Sheet Metal Fabrication

By: Matthew Cloutier

ME 353
Instructor: Jesse Adams
Due Date: 10/8/00

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I. Introduction

Sheet metal fabrication plays an important role in the manufacturing world. Sheet

metal is used to make everything from hinges to automobiles. There are many types of

sheet metal fabrication for engineers to choose from. Deep drawing, stamping, rubber

forming, hydroforming, and high-energy-rate (HERF) forming are all different methods

used for creating desired shapes out of a sheet metal. It is the responsibility of design

engineer to determine the mechanical properties of the material, select the material that

meets these requirements, and select the best fabrication process for the job.

There are other considerations a designer must decide on besides fabrication

process when creating a new part or assembly. Cosmetic appearance, cost, engineering,

manufacturing method, and assembly are just some of the factors to be taken into account

when a new design is being developed.

Figure 1. Engineering stress versus

strain diagram

II. Material Properties

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 Before the material is selected for a design project, engineers have to determine

the mechanical properties of the material. Designing for strength, material class and mode

of loading are important considerations. Several factors have to be considered when

selecting a material such as, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, thermal

conductivity, wear, and corrosion resistance. When designing, all these factors are

weighed against the properties of the available materials and it is the job of the design

engineer to select the material that best fits the application.

The most common measure of strength is the yield strength. Yield strength is

equal to the minimum load which produces permanent deformation (see Figure 1).

The ultimate tensile strength is calculated by dividing the maximum load on the

material by the initial cross section area.

σ ultimate = Pmax / Ao
σ ultimate – maximum tensile strength
Pmax – Maximum force (load)
Ao – Original cross sectional area

Example: A rectangular beam, three inches wide by half inch thick is subjected to
a maximum load of four hundred pounds. What is the ultimate tensile strength of the
beam?
Solution: Pmax = 400 lbs.
Ao = (3.0*0.5)
Ao = 1.5 square inches
σ ultimate = 400 lbs/1.5 square inches
σ ultimate = 267 psi

Ductility is a measure of how much deformation a material can withstand before

breaking. The most common measure of ductility is the percentage of change in the

length after the material has broken. This is typically reported as % EI or percent

elongation.

Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer through a material in a steady

state. It is not easily measured, but reliable data is readily available for most common

materials.

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 Wear and corrosion resistance are properties that must be determined when

evaluating the environment and performance of the design. While proper material

selection is crucial to ensuring compatibility between components in a design, no single

material property can describe compatibility between all possible materials.

III. Material Selection

After all engineering parameters have been calculated and established, the next

step is to select the type and size of sheet metal. Typically sheet metal can be purchased

as sheet, plate, or coil stock ranging from .0187 inches to 12.0 inches in thickness. Sheet

stock is a flat rectangular sheet of metal measured in thickness between .0187 inches (28

GA.) and .179 inches (7 GA.). Plate stock is a flat rectangular sheet of metal with a

thickness between .187 inches to 18.0 inches. Coil stock is made from sheet metal slit or

cut to a certain width then rolled up into a coil. Coil is generally cut to a width between

.312 inches to 3.0 inch. When ordering coil or sheet stock it is usually ordered by gauge

thickness (GA) and width. If coil is ordered the coil diameter (ranging from 36.0 inches

to 72.0 inches) or total weight (lbs) is required. Different surface finishes or protective

coatings may be required for different applications. For example, an application exposed

to water requires some form of protection. Galvanized finish is a corrosion inhibiter used

for an application exposed to water. Another type of surface finish is mirror or polished.

Mirror or polished finishes are used for cosmetic applications. All of these factors must

be considered when selecting and ordering sheet metal from a vendor.

IV. Deep Drawing Fabrication

Once the material selection has been established, the next decision that needs to be made

is the fabrication process. How is the part going to be made? The shape and the size of

the end product will determine how it will be fabricated. For example, flat objects with

holes and bends are typically formed by hydraulic, mechanical presses, or numerical

control punch and press break. Objects that have depth to them such as cylinders,

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pans, or domes typically are fabricated with a deep draw forming method. Other methods

that may be used for sheet metal forming are considered special forming process. These

usually consist of rubber forming, hydrofroming, and high-energy rate forming (HERF).

These techniques are used to give greater depth of draw, more complex shapes, and lower

tooling cost.

Figure 2. Various shapes produced by deep draw forming

Deep Drawing of sheet metal is used to form containers or objects with depth (see

Figure 2). The material is formed to produce a desired shape, which is accomplished by

straining it beyond the yield point so that it will take a permanent set and retain the new

shape. The process is accomplished with the use of a hydraulic or mechanical press. A

hydraulic press uses incompressible fluid and a piston to create the force required to draw

the part. A mechanical press uses a crankshaft and a ram (piston) to create the force

required to draw the part. Hydraulic presses are preferred because of the better control of

the rate of punch travel. The press operator manually controls the action of the punch by

varying the flow of hydraulic fluid through a flow control valve to the piston controlling

the punch. This is done with the use of foot pedals or hand levers on the press. The

process of deep drawing begins with a flat sheet metal blank held on the upper surface of

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the die (see Figure 3). A sheet metal blank is a flat piece of sheet metal used to form the

finished product. Typically, all holes or cutouts are punched prior to forming (see Figure

4). The center portion of the sheet is pressed into the die opening to draw the metal into

the desired shape without folding or collapsing the corners. This process requires a

double action force. One force holds the sheet metal blank in position and another force

punches or draws the material into the desired shape. The tooling required to produce the

part consists of a male punch and a female die. Clearance between these parts is closely

controlled to minimize movement of the part therefore preventing the sidewalls from

wrinkling. The die and the punch have sufficient radii or relief to allow for the metal to

be formed without tearing the material. In most deep-drawing operations, the part has a

solid bottom to form a container and a retaining flange that is trimmed later in the

processing. In some cases, the cup shape is ejected through the bottom opening of the die.

Figure 3. Deep draw fabrication process

(A) Sheet metal blank set in the press. (B) Punch and knock out meet to begin
forming process. (C) Part is being formed to desired shape. (D.) Part is complete
and removed from the press.

Sheet metal blank

A. B. C. D.

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 There are certain properties that are considered to be important in sheet metal

products designed for deep drawing. This requires a minimum amount of inclusions or

impurities in the material. Material quality is important to prevent failure or defects

during production. Mechanical properties such as yield strength, percent elongation,

ductility, and plastic deformation are also important for the process. Properties such as

dimensional constraints and modulus of elasticity must be considered so that the part will

maintain the desired shape after forming is complete. These are all key properties that

need to be considered when using the deep-drawing fabrication process.

The ability to draw a material is based on two important parameters. The first

parameter is the drawing force. This is the force required to form the desired shape. For

example, the force required to draw a cup shaped object (refer to Figure 3) can be

approximated with the following equation:

Fd = π*Dp*h*(TS)*[(do/Dp)-0.7]

Fd – Drawing force
Dp – Diameter of the punch
h – Material thickness of blank
TS – Tensile strength
do – Diameter of the blank

Example 1: Estimate the press force for a low-carbon steel blank of 200 mm diameter and
2 mm thickness that is to be drawn into a cylindrical cup of 100 mm internal diameter. TS
from chart is 320 Mpa.

Solution: Fd = π*(100 mm)*(2 mm)*(320 Mpa)*[(200 mm/100 mm)-0.7]

Fd = 261 kN

The second parameter is expressed in terms of the limiting drawing ratio (LDR).

LDR is the ratio of the diameter of the largest blank that can be successfully drawn to the

diameter of the punch without failure.

LDR = do / Dp

do – Diameter of the blank

Dp – Diameter of the punch

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Example 2: Estimate the limiting draw ratio for a low-carbon steel blank of 200 mm
diameter and 2 mm thickness that is to be drawn into a cylindrical cup of 100 mm
internal diameter. TS from chart is 320 Mpa.

Solution: LDR = 200mm / 100mm

LDR = 2.0

V. Rubber – Pad Forming

There are other alternatives to forming complex shapes besides deep drawing.

Rubber-pad forming, hydroforming, explosive forming, and electromagnetic forming are

alternative sheet metal fabrication processes. Rubber-pad forming, also know as flexible-

die forming, uses a rubber diaphragm as one tool half. This method only requires one

solid tool half, which is usually the punch. The rubber-pad is used to distribute equal

pressure on all workpiece surfaces as it is pressed around the form block. Rubber-pad

forming is designed for the use of fabricating parts with relatively complex shapes and

configurations. The form block height is usually less than four inches.

The following figures were taken while touring the facilities of Southwest Fabricators.

The rubber forming process was used to prototype a button panel used on a slot machine.

Figure 4 is a picture of the pre-punched flat pattern for a button panel prior to forming.

The part is a semi-flat blank .040" thick piece of sheet metal. The blank was punched

using a numerical controlled punch press and shear. The blank was checked against the

blueprints and inspected prior to the next phase in the fabrication process. Next, the part

is set in the hydraulic press ready to be formed. The operator places two pieces of rubber

(urethane) between the part and the die. Two pieces of rubber are used to create the

required force distribution to form the part (see Figure 5). The urethane forces the sheet

metal to form around the aluminum punch which creates the flanges on the part. After the

operator applies the required force, the punch is backed away from the part and the

rubber pads are removed. Although it is difficult to see in the picture, Figure 6 shows

that rubber removed and the front and side flanges formed. Because of the complex shape

of the part, the operator had to come back and rework the front radius with a smaller

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piece of urethane. This was done to finish the front radius of the button panel (see Figure

7). This was done until the finished part met the required dimensions specified by the

drawing. Once the forming process was complete, the part was inspected for surface

defects from the forming process and dimensional requirements. Figure 8 shows the

finished part (left) after the forming process and the sheet metal blank (right) prior to the

forming process.

Figure 4. Semi-flat blank punched and ready to be formed

Sheet metal blank Cutout

Figure 5. Tooling and blank installed the hydraulic press.

Form block Urethane rubber form pads

Platen – Bottom surface of hydraulic press Bolster – Top surface of hydraulic press

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 Figure 6. Initial forming of part completed and rubber pad removed.

Formed part in the press

Figure 7. Operator is using urethane rubber pad to finish the front radius and
complete the final form.

Urethane pad

Figure 8. Initial sheet metal blank and finished part

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 Finished part (after forming) Flat blank (prior to forming)

One advantage of the rubber-pad forming process compared to conventional

processes is that only part of the tooling has to be solid to form a part. A single rubber

pad can take the shape of many different die shapes. The rubber pad has the ability to

return to its original shape and can be used over and over again. Another advantage is

that tooling cost is reduced due to single the form block. Parts made with different

metals, thickness, and special surface finishes can be formed with the same tooling and

without damage to the finish. A forth advantage is that set up time is considerably shorter

as there are no die clearance or alignment checks that need to be made. These advantages

can greatly expedite prototypes and initial production cost which allows the product to

reach the market faster.

Although the process has several advantages, there are some disadvantages as

well. One disadvantage is the pad or diaphragm has a limited life cycle. This depends on

the severity of the forming combined with the pressure level. Lack of sufficient forming

pressure results in parts with less sharpness or with wrinkles. This may cause added steps

to rework the product to its correct shape and dimensioning. Another disadvantage is that

production is relatively slow, which make this process suitable mostly for prototyping

and low-volume production runs.

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 Rubber-pad forming is typically done with a hydraulic press just like deep

drawing. Hydraulic presses are used because the pressure and speed of operation can be

varied and controlled.

VI. Fluid Forming

Fluid forming otherwise known as hydroforming incorporates a fluid filled rubber

diaphragm (see Figure 9 and 10). The blank to be formed is placed on the blankholder.

The pressure dome is filled with hydraulic fluid and covered by a rubber diaphragm

lowered over the blank. Hydraulic pressure is applied through a pump in the hydraulic

supply line. The punch is raised and pushed into the bottom surface of the blank. As the

form in the blank rises into the hydraulic chamber, the pressure in the chamber increases.

The pressure in the chamber can reach as high as 103 MPa (15ksi). Once a certain

pressure has been reached, a pressure relief valve opens causing the punch to retract. At

the end of the stroke, the blankholder removes the part from the form and the part is

complete. An example of this is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 9. Shows a pressure dome filled with

an incompressible liquid between the diaphragm and the ram.

Figure 10. Shows a cylinder filled with hydraulic fluid

Compressed against a rubber diaphragm.

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 Figure 11. Fabrication process – Hydroforming (a) Blank set in press ready to be
formed. (b) Punch and rubber diaphragm contact. (c) Part begins to take shape of punch.
(d) Part formed and released from punch.

A. B. C. D.

Figure 12. Sequence of underwater explosive forming operations: (a) explosive

charge is set in position, (b) detonation occurs producing pressure pulse and bubble, (c)
workpiece deformed, and (d) gas bubble vents at the surface of the water.

VII. Explosive Forming

Another method of forming sheet metal is called explosive forming. An explosive

charge is used to replace the punch or diaphragm typically used in forming sheet metal.

Explosives such as, cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX), pentaerythritol tetranitrate

(PETN), trinitrotoluene (TNT) are commonly used as the explosive charge. The type of

explosive used depends on the thickness and yield strength of the material to be formed.

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 There are two methods used when forming with explosives, the standoff method

and the contact method. The standoff method of explosive forming has the charge

located some distance from the workpiece (see Figure 12). Generally, water is used as a

way to ensure the even transfer of energy to the workpiece and to reduce noise caused by

the explosion. When the pressure wave (fluid force) expands against the workpiece, the

metal is compressed against the form die causing the desired shape to be formed.

The contact method uses an explosive charge directly in contact with the

workpiece while detonation occurs. The detonation can produce extremely high

pressures on the surface up to several million psi. One disadvantage of this process is that

the energy wave produced by the explosion travels through the material, causing the

metal to be displaced, deformed, and even possible fracture.

The equipment required for explosive forming consists of either a male or female

die, and an explosive charge. Tooling materials are determined by several factors

including part quality, strength of material being formed, and tolerances needed in the

final part. Dies are typically made from plastics, concrete, and sheet metal. Parts have

also been successfully formed using dies made of fiberglass or cast epoxies. This process

is highly dangerous and difficult to engineer. Resources such as Tool and Manufacturing

Engineers Handbook and Die Design Handbook are available to help in the design

process. Most of the final products produced by this fabrication process have been by

trial and error.

VIII. Electromagnetic Forming

Electromagnetic forming has only been around since the 1960s, but it is the most

common method of high-energy rate forming (HERF). In this process, electrical energy is

converted to mechanical energy with the use of a magnetic field. When an electrical

current is rapidly introduced through a conductor (wire), a magnetic field is created

around the wire. The sudden introduction of a magnetic field creates eddy currents that

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flow in opposite direction in any conductor nearby. The eddy currents develop their own

magnetic field and cause a repelling force. The repelling force is then used as a means of

forming sheet metal into different shapes. Figure 13 is a schematic showing an electrical

circuit, two magnetic fields, and a compression coil. When the capacitor is charged by the

power supply, the second switch is closed causing the capacitor to discharge and send a

sudden surge of current through the conductor. This is the process used to create the first

magnetic field. The magnetic field creates eddy currents in the nearby conductor which

creates an opposing magnetic field as well. The part to be formed is then placed between

the two magnetic fields where it will be forced to take shape due to the repulsive force

from the two opposing magnetic fields (see Figure 14). The two types of coils used in this

process are called compression and expansion coils. These coils are capable of

withstanding up to 60,000 psi and 15,000 psi respectively (see Figure 15).

The advantage of electromagnetic forming is that the magnitude of the fields can

be controlled with extreme accuracy. The process has a high repetition rate with exact

consistency. Forming dies are relatively inexpensive and most applications only require

a single die because the magnetic force replaces the punch portion of a die.

Figure 13. Schematic Diagram for electromagnetic forming

Figure 14. A magnetic field between the conductor and part produces magnetic
pressure that deforms the part to the desired shape.

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 Electrical Conductor Formed Part

Magnetic Field

Figure 15. Three basic electromagnetic forming coils: (a) compression coil, (b)
expansion coil, and (c) flat coil

The tooling quality is extremely important for this process. Only one side of the

tooling is used to fabricate parts, which causes tooling marks to show up on one side of

the part. When a die is made up of metal, induced current can create electrical arcing

between the die halves. Using dies made from nonconductive and impact-resistant

plastics can eliminate electrical arcing.

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VIIII. Conclusion

Sheet metal fabrication is extremely common is today’s industry. It is used to

make everything from kitchen appliances to aircraft. Design engineers have many types

of sheet metal fabrication to choose from. Deep drawing, stamping, rubber-pad forming,

hydroforming and high-energy-rate forming are all different methods used for creating

desired shapes from sheet metal. Many factors such as material strength, product

environment, and cost are just some of the items that have to be determined. It's

impossible to memorize every characteristic of all the materials and fabrication processes,

but a good engineer will continue to research new fabrication techniques and know how

to find the key information to complete the job on time and on budget.

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