Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal,

Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Marjan Mashkour, Margareta Tengberg, Zohreh Shirazi, Youssef Madjidzadeh
Laboratory of Archaeozoology, Archaeobotany: Societies, Practices and Environments (CNRS/MNHN UMR
7209), Paris, France

Recent archaeological discoveries in the Halil Rud valley in the Kerman province of southeastern Iran have
shown the existence of an important urban centre during the Early Bronze Age (third millennium BC), with a
rich artistic and craft tradition as well as long-distance contacts with both Mesopotamia and the Indus valley.
Bioarchaeological studies carried out at Konar Sandal, south of the modern city of Jiroft, allow for the first time
a reconstruction of the past environment and subsistence economies in the valley during the Bronze and Iron
Ages. While herding relied mainly on sheep and goat and, to a lesser extent, on bovines of which several
species are recognised, agricultural activities involved the cultivation of cereals (barley and wheat) and
fruits (date palm, grapevine). Significant changes in animal husbandry practices appear through time with
an increase of suid remains as well as the appearance of the domestic horse and Bactrian camel in the
Iron Age (late second to early first millennium BC). While the exploitation of plants and animals seems to
have taken place to a large extent in the alluvial Halil Rud valley, the possibility of pastoral transhumance
in surrounding mountain chains is also considered.
Keywords: Bioarchaeology, Indo-Iranian borderlands, Bronze and Iron Age, Agropastoral economies

Introduction plundering of tombs. The elaborate iconography dis-

In the early 2000s the attention of the archaeological
community working in the Middle East was suddenly
attracted to the Kerman province of southeastern Iran
from where numerous extraordinary artefacts started
to arrive on the antiquities market (Perrot and
Madjidzadeh 2003; Madjidzadeh 2008). It soon
became common knowledge that these objects resulted
from the large-scale plundering of an Early Bronze
Age (third millennium BC) cemetery discovered for-
tuitously in the Halil Rud valley around 30 km to
the south of the modern city of Jiroft (Fig. 1).
Among the most eye-catching objects were a series of
soft-stone (chlorite/steatite) vessels and handled
“weights” with engraved and sometimes inlaid motifs
(Madjidzadeh 2003a, 2003b) (Fig. 2a–d). Whereas
such artefacts were previously known from southeast-
ern Iran and elsewhere in the Middle East, the corpus
discovered near Jiroft is exceptionally rich and of
known geographical provenance, contrary to many
of the soft-stone vessels held in museums and other
collections (Aruz 2003). Unfortunately, though
almost none of the Jiroft objects were found in situ
during archaeological excavation but were confiscated
by the Iranian authorities subsequently to the
Correspondence to: Marjan Mashkour, CNRS/National Museum of
Natural History – Paris, 55 rue Buffon, F-75005 Paris, France.
Email: mashkour@mnhn.fr
played on the soft-stone artefacts has been the subject
of various interpretations as well as some debate
(Madjidzadeh 2003a, 2003b; Perrot 2003; Perrot and
Madjidzadeh 2003, 2005, 2006; Muscarella 2005;
Amigues 2009). While certain scenes clearly belong to
the mythological realm, others show animals and
plants in seemingly natural settings. In some cases,
the floral and faunal elements are rendered with such
detail that an identification of the actual species
depicted seems possible. The attentive observer can
thus recognise date palms, juniper trees, wild and dom-
estic goats, gazelles, lions as well as various birds of
prey, for example the characteristic Egyptian vulture.
In this respect, the engravings provide us with a
certain idea of the animals and plants that were familiar
to the inhabitants of the Halil Rud valley in the third
millennium BC. However, the main purpose of the
engravings was clearly not to be naturalistic – that is
to depict nature in a truthful manner – but they con-
veyed another meaning most certainly linked to the
funerary context in which they were found.
The study of plant and animal remains retrieved from
archaeological contexts constitutes obviously a more
direct source of knowledge on the relationship between
past populations and the natural world. Such evidence
is used in this article in order to reconstruct the environ-
ment and exploitation of biotic resources in the Halil

© Association for Environmental Archaeology 2013

222 DOI 10.1179/1749631413Y.0000000006 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3
 Mashkour et al.
Figure 1 Map of Iran and adjacent regions with the location of Konar Sandal and other sites mentioned in the text.
Rud valley in the past. Our data have been obtained
through the archaeobotanical and archaeozoological
research conducted at two archaeological mounds,
Konar Sandal South and North, located close to the
plundered cemeteries. The site of Konar Sandal South
was inhabited in the Bronze Age (Fig. 3); radiocarbon
dates from the north mound indicate an occupation
also during the Iron Age.
These two sites are the first in the Jiroft plain to have
been studied from a bioarchaeological point of view
and in general such studies are still rare in the vast geo-
graphical sphere, usually designated as the Indo-Iranian
borderlands, that stretches from eastern Iran to the
Indus valley of eastern Pakistan. This region, character-
ised by the dichotomy of temperate highlands and sub-
tropical lowlands, experienced an important cultural
and economic development during the Late
Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age (late fourth and
third millennia BC) visible through the emergence of
large sites, of which some are clearly urban in character,
the intensification of craft production and long-distance
exchange networks. Without doubt agricultural econ-
omies participated in this bloom, constituting the sub-
sistence base for expanding societies and probably
also a source of products (food stuffs, textiles, wood
etc.) travelling along trade routes between the Indus
valley, the Iranian plateau, the Persian Gulf region
and Mesopotamia during the third millennium BC.
In eastern Iran only two Bronze Age sites have pre-
viously been studied from a bioarchaeological point of
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
view: Shahr-i Sokhta, situated on the Hilmand river in
Sistan-Baluchistan (Bökönyi and Bartosiewicz 2000;
Compagnoni 1978; Costantini 1977, 1979; Costantini
and Costantini-Biasini 1985) and Tepe Yahya,
located in the Sogun valley (Kerman) around 80 km
west of the Jiroft plain (Meadow 1986a, 1986b)
(Fig. 1). They both have occupational levels that are
partly contemporaneous with Konar Sandal and
thus of particular relevance to our study.
In Pakistani Baluchistan the sites with Bronze Age
levels that have been studied from an archaeozoologi-
cal and archaeobotanical point of view are Mehrgarh,
Nausharo and Lal Shah in the Kachi plain of north-
central Baluchistan (Costantini 1984; Costantini and
Costantini-Biasini 1985; Meadow 1979a, 1979b,
1984, 1988, 1989; Thiébault 1989), Sohr Damb in
central Baluchistan (Benecke and Neef 2005) and
Miri Qalat and Shahi Tump in the southern Kech-
Makran district (Desse-Berset and Desse 2007;
Desse et al. 2008; Tengberg 1999; Tengberg and
Thiébault 2003).
Finally, in the Indus valley the urban centre of
Harappa is the principal site where animal and plant
remains have been subject of systematic studies
(Meadow 1991; Weber 2003).
The main aim of the present paper is to complete the
record from southeastern Iran by presenting the
recently obtained archaeozoological and archaeobota-
nical data from the two mounds at Konar Sandal.
They allow us to reconstitute practices of plant and
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 223
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 2 Animal and plant motives engraved on soft stone vessels discovered in the Halil Rud Valley (Madjidzadeh 2003, 18-19,
28, 34, 39): a) Cup (H = 22 cm) with browsing goat; b) Conical vase (H = 14,6 cm) with lions and palms; c) Browsing domestic and
wild sheep and goats drawn from cup (H = 16 cm); d) Browsing wild goats and sheep with juniper tree drawn from cylindrical vase
(H = 9 cm).

Figure 3 View of Konar Sandal South towards the west, in the foreground the Jiroft plain with date palm gardens (nakhlestân), in
the background the snow-capped Sardouyeh mountains (photo M. Tengberg).

224 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3

 Mashkour et al.
animal husbandry in the Halil Rud valley during the
Bronze and Iron Ages. In a wider, regional perspective,
the results are compared to those obtained on other
archaeological sites in the Indo-Iranian borderland.
Environmental Setting of the Halil Rud Valley
Konar Sandal is situated in the Jiroft plain at an alti-
tude of around 550 m a.s.l. The plain is surrounded
by several high mountain chains: the Jebel Barez in
the northeast with summits of over 3700 m and the
Sardouyeh in the northwest rising to near 3000 m. A
gently sloping 7–12 km large gravel plain, a so-called
dasht, forms the transition between the mountains
and the alluvial plain (Fouache et al. 2005, 109). The
main river of the valley is the Halil Rud that rises in
the Baft, Hezâr, Lalezar and Bhar Aseman ranges to
the north and flows for almost 400 km towards the
southeast before disappearing into the large interior
basin of Jazmurian south of Jiroft. The flow of the
Halil Rud is permanent but highly irregular through
the year. Before the construction of dams in the
upper part of the valley, flooding resulting from the
melting of snow in the mountains during springtime
or following episodes of heavy rainfall was a recurrent
phenomenon. But as well as a danger these floods con-
stituted an asset to agricultural production by bringing
fertile alluvium to the fields and leaching saline soils.
Geomorphological studies undertaken in the area
around Konar Sandal in 2004–2005 have shown that
the ancient settlements were systematically located
on elevations formed by earlier alluvial fans and thus
protected from the annual flooding (Fouache et al.
2005, 120). Besides the Halil Rud and its smaller tribu-
taries, the plain is rich in underground water resources
that even emerge at the surface in the form of artesian
springs between Jiroft and Konar Sandal. These water
resources, most abundant in the northern part of the
plain, largely compensate for limited rainfall (around
150 mm/year) and make Jiroft an important area of
agricultural production, sometimes referred to as
“little India” (Hindustân-e kutchek) thanks to its hot
climate and lush vegetation. Indeed, in the late 13th-/
early 14th-century AD Marco Polo, who travelled
through the area, was struck by its natural richness:
“The temperature of the plain is very warm. It pro-
duces wheat, rice and other grains. On that part that
lies nearest to the hills [in the North], dates, pomegra-
nates, quinces and a variety of other fruits grow…”
(The travels of Marco Polo 1997, Ch. XV).
The hot climate of the Jiroft plain, with summer
temperatures sometimes reaching above 50°C is also
the reason for the presence of a thermophilous, subtro-
pical flora belonging to the Nubo-Sindian phytogeo-
graphical domain and similar to the one found along
the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula (White and
Léonard 1991). The main vegetation types consist of
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
xeric and open to very open wood and shrublands
where thorny species such as Prosopis koelziana
Burkart, Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd., Acacia
and Lycium depressum stocks predominate (Fig. 3).
In Persian, the warm, subtropical lowlands are referred
to as the garmsir (literally “warm domain”). The con-
ditions that prevail in the plain are appropriate for the
cultivation of date palms as well as other fruit trees
such as lemon and orange. Besides a well-developed
agricultural production the raising of livestock in the
present-day Jiroft plain include sheep, goats, cattle
(taurine, zebu and hybrids), camels and horses
(Fig. 4a–d).
Until recently the Halil Rud was bordered by ripar-
ian formations or gallery-forests concentrating hygro-
philous species such as tamarisk (Tamarix), poplar
(Populus) and willow (Salix), in what is often locally
described as “jungles”. These habitats, probably con-
siderably vaster in the past than today, can host a
rich flora and fauna. For example, the wild boar
(Sus scrofa L.) would feel at ease in the dense thickets
bordering the river. The alluvial valley also constitutes
the preferred habitat for waterfowl of the Anatidae
family as well as herons (Ardea) and egrets (Egretta).
On drier lands, in the open scrub and steppe for-
mations of the plain and foothills, a different fauna
develops. This is the habitat of the Dorcas gazelle
(Gazella dorcas bennetti Sykes), hemions (Equus hemi-
onus Pallas), small mammals such as jerboas (genus
Jaculus and Allactaga) and jirds (Meriones)
(Misonne 1959; Etemad 1985) as well as that of
numerous birds, in particular partridges (Francolinus,
Alectoris, Ammoperdrix), quails (Coturnix coturnix
L.) and pheasants (Phasianidae family) (Scott et al.
1975). Among the birds some species, characteristic
of this part of southeastern Iran, are particularly note-
worthy, for example the grey partridge or jirofti
(Francolinus pondicerianus Gmelin) and the Houbara
bustard (Chlamydotis undulata Jacquin). Birds of
prey present in the plain are buzzards (genus Buteo)
and black kite (Milvus migrans Boddaert). Other
animals of prey that can occasionally be met with
are wolf (Canis lupus L.), common fox (Vulpes vulpes
L.), sand fox (Vulpes rueppelli Schinz), hyena (Hyena
hyena L.), carcal (Felis caracal Schreber), wildcat
(Felis silvestris Schreber) and cheetah (Acinonyx
jubatus Schreber). Finally, the Persian lion (Panthera
leo persica L.) was still present until the mid-19th
century in the southern territories of the Iranian
plateau but then disappeared progressively due to ari-
dification of the region (Etemad 1985).
The mountain chains that border the Jiroft plain to
the north offer bioclimatic conditions that are quite dis-
similar to those described above. They are part of the
“cold domain” or sardsir where winters are harsh and
the difference between seasons is marked. Rainfall
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 225
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 4 Present-day pastoralism in the Halil Rud Basin: a and b) Sheep and goat herds along the Halil Rud and next to Konar
Sandal; c and d) Taurin cattle milking calf sheltered in traditional stall made with “tudj” (Salvadora persica), a legendary tree in
Konar Sandal (photo M. Mashkour).

rises with altitude attaining means of around 375 mm/
year. The flora of the Barez or Sardouyeh mountain
chains belongs predominantly to the Irano-Turanian
phytogeographical unit and follows an altitudinal
zonation. Thus, when travelling uplands from the
plain, open shrublands with maple (Acer monspessula-
num L.) and wild almond (Amygdalus arabica Olivier)
are followed by woodlands with wild pistachio
(Pistacia atlantica subsp. cabulica (Stocks) Rech) and
juniper (Juniperus excelsa M. B.) and finally by
alpine meadows (Léonard 1991) (Fig. 5).
The mountains host a rich fauna including wild
sheep (Ovis orientalis Gmelin) and goat (Capra aega-
grus Erxleben), Blanford’s fox (Vulpes cana
Blanford), leopard (Panthera pardus L.) and black
bear (Selenarctos thibetanus Cuvier), the latter
having been spotted in the wooded areas of the Jebel
Barez (Etemad 1985; Harrington 1977). These habi-
tats are also suitable for birds of prey, among which
we find Bonelli’s eagle (Hieraatus fasciatus Vieillot)
and several species of vulture (black vulture,
Aegypius monachus; bearded vulture, Gypaetus barba-
tus L.; griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus Hablizl; Egyptian
vulture, Neophron percnopterus L.).
The sardsir constitutes an appropriate setting for
the cultivation of temperate fruit trees – walnut,
almond, apricot, cherry and grape – as well as the
herding of livestock. On this issue Marco Polo
noted:
“Fruit trees are found there in great numbers; the
district having been peopled, though at present
without habitants, except herdsmen alone, who are
seen attending the pasturing of their cattle. In that
part of the country which you pass before you reach
the descent, the cold is so severe that a man can with
difficulty defend himself against it by wearing many
garments and pelisses” (The travels of Marco Polo,
1997, Ch. XIV).
The presence of two significantly different ecosys-
tems, each with its own plant and animal resources,

226 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3

 Mashkour et al.
Figure 5 Open woodlands in the Jebel Barez with wild pistachio, maple and juniper (photo M. Tengberg).
within reach from Konar Sandal certainly added to the
attractiveness of the site. Moreover, mineral deposits
are rich in the region with the possibility to extract,
among others, copper, zinc, gold and chlorite
(Fouache et al. 2005).
Description of the Archaeological Remains
The archaeological complex at Konar Sandal includes
two large mounds or tepe, Konar Sandal South (KSS)
and Konar Sandal North (KSN), located at 1·4 km
distance one from another along the road that runs
southwards from the modern city of Jiroft to
Kahnouj. The Halil Rud flows today to the east of
these mounds but geomorphological investigations
have established that the river has changed its course
through time and was probably located to the west
of the settlement area during the Bronze and Iron
Ages, where an ancient riverbed, now called Chil
Shur, has been identified (Fouache et al. 2005).
The large-scale excavations carried out at Konar
Sandal under the direction of Youssef Madjidzadeh
between 2003 and 2008 have revealed an important
settlement, dating mainly to the third millennium BC
but in the case of Konar Sandal North also to the
first millennium BC (for a discussion of the radiocar-
bon dates, see below).
Konar Sandal South
Sixteen excavation trenches have been opened at
Konar Sandal South (Madjidzadeh 2008). Part of
these concerns the mound itself that rises to nearly
21 m above the surrounding plain (Tr. II, III, VI,
VII, XII, XIII, Step Trench). The other trenches (I,
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
IV, V, VIII-XI, XIV) are located in lower areas more
or less close to the main mound, with the farthermost
Trenches VIII and IX situated at a distance of around
500 m to the east (Fig. 6). The main mound, desig-
nated by the excavators as the Citadel, consists of
superimposed levels of monumental mud brick struc-
tures, surrounded by a wide mud brick wall bearing
an ornamentation of niches and buttresses
(Madjidzadeh 2008, 78). The Citadel, dated by radio-
carbon dating to the second half of the third millen-
nium BC, was attained through a gateway situated to
the east (Tr. III) and flanked by at least one semi-cir-
cular tower. A room interpreted as a shrine and con-
taining a relief sculpture of a standing male figure
was excavated near this monumental entrance. Other
important finds from the citadel area consist of seal
impressions and fragments of carved soft stone
vessels confirming the official and administrative char-
acter of this part of the site.
Architectural remains are met with in all the
trenches opened around the main mound suggesting
that an extensive lower town surrounded the Bronze
Age Citadel. In several of the trenches (Tr. IV, VIII,
XI, XIV) the layout of mud brick buildings, with
many small rooms, as well as the associated small
finds seem to correspond to habitation quarters.
The excavation of Trench V, located 140 m to the
east of the Citadel, revealed a massive mud brick
construction interpreted by the excavators either as
a platform or part of the city wall against which
abutted layers of rubbish containing pottery and
animal bones as well as numerous seal impressions
and debris of craft activities involving semi precious
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 227
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
Figure 6 Map of Konar Sandal South (drawn after Madjidzadeh 2008, fig. 6).
stones. The seal impressions from this area as well as
from the rooms near the Citadel gateway (Tr. III) are
particularly interesting not only because of their
great stylistic and iconographic diversity but also
for showing links to the glyptic arts of other sites
located in southeastern Iran as well as in
Mesopotamia and in the Indus valley (Pittman, in
Madjidzadeh 2008).
Finally, a craft area, consisting of a platform associ-
ated with several furnaces as well as with copper slag,
fragments of ingots, moulds and tools, has been exca-
vated in Trench IX (Madjidzadeh 2008, 86).
Bioarchaeological sampling has been carried out in
the majority of the trenches mentioned above, and
thus represents different types of contexts: administra-
tive and public buildings, domestic quarters, dump
areas, industrial, craft activity areas.
Konar Sandal North
Konar Sandal North is a large, rectangular (more or
less 300 × 300 m) mound rising nearly 17 m above
the level of the plain (Fig. 7). Extensive excavation
with the opening of 26 trenches has revealed an enor-
mous mud brick construction, forming a two-level
platform (Madjidzadeh 2008, 88–89). Whereas fasci-
nating from an architectural and functional point of
view, the mud brick platforms offered few favourable
contexts for bioarchaeological analysis. Indeed,
many of the samples from Konar Sandal North
come from contexts of collapsed brick, without any
228 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL.
particular architectural or other context and are thus
more difficult to interpret than those from Konar
Sandal South.
Radiocarbon Dating
Although the relative chronololgy of Konar Sandal
has been established through the use of several types
of archaeological evidence ( pottery, softstone arti-
facts, metal objects) absolute dating became necessary
in order to refine the chronological framework. The
previously available dates for Konar Sandal South
were performed on charcoal fragments and have
been included in our Table 1 (Madjidzadeh 2008).
They confirm the Bronze Age origin of the site that
was occupied for several centuries. As for Konar
Sandal North the huge platform seems to cover an
older mound that would have been contemporaneous
to Konar Sandal South on the basis of the material
culture. However, the faunal and botanical remains
of Konar Sandal North were retrieved from a later
occupation, which belong to the Iron Age. The radio-
carbon dates available from Konar Sandal North were
performed on charred bones (equid and camelid, dis-
cussed below) and on charred seed with similar
results. Because of the absence of collagen on the site
the bones were dated with the new technique of
apatite (Saliège et al. 2005). The dates obtained from
various trenches at Konar Sandal North range from
the end of the second millennium until the mid-first
millennium BC.
18 NO. 3
 Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 7 Map of Konar Sandal North (drawn after Madjidzadeh 2008, fig. 8).

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates from KSS and KSN

Site code Context Lab code Radiocarbon age BP Calibrated BC 95·4 (2σ)* Material Source

KSN Tr XVII UBA-19666 2465 ± 31 670–481 Charred Seed This paper

KSN Tr XIVF301 UBA-19665 2546 ± 27 798–745 Charred Seed idem
KSN TrI270–280 AA74916 2784 ± 35 1011–838 Camel Phalanx 1 idem
KSN Tr XII-XIX AA74917 2789 ± 36 1018–837 Horse Phalanx 1 idem
KSS KSS0501 Beta 207285 3Q2.Q + 40 2490–2290 See publication Madjidzadeh (2008)
KSS KSS0502 Beta 207286 3880 ± 40 2470–2210 See publication idem
KSS KSS0503 Beta 207287 3830 ± 40 2450–2140 See publication idem
KSS KSS0508 Beta 207292 4130 ± 40 2880–2580 See publication idem
KSS KSS0509 Beta 207293 3880 ± 40 2470–2210 See publication idem
KSS KSS0510 Beta 207294 3910 ± 40 2480–2290 See publication idem

The Archaeobotanical Study an electrical pump and through a system of filters in

Methods
Sampling for archaeobotanical analysis was carried out
during the excavation seasons in 2005 and 2006. A total
of 45 samples were collected from the South Mound;
three samples only were recovered from Konar Sandal
North, where contexts were much less favourable for
this type of analysis as explained above. Eight of the
16 trenches at Konar Sandal South have provided
archaeobotanical remains, exclusively preserved by car-
bonisation. In most cases, the samples consisted of vari-
able volumes of archaeological sediment collected from
different contexts: pits, hearths, ovens, occupational
floors and general fills. A total of 1334 l of soil was
treated by flotation in order to extract carbonised
macroremains (wood, seeds, fruits) from the soil
matrix. For this purpose a flotation device was set up
at the foot of the North Mound. Water, brought regu-
larly by a cistern truck, was recycled with the help of
order to avoid contamination between samples. The
heavy fraction was recovered on a large sieve with a
mesh size of 2 mm placed inside the flotation tank.
Carbonised plant remains were recovered in a smaller
sieve with a mesh-size of 0·5 mm. After flotation, the
plant remains were left in the shade to dry slowly
before being packed in rigid boxes.
A few supplementary samples of large-size fruits/
seeds and charcoals were collected manually during
the excavation. Moreover, a random selection of
mud bricks from both mounds (KSS: Tr I-III; KSN:
Tr. XVII, XVIII) was made in order to study plant
impressions resulting from the use of cereal chaff as
a vegetal temper.
Samples were transported to France where they have
been analysed in two laboratories offering adequate
equipment (reflected-light microscopes for wood
analysis and binocular loupes for seed, fruit and

Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 229

Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
mud brick analysis) the archaeobotanical laboratories
of the Maison René Ginouvès in Nanterre (UMR
7041) and the Natural History Museum in Paris
(UMR 7209) (Tengberg 2008).
Results of the Study of Charcoal
The analysis of a little more than 1800 charcoal frag-
ments from the two mounds at Konar Sandal (1453
fragments from KSS and 350 from KSN) has
allowed the identification of 15 woody taxa (Table 2;
Fig. 8). Retrieved from ashy layers in domestic and
industrial contexts most of the charcoal fragments
are likely to result from the use of wood as a fuel. In
Table 2, the identified taxa are grouped together
according to their predominant ecological characters
and we can thus see that wood used at Konar Sandal
came from three main different biotopes: riparian
forests, open thermophilous shrub- and woodlands
and temperate formations growing in the mountains.
To these we can add a fourth category: cultivated
fruit species (Shirazi 2012).
Hygrophilous taxa likely to have grown along the
Halil Rud dominate the charcoal assemblages at
both Konar Sandal South and North suggesting that
riparian formations, or so-called gallery forests, consti-
tuted an important source for fuel wood. Three taxa
belong to this vegetation type: tamarisk (Tamarix
spp.), willow (Salix) and Pakistani rosewood or
sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.). While the two first
taxa are still commonly found along rivers in eastern
Iran, Dalbergia sissoo has become rare and is only
reported from a limited number of localities in
Kerman and Baluchistan (Rechinger 1984, 43).
Particular mention has been made of its presence in
the areas of Jiroft, Tang-e Sarha, Bashakerd and
Kala-Jag where the tree is called jag (Gershevitch
1957, 317–20; Rechinger 1984, 43). The sissoo seems
to have known a wider distribution in the past as the
species is attested at most sites in the Indo-Iranian bor-
derlands where wood/charcoal analysis has been
undertaken: at Mehrgarh, Lal Shah, Miri Qalat and
Shahi Tump in Pakistani Baluchistan, at Shahr-i
Sokhta in the province of Sistan-Baluchistan in
eastern Iran and at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro in
the Indus valley (Tengberg et al. 2008). Several uses
of the dark and hard sissoo wood are reported from
these sites, from contexts dating from the fifth to the
third millennium BC: besides fuel, the wood was
used for construction works and the manufacture of
various objects, such as spindle whorls, combs and a
box (Costantini 1979). Dalbergia sissoo seems to
have held a symbolic importance in the ancient
Middle East too as its leaves served as the model for
the golden leaves adorning the spectacular headdresses
discovered in the third millennium BC Royal Tombs of
Ur in Mesopotamia (Tengberg et al. 2008).
230 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL.
Still, the sissoo is represented by a rather low
number of charcoal fragments at Konar Sandal while
the tamarisk tree is predominant (52·6% of the frag-
ments from KSS). This genus comprises several
hardy species in southeastern Iran that resist periodical
inundation as well as drought and saline conditions.
They usually constitute the bulk of trees/shrubs
growing along the rivers and are still today much
used for fuel locally. Willow, the third of the character-
istic riparian taxa, is also represented by several species
in the region (S. acmophylla Boiss., S. carmanica
Bornm. ex Görz and S. pycnostachya N.J.
Andersson; Neumann and Skvortsov 1969).
Open shrub- and woodlands that would have grown
in drier conditions, at some distance from the river,
constitute the second vegetation type that provided
wood to the inhabitants of Konar Sandal South and
North. These formations consist mainly of thermophi-
lous species characteristic of the Nubo-Sindian flora
( garmsir). Thorny trees of the Mimosoidae subfamily
of the Fabaceae (Acacia spp., Prosopis cineraria/
koelziana) as well as wild jujube (Ziziphus cf spina-
christi) seem to have dominated these woodlands as
they still do in similar formations described from
near Sirjan, west of Jiroft (Léonard 1991, 231). To
these we can add spiny shrubs such as wolfberry
(Lycium sp.) and the so-called toothbrush tree
(Salvadora persica L.). Taxa of the goosefoot family
(Chenopodiaceae) may also have grown in this
environment even though it is difficult to be certain
of their affiliation without a more precise identifi-
cation, at least to the genus level. The goosefoot
family comprises many small shrubs of which many
are both xero- and halophytes.
The importance of open subtropical woodlands,
besides that of gallery forests, for wood collection con-
stitutes a recurrent phenomenon at sites in the Indo-
Iranian borderland (Tengberg and Thiébault 2003).
A third but much less important group is rep-
resented by taxa characteristic of the sardsir. Wood
from juniper (Juniperus excelsa), encountered in
several contexts at both Konar Sandal South and
North, certainly came from the temperate forest veg-
etation of the surrounding mountain chains, such as
the Jebel Barez or the Sardouyeh. Today very open
juniper woodlands are present in the Jebel Barez at
altitudes between ca. 1500 and 2650 m a.s.l where
the annual rainfall is sufficient (250–500 mm) for
their development. A motif that has been interpreted
as a juniper tree appears occasionally on the soft
stone vessels of Jiroft (Fig. 2d).
Another coniferous taxa identified as belonging to
the pine family (Pinaceae) is somewhat problematic
as no species belonging to this family ( pine, fir,
cedar …) seem to be indigenous to the Kerman pro-
vince (Riedl 1965). Does this single fragment thus
18 NO. 3
 Table 2 Results of the charcoal analysis

Mound Konar Sandal S Konar Sandal N

Period Bronze Age Iron Age
Trench II III IV VIII IX XI XIV
I V
Locus 303 305 309 316 103 204 306 314 503 505 506 513 518 208 211 215 217 229 239 302 311 519 ? 145 300 322 324 325 N % BI12 301 N %

Riverine forest Dalbergia sissoo Pakistani 39 2 1 1 4 1 5 53 3,6% 1 1 0,3%

rosewood

Mashkour et al.
Salix Willow 2 2 1 1 4 1 3 2 16 1,1% 183 1 184 52,6%
Tamarix Tamarisk 21 38 10 13 9 3 65 12 1 173 120 195 9 10 6 20 3 1 25 1 1 2 4 9 9 4 764 52,6% 32 36 68 19,4%
Total riverine forests 21 38 10 13 9 3 104 12 1 177 123 197 10 14 11 23 3 4 25 1 6 2 4 9 9 4 833 57,3% 216 37 253 72,3%
Subtropical Acacia sp. Acacia 1 1 0,1%
open shrub- Acacia cf. nilotica Nile Acacia 4 6 10 4 30 17 4 12 6 109 75 67 32 12 14 20 12 4 3 17 3 1 6 4 15 2 1 490 33,7% 32 6 38 10,9%
and Chenopodiaceae Goosefoot 1 3 4 0,3%
woodlands family

Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

garmsir Lycium sp. Wolfberry 3 3 1 1 8 0,6%
Journal of Environmental Archaeology

Prosopis cineraria/ Prosopis 7 2 4 4 28 3 3 1 1 53 3,6%

koelziana
Salvadora persica Toothbrush 1 1 0,1%
tree
Ziziphus cf. spina- Jujube 5 2 2 1 1 2 13 0,9% 5 1 6 1,7%
christi
Total open shrub- and woodlands 4 12 0 17 4 30 17 6 18 7 119 76 102 32 16 17 20 15 4 3 17 3 1 6 0 4 16 2 2 570 39,2% 37 7 44 12,6%
Mountain flora Juniperus excelsa Juniper 1 1 1 1 4 0,3% 16 16 4,6%
sardsir Olea sp. Olive 38 5 43 3,0% 17 1 18 5,1%
Pinaceae Pine family 1 1 0,1
Total mountain flora 1 1 1 1 1 38 5 48 3,3% 33 1 34 9,7%
Fruit species Phoenix dactylifera Date palm 1 1 0,1% 14 5 19 5,4%
Vitis vinifera Grapevine 1 1 0,1%
Total fruit species 1 1 2 0,1% 14 5 19 5,4%
Total 25 50 10 30 13 30 20 110 30 8 297 200 300 42 30 30 20 39 7 7 42 4 1 50 8 8 25 11 6 1453 100% 300 50 350 100%
2013
3VOL.
18
NO.
231
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 8 SEM photographs of charcoal fragments from Konar Sandal South: a. transversal section, Acacia (Acacia cf nilotica);
b. longitudinal tangential section, Pakistani rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo); c. transversal section, olive (Olea sp.); d. transversal
section, willow (Salix sp.); e. transversal section, tamarisk (Tamarix sp.); transversal section of small branch, jujube (Ziziphus sp.).

232 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3

 Mashkour et al.
represent an importation of wood from elsewhere?
Until other data corroborating such a hypothesis has
been obtained we prefer to remain cautious on this
issue even though the importation of wood is not an
unknown phenomenon in the Bronze Age Middle
East (Tengberg et al. 2008).
Olive (Olea sp.) is identified from several contexts at
Konar Sandal South. It is possible that this wood cor-
responds to the cultivated tree (Olea europaea L.),
domesticated in the eastern Mediterranean in the
Chalcolithic and cultivated extensively in the Near
East from the 3rd millennium BC. However, cultivated
olive has not yet been attested at Bronze Age sites in
Iran even in regions more appropriate for olive cultiva-
tion than the Halil Rud valley.1 Another possibility is
that the olive wood identified at Konar Sandal belongs
to a wild species. Indeed, two indigenous Olea species
grow in southeastern Iran: O. ferruginea Royle,
recorded from the Kouh-e Bam Post in Baluchistan
and O. aucheri (Chev.) Ehrendf. that grows both in
Kerman and in the Oman peninsula (Murray 1968,
4). In the Oman mountains O. aucheri is associated
with juniper (Kürschner 1998, 93). In Iran this
species grows in the forests of Kouh-e Shah, between
Sirjan and Esfandaqeh, at altitudes between 2000
and 2500 m (Murray 1968, 4).
Finally, two species that were most certainly culti-
vated at Konar Sandal are the date palm (Phoenix dac-
tylifera L.) and grape (Vitis vinifera L.). While they are
rare in the charcoal assemblages from Konar Sandal
South, the date palm is present in somewhat higher
numbers at Konar Sandal North (representing 5·4% of
the identified fragments). The date palm is also a recur-
rent motif on the soft stone vessels, represented alone or
associated with animals such as lions and birds of prey
(Perrot and Madjidzadeh 2005, 2006) (Fig. 2b). Seed
remains of both date palm and grape have been ident-
ified at Konar Sandal as will be discussed below.
Results of the Study of Seeds and Fruits
Few seed and fruit remains (N = 112) have been ident-
ified from Konar Sandal due to limited sampling and
contexts that turned out to be less favourable for the
recovery of this type of remains. Indeed, densities of
remains are in general low, oscillating between 0·01
and 3·33 items per litre of floated sediment (Table 3).
Moreover, a majority (62%) of the seed/fruit remains
came from one single locus (no. 306), consisting of
ashy sediments associated with a hearth in Trench III.
Still, some conclusions can already be drawn about
the past agricultural economy of the valley.
1
Fruit stones (endocarps) identified as wild olive (Olea cuspidata Wall. ex
G. Don) are reported from Tepe Hissar in northeastern Iran (Costantini
and Dyson 1990). However, the morphology of these remains seems
rather to correspond to the fruit stones of Russian olive (Elaeagnus orien-
talis L.), a common species of riparian formations in the region under
concern.
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
Two cereal species were cultivated at Konar Sandal
in the Bronze Age: free-threshing (or naked) wheat
(Triticum aestivum/durum) and barley (Hordeum
vulgare L.) (Fig. 9a and b). According to the mor-
phology of the barley grains two types can be recog-
nised: hulled barley and a free-threshing variety (var.
nudum). The latter, as well as naked wheat, are also
identified from numerous impressions on mud brick
from both mounds (Fig. 10a and b). Indeed, chaff
resulting from the threshing and the subsequent win-
nowing of cereals seems to have been used systemati-
cally as a temper in the building material. Their
recurrence bears witness, even more than the seed
remains, to the importance of cereal cultivation in
the valley. There is no precise evidence on how cultiva-
tion was practiced but flood (decrue) agriculture is a
possible option suggested also for other sites in the
region (Tengberg 1999).
Cultivated pulses, such as lentils and peas, usually
accompany the cereals on sites in eastern Iran as well
as in general in the Middle East but at Konar Sandal
this type of food plants, rich in proteins, are rare. In
fact the only example known so far comes from a pit
at Konar Sandal North and consists of a well-pre-
served seed of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) (Fig. 9c).
Besides annual crops, two cultivated fruit species are
identified at Konar Sandal: date palm (Phoenix dacty-
lifera) and grapevine (Vitis vinifera) (Fig. 9e and f ).
While the first species is recorded from both
mounds, grapevine is attested only at Konar Sandal
South. The simultaneous presence of both seeds and
stem/wood remains from these species constitutes a
strong argument for local cultivation. Further, the
Jiroft plain is situated far away from the natural distri-
bution range of wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera subsp.
sylvestris (C.C. Gmelin) Berger), excluding both the
gathering of wild grapes and a local domestication
(Zohary and Hopf 2000). It seems thus quite clear
that grape cultivation was introduced to southeastern
Iran perhaps from the northern parts of the Iranian
plateau where wine production is attested since the
late Neolithic (McGovern et al. 1996). The earliest
grape remains from eastern Iran come from a fouth
millennium BC context at Tepe Yahya in Kerman pro-
vince (Meadow 1986b). The species is also attested at
sites in the Indo-Iranian borderlands during the
Bronze Age, with remains found as far east as
Mehrgarh and Sohr Damb in central Pakistani
Baluchistan (Costantini 1984; Thiébault 1989;
Benecke and Neef 2005). At third millennium BC
Shahr-i Sokhta twigs were found parallel to seeds,
probably as a result of pruning (Costantini 1977, 162).
Whether the limited number of carbonised date
seeds (N = 5) so far recovered from the two mounds
at Konar Sandal means that the species was not very
important at the site or is rather result of limited
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 233
234

Mashkour et al.
Journal of Environmental Archaeology

Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Table 3 Results of the seed/fruit analysis

Mound Konar Sandal S Konar Sandal N

Period Bronze Age Iron Age
Trench III IV
2013

I II V VIII XI II XIV
Locus
303 309 306 314 308 329 302 311 322 vessel 301
Vol. floated (I)
84 3 240 18 120 48 36 42 28 12 15
VOL.

Density (remians/litre) 0,02 3,33, 0,29 0,17 0,01 0,02 0,06 0,02 0,21 NA 0,25 0,20 NA
18

Cereals Hordeum vulgare var. Naked barley 2 2

nudum
NO.

Hordeum vulgare Hulled barley 1 1 2

3

* Barley, naked/hulled 6 6 1 1
Triticum aestivum/durum Naked wheat 2 2
Cerealia Cereals, indetermined 4 19 1 1 4 29
* Cereals, stem internodes 1 1
Pulses Lathyrus sativus Grass pea 1 1
Fruit species Phoenix dactylifera Date palm 1 1 1 3 2 2
Vitis vinifera Grapevine 1 14 1 16
Ziziphus sp. Jujube 6 6
Wild grasses Avena sp. Oats 1 1
Lolium sp. Ryegrass 1 1 2
Poaceae Grasses 1 2 13 1 1 18
Wild pulses Fabaceae Pulses 3 3 6 1 1
Varia Acacia/Prosopis Acacia/prosopis 1 1
cf Cyperaceae Sedge 1 1
Galium sp. Bedstraw 1 1
Total 2 10 70 3 1 1 2 1 6 96 3 3 6
 Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 9 Carbonised seeds and fruits from Konar Sandal: a. Barley grain (Hordeum vulgare) dorsal and ventral view; b. Free-
threshing wheat grain (Triticum aestivum/durum) dorsal, lateral and ventral view; c. Seed of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), lateral
and front view; d. Fragments of the endocarp of jujube (Ziziphus sp.); e. Date seed (Phoenix dactylifera); f. Grape seeds (Vitis
vinifera). All the remains come from Konar Sandal South (locus 306) except the grass pea (c) found at Konar Sandal North (locus
301).

Figure 10 Impressions on mud brick from Konar Sandal South (locus 306): a. Six-row naked barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp.
hexastichum var. nudum); b. Free-threshing wheat (Triticum aestivum/durum).

Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 235

Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

sampling is difficult to determine. The environmental Table 4 Faunal spectra of KSS and KSN (seasons 2004 and
2005) by means of NISP
conditions of the Jiroft plain, with high mean tempera-
tures and rich water resources, seem perfectly adapted Taxa/ NISP KSS KSN
to date palm cultivation and the species is frequently
Capra hircus 127 52
represented in the Bronze Age iconography as men- Ovis aries 70 51
tioned above. In southeastern Iran the earliest record Caprini 3141 506
of Phoenix dactylifera consists of a single carbonised Bos taurus/indicus 602 210
Gazella spp. 7 0
seed found in levels dated the late sixth to early fifth Sus scrofa 3 62
millennium BC at Tepe Gaz Tavila in the Kerman pro- Equus cf caballus 0 9
Equid 4 14
vince (Costantini and Costantini-Biasini 1985). This Canis spp. 2 12
find, however, is unique for such an early period and Carnivore 14 3
supplementary date palm remains do not appear Tatera indica 733 76
Small ruminant 18 7
until the Bronze Age, when date palm is attested at Medium Mammal 609 139
Konar Sandal, Shahr-i Sokhta and Tepe Yahya Large Mammal 77 212
(Costantini and Costantini-Biasini 1985, 211). Total Mammals 5407 1353
Aves unidentified 12 2
The seeds/fruits of a few wild species are recorded at Total Aves 12 2
Konar Sandal. It is likely that at least some of these Arius sp. 8 0
Carcharhinidae 2 0
(wild grasses and pulses, sedge and bedstraw) represent Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos 1 0
weed plants that grew in the fields and were cleaned Carcharhinus brevipinna 0 3
out from the crops. The single seed of a Mimosoidae Carcharhinus brevipinna/amblyrhynchos 1 0
Chondrichthyes 1 0
species (Acacia or Prosopis) may have been brought Galeorhinus galeus 1 0
to the site together with fuel wood belonging to one Mustelus manazo 3 0
of these taxa. Finally, several carbonised fragments Myliobatis aquila 4 0
Perciforme 1 0
of the fruit stone (endocarp) of jujube (Ziziphus sp.) Protonibea diacanthus 4 0
(Fig. 9d) were recovered from locus 306 in Trench Sepiidae 1 0
III. Two jujube species grow in the Jiroft Plain: the Sphyrna zygaena 1 1
Unidentified Fish 15 4
arborescent Christ’s thorn (Z. spina-christi) and the Total Fish 28 4
more shrublike Z. nummularia (Burm f.) Wight & Amiantis umbonella 2 0
Anadara erythraeonensis 0 1
Arn. Both provide edible fruits, jujubes, much appreci- Anadara sp. 2 1
ated in this region as well as elsewhere in the arid Architectonica perspectiva 1 0
Middle East where they are frequently found in Cardiinae (small) 1 0
Conus cf. parvatus 1 0
archaeological sites. Conus chaldeus 1 0
Conus ebraeus 1 0
Conus sp. 1 0
The Archaeozoological Study Cypraea sp. 2 1
Methods Dentalium octangulatum 2 0
The faunal remains from Konar Sandal South and Engina mendicaria 1 1
Hexaplex kuesterianus 1 0
North, including macromammalian, fish and mollusc Lunella coronata 2 0
remains, were handpicked. Bones were washed and Melanoides tuberculata 15 11
dried in the shade. The faunal remains were collected Nerita sp. 1 0
Neverita didyma 1 0
in all the excavated trenches and studied in the dig- Oliva bulbosa 2 1
house where the bones are currently stored. For bone Pinctada sp 4 0
Pleurocopa trapezium 1 0
identification, ostelogical atlases together with a Polinices sp. 7 0
small comparative collection of bovids gathered in Prunum terverianum 1 0
the field were used. Bones were counted, weighed Telescopium telescopium 1 0
Thais lacera 1 0
and measured following Von den Driesch (1976). In Tonna olearium 1 0
parallel to the study of the macromammalian Umbonium vestiarium 2 2
remains, a specific program was also run during the Unidentified Mollusc 0 2
Total Molluscs 55 18
2005 season for the collection of microvertebrate Total NISP 5502 1377
remains. Finally, sediment sampling was performed Unidentified 4287.00 626.00
Grand Total 9789 2003
for the recovery of parasite eggs in chosen areas of
% unidentified 43.8 31.3
the site.

Results of the Archaeozoological Study

Approximately 12 000 bone fragments, weighing salt in the sediment had a damaging effect on bone
38 kg, were recovered during the 2004 and 2005 exca- preservation causing in particular the splitting of
vation seasons (Table 4). The presence of gypsum and tooth remains. The fragmentation in general is quite

236 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3

 Mashkour et al.
extensive resulting in a proportion of unidentified
bones from Konar Sandal South of 50% and from
Konar Sandal North of 30%. The average weight of
identified bones from the two mounds was 4 and
8·3 g, respectively.
The mammalian and avian taxonomic diversity at
both sites is quite limited. Herbivores constitute the
bulk of the assemblages with caprini (sheep and
goat) being the most abundant taxa in Konar Sandal
South (82% of the NISP) and North (60%) (Fig. 11).
They are followed by bovines representing 15% of
the remains from the south mound and 22% in from
the north mound. The proportion of suids shows a sig-
nificant increase between Konar Sandal South and
North. Another important difference is the presence
of camel in Konar Sandal North, absent from the
earlier contexts of the southern mound. The exploita-
tion of marine resources, fish and molluscs that consti-
tute the most diversified taxonomic group, does not
show any substantial change between the two occu-
pations. The list of identified specimens established
by Nathalie Desse-Berset and Desse (2008) and
Figure 11 Distribution of economically important taxa in Konar Sandal South and North by means of NISP (Number of Identified
Specimens).
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
Martin (2008) has here been added to the general
faunal spectra, to provide a complete picture of the
exploited faunal resources (Table 4).
In Konar Sandal South approximately 9800 bones
have been studied from the 2004 and 2005 seasons
and approximately 2000 remains were recovered in
Konar Sandal North (Mashkour 2008).
Unfortunately, it has not been possible to add the
complete data from the last exacavation season in
2006 since excavations at the site are interrupted
since then and not yet studied bones from this cam-
paign have become inaccessible. Some of the data con-
cerning specific cases will nevertheless be discussed
when necessary.
Sheep (Ovis L.) and Goat (Capra L.)
Sheep and goat distinctions were determined on the
basis of morphological criteria presented in the litera-
ture (e.g. Clutton-Brock et al. 1990; Halstead et al.
2002). Some of the skeletal elements were selected
for this identification including horn cores, third
deciduous and permanent premolars. Among the
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 237
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
post-cranial bones only the distal humerii, the proxi-
mal radius, the talus, the distal metapodials and the
phalanges were used.
The sheep-to-goat ratios are respectively 1:2 (KSS)
and 1:1 (KSN). The absence of wild specimens of
sheep and goat in the archaeozoological assemblages is
somewhat surprising as both domesticated and wild
animals of the two genera are clearly depicted on the
soft stone vessels from the Halil Rud basin (Fig. 2).
Cattle (Bos L.)
The iconography of the confiscated soft stone vessels
shows various forms of cattle (cf. Madjidzadeh
2003a). There could be two reasons for this: either
the morphological diversity is the result of artistic vari-
ation for a single motif or several forms of cattle actu-
ally existed in the Halil Rud basin with which the
artists were familiar.
The south-central Iranian plateau was home to
European cattle or Bos taurus L., zebu cattle, Bos
indicus L., and maybe also to water buffalo, Bubalus
bubalis L. The dispersal of zebu cattle outside its indi-
genous range in the Indus Valley seems to have been
caused by human actions. It is also likely that this was
the case for the water buffalo. While some historians
favor the thesis that the water buffalo was introduced
from Southeast Asia as a domestic animal to the
Middle and Near East (Casabonne 2003), others
argue that the wild ancestor of the water Buffalo,
Bubalus arnee Kerr, was living in northern Syria in the
sixth millennium BC (Uerpmann 1987) and progress-
ively disappeared because of the destruction of its
habitat. O. Casabonne reviews the iconographic and epi-
graphic documentation of the occurrence of this animal
in Anatolia and Mesopotamia. During the Bronze Age
the water buffalo was present in the Indus Valley.
As for the the Halil Rud basin, the iconography on
the softstone vessels represents at least two different
taxa (taurine cattle and zebu cattle) with clearly recog-
nizable attributes: the presence of a dewlap and a
hump, even though less prominent than usually rep-
resented on Harappan stamp seals, as well as straight
upward rising horns, suggest a zebu. Another group
of flat-backed bovines are comparable to taurine
cattle, the most common bovine throughout Europe
and the Near and Middle East.
Unfortunately, in the osteological remains of
bovines, the diversity seen in the art is not as
clearly recognizable. The more distinctive character-
istics for sorting zebu from taurine cattle include
the morphology of the orbital rim of the zygomatic
bone (flat rim in Bos indicus; sharp rim in Bos
taurus) (Meadow 1986a, Fig. 5.2) and the presence
of a notched or bifid dorsal spine process of the
thoracic vertebra resulting from the development of
a thoracic or cervico-thoracic hump. These elements
238 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18
were indeed observed in the material found in
Konar Sandal South (Fig. 12a and b) and count
among the rare occurrences of Zebu on the Iranian
Plateau.
Gazelles (Gazella Blainville) and Suids (Sus L.)
These animals are represented in very small numbers.
The gazelle remains do not allow their precise allo-
cation to the dorcas gazelle that is the species distribu-
ted in the region.
Suids (Sus)
The use of domestic pig in this area of the Iranian
Plateau is very little documented because of the low
number of archaeological sites (Mashkour 2006).
The suids are represented in a very low percentage in
Konar Sandal South (<1%). A significant change is
apparent at Konar Sandal North where they are rep-
resented by more than 6% (Fig. 11; Table 4). None
of these remains allows a clear insight into the status
of the animal. This includes diagnostic skeletal
elements (like jaw teeth), metric analysis or demo-
graphic data. The low percentage of suid remains in
Konar Sandal South and North raises the problem
of their domestic or wild status (see discussion in
Mashkour 2006). However, it should be noted that
the general impression of small size of the Konar
Sandal bones, it can be assumed that these remains
belong mostly to domesticates. The increase of the pro-
portion of these remains in Konar Sandal North
would also confort this assumption.
Equids (Equus L.)
In Konar Sandal South four equid skeletal elements
were found. One in Trench XI in (Feature 205) at a
depth of 115 cm was a proximal humerus with the fol-
lowing measurements: breadth 99·6; depth 72·1. The
second is an upper molar in a very bad preservation
condition found in the same trench (Fig. 12d). The
humerus dimensions overlap between hemiones
(Equus hemionus) and horses (E. caballus L.), and in
the absence of diagnostic features it is not possible to
distinguish the two species. As for the tooth, it is
damaged and not measurable and morphological fea-
tures are biased. The two other remains had no diag-
nostic feature.
In Konar Sandal North the horse is clearly docu-
mented by several skeletal elements. Here, a first
phalanx has a logarihmic profile comparable to the
horse (Figs. 12c and 13 and Table 5) and was dated fol-
lowing the method developed by J.-F. Saliège (Saliège
et al. 2005). The radiocarbon date obtained for this
specimen is 2789 ± 36 BP thus placing it in the Iron
Age (Table 1).
NO. 3
 Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 12 a) and b) KSS Tr IV F 213, zygomatic bone of Cattle (Bos indicus) and bifid spine of thoracic vertebra (Bos cf indicus); c)
KSN Phalanx I, Tr XIV, plantar view of an Equid d) KSN TrV 201 D123-199, left upper Molar/Premolar; e and f) KSN Tr I- F404 d. 270-
280, Camelus bactrianus, Bactrian camel first Phalanx (e - Cranial view; f - Plantar view).

Camels (Camelus L.) Konar Sandal South but only in Konar Sandal
The presence of Bactrian camel was expected in the North. A heated, partly burnt, first anterior phalanx
cultural and chronological context of Konar Sandal was found in 2006 in the stratigraphic Trench I
sites. However, no camel remains were found in (Feature 404) at the depth of 270–280 cm (Fig. 12e

Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 239

Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

has been documented in detail in the literature even

if the precise chronology for the introduction and dif-
fusion of the two-humped camel during the third mil-
lennium on the Iranian Plateau is still unclear (Potts
2004).

Figure 13 Comparison of the measurement of Phalanx 1 of
Equid in KSN with the the logarithmic profiles for horse
(Equus caballus) and Ass (E. asinus). 0 line E. hemionus
onager. (For method and code measurements cf Eisenmann,
1986).
Table 5 KSN. Measurements of the first phalanx of Equus
caballus
Source Eisenmann (1986)
Code KSN 05 TrXTV
Position Post Phalanx 1
7 49·20
1 85·60
3 34·90
4 57·10
5 34·40
6 48·10
14 45·50
10 68·00
12 18·80
*Measurements of the first phalanx of Equus caballus.
Table 6 KSN. Measurements of the first phalanx of Camelus
bactrianus
KSN 06- Trench I-F 404- Depth 270–280 cm
GL Bp Dp Bd Dd
104·1 43·7 32·8 38·6 30·6
*Measurements of the first phalanx of Camelus bactrianus.
and f ). Equally to the horse phalanx, this specimen
was submitted to 14C dating (cf Table 1). The morpho-
logical features of this bone as well as the metric analy-
sis (Table 6; Fig. 14), when compared to reference
modern material (Steiger 1990; Uerpmann and
Uerpmann 2002; Pigière and Henrotay 2012), show a
similar profile to the two humped camel (Camelus bac-
trianus L.).
The animal is originally distributed in Central Asia,
towards China, contrary to the one humped dromed-
ary (Camelus dromedarius L.), distributed in the
more southern zones covering Pakistan, southern
Iran and the whole Arabian Peninsula. This topic
Birds
The few bird remains that were retrieved are not ident-
ifiable to a more precise taxonomic level. The only
observations that can be made record the comparative
size of the remains. They all belong to medium size
birds (Phasianidae or Gallinacea). On the basis of
the iconographic motifs depicted on the soft stone
vessels of the Halil River Basin, we could have
expected to recover skeletal remains of birds of prey,
for example the Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) or
the short toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus Gmelin).
Both species are present in the region, inhabiting the
highlands and mountainous areas (Scott et al. 1975).
The Lammergeier has been identified in the
Neolithic level (VII) at Tepe Yahya (Meadow 1986a,
Table 4.3). Towards the east, in Shahr-i-Sokhta,
fowls were commonly consumed. The two most fre-
quently represented species there are the coot (Fulica
spp. L.) and pochard (Netta spp. Kaup) (Ligabue
1977).
Exploitation of Marine Resources
Fish and mollusc remains indicate the exploitation of
marine resources. Based on the results of marine fish
and molluscs from the Persian Gulf region published
by Desse-Berset and Desse (2008) and Martin (2008)
(Table 4) the marine resources at both sites are very
similar. Considering the fact that Konar Sandal is
located approximately 250 km from the Persian Gulf
the presence of these species is significant evidence
for long distance interaction during the Bronze Age.
Of interest are both issues of conservation and
Sd
transport.
24·08 In the adjacent regions, at Tepe Yahya and Shahr-i-
Sokhta both molluscan and fish remains were also col-
lected. However, in those sites the presence of
molluscan remains has not been associated with con-
sumption (Durante 1979). The fish remains from
Shahr-i-Sokhta belong to riverine species
(Cyprinidae) (Tortonese 1977) and the recovery of
fish-hooks and fishing nets indicates that fishing was
a local activity. There is no independent evidence for
local fishing at Konar Sandal. At Miri Qalat and
Shahi Tump in the Makran region there is also abun-
dant evidence of marine resources, brought from the
coast, situated at a distance of 120 km (Desse-Berset
and Desse 2005). Further, in the Indus Valley
R. Meadow discusses the activity of fishing as a prob-
able marker of the Harappan culture as he observes a
remarkable increase in molluscs and fish from the

240 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3

 Mashkour et al.
Figure 14 Comparison of the first Phalanx measurements of KSN camelid with Camelus bactrianus, C. dromedarius and
hybrids.
earlier Balakotian levels (Meadow 1979a, Fig. 4,
1979b). He questions whether the Harappan people
brought the orientation from marine resources with
them or developed it at the site. The situation at
Konar Sandal may shed light on this question. Since
fishing and collections of molluscs at Konar Sandal
was not a local behaviour, it can only reflect wider cul-
tural interaction. The similarities observed here are,
however, at a different scale, both micro-regionally
and macro-regionally. In Balakot, located some
16 km from the Arabian Sea, it is likely that the inhabi-
tants directly exploited the marine resources (Meadow
1979a). In the case of inland sites such as those of
Iranian Bronze Age discussed above, direct exploita-
tion was not possible. In this respect, it is interesting
to compare the Balakot taxonomic list with those of
Konar Sandal. Only few molluscs and fish are
shared between sites. The absence at Balakot of mol-
luscs such as Terebralia palustris L. (denizen of
Mangroves), Telescopium telescopium L. and fish
such as Pomadasys hasta Bloch, a species of grunt
living in shallow water and estuaries, found at both
Konar Sandal South and Konar Sandal North is note-
worthy. The species found on these sites are more fre-
quently found at Omani sites (Martin 2005). Even
though no statistical comparison is possible due to
restricted data from Konar Sandal the question will
remain important providing evidence for trade routes
and cultural interactions.
Discussion
The archaeobotanical and archaeozoological studies
undertaken at Konar Sandal allow us to propose a
first reconstruction of the environmental conditions
and the subsistence economies of the Halil Rud valley
in the Bronze and Iron Ages that is from the mid-
third millennium until the early first millennium BC.
The analysis of charcoal fragments indicates the
presence of two main vegetation types in the valley:
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
hygrophilous gallery-forests developing along the
river and open shrub- and woodlands dominated by
subtropical species growing on drier ground. These
formations, that constituted the main source for
wood used at the site, were not significantly different
in their composition to vegetation types still found in
southeastern Iran. However, some of the identified
species are rare or even absent from this part of the
valley today, notably the sissoo that is restricted to par-
ticular localities where it is protected from cutting.
Even though it is difficult to estimate the past
biomass through charcoal analysis, it is likely that
plant formations in the valley were denser as well as
floristically more diversified than they are today.
Besides providing fuel resources these formations
would have constituted the habitat for a wild fauna
as well as potential grazing grounds for domestic
herds. No significant changes in the vegetation cover
can be detected between the Bronze and Iron ages.
However, it should be noted that our data from the
North mound is limited.
As on other sites in the Indo-Iranian borderland
subsistence economies at Konar Sandal were mainly
based on agriculture and herding with domesticated
plant and animal taxa largely dominating the bioarch-
aeological record (Fig. 15). The main characteristics of
these economies were the dependence on domestic her-
bivores and cereal cultivation. Goats were more
important at Konar Sandal South than at the later
Konar Sandal North. Contrary to this evolution we
can observe an increase of the proportion of bovines
through time. This evolution is noteworthy as it may
be an indicator for changes in agricultural practices,
for example an intensification of the use of oxen for
ploughing and other agricultural activities needing
traction and transport. While no evidence for animal
ploughing has so far been found at Konar Sandal,
fossil fields with traces of ard-ploughing and associ-
ated archaeological material have been observed
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 241
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
Figure 15 Taxonomic distribution of faunal remains during the Bronze Age on the Iranian Plateau and in the Indus Valley.
both at Shahdad, another major Bronze Age city in
the Kerman province as well as in the Dasht plain in
Pakistani Makran (Mir Abedin Kaboli and Roland
Besenval, respectively, personal communications).
From a taxonomic point of view zebu cattle has
been documented at Konar Sandal South, the dom-
estic horse and the Bactrian camel in Konar Sandal
North. Although it is not surprising to find these
animals in the region since the Bronze Age, with the
exception of the horse, they are here attested for the
first time in Halil Rud basin.
As in recent times fruit production seems to have
been a characteristic of the well-irrigated Halil Rud
valley already in the Early Bronze Age with the pres-
ence of date palms and grapevine.
In general, the alluvial valley seems to have been the
scene for most activities linked to the subsistence of the
inhabitants of Konar Sandal: cereal and fruit cultiva-
tion, wood collection, herding and hunting. However,
there is evidence in the bioarchaeological record for
the exploitation of other and more distant ecosystems.
The presence of wood from a few taxa belonging to
the sardsir (Juniperus and probably Olea) indicates
that plant resources from the mountains were also
occasionally brought down to the valley. From these
limited remains it is difficult to evaluate the role
played by foothill and mountain resources in the local
economies of the valley. The potential of the temperate
ecosystems of the Jebel Barez or Sardouyeh mountains
is high though with the possibility for wood cutting,
fruit collection, pasture etc. In particular, the question
of pastoral systems making use of the complementarity
of the lowlands and the highlands through seasonal
movements has to be addressed.
The Mohamadi nomads who stay near Konar
Sandal and whom we briefly approached during the
242 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL.
2005 field season constitute a modern example of pas-
toral transhumance. They rely on sheep and goat hus-
bandry (Fig. 16). During more or less 8 months of the
year they live in the Jiroft plain but during the four
warmest and driest months, from late spring until the
end of summer, they are obliged to move to the high-
lands of the Jebel Barez (ca. 50 km east of Konar
Sandal) or to the Sourdar/Dalfard region (ca.
60–80 km to the North) in order to find adequate
pasture for their herds.
Indeed, considering the ethnographic data as well
the particular ecological conditions that characterise
most of the Iranian Plateau one may suspect that the
highlands were used also in the past for pasture
during the hot summer season. The heavy reliance
on caprines in the subsistence economies at Konar
Sandal may constitute another argument in this
direction. However, archaeologically this issue can
best be approached by the study of kill-off patterns
as well as skeletal part representations that may
reflect specific herding strategies. As mentioned
above tooth remains collected at both mounds are
highly split because of the effect of the satin spars,
a fibours variety of gypsum which has made the
use of teeth for the reconstruction kill-off pattern
very difficult. The presence of many juveniles or
young adults between 2 and 24 months can neverthe-
less be observed among the remains from Konar
Sandal South, indicating at least that the youngest
individuals were born in the valley. Moreover, at
Konar Sandal North, age information comes
mostly from the epiphysal stage of the long bones
that show that they belong in majority to very
young animals.
The particular urban context of Konar Sandal raises
several questions that are relevant to the organisation
18 NO. 3
 Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Figure 16 The Mohamadi nomads around Konar Sandal in 2005: a and b) View of the plain with the nomadic black tents and
settlement; Herd management c) Watering the herd; d) Adult animal pen fenced with dry shrubs; e) Yearlings’ pen with metallic
fence (Photo M. Mashkour).

of subsistence economies (Zeder 1991). The question is
whether agriculture and animal husbandry took place
on a domestic scale or within a more centralised
system, on a local or a regional scale, perhaps even
implying the exchange and trade of certain products
between populations involved in different activities.
Sugar-rich dates, raisins, and wine may, for example,
have been desirable commodities in neighbouring
regions where the lack of water resources prevented
the local cultivation of date palms and grapevine.
Animal products of different kinds may also have
been part of trade networks.

Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 243

Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran

Table 7 Faunal spectra of the Indo-Iranian borderlands by means of NISP

Other species (fish, bird,

Site/% NISP Bovin Caprine Gazelles Suids Equids amphibian/reptiles)

Indus-Balakhot Harappan (Meadow, 1987) 40·0 60·0

Indus- Balakhot mid 4th Mill (Meadow, 1987) 72·0 28·0
Indus- Sibri (Meadow, 1987) 34·3 54·6 3·7 0·0 0·0 7·4
Indus- Mehrgarh 1-VII C (Meadow, 1987) 32·2 65·9 0·4 0·0 0·0 1·5
Indus- Mehrgarh 1-VII A-B (Meadow, 1987) 35·0 53·1 4·0 0·0 0·0 7·9
Iranian Plateau- Shahr-i-Sokhta (Caloi and 27·5 68·2 0·7 0·0 1·0 2·7
Compagnoni, 1977)
Iranian Plateau- Tappeh Yahya IVC (Meadow 5·7 92·9 1·0 0·2 0·0 0·2
1986a, 1986b)
Iranian Plateau- Konar Sandal South 14·8 81·8 0·2 0·1 0·1 3·1
(2004–2005)
Iranian Plateau- Konar Sandal North 22·1 64·2 0·0 6·5 2·4 4·7
(2004–2005)

We do have evidence of the travelling of foodstuffs
of animal origin by the presence of marine resources
at Konar Sandal, a phenomenon met at several
Bronze Age sites situated more or less near the coast.
Even though existing since earlier periods, for
example in the Makran region of southwestern
Pakistan, the exploitation of marine fish and molluscs
may have known an intensification during Harappan
times in the late third millennium BC.
The study of the bioarchaeological material from
Konar Sandal is not complete without its integration
into our broader understanding of the Bronze Age
economies on the Iranian Plateau and in the Indus
Valley (Fig. 15; Table 7). The main difference observed
in the faunal assemblages is the importance of caprine
herding on the sites in eastern Iran compared to the
Indus region where bovines dominate, probably due
to very different environments with the presence of
mountains in Iran and more humid lowlying lands in
the Indus valley and the species adaptation to different
ecological conditions as it has been demonstrated ins
several regional studies in the South West Asia and
Europe (Mashkour 2001, Chap. 3; Maskhour 2002,
Fig 10; Bendrey 2011; Conolly et al. 2012).
Differences can also be noted in the plant assem-
blages with the cultivation of summer crops such
as millets, sesame at sites such as Sohr Damb in
central Baluchistan and Harappa in the Indus
valley while winter crops of Near Eastern origin
(barley, wheat, lentils, peas) dominate at sites in
eastern Iran and western Pakistan (Benecke and
Neef 2005; Costantini and Costantini-Biasini 1985;
Tengberg 1999; Weber 2003).
Other differences may be revealed through the
more detailed analysis of the hunted species and
minor species, which serve both as micro-regional
environmental and cultural markers. This large
scale analysis should be combined with finer par-
ameters, such as the size evolution of the principle
domesticates, their pathologies and the kill-off
patterns, which would reveal the subsistence strat-
egies adopted in this crucial period of demographic
expansion and urbanization.
Finally, the study of Konar Sandal plant and animal
remains, with its important mass of data typical of the
urban sites (like Shahr-i-Sokhta, or Tal-i Malyan) will
in the future be addressed with more specific analytical
approaches. The main questions for this site are to
document the herd management and agricultural strat-
egies, practices of land use and the interaction between
herding and agriculture. Also it is of considerable
importance to understand the systems of food procure-
ment and distribution in an urban system economy
with a centralised controlling power.
The interruption of the excavations in 2006 in
Konar Sandal has unfortunately stopped our
ongoing research in a particularly rich area both
from an archaeological and ecological point of view.
It seems necessary to go beyond these preliminary
observations to document with higher resolution the
impact of subsistence economies on the evolution of
Bronze and Iron Ages societies in interaction with
their environment.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Konar Sandal archaeologi-
cal team and all the archaeologists who contributed to
the collection of the faunal and botanical material. We
are also grateful to Pascal Mongne for having pre-
pared the plans and maps illustrating the text.
We also thank the anonymous reviewers for their
insightfull comments on this paper.
References
Amigues, S. 2009. Représentations végétales sur les vases en chlorite
de Jiroft. Studia Iranica 38, 105–25.
Aruz, J. 2003. “Intercultural style” carved chlorite objects, pp.
325–45 in Aruz, J. and Wallenfels, R. (eds.), Art of the First
Cities. The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to
the Indus. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art/New
Haven and London: Yale University Press.

244 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3

 Mashkour et al.
Bendrey, R. 2011. Some like it hot: environmental determinism and
the pastoral economies of the later prehistoric Eurasian steppe.
Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice 1, 8.
Benecke, N. and Neef, R. 2005. Faunal and plant remains from Sohr
Damb/Nal: A prehistoric site (c. 3500–2000 BC) in central
Balochistan (Pakistan), pp. 81–93 in Franke-Vogt, U. and
Weishaar, J. (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 2003
(Proceedings of the 17th International Conference of the
Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe).
Forschungen zur Archäologie Ausseuropäischer Kulturen
1. Aachen: LINDEN SOFT Verlag.
Bökönyi, S. and Bartosiewicz, L. 2000. A review of animal remains
from Shahr-i Sokhta, (eastern Iran), pp. 116–52 in Mashkour,
M., Choyke, A. M., Buitenhuis, H. and Poplin, F. (eds.),
Archaeozoology of the Near East IV, vol. 32. Proceedings of
the 4th International Symposium on the Archaeozoology of
Southwestern Asia and adjacent areas. Groeningen: ARC
Publication.
Casabonne, O. 2003. Buffles et zébus au Proche-Orient ancien, pp.
1–9 in Lebrun, R. and De Vos, J. (eds.), Studia Anatolica in
memoriam Erich Neu dicata. Hethitica 16. Bibliothèques des
Cahiers de l’Instut de Linguistique de Louvain 126. Louvain
La Neuve.
Clutton-Brock, J., Dennis-Bryan, K., Armitage, P. L. and Jewell, P.
A. 1990. Osteology of the Soay sheep. Bulletin of the British
Museum, Natural History, Zoology 56, 1–56.
Caloi, L. and Compagnoni, B. 1977. I mammiferi. In: P. Basaglia et
al. (eds.), La Città Bruciate del Deserto Salato. Venezia-Mestre,
Erizzo: 183–203.
Compagnoni, B. 1978. The bone remains of Equus hemionus from
Shahr-i-Sokhta, pp. 105–18 in Meadow, R. H. and Zeder, M.
A. (eds.), Approches to Faunal Analysis in the Middle East.
Peabody Museum Bulletin 2. Cambridge, MA: Peabody
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.
Conolly, J., Manning, K., Colledge, S., Dobney, K. and Shennan, S.,
2012. Species distribution modelling of ancient cattle from early
Neolithic sites in SW Asia and Europe. Holocene 22(9),
997–1010.
Costantini, L. 1977. Le piante, pp. 159–71 in Tucci, G. (ed.), La
Città bruciata del deserto salato (The Burnt City of the Salt
Desert). Venice-Maestre: Erizzo Editrice.
Costantini, L. 1979. Wood remains from Shahr i-Sokhta: a source of
information for the ancient environment and technology in pro-
tohistoric Sistan, pp. 87–121 in Taddei, M. (ed.), South Asian
Archaeology 1977. Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6.
Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale.
Costantini, L. 1984. The beginning of agriculture in the Kachi Plain:
the evidence of Mehrgarh, pp. 29–33 in Allchin, B. (ed.), South
Asian Archaeology 1981 (Proceedings of the 6th International
Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologist in
Western Europe). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Costantini, L. and Costantini-Biasini, L. 1985. Agriculture in
Baluchistan between the 7th and the 3rd millennium BC.
Newsletter of Baluchistan Studies 2, 16–30.
Costantini, L. and Dyson, R. H., Jr. 1990. The Ancient Agriculture
of the Damghan Plain: The Archaeological Evidence from Tepe
Hissar, pp. 46–68 in Miller, N. F. (ed.), Economy and Settlement
in the Near East: Analyses of Ancient Sites and Materials.
MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology vol. 7,
Suppl., Philadelphia, Supplement to Vol. 7, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Desse-Berset, N. and Desse, J. 2005. Les ichtyophages du Makran
(Béloutchistan, Pakistan), pp. 86–96 in Desse, J. and Desse-
Berset, N. (eds.) Past Exploitations of Aquatic Ecosystems in
South-West Asia: Environmental Approaches. Special issue of
Paléorient 31/1.
Desse-Berset, N. and Desse, J. 2007. Exploitation du milieu marin par
les populations du littoral au Bélouchistan (Pakistan) et leurs con-
tacts avec les oasis de l’intérieur, dès la fin du Vème millénaire BC,
pp. 133–42 in Plogmann, H. H. (ed.), Role of Fish in Ancient Time.
ICAZ International Council for Archaeozoology, 13th Fish
Remains Working Group Meeting (Basel, 5th–9th of October
2005). Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH.
Desse-Berset, N. and Desse, J. 2008. Jiroft and the Sea, pp. 265–76
in Madjidzadeh, Y. (ed.), Proceedings of the first International
Conference on the Halil Rud Basin civilization – Jiroft 2004.
ICHTO Kerman, The Centre of Archaeological Research of
the South East of Iran- Jiroft [in Persian].
Desse, J., Desse-Berset, N., Henry, A., Tengberg, M. and Besenval,
R. 2008. Faune et flore des niveaux profonds de Shahi-Tump
Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
(Balochistan, Pakistan). Premiers résultats. Paléorient 34(1),
159–71.
von den Driesch, A. 1976. A Guide to the Measurement of Animal
Bones from Archaeological Sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin 1.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Durante, S. 1979. Marine shells from Balakat, Shahr-i Sokhta and
Tepe Yahya: their significance for trade and technology in
ancient Indo-Iran, pp. 318–44 in Taddei, M. (ed.), South
Asian Archaeology 1977. Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series
Minor 6. Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale.
Eisenmann, V. 1986. Comparative Osteology of Modern and Fossil
Horses, Half-asses, and Asses, pp. 67–116 in Meadow, R. H.
and Uerpmann, H.-P. (eds.), Equids in the Ancient World, vol.
1. Wiesbaden: Reichert, Ludwig. (Dr).
Etemad, E. 1985. The Mammals of Iran, vols. 2–3. Tehran:
Department of the Environment.
Fouache, E., Garçon, D., Rousset, D., Sénéchal, G. and
Madjidzadeh, Y. 2005. La vallée de l’Halil Roud (region de
Jiroft, Iran): étude géoarchéologique, méthodologie et
résultats préliminaires. Paléorient 31(2), 107–22.
Gershevitch, I. 1957. Sissoo at Susa (OPers. Yaka=Dalbergia sissoo
Roxb.). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
19, 317–20.
Halstead, P., Collins, P. and Isaakidou, V. 2002. Sorting the sheep
from the goats: Morphological distinctions between the mand-
ibles and mandibular teeth of adult Ovis and Capra. Journal of
Archaeological Science 29, 545–53.
Harrington, F. A. 1977. A Guide to the Mammals of Iran. Tehran:
Department of the Environment.
Kürschner, H. 1998. Biogeography and introduction to vegetation,
pp. 63–98 in Ghazanfar, S. A. and Fisher, M. (eds.),
Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Dordrecht/Boston/
Londres: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Léonard, J. 1991–1992. Contribution à l’étude de la flore et de la
végétation des déserts d’Iran (Dasht-e-Kavir, Dasht-e-Lut,
Jaz Murian). Etude de la végétation : Analyse phytosociolo-
gique et phytochorologique des groupements végétaux (fasci-
cule 10, 1ère partie). Jardin botanique national de Belgique.
Meise.
Ligabue, G. 1977. Food supplies at Shahr-i-Sokhta, pp. 229–50 in
Tucci, G. (ed.), La Città bruciata del deserto salato (The
Burnt City of the Salt Desert). Venice-Maestre: Erizzo Editrice.
Madjidzadeh, Y. 2003a. La découverte de Jiroft. Dossiers
d’Archeologie 287, 19–26.
Madjidzadeh, Y. 2003b. Jiroft. The Earliest Oriental Civilization.
Tehran: Research Center, Cultural Heritage Organization.
Madjidzadeh, Y. 2008. Excavations at Konar Sandal in the region of
Jiroft in the Halil Basin: first preliminary report (2002–2008)
(with a contribution on glyptic art by Holly Pittman). Iran
46, 69–103.
Martin, C. 2005. Les malacofaunes marines archéologiques du
Ja’alan (Sultanat d’Oman) : un indicateur des modes de vie
des populations dans leur environnement, du Néolithique à l’âge
du Bronze. Unpublished PhD thesis. Paris: Natural History
Museum.
Martin, C. 2008. The Persian Gulf shells of Konar Sandal South and
Konar Sandal North in the region of Jiroft, pp. 277–85 in
Madjidzadeh, Y. (ed.), Proceedings of the first International
Conference on the Halil Rud Basin civilization – Jiroft 2004.
ICHTO Kerman, The Centre of Archaeological Research of
the South East of Iran- Jiroft [in Persian].
Mashkour, M. 2001. Chasse et élevage du Néolithique à l’Âge du Fer
dans la plaine de Qazvin (Iran). Etude archéozoologique des
sites de Zagheh, Qabrestan et Sagzabad. PhD thesis,
Université de Paris I-Sorbonne, 738p
Mashkour, M. 2002. Chasse et élevage au Nord du Plateau central
iranien entre le Néolithique et l’Âge du Fer. Paléorient 28(1),
27–42.
Mashkour, M. 2006. Boars and pigs: a view from the Iranian
Plateau, pp. 155–67 in Lion, B. and Michel, C. (eds.), De la
domestication au tabou: le cas des suidés dans le Proche-Orient
ancien. Travaux de la Maison René Ginouvès 1. Paris:
éditions de Boccad.
Mashkour, M. 2008. Subsistence Economy in the Urban sites of
Konar Sandal North and South of the Halil Rud Basin
(Iran), pp. 181–264. In Majidzadeh, Y. (ed.) The Proceedings
of the first international conference of the Halil Rud Basin civili-
zation- Jiroft (2004). ICHTO Kerman – The Centre of
Archaeological Research of the South East of Iran- Jiroft [in
Persian].
Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO. 3 245
Mashkour et al. Bio-archaeological studies at Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran
McGovern, P. E., Voigt, M. M., Glusker, D. L. and Exner, L. J.
1996. Neolithic resinated wine. Nature 381, 480–1.
Meadow, R. H. 1979a. Prehistoric subsistence at Balakot: initial
consideration of the faunal remains, pp. 275–315 in Taddei,
M. (ed.), South Asian Archaeology 1977. Seminario di Studi
Asiatici Series Minor 6. Naples: Instituto Universitario
Orientale.
Meadow, R. H. 1979b. A preliminary note on the faunal remains
from Pirak, pp. 334 in Jarrige, J.-F. and Santoni, M. (eds.),
Fouilles de Pirak, vol. 1. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard.
Meadow, R. H. 1984. Notes on the faunal remains from Mehrgarh,
Pakistan, with a focus on cattle (Bos), pp. 34–40 in Allchin, B.
(ed.), South Asian Archaeology 1981. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Meadow, R. H. 1986a. Animal Exploitation in Prehistoric
Southeastern Iran: Faunal remains from Tepe Yahya and Tepe
Gaz Tavila-R37, 5300–3000 BC. PhD thesis, Harvard
University.
Meadow, R. 1986b. Chapter 3. The Geographical and palaeoenvir-
onmental setting of Tepe Yahya, pp. 21–38 in Lamberg-
Karlovsky, C. C. and Beale, T. W. (eds.), Excavations at Tepe
Yahya, Iran 1967–1975. The early periods. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Meadow, R. 1987. Faunal exploitation patterns in Eastern Iran and
Baluchistan: a review of recent investigations, pp. 881–916 in
Gnoli, G. and Lanciotti, L. (eds.), Roma Orientalia Iosephi
Tucci Memoriae Dicata., vol. 2. Istituto italiano per il medio
et extremo Oriente.
Meadow, R. 1988. Mehrgarh et les cultures anciennes du
Baluchistan et de la vallée de l’Indus. La domestication et l’ex-
ploitation des plantes et des animaux dans les regions du
système de l’Indus du VIIe au IIe millénaire avant notre ère,
pp. 38–43 in Les cités oubliées de l’Indus. Paris: Musée
National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet.
Meadow, R. 1989. A note on the distribution of faunal remains
during the later periods at Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan),
pp. 165–75 in Frifelt, K. and Sørensen, P. (eds.) South Asian
Archaeology 1985. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies,
Occasional Paper 6, London/Riverdale, MD: Curzon Press/
Riverdale Co.
Meadow, R. 1991. Harappa Excavations 1986–1990: A
Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millennium Urbanism.
Monographs in World Archaeology 3, Madison: Prehistory
Press.
Misonne, X. 1959. Analyse zoogéographique des mammifères de
l’Iran. Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique.
Murray, E. 1968. Oleaceae (vol. 52/28) in Rechinger, K. H. (ed.),
Flora Iranica (Flora des iranischen Hochlandes und der umrah-
menden Gebirge, Persien, Afghanistan, Teile von West-
Pakistan, Nord-Iraq, Azerbaidjan, Turkmenistan). Graz:
Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt.
Muscarella, O. W. 2005. Jiroft and “Jiroft-Aratta”. A review article
of Yousef Madjidzadeh, Jiroft the earliest oriental civilization.
Bulletin of the Asia Institute 15, 173–98.
Neumann, A. and Skvortsov, A. K. 1969. Salicaceae (vol. 65/30:4),
in Rechinger, K. H. (ed.), Flora Iranica (Flora des iranischen
Hochlandes und der umrahmenden Gebirge, Persien,
Afghanistan, Teile von West-Pakistan, Nord-Iraq,
Azerbaidjan, Turkmenistan). Graz: Akademische Druck- und
Verlagsanstalt.
Perrot, J. 2003. L’iconographie de Jiroft. In Jiroft. Dossiers de
l’Archéologie 287, 96–113.
Perrot, J. and Madjidzadeh, Y. 2003. Découvertes récentes à Jiroft
(sud du plateau iranien). Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 1087–102.
Perrot, J. and Madjidzadeh, Y. 2005. L’iconographie des vases et
objets en chlorite de Jiroft (Iran). Paléorient 31(2), 123–52.
Perrot, J. and Madjidzadeh, Y. 2006. à travers l’ornementation des
vases et objets en chlorite de Jiroft. Paléorient 32(1), 99–112.
Pigière, F. and Henrotay, D. 2012. Camels in the northern provinces
of the Roman Empire. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(5),
1531–39.
Polo (Marco). The travels of Marco Polo. 1997. Translation by
William Marsden (from the Italian of Giambattista Ramusio’s
printed edition of 1553) with an Introduction by Benjamin
246 Journal of Environmental Archaeology 2013 VOL. 18 NO.
Colbert. Wordsworth Classics of world literature,
Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd.
Potts, D. T. 2004. Camel hybridization and the role of Camelus bac-
trianus in the Ancient Near East. Journal of the Economic and
Social History of the Orient 47, 143–65.
Rechinger, K. H. 1984. Papilionaceae II (vol. 157) in Rechinger,
K. H. (ed.), Flora Iranica (Flora des iranischen Hochlandes
und der umrahmenden Gebirge, Persien, Afghanistan, Teile von
West-Pakistan, Nord-Iraq, Azerbaidjan, Turkmenistan). Graz:
Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt.
Riedl, H. 1965. Pinaceae (vol. 14/28.6) in Rechinger, K. H. (ed.),
Flora Iranica (Flora des iranischen Hochlandes und der umrah-
menden Gebirge, Persien, Afghanistan, Teile von West-
Pakistan, Nord-Iraq, Azerbaidjan, Turkmenistan). Graz:
Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt.
Saliège, J.-F., Desse-Berset, N. and Desse, J. 2005. Datation de la
bioapatite de restes osseux d’origine marine : application à
des sites du Makran (Pakistan). Paléorient 31(1), 70–3.
Scott, D. A., Muravvij Hamadani, H. and Mirhosseyni, A. A. 1975.
The Birds of Iran. Tehran: Department of the Environment.
Shirazi, Z. 2012. Dynamique des végétations de l’Iran oriental en
interaction avec les sociétés humaines à l’âge du Bronze
(environ 3000–1500 avant J.-C.): Approche anthracologique.
PhD thesis. University Paris I, Panthéon Sorbonne. 309 p.
Steiger, C. 1990. Vergleichend morphologische Untersuchungen an
Einzelknochen des postkranialen Skeletts der Altweltkamele.
München: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität.
Tengberg, M. 1999. Crop Husbandry at Miri Qalat, Makran, SW
Pakistan (4000–2000 B.C.). Vegetation History and
Archaeobotany 8, 3–12.
Tengberg, M. 2008. Exploitation and use of plant resources in the
Indo-Iranian borderland in the Chalcolithic and in the
Bronze Age on the basis of archeobotanical remains, pp.
167–79, in Majidzadeh, Y. (ed.) The Proceedings of the First
International Conference of the Halil Rud Basin Civilization-
Jiroft (2004). ICHTO Kerman – The Centre of
Archaeological Research of the South East of Iran- Jiroft. [in
Persian].
Tengberg, M. and Thiébault, S. 2003. Vegetation history and wood
exploitation in Pakistani Baluchistan from the Neolithic to the
Harappan period: the evidence from charcoal analysis, pp.
21–63 in Weber, S. A. and Belcher, W. R. (eds.), Indus
Ethnobiology. New perspectives from the field. Lanham,
Oxford: Lexington Books.
Tengberg, M., Potts, D. T. and Francfort, H.-P. 2008. The golden
leaves of Ur. Antiquity 82, 925–36.
Thiébault, S. 1989. A Note on the Ancient Vegetation of Baluchistan
Based on Charcoal Analysis of the Latest Periods from
Mehrgarh, Pakistan, pp. 186–8 in Frifelt, K. and Sørensen, P.
(eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1985 (Papers from the 8th
International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists in
Western Europe). London: Curzon Press/Riverdale:
Riverdale Company.
Tortonese, E. 1977. I pesci, pp. 172 in Tucci, G. (ed.), La Città bru-
ciata del deserto salato (The Burnt City of the Salt Desert).
Venice-Maestre: Erizzo Editrice.
Uerpmann, H.-P. 1987. The Ancient Distribution of Ungulate
Mammals in the Middle East. Fauna and Archaeological Sites
in Southwest Asia and Northeast Africa. Wiesbaden: Ludwig
Reichert Verlag.
Uerpmann, H.-P. and Uerpmann, M. 2002. The Appearance of the
domestic camel in South-east Arabia. The Journal of Oman
studies 12, 235–60.
Weber, S. 2003. Archaeobotany at Harappa: Indications for change,
pp. 175–98 in Weber, S. A. and Belcher, W. R. (eds.), Indus
Ethnobiology. New Perspectives from the Field. Lanham,
Oxford: Lexington Books.
White, F. and Leonard, J. 1991. Phytogeographical links between
Africa and Southwest Asia. Flora et Vegetatio Mundi 9, 229–46.
Zeder, M. A. 1991. Feeding Cities. Specialized Animal Economy in the
Near East. Washignton/London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. 2000. Domestication of Plants in the Old
World. The Origins and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West
Asia, Europe and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
3
Copyright of Environmental Archaeology is the property of Maney Publishing and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright
holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.