OXALIC ACID CONTENT OF CARAMBOLA AND BILIMBI

SCIENTIFIC NAME: Averrhoa carambola, A. bilimbi

FAMILY: Oxalidaceae

Introduction

Oxalic acid has been identified as the principal acid in the carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) and the
bilimbi (A. bilimbi L.) (2). While quantitative levels have been reported for carambola, oxalic acid has
only been reported qualitatively for bilimbi. Vines and Grierson (7) reported levels of 9.6 mg/g in ripe
carambola and 5.0 mg/g in green fruit. These levels represent seventy-four percent (74%) and forty
percent (40%) of total acid respectively in the fruit. Wagner et al. (8) reported oxalic acid levels in ten
selections and cultivars. They ranged from 0.39 mg/g in sweet cultivars to 6.79 mg/g in sour carambola
cultivars. Wilson et al. (9) quantified the oxalic acid in carambola using the HPLC technique. Levels
ranging from 0.8 mg/g to 7.3 mg/g were reported.

Oxalic acid is a food toxicant which may decrease the availability of dietary calcium by forming a poorly
absorbed calcium-oxalate complex. This oxalate-calcium interaction has not, thus far, been regarded as
significant since there has been no evidence to indicate that sufficient oxalate intake occurs

Methodology

Selection of Fruit

Sweet and sour carambola and bilimbi were obtained from trees on farm lands located on the East and
West Bank, Demerara, Guyana. Using the colour of the fruit as an index of maturity, mature green
(green in colour), half-ripe (yellowish green) and ripe (yellow) carambola were harvested during
September to December 1984 and April to June 1985. Mature green and ripe bilimbi were harvested
during March to May 1985 and December 1985 to January 1986.

For each season, ten replicates of each level of maturity were analysed in duplicate. All analyses were
done immediately after harvest.

Preparation of Samples

A known weight of fruit (300 g green fruit; 600 g ripe fruit) were blended together. The juice was filtered
off and the residue thoroughly washed with distilled water. The filtrate was then made up to volume to
give concentrations of oxalic acid within the range of 35 to 100 g/25 ml.

Total and Free Acid

Oxalic Acid Extraction and Analysis

An ion exchange chromatography procedure (5) previously modified and standardised was used to
extract oxalic acid from the fruits. Dowex 50W x 8 H form (Dow Chemical Company, Michigan, U.s.A.) in
columns 34 cm x 2.5 cm and Amberlite IR-45 OH Form (Rohm and Hass Co., Philadelphia, U.S.A.) in
columns 27.0 cm x 2.0 cm were used as the cation and anion exchange columns respectively. NH 4 Cl
buffered to pH 10 was used to elute the acid from the anion column.
Oxalic acid was determined by a titrimetric procedure (1) previously modified and standardised. Spiked
samples of fruit juice and oxalic acid standards of 20 mg/25 ml to 100 mg/25 ml were also analysed.
Oxalic acid was reported as mg/g wet fruit weight and as milliliter equivalents to 0.1 M NaOH.

Total acid was determined on the filtrate from the cation exchange column. Free acid was determined
on juice before ion exchange chromatography was done. Free and total acids were assayed by titration
with 0.1 M NaOH using phenolphthalein as an indicator. They are reported as milliliter equivalents to 0.1
M NaOH.

Only fruit harvested during the second season were assayed for total acids.

Results and Discussion

Higher levels of oxalic acid were detected in sour carambola than in sweet fruit (Table 1). Oxalic acid
levels of 5.5-10.0 mg/g were detected in sour green fruit, while for sweet green fruit, the levels ranged
between 0.5 and 1.7 mg/g (wet weight).

The oxalic acid levels in both sweet and sour carambola decreased as the fruit matured. Thus, while
levels of 5.5-10.9 mg/g and 0.5-1.7 mg/g were detected in sour green and sweet green fruit respectively,
only 3.8-5.1 mg/g were detected in sour ripe fruit and 0.2-1.0 mg/g in sweet ripe fruit. The percentage
loss in oxalic acid as fruit matured was approximately the same for both types of fruit.

Variation in levels of oxalic acid was also observed from season to season (Table 1). Wilson et al. (9) also
reported this trend. In the 'Demak' cultivar, 0.09 g/100 g was detected during the first season. One year
later, the level in the same cultivar was 0.21 g/100 g.

The levels of oxalic acid detected in this study were lower than those reported by Wilson et al. (9) and
Wagner et al. (8) (Table 1). Wagner et al. (8) reported levels ranging from 0.3 to 6.7 mg/g. Wilson et al.
(9) reported a range of 0.8 to 7.3 mg/g for ripe fruit. The levels detected in this study ranged from 0.2 to
5.1 mg/g for ripe fruit. The fruit for this study were harvested when ripe and analysed immediately after
harvest. Wilson et al. (9) analysed fruit which were allowed to ripen for one week at 21°C.

Table 1. Levels of Oxalic Acid (mg/g wet weight) in Carambola and Bilimbi

Season 1 (mg/g) Season 2 (mg/g)

Sour carambola Green 5.90-10.90 5.49-9.8
Half-ripe 5.49-9.8 4.64-7.00
Ripe 3.79-4.10 3.90- 5.03
Sweet carambola Green 1.40-1.69 0.89-1.82
Half-ripe 0.49-1.12 0.91-2.80
Ripe 0.22-0.97 0.18-0.65
Bilimbi Green 11.20-14.70 9.86-10.80
Ripe 10.50-14.00 8.45-9.00
The free, total and oxalic acids, expressed as milliliters of 0.1 M NaOH, are presented in Table 2.
Generally, sweet carambola had lower levels of free and total acids than sour fruit. The free acid and
oxalic acid expressed as a percentage of total acids was lower in sweet fruit. Vines and Grierson (7)
reported oxalic acid as 74% of total acids in ripe fruit and 40% in green fruit.

Some sweet fruit contained free, total and oxalic acid levels which were comparable with those of sour
fruit. Wilson et al. (9) reported a similar trend. The 'Newarke' cultivar, identified as a sweet fruit, had
one of the highest levels of oxalic acid reported in Wilson's study, 0.57 g/100 g.

The oxalic acid in bilimbi ranged between 10.5 and 14.7 mg/g in green fruit and from 8.45 to 10.8 mg/g
in ripe fruit (Table 1). These levels were comparable with the levels reported from tea leaves. Oxalic acid
accounted for 90 to 93% of the total acids in green fruit and 92 to 95% in ripe fruit. As in sour carambola,
the free acid as a percentage of total acids was high (Table 2).

Table 2. Levels of Total, Free and Oxalic Acid in Carambola and Bilimbi (Season
II)

Total Acid Free Acid Oxalic Acid

ml 0.1M ml 0.1M ml 0.1M

&TA &TA
NaOH NaOH NaOH
Carambola
sour green 1.57-2.60 1.20-1.99 72.4-81.0 1.22-2.20 77.9-88.9
sour ripe 1.02-1.40 0.62-1.00 65.5-71.5 0.87-1.10 67.9-88.6
sweet green 0.68-0.88 0.34-0.48 46.3-55.0 0.10-0.25 16.1-34.3
sweet ripe 0.59-0.70 0.23-0.35 39.1-51.9 0.04-0.14 6.2-13.9
Bilimbi
green 2.68-3.57 2.28-3.02 84.0-85.0 2.50-3.24 90.7-93.3
ripe 2.30-2.60 2.02-2.34 86.9-90.0 2.20-2.40 92.0-95.0

http://rfcarchives.org.au/Next/Fruits/Carambola/CarambolaAcid1-91.htm

Literature Cited

1. Andrews, J.C. and E.T. Viser. 1951. 16:306.

2. Bailey, L.H. 1949. Manual of cultivated plants. MacMillan Co., New York.

3. Bender, A.E. 1973. 2nd ed. Nutrition and dietetic foods. Chemical Pub. Co., N.Y.

4. Fasset, D.W. 2nd ed. Toxicants occurring naturally in foods. p. 346.

5. National Canners Association. 1968. 3rd ed. Laboratory manual for food canners and processors. Vol.
II. AVI, Westport, Conn.

6. Taylor, S.L. 1982. J. Food Tech. 36(10).

7. Vines, H.M. and W. Grierson. 1966. Handling and physiological studies with the carambola. Proc. Fla.
State Hort. Soc. 79:350-355.

8. Wagner, C.J., Jr., W.L. Bryan, R.E. Berry, and R.J. Knight, Jr. 1975. Carambola selection for commercial
production. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 88:466-469.

9. Wilson, C.W., III, P.E. Shaw, and R.J. Knight, Jr. 1982. J. Agric. Food Chem. 30:1106.

10. Winton, A.L. and K.B. Winton. 1935. Structure and composition of foods. Vol. II, p. 207, 215, 678-681.
John Wiley and Sons.

11. Zarembski, P.M. and A. Hodgkinsen. 1962. Brit. J. Nutr. 16:627.

Oxalic acid levels in Averrhoa carambola and Averrhoa bilimbi [1989]

Joseph, J. Mendonca, G. (Guyana Univ., Turkeyen, Georgetown (Guyana) Dept. of Chemistry)

Oxalic acid has been identified as the principal acid in the carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) and the
bilimbi (A. bilimbi L.) (2). While quantitative levels have been reported for carambola, oxalic acid has
only been reported qualitatively for bilimbi. Vines and Grierson (7) reported levels of 9.6 mg/g in ripe
carambola and 5.0 mg/g in green fruit. These levels represent seventy-four percent (74%) and forty
percent (40%) of total acid respectively in the fruit. Wagner et al. (8) reported oxalic acid levels in ten
selections and cultivars. They ranged from 0.39 mg/g in sweet cultivars to 6.79 mg/g in sour carambola
cultivars. Wislon et al. (9) quantified the oxalic acid in carambola using the HPLC technique. Levels
ranging from 0.8 mg/g to 7.3 mg/g were reported. Oxalic acid is a food toxicant which may decrease the
availability of dietary calcium by forming a poorly absorbed calcium-oxalate complex. This oxalate-
calcium interaction has not, thus far, been regarded as significant since there has been no evidence to
indicate that sufficient oxalate intake occurs (4). Foods reported to have high levels of oxalic acid are not
staples in most diets. Boiled spinach and cocoa powder contain 780 mg/100 g and 623 mg/100 g
respectively, while tea leaves have levels ranging from 375 to 1450 mg/100 g. The levels in vegetables
range from 1.3 mg/100 g in peas to 30 mg/100 g in French beans. For fruits, the levels range from nil in
some fruits, e.g. pineapple, to 6.2 mg

http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=GY9200049

HEMATOLOGIC EFFECT OF AVERRHOA BILIMBI (KAMIAS) ETHANOLIC FRUIT EXTRACT

Abstract

Background: Clinical laboratories employ every the use of anticoagulant. The most common test is
Complete blood count (CBC) testing which requires anticoagulant, EDTA. It is synthetically made and
expensive (Dayaganon et al. 2014). Averrhoa bilimbi (kamias), contains oxalic acid (Daud et al. 2013),
may be an alternative anticoagulant.
Objectives: The study deemed to examine the CBC results and microscopic assessment of blood treated
with kamias ethanolic fruit extract (KEFE) (2 mg/mL, 3 mg/mL and 4 mg/mL), and EDTA-treated blood.

Methods: Significant difference of the means of CBC parameters were assessed. This is an experimental
research wherein blood were collected from volunteers with normal CBC and no cardiovascular
diseases. 16 specimens were tested.

Result: Macroscopic clotting time of the blood with KEFE showed no visible coagulation for
concentrations of 3 mg/mL and 4 mg/mL even after 180 minutes of observation, while the blood with 2
mg/mL and blood without treatment showed a clot within 15 minutes. The results on CBC parameter
showed significant difference only in platelet count between groups (p>0.000); and the rest of the
parameters were insignificant. The microscopic evaluation of blood-stained smears were comparable to
EDTA blood-stained smears.

Conclusion: Given with the results in this study, the KEFE exhibited anticoagulation activity with
insignificant difference in the hematologic effects. The KEFE may be an alternative anticoagulant for CBC
testing.

http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/5/Suppl_1/bmjopen-2015-forum2015abstracts.34

In vitro determination of the anticoagulant activity of kamias (Averrhoa balimbi, linn. ) extract family
oxalidaceae

Anticoagulants are necessary for the routine hematological procedure to facilitate cell counting, and
morphological examination of blood cells. Many anticoagulants came from synthetic sources, but plants
may also contain natural substances that can prevent blood from clotting. One of these plants that
contain anticoagulating agents is kamias. Several studies have been done to explore the potential of
kamias in therapeutic medicine and their use as anticoagulant in hematological examination is limited.
The study attempted to determine if kamias is an effective anticoagulant for routine hematological
procedure, which is the complete blood count examination. The experimental design we employed in
the study, which dealt mainly with the extraction of the bioactive substances using three different
methods from kamias fruit. The final phase of the study was focused on the analysis of the effectivity of
the kamias extract as anticoagulant. Blood types "O" and "AB" were added to different concentrations
of kamias extract from three extraction methods. The effectivity of the extract was tested through
complete blood count examination, and the results were compared with the results of the standard
anticoagulants. The data were analyzed using Friedman test and the paired t-test. The major findings of
the study was that the kamias fruit extract was soluble in human blood and although the plasma
produces slight hemolysis, the complete blood count results and morphological apperance of the cells
were comparable with the results of the blood samples with EDTA and Heparin. The nucleus and
granules of the cells are well-defined under the microscope, and the cell size are within the normal
range, since the blood samples came from normal patients. The extract can be utilized as a satisfactory
anticoagulant. It can be used in hemoglobin, hematocrit, WBC counting plasma pH, differential counting,
and cell size determinations in the diagnosis of several diseases.

http://www.herdin.ph/index.php/partners?view=research&cid=50255
Anticoagulant Activity of Averrhoa bilimbi Linn in Normal and AlloxanInduced Diabetic Rats

Nurafifah Daud, Harita Hashim* and Nurdiana Samsulrizal

Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract: Hypercoagulation, which is often associated with diabetes mellitus may lead to several health
problems such as thrombosis, stroke and heart attack. A plant with an anticoagulant effect would be
beneficial to counteract these problems. An ethanolic extract of leaves and fruits of Averrhoa bilimbi
Linn (Abe) (250 mg/kg) was orally administered to normal and diabetic male Wistar rats for 14
consecutive days. Samples of blood were then drawn after 14 days and centrifuged (5000 rpm,15 min)
to obtain the plasma. Clotting time assays were carried out using a microtitre plate reader. The present
study found that ethanolic extract of the leaves and fruits of A. bilimbi showed very significant
anticoagulant effect on rats (P < 0.01). The high level of oxalic acid in A. bilimbi, which range from 10.5
to 14.7 mg/g in green, unriped fruit and 8.45 to 10.8 mg/g in ripe fruit could provide the anticoagulation
effect since oxalic acid is a metal cation chelator. Oxalate presumably binds to blood calcium, removing
calcium ion from the blood, thus inhibiting the clotting process.

https://www.benthamopen.com/contents/pdf/TOPROCJ/TOPROCJ-4-2-21.pdf

• Carambola fruit features light-green to yellow with attractive smooth waxy surface and weighs
about 70-130g. Inside, its crispy, juicy pulp can either be mildly sweet or extremely sour depending upon
the cultivar type and amount of oxalic acid concentration.

• Star fruit contains good quantities of vitamin-C. Vitamin C is a powerful natural antioxidant. 100
g of fresh fruit provides 34.7 mg or 57% of daily-required levels of vitamin C. In general, consumption of
fruits rich in vitamin C helps the human body develop resistance against infectious agents and scavenge
harmful, pro-inflammatory free radicals from the body.

• Star fruit is rich in antioxidant phyto-nutrient polyphenolic flavonoids. Some of the important
flavonoids present are quercetin, epicatechin, and gallic acid. Total polyphenol contents (Folin assay) in
this fruit is 143 mg/100 g. Altogether, these compounds help protect from deleterious effects of oxygen
derived free radicals by warding them off the body.

• In addition, it is a good source of B-complex vitamins such as folates, riboflavin, and pyridoxine
(vitamin B-6). Together, these vitamins help as co-factors for enzymes in metabolism as well as in
various synthetic functions inside the body.

• It also carry small amount of minerals and electrolytes like potassium, phosphorus, and zinc and
iron. Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids helps controlling heart rate and blood
pressure; thus, it counters bad influences of sodium.

• Star fruit and its juice is often recommended in many folk medicine in Brazil as a diuretic (to
increase urine output), expectorant, and to suppress cough.

• Ripe fruits tend to perish early; however, they stay well in cold storages when kept at
appropriate temperatures. At home, unripe light green fruits may be kept at room temperature until
they turn rich orange-yellow color. Ripe fruits may keep well for 2-3 days at room temperature, but
required to be stored inside the refrigerator for extended shelf life.

• Star fruit is one of the plant sources that contain highest concentration of oxalic acid; 100 g of
fresh fruit contains 50,000-95,800 ppm of oxalic acid. Oxalic acid has been considered as anti-nutrient
compound as it interferes with absorption and metabolism of several natural minerals such as calcium,
magnesium, etc. It also predisposes to a condition known as oxaluria, a condition which may leads to the
formation of oxalate kidney stones. In some people with impaired kidney function, its consumption
would result in renal failure and may cause death. People with known kidney disease should therefore,
advice to avoid eating star fruit.

• Further, Star fruit, like grapefruit, has been found to interact adversely with many drugs. Some
of the compounds in carambola irreversibly inhibit cytochrome P450 3A4 isoenzymes (3A4) in the
intestines and liver. This resulting increase in drug levels leads to adverse effects and/or toxicity. It is
therefore, strongly advised to consult your healthcare practitioner before eating star fruit or its products
if taking any kind of pharmaceutical drugs.

References

Rudrappa, U. (2009). Star fruit (carambola) nutrition facts. Retrieved from Nutrition and You:
http://www.nutrition-and-you.com/star-fruit.html

Studies

• Cardiac Effects / Negative Inotropic and Chronotropic Effects: The study showed that the A. carambola
extract is an agent that strongly depresses the heart rate and the myocardial contractile force. Although
the active compound has not been identified, its action on the L-type Ca2+ channels is important to
explain the mechanism of action of this plant on the mammalian atrial myocardium. (1)

• Fatal outcome after ingestion of star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) in uremic patients: The study warns
that patients with renal failure who ingest star fruit may develop neurological symptoms and run the
risk of death in severe cases. Hemodialysis, especially on a daily basis, is the ideal treatment for star fruit
intoxication. (2)
• Neurotoxicity: Report of study on 32 uraemic patients who ingested star fruit. Most common
presenting symptoms were persistent hiccups, vomiting, mental confusion, psychomotor agitation,
insomnia, paresthesias and seizures. Ideal treatment was daily hemodialysis.(4)

• Antioxidant: Research reports the residues from star fruit juicing process is a rich and excellent source
of extractable phenolic antioxidants. (6)

• Convulsant / Neurotoxic Fraction: Study yielded a nonproteic neurotoxic fraction from the star fruit
Averrhoa carambola. It was shown to inhibit GABA binding in a concentration-dependent manner. It
produced behavioral changes in animals, including seizures - tonic-clonic to status epilepticus. (7)

• Anti-Ulcerogernic Effect: Water-alcohol extract of A carambola showed significant anti-ulcer activity in

the acidified-ethanol-induced ulcer model in rats, with no activity in the indomethacin and acute stress
ulcerogenic models.

• Human Cytochrome P450 Inhibition: Fruit juice-drug interaction has been a concern since the
discovery of the grapefruit juice-drug interaction. Other fruits have been found to inhibit CYP3A in vitro.
Study showed star fruit juice inhibited the seven CYP isoforms tested, with the strongest inhibitory
effect against CYP2A6 and the least towards CYP3A4. (8)

• Hypotensive Effect: Study of aqueous extract of Averrhoa carambola in isolated rat aorta
demonstrated hypotensive effects, in part, attributed to inhibition of the contractile mechanisms
involving extracellular Ca++ influx. (12)

• Topical Anti-Inflammatory: Study in mice evaluated the topical anti-inflammatory effects of various
extracts of leaves, fractions and flavonoids on skin inflammation. The ethyl acetate fraction was the
most effective. (13)

• Antioxidant / Antimicrobial: Nitric oxide radicals generated from sodium nitroprusside was inhibited by
A. carambola fruit extracts at various stages of ripening. Methanolic and water extracts of fruits showed
antimicrobial activity against E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Staph aureus and Bacillus cereus. (14)

• Hypoglycemic: Treatment of male Sprague Dawley rats with fruit pulp for eight weeks significantly
decreased blood sugar levels. The change was insignificant in female rats, which was attributed to
hormonal changes. (16)
• Analgesic / Fruit Extract: Treatment investigated the analgesic effect of a fruit extract of A. carambola
in Swiss albino mice by acetic acid-writhing test (peripheral action) and radiant tail flick test (central
action). Results showed significant central and peripheral analgesic activities. (17)

• Antioxidant / Antibacterial / Cytotoxicity / Bark: Study evaluated a petroleum ether of bark of

Averrhoa carambola for antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic properties. Phytochemical screening
yielded flavonoids, carbohydrates, glycosides and steroids. The extract exhibited good antibacterial
action, especially against S. typhi, P aeruginosa, E coli and B megaterium. There was concentration
dependent DPPH radical scavenging activity. On brine shrimp lethality testing, the LC50 was calculated
at 19.95. (18)

• Anthelmintic / Leaf: Study evaluated anthelmintic potential of a leaf extract of A. carambola against
Pheretima posthuma as test worm. Results showed significant paralysis and death of worms especially
at higher concentrations. (19)

• Electrophysiologic Effects: Study evaluated the electrophysiological changes produced by an aqueous

extract of leaves on isolated right atrium preparations of guinea pig heart. The extract produced various
kinds of atrioventricular blocs, increased QT interval, increased QRS duration, and decrease cardiac rate.
The results caution against the use of such extracts because it can promote electrical and mechanical
changes in the heart. (20)

• Prophylactic / Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Study evaluated the protective roles of fruit of Averrhoa
carambola on diethylnitrosamine-(DENA)-induced and CCl4-promoted liver cancer in Swiss albino mice.
Results showed considerable reduction in tumor incidence, tumor yield, and tumor burden. There was
also a significant reduction in lipid peroxidation. Results shows a prophylactic roles against
hepatocellular carcinoma in mice, and suggests a potential as a chemopreventive natural supplement
against cancer. (21)

• Radioprotective / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated the radioprotective efficacy of ethanolic

extract of leaves of Averrhoa carambola. Results showed supplementation with Averrhoa carambola has
potent antoxidant activities and probably act as radioprotective against gamma radiation induced
oxidative damage. (22)

• Oxalic Acid Content: Oxalic acid is the principal acid in A. carambola and A. bilimbi. It is a food toxicant
which may decrease the availability of dietary calcium by forming poorly absorbed calcium-oxalate
complex. Study revealed higher levels of oxalic acid in sour green carambola (5.5 - 10.9 mg/g) than in
sweet fruit (0.5 -1.7 mg/g). Oxalic acid levels in both sweet and sour carambola decreased as the fruit
matured, with variations from season to season. (23)
• Anticoagulant Activity: Study of an ethanolic extract of leaves and fruits in diabetic male Wistar rats
showed very significant anticoagulant effect, attributed to the high level of oxalic acid acting as a metal
cation chelator, presumably binding to blood calcium, removing the calcium ion from the blood, and
inhibiting the clotting process. (24)

• Hepatoprotective Activity / CCl4-Induced Injury / Stems: Study of a stem ethanolic extract showed
hepatoprotective activity in CCl4-induced hepatic damage in rat. Silymarin was used as standard. (25)

• Fruit Juice Effect on Alkaline Phosphatase: Study evaluated the in vivo effect of star fruit juice on
activity of alkaline phosphates in female Sprague Dawley rats. Results showed star fruit juice at different
storage times selectively induced the activity of alkaline phosphatase in rat liver but not in the heart and
kidney. (26)

• Antihyperglycemic / Leaves: Study evaluated antihyperglycemic activity of methanol extracts of leaves

of three plants: A. carambola, F. hispida, and S. samarangense. All three showed reductions in blood
glucose in mice. Glibenclamide was used as standard. (27)

• Hepatoprotective / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study of leaves of A. carambola on carbon tetrachloride

induced hepatic damage in mice demonstrated hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity . Pretreatment
of extract significantly controlled the levels of serum biochemical and antioxidant enzymes. (28)

• In Vitro Cytotoxicity / MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cell Line / Leaves: Study of leaf extract for in vitro cytotoxic
activity against breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) showed an IC50 value of 170.326 µg/ml. (see constituents
above) (29)

• Attenuation of Fluoride Induced Toxicity / Fruit: Study evaluated the potential of star fruit as dietary
supplement in attenuating the fluoride induced hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia and oxidative
stress in a rat model. Diet supplementation with star fruit powder significantly restored fluoride induced
elevation of glucose, lipids, and oxidative stress. The activity could be due to the presence of
polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins, phytosterols, ascorbic acid and fibers in the fruit. (30)

• Anti-Browning Effect of Honey and L-Cysteine on Fresh Cut Fruit: Study evaluated the anti-browning
effect of L-cysteine and honey through PPO activity and total phenolic content in carambola slices.
Overall quality analysis showed honey (10%) enriched with L-cysteine (0.5%) significantly extended the
shelf life of fresh-cut carambola. Honey can be used as edible coating to maintain fresh-like appearance
of carambola slices up to 12 days. (31)

• Tumor Inhibitory / Antiagiogenic / Proapoptotic / Fruit: Study evaluated the tumor inhibitory activity
of Averrhoa carambola fruit extract on EAC cells administered in mice targeting angiogenesis and
apoptosis. Results showed potent proapoptotic and antiangiogenic activity, which was attributed to
catechin, epicatechin and ferulic acid present in the extract. (see constituents above) (33)

Toxicity / Caution !

• Report of toxicity and death in fruit consumption by patients with renal failure. Star fruit intoxication
may be harmful and even life threatening in uremic patients. The neurotoxicity is classified into three
levels of intoxication: (1) Mild, with hiccups, vomiting and insomnia. (2) Moderate, with psychomotor
agitation, numbness and mental confusion, and (3) Severe intoxication, with worsening confusion,
coma, seizures, hypotension and shock, in various confusing clinical presentations. Daily dialysis, is the
ideal treatment and most efficient way of removing the neurotoxicity.

• High Potassium Content: Because of its high potassium content, star fruit should be one of the food
substances that should be excluded from the diet of patients with renal failure.

Negative inotropic and chronotropic effects on the guinea pig atrium of extracts obtained from Averrhoa
carambola L. leaves / C.M.L. Vasconcelos, M.S. Araújo, B.A. Silva and E.A. Conde-Garcia / doi:
10.1590/S0100-879X2005000700015

Fatal outcome after ingestion of star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) in uremic patients / CHANG J.-M.;
HWANG S.-J. et al

PHARMACOGNOSTIC EVALUATION AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF AVERRHOA CARAMBOLA L.

FRUIT / Journal of Herbal Medicine and Toxicology 2 (2) 51-54 (2008) / ISSN : 0973-4643

Intoxication by star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) in 32 uraemic patients: treatment and outcome / Neto
M.M.1; da Costa J.A.C; Garcia-Cairasco N; Netto J.C; Nakagawa B.; Dantas M. / Nephrology Dialysis
Transplantation, Volume 18, Number 1, January 2003 , pp. 120-125(6)

Star fruit could offer inexpensive source of antioxidants / Food Chemistry (Vol. 97, pp. 277-284)

Convulsant activity and neurochemical alterations induced by a fraction obtained from fruit Averrhoa
carambola (Oxalidaceae: Geraniales) / Rulther O G et al / Neurochemistry International • Volume 46,
Issue 7, June 2005, Pages 523-531 / doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2005.02.002

Inhibition of Human Liver Cytochrome P450 by Star Fruit Juice / Jiang-Wei Zhang et al / J Pharm
Pharmaceut Sci (www. cspsCanada.org) 10 (4): 496-503, 2007
Hypotensive effect of aqueous extract of Averrhoa carambola L. (Oxalidaceae) in rats: an in vivo and in
vitro approach / Soncini R, Santiago MB, Orlandi L, Moraes GO, Peloso AL et al / J Ethnopharmacol. 2011
Jan 27;133(2):353-7. Epub 2010 Oct 16.

Analysis of the Potential Topical Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Averrhoa carambola L. in Mice / Daniela
Almeida Cabrini, Henrique Hunger Moresco, Priscila Imazu, Cintia Delai da Silva et al / Evidence-Based
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Vol 2011 (2011) / doi:10.1093/ecam/neq026

Antioxidant And Antimicrobial Activities Of Averrhoa carambola L. Fruits / Sujata Wakte, Darshana Patil,
Avinash Patil and Anita Phatak / Blatter Herbarium - St. Xavier's College

A Preliminary Study on the Hypoglycaemic Effect of Averrhoa carambola (Star Fruit) in Rats / L.C.A.
Gunasekara, P.H.P. Fernando and R. Sivakanesan / Proceedings of the Peradeniya University Research
Sessions, Sri Lanka, Vol. 16, 24th November 2011

Analgesic Activity Of The Fruit Extract Of Averrhoa Carambola / Biswa Nath Da* and Muniruddin Ahmed
/ Int. J. LifeSc. Bt & Pharm. Res. 2012

A Comprehensive Study On Antioxidant, Antibacterial, Cytotoxic And Phytochemical Properties Of

Averrhoa Carambola / Joysree Das, Zulon Datta, Ayan Saha, Suza Mohammad Nur, Prosenjit Barua,
Md.Mominur Rahman, KaziAshfak Ahmed , Mohammad Mostofa, Rabiul Hossain, Adnan Mannan* /
Internation Journal of Bioassays, Vol 2, No 5, 2013

IN VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF LEAF EXTRACT OF AVERRHOA CARAMBOLA AGAINST PHERETIMA

POSTHUMA / Anisha Shah*, Anuja B. Raut*, Prof. Akshay Baheti, Dr. B.S. Kuchekar / Pharmacologyonline
1: 524-527 (2011)

Electrophysiological effects of the aqueous extract of Averrhoa carambola L. leaves on the guinea pig
heart / Free Library

Prophylactic Role of Averrhoa carambola (Star Fruit) Extract against Chemically Induced Hepatocellular
Carcinoma in Swiss Albino Mice / Ritu Singh, Jyoti Sharma, and P. K. Goyal / Advances in Pharmacological
Sciences, Volume 2014 (2014) / http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/158936

Star fruit (Averrhoa carambola L.): From traditional uses to pharmacological activities Sultan Ayesh /
Mohammed SAGHIR, Amirin SADIKUN, Kooi-Yeong KHAW and Vikneswaran MURUGAIYAH / 2013
Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas 12 (3): 209 - 219

Evaluation Of Radio Protective Effect Of Averrhoa Carambola Leaves Extract In Wistar Rats /
Arunachalam Kumar, Suchetha Kumari N., Kavitha K. & Rojin T.S. / Nitte University Journal of Health
Science, Vol. 4, No.2, June 2014

Oxalic Acid Content Of Carambola And Bilimbi / J. Joseph and G. Mendonca, Department of Chemistry,
University of Guyana Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown, Guyana / January 1991

Anticoagulant Activity of Averrhoa bilimbi Linn in Normal and Alloxan- Induced Diabetic Rats / Nurafifah
Daud, Harita Hashim* and Nurdiana Samsulrizal / The Open Conference Proceedings Journal, 2013, 4,
(Suppl-2, M6) 21-26 21
Hepatoprotective Activity Of Averrhoa Carambola Stem Ethanolic Extract On Ccl4 Induced Liver Damage
In Rats / CHINNA ESWARAIAH M*, SINDHU NETTEM, DIPANKAR B, MANASA N / International Journal of
Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol 5, Issue 4, 2013

Averrhoa Carambola (Star Fruit) Induces Hepatic Alkaline Phosphatase Activity In Rats / Chin J. H., Teh C.
C., Z. Y. Khoo, Shamala F. / International Journal of Biomedical and Advance Research, Vol 1, No 5, 2010

Antihyperglycemic Activities of Leaves of Three Edible Fruit Plants (Averrhoa carambola, Ficus hispida
and Syzygium samarangense) of Bangladesh /S Shahreen, J Banik, A Hafiz, S Rahman, AT Zaman, A
Shoyeb, MH Chowdhury, M Rahmatullah / African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and
Alternative Medicines, Vol 9, No 2 (2012)

Leaf Extract Of Averrhoa Carambola L. Confines The Oxidative Stress And Confers Hepatoprotection In
Albino Mice / Sandipan Mazumder1, Shuvasish Choudhury / IAJPR. 2013; 3(10): 8388-8393

In vitro Cytotoxicity, Phytochemistry and GC-MS analysis of Averrhoa carambola (leaf) against MCF-7
breast cancer cell line / Poongodi, T and Dr. Nazeema, T. H. / International Journal of Current Research

Antidotal activity of Averrhoa carambola (Star fruit) on fluoride induced toxicity in rats / Rupal A.
VASANT, A. V. R. L. NARASIMHACHARYA / Interdiscip Toxicol. 2014; Vol. 7(2): 103–110. doi:
10.2478/intox-2014-0014

Effect of honey and L-cysteine as antioxidants on the quality attributes of fresh-cut carambola (Averrhoa
carambola L.) stored at two different temperatures / Sonu Sharma, T.V. Ramana Rao / International
Journal of Postharvest Technology and Innovation, List of Issues, Volume 3, Issue 4 / DOI:
10.1504/IJPTI.2013.060269

Antiangiogenic And Proapoptotic Activity Of Averrhoa Carambola L. Fruit Extract On Ehrlich Ascites
Carcinoma Treated Mice / Jyoti Bala Chauhan*, Wethroe Kapfo, Shankar Jayarama, and
Kyathegowdanadoddi S Balaji / International Journal of Applied Biology and Pharmaceutical Technology,
Vol 6, Issue 2, April-June 2015

One serving of star fruit is 1/2 cup(54 g). One serving contains 20 calories, no fat nor sodium, 3 g of
sugar and 1 g of dietary fiber. It has 20% DV of vitamin C. Star fruits are an excellent source of vitamin C,
is low fat, and naturally sodium and cholesterol free. A small whole star fruit will provide approximately
2/3 cup sliced. [6]

Acute oxalate nephropathy associated with ingestion of star fruit (carambola) has been reported.
Doctors from Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Taiwan, reported the first two cases. These patients
developed nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and backache within hours of ingesting large quantities of
sour carambola juice; then acute renal failure followed. [3]

Carambola contains a large quantity of oxalate, which can induce depression of cerebral function and
seizures. Carambola can also cause rats die after seizure. [4]

Commercial carambola juice usually is prepared by pickling and dilution processes that reduce oxalate
content markedly, whereas pure fresh juice or mild diluted postpickled juice for traditional remedies, as
used in our cases, contain high quantities of oxalate. An empty stomach and dehydrated state may pose
an additional risk for development of renal injury. To avoid acute oxalate nephropathy, pure sour
carambola juice or mild diluted post pickled juice should not be consumed in large amounts, especially
on an empty stomach or in a dehydrated state. [3]

Chen CL, Fang HC, Chou KJ, Wang JS, Chung HM. Acute oxalate nephropathy after ingestion of star fruit.
Am J Kidney Dis. 2001 Feb;37(2):418-22.

Chen CL, Chou KJ, Wang JS, Yeh JH, Fang HC, Chung HM. Neurotoxic effects of carambola in rats: the role
of oxalate. J Formos Med Assoc. 2002 May;101(5):337-41.

Fruit of the Month: Star Fruit, Fruit of the Month: Star Fruit, fruitsandveggiesmatter.gov

PROCEDURE

Preparation of starfruit ethanol extract

Ethanol extract of the flesh of starfruit were prepared Laboratory of Science building 5th floor in Far
Eastern University, Manila. Starfruit was obtained from Palawan. The flesh of the starfruit were washed
and dried in room, then crushed in a blender to form powder. This powder then was added 70% ethanol
and stirred for 30 mins with magnetic stirrer and allowed to stand for 24 hours. This mixture was then
filtered using Buchner funnel. The filtrate obtained was dried via evaporation using vacuum rotary
evaporator. After evaporation, crude extract was obtained and from this crude extract many
concentrations of starfruit; 10%, 20%, and 40% were prepared based on method mentioned in Voight,
1004.

Research Article

Averrhoa carambola: A Renewable Source of Oxalic Acid for the Facile and Green Synthesis of Divalent
Metal (Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, and Cu) Oxalates and Oxide Nanoparticles
A green, simple, and environmentally benign synthetic approach has been utilised to obtain some
bivalent metal oxalates from Averrhoa carambola juice extract, without any purification or special
treatment of the juice. The main acid components (oxalic acid and ascorbic acid) of the juice were
identified by HPLC technique. The effect of temperature on the purity of the product has been
investigated. The as-synthesized metal oxalates were thermally decomposed at low temperatures to
their respective metal oxide nanoparticles. The metal oxalates and their respective thermal
decomposition products were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray
diffraction analysis, and thermogravimetry.

Averrhoa carambola, known as carambola or star fruit, is an attractive, exotic, tropical, and shrub-like
ornamental tree of the Oxalidaceae family. The ripe fruits can be eaten fresh or used to produce juice,
jelly, or wine. The fruit is also widely used in traditional medicine for the treatment of a wide range of
ailments. It is also a potential source of pectin. Carambola fruit juice has been shown to contain active
constituents such as vitamins, amino acids, ascorbic acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid,
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Assessment of the physicochemical properties of carambola fruit juice
from ripe and unripe fruits showed that the pH of the fruits increased with advance in maturity, being
2.4 for green mature, 2.7 for half-ripe, and 3.44 for ripe fruits. Averrhoa carambola is a very good source
of oxalic acid, with oxalic acid contents that can be as high as 1 wt% of wet mass (representing about
74% of the total acid content depending on the level of maturity of the fruits).

2. Experimental

2.1. Chemicals

Fe(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) chlorides were obtained from Sigma Aldrich. The chemicals were
of analytical grade and were used without further purification. HPLC grade oxalic, ascorbic, citric, lactic,
malic, malonic, and succinic acids were also used.

2.2. Processing of the Fruit Juice

Ripe carambola fruits were harvested from the campus of CRTV Buea in the South-West Region of
Cameroon. The fruits were washed under running tap water and crushed in a blender. The juice was
extracted by squeezing through cheese cloth. The collected juice was centrifuged for 20 min at 3000 rpm,
the supernatant was filtered, and the filtrate collected and kept in a freezer for further use.

2.3. Characterization of the Juice

The acid content of the juice was investigated using HPLC. The HPLC system (DEGASY DG-1210) with
an autosampler was coupled to a Gynkotek UV-detector (UVD340S) set at three wavelengths (214, 230,
and 254 nm). The data was collected and processed with Chromeleon software. The analyses were
performed isocratically at 1.2 mL/min at room temperature with an Altima C18 column (250 × 10 mm,
5 μm). The mobile phase was 0.1% W/V H3PO4 acidified distilled water. Standard solutions of several acids
(oxalic, ascorbic, citric, lactic, malic, malonic, and succinic acids) were prepared and their chromatograms
recorded as described above with a run time of 25 min and compared to that of the juice extract.
Identification of the peaks enabled us to determine the nature of the acids contained in the juice. The amount
of oxalic acid in the juice was determined by a spectrophotometric method based on the catalytic oxidation
of bromophenol blue by dichromate using oxalic acid as the catalyst [21].
2.4. Synthesis of the Metal Oxalates

Prior to the synthesis, the pH of the juice was measured with Fisherdrand Hydrus 500 pH meter.

Solutions (0.1 M) of the various metal ions (Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, and Cu2+) were prepared by dissolving
the appropriate amount of the metal chloride in 100 mL distilled water. 30 mL of the juice extract was
poured into a 250 mL round bottom flask immersed into a water bath maintained at 80°C. The appropriate
metal ion solution (40 mL) was added slowly into the juice while stirring, and the mixture was stirred for a
given period of time, as summarized in Table 1. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and
the precipitates obtained were filtered, washed several times with distilled water (to remove any undesired
ions), allowed to air-dry overnight, and finally dried in a desiccator over calcium chloride.

In order to study the effect of temperature on the synthesis product, we synthesized Co 2+ complexes at
various temperatures (room temperature, 45°C, 60°C, and 80°C) and compared their XRD patterns. Based
on our observations 80°C was chosen as synthesis temperature for the precursors.
2.5. Thermal Decomposition of the Complexes

A sample of the dry precursor (0.5 g) was ground, placed in a ceramic crucible and the crucible was placed
in the furnace that had been heated to the desired calcination temperature of 550°C and calcination in air
continued for 4 h. The sample was allowed to cool down to room temperature in the furnace. The residues
(Dp1, Dp2, Dp3, and Dp4, resp., from P1, P2, P3, and P4) obtained were weighed and kept for further
analyses. They represent, respectively, 43.9%, 44.4%, 42.9%, and 40.9% of the precursors.

2.6. Characterization Techniques

FTIR spectra were recorded from 4000 to 400 cm−1 on a PerkinElmer Spectrum Two Universal Attenuated
Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (UATR-FTIR) spectrometer. Thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA) was obtained using a Pyris 6 PerkinElmer TGA 4000 thermal analyser. The TGA analysis was
conducted between 30 and 900°C under nitrogen atmosphere at a flow rate of 20 mL/min and a temperature
ramp of 10°C/min. The XRD diffractograms of the precursors and the decomposition products were
recorded on a Bruker D8 advance X-ray diffractometer using a Cu Kα radiation source (λ = 0.15406 nm,
40 kV, and 40 mA). Scans were taken over the 2θ range from 10° to 100° in steps of 0.01° at room
temperature in open quartz sample holders. The phase was identified with the help of the
BrukerDIFFRACplus evaluation software in combination with the ICDD powder diffraction data base
(International Centre for Diffraction Data).

3. Results and Discussion

Reaction of the respective metal salts with the carambola juice at 80°C generally leads to coloured
complexes (except the zinc complex, P4) in high yields. The metal complexes are less intense in colour
than the respective metal salts from which they were derived. The complexes are crystalline solids that are
air stable and nonhygroscopic as opposed to the starting salts. Physical data for the complexes are presented
in Table 1.
3.1. HPLC Analysis of Juice Extract

Figure 1 shows the HPLC chromatogram of the juice. Only two peaks appear after 22 minutes of run. These
peaks are compared with those of the standard oxalic acid (RT 10.966 min) and ascorbic acid (RT
18.938 min). The absence of the peaks of other acids indicates that they are either absent or if present they
are in trace proportions. This observation supports that of several authors who found that the principal acids
in the mature fruits are ascorbic and oxalic acids [7, 14, 15]. It has been observed that as the fruits mature
the relative content of oxalic acid increases while that of other acids decrease [7, 15]. The amount of oxalic
acid in the juice as determined by spectrophotometry was found to be in the range of 7.6–11.6 , in agreement
with the literature reports where the content is generally in the range of 6.3 to 12 gL −1 of the juice [7, 14].
The pH of the juice was found to be in the range 2.6 to 3.1. This falls within the range observed by Patil et
al. [7] and Narain et al. [15]. These authors both observed an increase of pH as the fruit mature.

3.2. FTIR Spectral Characterisation

The formation of pure oxalate phases is indicated by FTIR analysis. Figure 2((a)–(e)) shows the FTIR
spectra of all the metal complexes synthesized from carambola juice. They all exhibit similar characteristics
and comparable patterns, except that of P5. The bands observed are similar to those reported in the literature
for metal oxalate dihydrates [22, 23]. The broad band at 3343  is attributed to the stretching vibration of the
O–H bond of water molecules of crystallisation. The absence of this band in the spectrum of the copper
complex (P5) attests to the reduced amount of water of crystallisation in this complex. The strong band at
1614  is due to the antisymmetric stretching mode of the carbonyl group C=O of the oxalate. The two bands
at 1359 and 1314  are those of C–O symmetric stretching mode. The difference between (COO) and (COO)
stretching frequencies is 255  indicating a bidentate or a terminal monodentate coordination mode of the
oxalate ligand in the complexes [24]. The bands at 822  is attributed to the bending vibration of O–C–O and
the band at 745  (absent in the spectrum of the Cu complex) is attributed to H–O–H rocking. The fact that
no other bands are present attests to the identity and purity of the samples.
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jac/2014/767695/

A Comparison of Two Extraction Methods for Food Oxalate Assessment

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Samples

After short interviews with local herbalists to identify the most popular commercially available herbs,
representative samples were purchased from local herbalist shops in Amman, Jordan. Fifty herbs were
taxonomically identified at Hashemite University laboratories (Zarqa, Jordan) and then transported to
the nutrition research laboratory at the University of Wyoming (Laramie, Wyoming). The herbs were
ground into a fine powder using a coffee mill prior to soluble and total oxalate analyses.

The fruits used in this study were apples, strawberries, blueberries, grapes, kiwifruits, peaches, pears,
oranges, bananas and cantaloupes. All fruits were purchased from local supermarkets in Laramie,
Wyoming. Individual fruits were cut into small pieces and homogenized using a tissue homogenizer
before oxalate extraction.

2.2 Hot extraction

0.5 g of finely ground herb or 4 g of homogenized fruit sample were weighed into 250 ml volumetric
flasks and 50 ml of 2 N HCl (for total oxalate extraction) or 50 ml of distilled deionized water (for soluble
oxalate extraction) were added. The flasks were placed in a shaking water bath at 80 ℃ for 30 min. The
extracts were further diluted with 50 ml of distilled deionized water and then transferred into 15 ml
centrifuge tubes and centrifuged at 4200 rpm for 10 min. The supernatants were filtered through
Whatman #1 filter paper and kept frozen until the time of oxalate analysis. Each sample was extracted in
duplicate.

2.3 Cold extraction

Total and soluble oxalates were extracted from the samples using the method of Ohkawa (Ohkawa,
1985) with some modifications. 0.15 g of the herb or 1.0 g of the fruit was weighed into a 15-ml
centrifuge tube and 5 ml of 2 N HCl (for total oxalate extraction) or 5 ml of distilled deionized water (for
soluble oxalate extraction) were added to the sample. The tube was tightly capped and vortexed for 5
min and then centrifuged at 4200 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was transferred to a 25-ml
volumetric flask and the remaining oxalate in the pellet was extracted two additional times. The final
volume of the collected supernatant from the 3 successive extractions was diluted to 25 ml with distilled
deionized water. The extracts were kept frozen until the time of oxalate analysis. Each sample was
extracted in duplicate.

2.4 Quantification of total and soluble oxalate

The extracts were analyzed in duplicate for oxalate by using a commercially available enzymatic kit
(Trinity Biotech, Berkeley Heights, New Jersey), which is based on measuring the amount of hydrogen
peroxide liberated from the oxidation of oxalate by oxalate oxidase. Oxalate concentrations are
expressed in mg/100 g of dry herbal sample weight and mg/100 g of fresh fruit weight (± standard
deviation of two separate extractions).

2.5 Statistical Analysis

The paired test was used to test the null hypothesis that the average amount of extracted oxalate was
the same between the two methods. To satisfy the assumption of normality, oxalate values were
analyzed in transformed scale (loge(x)). In addition, simple linear regression was employed to describe
the relation between the two extraction methods. Regression was conducted on the square root of the
oxalate values to satisfy the assumption of normality. Statistical significance was declared at α = 0.05
level. Statistical computations were made by using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS institute, version
9.2, Cary, North Carolina USA).

3. Results

Oxalate concentrations corresponding to the two extraction methods (hot and cold) for 50 herbs and 10
fruits are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Mean total oxalate concentrations using the hot
extraction method were significantly higher than the values obtained from the cold extraction method
(t49=4.27, p<0.01 for herbs; t9= 2.10, p< 0.05 for fruits). The mean difference (± standard error)
between the two extraction methods (hot - cold) in total oxalate for the herb and fruit samples were
119.4 ± 32.5 and 1.6 ± 0.8 mg /100 g, respectively. However, with respect to extracting the soluble
oxalate from both herb and fruit samples, there was no significant difference in mean oxalate
concentrations between the two extraction methods. Regardless of the method of extraction, leaves of
Atriplex halimus and kiwifruit exhibited the highest concentrations of both total and soluble oxalate
among the herbs and the fruits, respectively. Linear regression analysis of the total oxalate
concentration values in herbs revealed a significant linear

correlation (r2 = 0.97, p<0.0001) between the two extraction methods (Figure 1). Back transformation
indicated that for every 1 mg total oxalate/100 g increase using the cold extraction method, there was
on average a 1.2 mg total oxalate/100 g increase using the hot extraction method. A similar correlation
between the two methods occurred for the fruit samples (r2 = 0.98, p< 0.0001), with an average 1.2
times more total oxalate obtained using the hot extraction method (Figure 2). Linear regression analysis
of soluble oxalate in herbs also indicated a significant (r2 = 0.87, p<0.0001) linear correlation between
the two methods. In fruits, however, after excluding kiwifruit, which was considered to be an outlier
because of its markedly higher oxalate concentration, the correlation between the two extraction
methods was not significant (r2 = 0.25, p= 0.17).

http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jfr/article/viewFile/14140/11250