated.
Scattering: Glass is a heterogeneous mixture of oxides of silicon, phosphorus, germanium etc.
Structural in-homogeneities in the core index will set in the fiber material during solidification
of glass from its molten state. It will also result in a fluctuation of the molecular density. These
in-homogeneities act as scattering centers. Since their dimensions are smaller than the
b) Macroscopic bends occur during wrapping the fiber on a spool or negotiating a curve during
cable laying. Fibers can withstand bends of curvature up to about 10cm without significant
loss. For higher curvature (smaller radius of curvature) than this, the loss increases
exponentially.
Amplification is therefore needed in communication applications at regular intervals in order
to compensate for the losses that occur despite all precautions. An optical repeater is used to
boost the signal.
2.2.4 APPLICATIONS
Optical communication: In optical communication, fibers are used to carry information. An
optical communication system uses a transmitter, which encodes a message into an optical
signal, a channel (optical fiber), which carries the signal to its destination, and a receiver, which
reproduces the message from the received optical signal. Optical communication has several
advantages – can carry large data in digital form, interference and noise free.
Optical fibers are also used in sensors, flexible fiberscope (endoscope) and other industrial
applications.
EXERCISE
QUESTIONS
2.1 LASER
1 Mention the characteristics of a laser beam. [2]
2 Explain the following terms with reference to lasers:
(a) spontaneous emission
(b) stimulated emission
(c) metastable state
(d) population inversion
(e) pumping
(f) active medium
(g) resonant cavity. [1 EACH]
3 Explain the principle of a laser. [2 ]
4 Explain construction and working of ruby laser with necessary
diagrams. [5]
5 Explain construction and working of He-Ne laser with necessary
diagrams. [5]
6 Mention any four applications of laser. [2]
2.2 OPTICAL FIBERS
7 What is total internal reflection? [1]
8 Explain the following terms with reference to optical fibres:
(a) acceptance cone half-angle,
(b) numerical aperture,
(c) modes of propagation in an optical fibre. [1 EACH]
PROBLEMS
2.1 LASER
Ans: The number of signals that can be sent in this range is = 3.21 x 107
5. An atom has two energy levels with a transition wavelength of 582 nm. At
300 K, 4.0 x 1020 atoms are in the lower state. (a) How many occupy the
upper state under conditions of thermal equilibrium ? (b) Suppose, instead,
that 7.0 x 1020 atoms are pumped into upper state, with 4.0 x 1020 atoms in
the lower state. How much energy could be released in a single laser pulse
? Ans: (a) N2 = 6.6 x 10 -16 i i.e. N2 = 0 (b) 240J
6. A step index optical fibre 63.5 m in core-diameter has a core of refractive index
1.53 and a cladding of index 1.39. Determine (a) the numerical aperture for the
fibre, (b) the critical angle for core-cladding interface, (c) the acceptance cone
half-angle (the maximum entrance angle) (d) the number of reflections in 1.0 m
length of the fibre for a ray at the maximum entrance angle, (e) the number of
reflections in 1.0 m length of the fibre for a ray at half the maximum entrance
angle.
(a) Ans: (a) NA=0.64 (b) ӨC =65.3° (c)ӨO = 39.75°
(d) Ls=138µm Number of reflections per unit length=1/Ls=7250
(e)Ls =278.63µm Number of reflections per unit length=1/Ls=3588
7. A glass optical fibre of refractive index 1.450 is to be clad with another to ensure
total internal reflection that will contain light traveling within 5 of the fibre-axis.
What maximum index of refraction is allowed for the cladding?
Ans: The maximum index of refraction allowed for cladding should be less than
1.444
9. The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30 when kept in air. Find the angle
of acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33. Ans: Angle of
acceptance=220
10. Calculate the V-number for a fiber of core diameter 40µm and with refractive
indices of 1.55 and 1.50 respectively for core and cladding when the wavelength of
the propagating wave is 1400nm. Ans: V=35
(3) The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as the black body
temperature increases. This is Wien’s Displacement Law and is given by
λm T = constant = 2.898 × 10−3 m.K , or λm T−1
where λm is the wavelength corresponding to peak intensity and T is equilibrium temperature
of the blackbody.
Fig. 3.3 Comparison of experimental results and the curve predicted by the Rayleigh–Jeans
law for the distribution of blackbody radiation
Fig. 3.5Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect (T – Evacuated glass/ quartz tube, E –
Emitter Plate / Photosensitive material / Cathode, C – Collector Plate / Anode, V – Voltmeter,
A - Ammeter)
Fig. 3.6 Photoelectric current versus applied potential difference for two light intensities
1. No electrons are emitted if the incident light frequency falls below a cutoff frequency.
2. Photo current increases with the light intensity but is independent of its frequency.
3. Kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons is independent of light intensity
but depends on its frequency.
4. For small voltages, photo current increases with applied potential but for large values
of V, current gets saturated.
5. Electrons are emitted from the surface of the emitter almost instantaneously
Classical Predictions
1. If light is really a wave, it was thought that if one shines a light of any fixed
frequency/wavelength, at sufficient intensity electrons should absorb energy continuously
from the em waves and electrons should be ejected.
2. As the intensity of light is increased (made it brighter and hence classically, a more
energetic wave), kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase i.e., kinetic energy
must depend on intensity and not on frequency.
3. Measurable/ larger time interval between incidence of light and ejection of
photoelectrons.
Fig. 3.7 A representative plot of Kmax versus frequency of incident light for three different
metals
λ′ − λ = h
mc
(1−cos θ) ,
where m is the mass of the electron, c velocity of light, h Planck’s constant.
ℎ
This is known as Compton shift equation, and the factor 𝑚𝑐
is called the Compton
ℎ
wavelength and 𝑚 𝑐 = 2.43 pm.
Fig. 3.8 Schematic diagram of Compton’s apparatus. The wavelength is measured with a
rotating crystal spectrometer for various scattering angles. (In the figure 90° scattering is
shown).
Fig. 3.9 Scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength for Compton scattering at = 0°, 45°,
90°, and 135° showing single frequency at a given angle
Derivation of the Compton shift equation: Compton could explain the experimental result by
treating the X-rays not as waves but rather as point like particles (photons) having energy E =
hfo = hc/o, momentum p = hf/c = h/and zero rest energy. Photons collide elastically with
free electrons initially at rest and moving relativistically after collision.
Let o , po = h/o and Eo = hc/o be the wavelength, momentum and energy of the incident
photon respectively.’, p’ = h/’ and E’ = hc/’ be the corresponding quantities for the
scattered photon.
We know that, for the electron, the total relativistic energy 𝐸 = √p2 c 2 + m2 c 4
Kinetic energy K = E − m c2
1
And momentum p = mv. where
1 vc 2
2
Or Eo − E’ + m c2=𝐸 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4
Squaring both the sides, (𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸′)2 + 2(𝐸𝑜 − 𝐸′) 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
i.e., − + ( 𝜆1 − 1
𝜆′
) 𝑚𝑐 2 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜆𝑜 𝜆′ 𝑜 𝜆𝑜 𝜆′
′ ℎ𝑐
OR, (𝜆𝜆−𝜆𝜆𝑜′ ) 𝑚𝑐 2 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑜 𝜆𝑜 𝜆′
Compton shift:
𝒉
𝝀′ − 𝝀𝒐 = (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)
𝒎𝒄
For a superposition of large number of waves to form a wave packet, this ratio is 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝜔
𝑑𝑘
In general these two speeds are not the same.
Relation between group speed (vg) and phase speed (vp):
𝜔
𝑣𝑃 = 𝑘 = 𝑓 𝜆 𝜔 = 𝑘 𝑣𝑃
𝑑𝜔 𝑑(𝑘𝑣𝑃 ) 𝑑𝑣𝑃
But 𝑣𝑔 = = = 𝑘 + 𝑣𝑃
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
Substituting for k in terms of λ, we get
𝐸 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑝
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 and 𝑘 = = =
ℎ 𝜆 ℎ⁄𝑝 ℎ
2𝜋
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
ℎ
𝑣𝑔 = = 2𝜋 =
𝑑𝑘 ℎ
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
For a classical particle moving with speed u, the kinetic energy E is given by
𝑝2 2 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐸 𝑝
𝐸 = 1
2
𝑚 𝑢2 = and 𝑑𝐸 = or = = 𝑢
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑑𝑝 𝑚
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸
𝑣𝑔 == = 𝑢
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑝
i.e., we should identify the group speed with the particle speed, speed with which the energy
moves. To represent a realistic wave packet, confined to a finite region in space, we need the
superposition of large number of harmonic waves with a range of k-values.
3.7 DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
One way to confirm our ideas about the electron’s wave–particle duality is through an
experiment in which electrons are fired at a double slit. Consider a parallel beam of mono-
energetic electrons incident on a double slit as in Figure 3.15. Let’s assume the slit widths are
small compared with the electron wavelength so that diffraction effects are negligible. An
electron detector is positioned far from the slits at a distance much greater than d, the
separation distance of the slits. The detector is movable along the y direction in the drawing
and so can detect electrons diffracted at different values of .
If the detector collects electrons for a long enough time, we find a typical wave interference
pattern for the counts per minute, or probability of arrival of electrons. Such an interference
pattern would not be expected if the electrons behaved as classical particles, giving clear
evidence that electrons are interfering, a distinct wave-like behavior.
In the interference pattern the minimum occurs when 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆/2
The electron wavelength is given by 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝
ℎ
For small angle , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 = 2𝑝𝑑
Fig. 3.15 (a) Schematic of eelectron beam interference experiment, (b) Photograph of a
double-slitinterference pattern produced by electrons
Fig. 3.16 Results of the two-slit electron diffraction experiment with each slit closed half the
time (blue) the result with both slits open (interference pattern is shown in brown)
The observed interference pattern when both the slits are open, suggests that each particle
goes through both slits at the same time. We are forced to conclude that an electron interacts
with both the slits simultaneously shedding its localized behaviour. If we try to find out which
slit the particle goes through, the interference pattern vanishes. Means, if we know which path
the particle takes, we lose the fringes. We can only say that the electron passes through both
the slits.
3.7 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
It is fundamentally impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a particle’s position
and momentum with infinite accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
The uncertainties arise from the quantum structure of matter.
For a particle represented by a single wavelength wave existing throughout space, is
precisely known, and according to de Broglie hypothesis, its p is also known accurately. But
the position of the particle in this case becomes completely uncertain.
This means = 0, p =0; but x =
In contrast, if a particle whose momentum is uncertain (combination of waves / a range of
wavelengths are taken to form a wave packet), so that x is small, but is large. If x is
made zero, and thereby p will become .
In short ( x ) ( px) ≥ h / 4
where x is uncertainty in the measurement of position x of the particle and px is uncertainty
in the measurement of momentum px of the particle.
One more relation expressing uncertainty principle is related to energy and time which is given
by
( E ) ( t ) ≥ h / 4
where E is uncertainty in the measurement of energy E of the system when the
measurement is done over the time interval t.
QUESTIONS
PROBLEMS
3.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
1 THERMAL RADIATION FROM DIFFERENT OBJECTS
Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by each of the following.
A. The human body when the skin temperature is 35°C
B. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which operates at 2000 K
C. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of about 5800 K.
Ans: 9.4 μm, 1.4 μm, 0.50 μm
2 THE QUANTIZED OSCILLATOR
A 2.0- kg block is attached to a spring that has a force constant of k = 25 N/m. The
spring is stretched 0.40 m from its equilibrium position and released.
A. Find the total energy of the system and the frequency of oscillation according to
classical calculations.
B. Assuming that the energy is quantized, find the quantum number n for the system
oscillating with this amplitude.
C. Suppose the oscillator makes a transition from the n = 5.4 x 1033 state to the state
corresponding to n = 5.4 x 1033 – 1. By how much does the energy of the
oscillator change in this one-quantum change.
Ans: 2.0 J, 0.56 Hz, 5.4 x 1033, 3.7 x 10–34 J
3 The human eye is most sensitive to 560 nm light. What is the temperature of a black body
that would radiate most intensely at this wavelength?
Ans: 5180 K
4 A blackbody at 7500 K consists of an opening of diameter 0.050 mm, looking into an oven.
Find the number of photons per second escaping the hole and having wavelengths
between 500 nm and 501 nm.
Ans: 1.30 x 1015/s
5 The radius of our Sun is 6.96 x 108 m, and its total power output s 3.77 x 1026 W. (a)
Assuming that the Sun’s surface emits as a black body, calculate its surface temperature.
(b) Using the result, find max for the Sun.
Ans: 5750 K, 504 nm
6 Calculate the energy in electron volts, of a photon whose frequency is (a) 620 THz, (b)
3.10 GHz, (c) 46.0 MHz. (d) Determine the corresponding wavelengths for these photons
and state the classification of each on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Ans: 2.57 eV, 1.28 x 10–5 eV, 1.91 x 10–7 eV, 484 nm, 9.68 cm, 6.52 m
7 An FM radio transmitter has a power output of 150 kW and operates at a frequency of
99.7 MHz. How many photons per second does the transmitter emit?
Ans: 2.27 x 1030 photons/s
3.2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
One-dimensional wave functions and expectation values: Let be the wave function for a
particle moving along the x axis. Then P(x) dx = ||2dx is the probability to find the particle
in the infinitesimal interval dx around the point x. The probability of finding the particle in the
arbitrary interval a ≤ x ≤ b is
𝑏
𝑃𝑎𝑏 = ∫𝑎 |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥 .
The probability of a particle being in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b is the area under the probability
density curve from a to b. The total probability of finding the particle is one. Forcing this
condition on the wave function is called normalization.
+∞
∫−∞ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 .
The important mathematical features of a physically reasonable wave function (x) for a
system are
(x) may be a complex function or a real function, depending on the system.
(x) must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
The space derivatives of, must be finite, continuous and single valued
everywhere.
must be normalizable.
Fig. 4.3 (a) Particle in a potential well of infinite height, (b) Sketch of potential well
Consider a particle of mass m and velocity v, confined to bounce between two impenetrable
walls separated by a distance L as shown in Figure (a). Figure (b) shows the potential energy
function for the system.
U(x) = 0, for 0 <x<L,
U (x) = , for x≤ 0, x≥L
Since U (x)= , for x< 0, x>L , (x) = 0 in these regions. Also (0) =0 and (L) =0. Only those
wave functions that satisfy these boundary conditions are allowed. In the region 0 <x<L, where
U = 0, the Schrödinger equation takes the form
𝑑2 𝜓 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
𝑑2 𝜓 2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚𝐸
Or = − 𝑘2 𝜓 , where 𝑘 2 = or 𝑘 =
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2 ℏ
𝐿1
𝐴2 ∫0 2
[1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐿
)] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
Solving we get 𝐴 = √𝐿
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Thus 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = √𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) is the wave function for particle in a box.
𝐿
√2𝑚𝐸
Since 𝑘 = and kL = nπ
ℏ
√2𝑚𝐸
We get, 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋.
ℏ
ℎ2
∴ 𝐸𝑛 = ( 8 𝑚 𝐿2) 𝑛2 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . .
Fig. 4.4 Energy level diagram for a particle in potential well of infinite height
Since ground state energy E1 ≠0, the particle can never be at rest.
Fig. 4.5 Sketch of (a) wave function, (b) Probability density for a particle in potential well of
infinite height
4.4 A PARTICLE IN A POTENTIAL WELL OF FINITE HEIGHT
Consider a particle with the total energy E, trapped in a finite potential well of height U such
that
U(x) = 0 , 0 <x<L,
U(x) = U , x≤ 0, x≥L
Classically, for energy E<U, the particle is permanently bound in the potential well. However,
according to quantum mechanics, a finite probability exists that the particle can be found
outside the well even if E<U. That is, the wave function is generally nonzero in the regions I
and III. In region II, where U = 0, the allowed wave functions are again sinusoidal. But the
boundary conditions no longer require that the wave function must be zero at the ends of the
well.
Schrödinger equation outside the finite well in regions I & III
𝑑2 𝜓 2𝑚 𝑑2 𝜓 2𝑚
= (𝑈 − 𝐸) 𝜓 , or = 𝐶2 𝜓 where 𝐶2 = (𝑈 −
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2 𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
𝐸)
This shows that the wave function outside the potential well decay exponentially with
distance.
Schrodinger equation inside the square well potential in region II, where U = 0
𝑑2 𝜓𝐼𝐼 2𝑚 2𝑚𝐸
+ ( 𝐸) 𝜓𝐼𝐼 = 0 , = 𝑘2
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2 ℏ2
To determine the constants A, B, F, G and the allowed values of energy E, apply the four
boundary conditions and the normalization condition:
𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜓𝐼𝐼
At x = 0 , I(0) = II(0) and [ 𝑑𝑥𝐼] = [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
𝑥=0
𝑑𝜓𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝜓𝐼𝐼𝐼
At x = L , II(L) = III(L) and [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
= [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
+∞
∫ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
Figure 4.5 shows the plots of wave functions and their respective probability densities.
Fig. 4.7Sketch of (a) wave function, (b) Probability density for a particle in potential well of
finite height
It is seen that wavelengths of the wave functions are longer than those of wave functions of
infinite potential well of same length and hence the quantized energies of the particle in a
finite well are lower than those for a particle in an infinite well.
By applying the boundary conditions, i.e.and its first derivative must be continuous at
boundaries (at x = 0 and x = L), full solution to the Schrödinger equation can be found which is
shown in figure. The wave function is sinusoidal in regions I and III but exponentially
decaying in region II. The probability of locating the particle beyond the barrier in region III
is nonzero. The movement of the particle to the far side of the barrier is called tunneling or
barrier penetration. The probability of tunneling can be described with a transmission
coefficient T and a reflection coefficient R.
The transmission coefficient represents the probability that the particle penetrates to the
other side of the barrier, and reflection coefficient is the probability that the particle is
reflected by the barrier. Because the particles must be either reflected or transmitted we
have, R + T = 1.
An approximate expression for the transmission coefficient, when T<< 1 is
√ 2 𝑚 (𝑈−𝐸)
T ≈ e−2CL , where 𝐶 = .
ℏ
Fig. 4.10 A spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr has a volume equal to 4 r2dr
Radial probability density for H-atom in its ground state:
4 𝑟2
𝑃1𝑠 = ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− 2𝑎𝑜𝑟 )
𝑎𝑜3
Fig. 4.11 (a) The probability of finding the electron as a function of distance from the nucleus
for the hydrogen atom in the 1s (ground)state. (b) The cross section in the xy plane of the
spherical electronic charge distribution for the hydrogen atom in its 1s state
The next simplest wave function for the H-atom is the 2s-state wave function (n = 2,
= 0):
1 𝑟 𝑟
𝜓2𝑆 (𝑟) = (2 − 𝑎 ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− 𝑎 )
√32𝜋𝑎𝑜3 𝑜 𝑜
2s is spherically symmetric (depends only on r). Energy corresponding to n = 2 (first excited
state is E2= E1/4 = –3.401 eV.
Fig. 4.12 Plot of radial probability density versus r/a0 (normalized radius) for 1s and 2s states
of hydrogen atom
EXERCISE
QUESTIONS
4.1 AN INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
1 What is a wave function ? What is its physical interpretation ? [2]
2 What are the mathematical features of a wave function? [2]
4.2 THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
𝐴 = √2𝐿 .
[2]
nπx
7 The wave-function of an electron is ψ(x) = A sin( ) . Obtain an
L
expression for the probability of finding the electron between x = a and
x = b. [3]
4.4 A PARTICLE IN A WELL OF FINITE HEIGHT
8 Sketch the potential-well diagram of finite height U and length L, obtain
the general solution of the Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass
m in it. [5]
9 Sketch the wave-functions and the probability densities for the lowest
three energy states of a particle in a potential well of finite height. [3]
4.5 TUNNELING THROUGH A POTENTIAL ENERGY BARRIER
10 Give a brief account of tunneling of a particle through a potential energy
barrier. [4]
4.6 THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
11 Give a brief account of quantum model of H-atom. [2]
4.7 THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN
PROBLEMS
schrodinger equation.
Quantum based free electron theory of metals is centered on wave nature of electrons. In this
model, one imagines that the outer-shell electrons are free to move through the metal but
are trapped within a three-dimensional box formed by the metal surfaces. Therefore,
each electron is represented as a particle in a box and is restricted to quantized energy
levels. Each energy state can be occupied by only two electrons (one with spin up & the
other with spin down) as a consequence of exclusion principle. In quantum statistics, it is
shown that the probability of a particular energy state E being occupied by an electrons is
given by
1
f E [5.1]
E EF
exp 1
kT
where f(E) is called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and EF is called the Fermi energy.
Plot of f(E) versus E is shown in figure 5.1.
Fig. 5.1 Plot of Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) versus energy E at (a) T = 0K and (b) T >
0K
At zero kelvin (0 K), all states having energies less than the Fermi energy are occupied, and
all states having energies greater than the Fermi energy are vacant. i.e. Fermi energy is the
highest energy possessed by an electron at 0 K (Figure 5.1a). As temperature increases (T >
Density of states: From particle in a box problem, for a particle of mass m is confined to move
in a one-dimensional box of length L, the allowed states have quantized energy levels given
by,
h2 2 2 2
En n
2
n n = 1, 2, 3 . . . [5.2]
8 m L2 2 m L2
An electron moving freely in a metal cube of side L, can be modeled as particle in a three-
dimensional box. It can be shown that the energy for such an electron is
2 2
E 2
nx2 ny2 nz2 [5.3]
2mL
where m is mass of the electron and nx, ny, nz are quantum numbers(positive integers). Each
allowed energy value is characterized by a set of three quantum numbers (nx, ny, nz - one
for each degree of freedom). Imagine a three-dimensional quantum number space whose
axes represent nx, ny, nz. The allowed energy states in this space can be represented as
dots located at positive integral values of the three quantum numbers as shown in the
Figure 5.2.
Fig. 5.2 Representation of the allowed energy states in a quantum number space (dots
represent the allowed states)
2 2 E
where E o and n
2 m L2 Eo
Eq. 5.4 represents a sphere of radius n. Thus, the number of allowed energy states
having energies between E and E+dE is equal to the number of points in a spherical
shell of radius n and thickness dn. In this quantum number space each point is at the
corners of a unit cube and each corner point is shared by eight unit cubes and as such the
contribution of each point to the cube is 1/8 th. Because a cube has eight corners, the effective
point per unit cube and hence unit volume is one. In other words, number of points is equal
to the volume of the shell. The “volume” of this shell, denoted by G(E)dE.
E E 2
1
E
G( E ) dE 1
d using the relation n
E o E o
2
Eo
E 12 1 12 3 2 1
G( E ) dE 1
2 E o 2 E dE 1
4 Eo E 2
dE
Eo
3 2
2 2 1
G( E ) dE 41
2
E 2
dE
2mL
3
2 m 2 L3 1 2
G( E ) dE E dE , L3 V
2 2 3
Number of states per unit volume per unit energy range, called density of states, g(E) is
given by
g(E) = G(E)/V
3
G( E ) 2 m 2 12
g( E ) dE dE E dE
V 2 2 3
3
4 2 m 2 1 h
g( E ) dE E 2 dE
h3 2
Finally, we multiply by 2 for the two possible spin states of each particle.
Electron density: For a metal in thermal equilibrium, the number of electrons N(E) dE,
per unit volume, that have energy between E and E+dE is equal to the product of the
density of states and the probability that a state is occupied. that is,
Plots of N(E) versus E for two temperatures are given in figure 5.3.
At T = 0K, the Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) = 1 for E <EF and f(E) = 0 for E >EF. Therefore,
at T = 0K, Equation 5.7 becomes
3 3 3
8 2 m 8 2 m 16 2 m
2 EF 2 2
EF
1 3 3
ne
h3 E
0
2
dE
h3
2
3
2
3 h3
EF 2 [5.8]
When a quantum system is represented by wave function, probability density ||2 for that
system is physically significant while the probability amplitude not. Consider an atom such
as sodium that has a single s electron outside of a closed shell. Both the wave functions S ( r )
and S ( r ) are valid for such an atom [ S ( r ) and S ( r ) are symmetric and anti symmetric
wave functions]. As the two sodium atoms are brought closer together, their wave functions
begin to overlap. Figure 5.4 represents two possible combinations : i) symmetric - symmetric
and ii) symmetric – antisymmetric . These two possible combinations of wave functions
represent two possible states of the two-atom system. Thus, the states are split into two
energy levels. The energy difference between these states is relatively small, so the two states
are close together on an energy scale.
Fig. 5.4 The wave functions of two atoms combine to form a composite wave function : a)
symmetric-symmetric b) symmetric-antisymmetric
When two atoms are brought together, each energy level will split into 2 energy levels. (In
general, when N atoms are brought together N split levels will occur which can hold 2N
electrons). The split levels are so close that they may be regarded as a continuous band of
energy levels. Following figure shows the splitting of 1s and 2s levels of sodium atom
when : (a) two sodium atoms are brought together (b)five sodium atoms are brought
together (c) a large number of sodium atoms are assembled to form a solid. The close
energy levels forming a band are seen clearly in (c).
Fig.5.5 Splitting of 1s and 2s levels of sodium atoms due to interaction between them
Some bands may be wide enough in energy so that there is an overlap between the
adjacent bands. Some other bands are narrow so that a gap may occur between the allowed
bands, and is known as forbidden energy gap. The 1s, 2s, and 2p bands of solid sodium
are filled completely with electrons. The 3s band (2N states) of solid sodium has only
N electrons and is partially full; The 3p band, which is the higher region of the overlapping
bands, is completely empty as shown in Figure 5.6
Good electrical conductors contain high density of free charge carriers, and the density
of free charge carriers in insulators is nearly zero. In semiconductors free-charge-carrier
densities are intermediate between those of insulators and those of conductors.
Metals: Metal has a partially filled energy band (Figure 5.7a). At 0K Fermi level is the
highest electron-occupied energy level. If a potential difference is applied to the metal,
electrons having energies near the Fermi energy require only a small amount of
Insulators: Consider the two outermost energy bands of a material in which the lower band is
filled with electrons and the higher band is empty at 0 K (Figure5.7b). The lower, filled band is
called the valence band, and the upper, empty band is the conduction band. The energy
separation between the valence and conduction band, called energy gap Eg, is large for
insulating materials. The Fermi level lies somewhere in the energy gap. Due to larger energy
gap compare to thermal energy kT (26meV) at room temperature, excitation of electrons from
valence band to conduction band is hardly possible. Since the free-electron density is nearly
zero, these materials are bad conductors of electricity.
Semiconductors: Semiconductors have the same type of band structure as an insulator, but
the energy gap is much smaller, of the order of 1 eV. The band structure of a semiconductor
is shown in Figure 5.7c. Because the Fermi level is located near the middle of the gap for a
semiconductor and Eg is small, appreciable numbers of electrons are thermally excited from
the valence band to the conduction band. Because of the many empty levels above the
thermally filled levels in the conduction band, a small applied potential difference can easily
raise the energy of the electrons in the conduction band, resulting in a moderate conduction.
At T = 0 K, all electrons in these materials are in the valence band and no energy is available
to excite them across the energy gap. Therefore, semiconductors are poor conductors at very
low temperatures. Because the thermal excitation of electrons across the narrow gap is more
probable at higher temperatures, the conductivity of semiconductors increases rapidly with
temperature. This is in sharp contrast with the conductivity of metals, where it decreases with
increasing temperature. Charge carriers in a semiconductor can be negative, positive, or both.
When an electron moves from the valence band into the conduction band, it leaves behind a
vacant site, called a hole, in the otherwise filled valence band.
Fig. 5.7 Band structure of (a) Metals (b) Insulators (c) Semiconductors
Fig. 5.9 n-type semiconductor – two dimensional representation and band structure
Fig. 5.10 p-type semiconductor – two dimensional representation and band structure
Element/Compound Tc (K)
La 6.0
NbNi 10.0
Nb3Ga 23.8
Fig. 5.11 Plot of Resistance Vs Temperature for normal metal and a superconductor
Meissner Effect: In the presence of magnetic field, as the temperature of superconducting
material is lowered below Tc, the field lines are spontaneously expelled from the interior of
the superconductor(B = 0, Figure 5.12). Therefore, a superconductor is more than a perfect
conductor; it is also a perfect diamagnet. The property that B = 0 in the interior of a
superconductor is as fundamental as the property of zero resistance. If the magnitude of the
applied magnetic field exceeds a critical value Bc, defined as the value of B that destroys a
material’s superconducting properties, the field again penetrates the sample. Meissner effect
can be explained in the following way.
A good conductor expels static electric fields by moving charges to its surface. In effect, the
surface charges produce an electric field that exactly cancels the externally applied field inside
the conductor. In a similar manner, a superconductor expels magnetic fields by forming
surface currents. Consider the superconductor shown in Figure 5.12. Let’s assume the sample
is initially at a temperature T>Tc so that the magnetic field penetrates the cylinder. As the
cylinder is cooled to a temperature T<Tc, the field is expelled. Surface currents induced on the
superconductor’s surface produce a magnetic field that exactly cancels the externally applied
Fig. 5.12 A superconductor in the form of a long cylinder in the presence of an external
magnetic field.
BCS Theory: In 1957. Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer gave a successful theory to explain the
phenomenon of superconductivity, which is known as BCS theory. According to this theory, two
electrons can interact via distortions in the array of lattice ions so that there is a net attractive
force between the electrons. As a result, the two electrons are bound into an entity called a
Cooper pair, which behaves like a single particle with integral spin. Particles with integral spin
are called bosons. An important feature of bosons is that they do not obey the Pauli exclusion
principle. Consequently, at very low temperatures, it is possible for all bosons in a collection
of such particles to be in the lowest quantum state and as such the entire collection of Cooper
pairs in the metal is described by a single wave function. There is an energy gap equal to the
binding energy of a Cooper pair between this lowest state and the next higher state.. Under
the action of an applied electric field, the Cooper pairs experience an electric force and move
through the metal. A random scattering event of a Cooper pair from a lattice ion would
represent resistance to the electric current. Such a collision would change the energy of the
Cooper pair because some energy would be transferred to the lattice ion. There are no
available energy levels below that of the Cooper pair (it is already in the lowest state),
however, and none available above because of the energy gap. As a result, collisions do not
occur and there is no resistance to the movement of Cooper pairs.
Applications: Most important and basic application of superconductors is in high field
solenoids which can be used to produce intense magnetic field. Superconducting magnets are
used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. Magnetic levitation, based on Meissner
effect, is another important application of superconductors. This principle is used in maglev
vehicles. Detection of a weak magnetic field and lossless power transmission are some other
important applications of superconductors.
QUESTIONS