ENGLISH FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS AND ENGINEERS • Part 2

Lecturer Mihai ION, PhD

Contents
Unit 1. Internal Combustion Engine Valves and Valve Train………………..……3
Grammar review: The Noun………………………………………...……..6
Unit 2. Distinction between a Solid and a Fluid…………………………….……12
Grammar review: The Adjective…………………………………………16
Unit 3. Bearing Wear………………...…………………………………………...19
Grammar review: Sequence of Tenses…………………………………...22
Unit 4. Chemical and Process Industries…………………………………………27
Grammar review: Conditional Sentences………………………………...29
Unit 5. The Design Process…………………...…………………………………..34
Grammar review: Reported Speech……………………………………...39
Appendix. Glossary………………………...…………………………………….45
Bibliography…………………………………………………………..…………49
Introduction

This course addresses primarily YOU, a technical student enrolled in an

Engineering programme. No knowledge of technical concepts is assumed, but if
you work through the course you will certainly learn some of the basic notions.
All the reading material and part of the follow-up activities are taken from
General Engineering by C.M. and D. Johnson, a book which I strongly
recommend you for further, in-depth study. Apart from grasping sound
knowledge of technical English, you will also revise and build up your grammar,
with a focus on major language structures, such as: the noun, the adjective,
sequence of tenses rules, conditional sentences and direct vs reported speech.
The approach to grammar, however, is in a concise and easy-to-follow format,
accompanied by pictures, diagrams and tables, all meant to facilitate your
understanding.
Structurally, the course consists of five units and a glossary of technical
terms. A unit includes several sections. Below I give you a brief description of
each section, so that at any point in your study you will know exactly what you
are expected to do and why you are doing it. The pattern is as follows:
• Understanding a printed text: In this section you are given a passage
to read, sometimes including a picture or table. You should first read it through
and then translate it using the key vocabulary in the Glossary.
• Check your understanding: In this section you are given a set of
questions to help you identify the most important points in the reading passage.
• Increase your vocabulary: This section highlights certain words from
the text and provides various types of activity to help you remember them.
• Understanding discourse: This section is based on a spoken text, to
which you should listen and do the follow-up activities.
• Grammar review: In this section various language structures are
revised and illustrated with a wealth of clear examples.
• Grammar practice: This section is designed to provide you with
practice material so that you can consolidate your grammar knowledge.
• End-of-unit test: The aim of this test is to assess the extent to which you
have acquired the information provided in the unit.

Course objectives

This course is intended:

- to provide you with a wide range of technical vocabulary;
- to give you a practical insight into the basic concepts of English grammar;
- to develop the skills you will need in an English-speaking academic or working
environment.

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UNIT 1. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE VALVES AND VALVE TRAIN

Time for individual study: 3 hours

Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able:
- to use vocabulary items related to internal combustion engine valves and the
valve-operating mechanism;
- to describe the complete sequence of actions involved in the opening and
closing of a valve;
- to use nouns in a correct and effective manner.

A. Understanding a printed text

Read the following text, then translate it into Romanian, looking up anything
you do not understand in the Glossary.

1 Poppet valves are used almost exclusively in internal combustion reciprocation

engines because of the demands for tightness with high operating temperatures
and pressures. The valves (see illustration below) are generally 2 inches in
diameter or smaller on high-speed automotive-type engines. They are cam-
operated and spring-loaded. They are cooled by transferring heat to the engine
jacket, mostly through the valve stem. Exhaust valves are subject to the effects
of extreme temperature and must accordingly be most carefully designed and
constructed of alloy metals.

Diagram 1. Poppet valve for internal combustion engine

2 By valve train, we mean the valves and valve-operating mechanism by which

an internal combustion engine takes air or a fuel-air mixture into the cylinders
and discharges the combustion products to the exhaust. Mechanically, an
internal combustion engine is a reciprocating pump, able to draw in a certain

3
 amount of air per minute. Since the fuel takes up little space but needs air with
which to combine, the power output of an engine is limited by its air-pumping
capacity.
3 It is essential that the flow through the engine be restricted as little as
possible. This is the first requirement for valves. The second is that they close
off the cylinder during the compression and power strokes.
4 In most 4-stroke engines, the valves are of the inward-opening poppet type,
with the valve head ground to fit a conical seat in the cylinder block or cylinder
head.
5 The valve head is held concentric with its seat by a cylindrical stem running
in the valve guide. The valve is held closed by a compressed helical spring.
The valve is opened wide by lifting it from its seat a distance equal to
approximately 25% of the valve diameter. Valves are usually made of a
stainless, non-scaling alloy which will keep its strengthened shape at high
temperature. Exhaust valves sometimes are made hollow and partially filled
with metallic sodium to permit more effective cooling.

Diagram 2

6 Engine valves are usually opened by means of cams. The diagram below
illustrates the typical construction and operation of the cam as it causes the
valve to open.
7 Riding on each cam is a follower or valve-lifter, which may be a flat or
slightly convex surface, or a roller. The valve is opened by forces applied to the
end of the valve stem through a mechanical linkage activated by the cam
follower. The diagram shows the camshaft placed in the crankcase, which is
usual in standard automobiles. The operating linkage consists of cam follower,
push rod and rocker arm. The push rod is a light rod or tube with ball ends
which carries the motion of the cam follower to the rocker arm. The rocker arm
is a lever, pivoted near its centre so that as the push rod raises one end, the
other end depresses the valve stem, opening the valve.

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 Diagram 3

8 To ensure tight closing of the valve even when the valve stem lengthens
from thermal expansion, the valve train is adjusted to provide some clearance
when the follower is on the low part of the cam. The cam shape includes a
ramp which reduces shock by starting the lift at about 2 feet per second, even
though the clearance varies from time to time.

B. Check your understanding

1. In the first paragraph:

• What word can mean ‘without exception’?

• Can you find a word which can mean ‘usually’?
• What is the word which means ‘because of this fact’?

2. In paragraphs 2 and 3:

• Give your own definition of ‘valve train’.

• What can limit the power output of an engine?
• What is the secondary function of valves in an internal combustion engine?

3. In paragraphs 4 and 5:

• What shape is the valve stem?

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 • What is the name of the device which keeps the valve closed?
• What is the function of metallic sodium in exhaust valves and where is it to be
found?

4. From Diagram 3:

• How is the cam roller connected to the rocker arm?

• What happens when the camshaft lobe meets the cam roller?
• What causes the camshaft gear to rotate?

5. Describe orally the complete sequence of actions involved in the opening

and closing of a valve, as shown in the third diagram. Try to explain using the
passive form of verbs, e.g.:

First, the camshaft gear is rotated by the crankshaft. (…)

C. Grammar review

The Noun

1. CLASSIFICATION
♦word-formation
– simple: pencil, dog, meal
– derived: childhood, driver, unhappiness
– compound: postcard, dining-room, editor-in-chief
♦content
– countable (count): apple, lesson, table
[+s, +a(n), many/few] Give me an apple. They eat many apples.
– uncountable (mass): noise, milk, wisdom
[-s, -a(n), much/little] There is much noise in here.
– proper: John, Italy, July, Tuesday, Christmas, Newsweek
– collective: army, audience, class, club, committee, company, crew, crowd,
family, jury, party, press, public, gang, herd, pack, poultry, swarm, shoal,
mankind

2. NUMBER
a) Variable nouns (both singular and plural)

♦Plural
1) -s added to the singular
books, toys, radios, photos, sopranos
2) -es added to the singular nouns ending in: -s, -z, -sh, -ch, -x, -o
buses, fezzes, brushes, watches, boxes, potatoes
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 3) …consonant + y > …consonant + ie + s
city/cities, fly/flies
4) …-f(e) > …-ve + s
knife/knives, calf/calves, elf/elves, loaf/loaves, life/lives
but: belief/beliefs, chief/chiefs, proof/proofs, roof/roofs, safe/safes
5) compound nouns
washing-machines, forget-me-nots, grown-ups, merry-go-rounds
lookers-on, mothers-in-law, passers-by
women drivers, men singers
6) foreign plurals
stimulus – stimuli, larva – larvae, stratum – strata, analysis – analyses,
criterion – criteria, corpus – corpora, genus – genera, tempo – tempi
but: cactus – cacti/cactuses, formula – formulae/formulas, medium –
media/mediums, appendix – appendices[books]/appendixes[anatomy]
7) irregular plurals
man – men, woman – women
foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese
louse – lice, mouse – mice
child – children, ox – oxen, brother – brethren[religious]
8) zero plurals
deer, sheep, fish, fruit
Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Swiss
means, series, species, barracks

b) Invariable nouns (either singular or plural)

♦Singular
1) concrete mass nouns: bread, meat, luggage, furniture, money
2) abstract mass nouns: music, progress, information, knowledge, advice
3) nouns ending in -s: news, measles, linguistics, cards
4) abstract nouns derived from adjectives: the beautiful, the good, the evil,
the sublime
5) proper nouns: Athens, Brussels, Naples, Wales, the Thames

Partitives: a(n) … of + mass N [used to denote a part of a whole]

piece, bit, item, bar, slice, pound, loaf, lump, sheet, blade, stick, strip,
article, roast, swarm, pack, shoal, herd, box, jar, cup, glass, pair, etc.
e.g. a piece of paper/chalk/advice/information/news
a bar of chocolate/soap/gold
a loaf/slice of bread
a lump of sugar/coal
an article of furniture/news
a sheet of paper/plastic
a glass of wine/beer/juice/water
a pair of trousers/glasses/compasses
etc.
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 ♦Plural
1) summation plurals: trousers, pyjamas, glasses, compasses, scales, scissors
2) ‘pluralia tantum’ nouns: savings, customs, wages, outskirts, colours, goods
3) unmarked plurals: cattle, clergy, people, police, youth, infantry, gentry
4) personal nouns derived from adjectives: the rich, the poor, the injured, the
sick, the rescued
5) proper nouns: the Alps, the Highlands, the Netherlands, the United States

3. GENDER
♦masculine (he/who): man, brother, uncle
♦feminine (she/who): woman, sister, aunt
♦neuter (it/which): book, house, snow
♦common/dual (he/she/who): cousin, friend, patient

Gender contrasts
♦different words: husband – wife, boy – girl, bull – cow, cock – hen
♦compounds: male student – female student, he-bear – she-bear, Tom-cat –
Tabby-cat, bull-elephant – cow-elephant, schoolboy – schoolgirl, landlord –
landlady
♦suffixes: host – hostess, hero – heroine, bridegroom – bride, widower – widow

4. CASE. The Genitive

a) The Saxon genitive (sg N1’s N2; pl N1’ N2) is used with
– nouns denoting persons or other beings:
father’s car, Dickens’ novel, Kim and Joe’s flat, my mother-in-law’s job, a
cow’s milk
– nouns denoting time, distance, size, weight, value:
an hour’s talk, a two miles’ walk, a kilo’s weight, two pounds’ worth of rice
– collective nouns: the company’s policy, the government’s decision
– geographical names: England’s history, London’s museums
– nouns denoting abstractions or unique things: life’s joys, the moon’s rotation

b) The prepositional genitive (N1 of N2) is used

– with neuter (inanimate) nouns: the cover of the book
– with long noun phrases: the wife of the man you have met
– in titles: The Complete Works of William Shakespeare

Special constructions
♦the elliptic genitive: at the baker’s (shop), St. Paul’s (Cathedral), at my
aunt’s (house), at the doctor’s (surgery)
♦the double genitive: a picture of Jim’s (=made by) vs. a picture of Jim
(=presenting)
♦the unmarked genitive: the garden fence (=the fence of the garden),
the sun rays (=the sun’s rays), the door bell (=the bell of the door), etc.

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D. Grammar practice

1. Translate the words in brackets and choose the correct underlined words.

1. (Aceste informații) is/are not correct and this proves that your (cunoștințe) on
the matter is/are not enough.
2. In autumn people usually clean/cleans the dry (frunze) from their (acoperișuri)
so they don't block the eaves.
3. She bought (două pâini) although she had decided she was too fat to eat
(pâine).
4. The (mobila) in her rooms is/are very old but although we gave her some
(sfaturi) on how to redecorate her house she didn't accept it/them and said we
spoke (prostii).
5. (Matematica) is/are her favourite subject but (gimnastica aerobică) is/are her
passion.
6. (Statisticile) prove/proves that while the Russian (popor) is/are complaining
about its/their living standard, the (oamenii) of Moscow is/are satisfied with
life in its/their city.
7. She was very untidy: her (pijama) was/were lying on the floor, the red and the
blue (eșarfe) was/were hanging from the (rafturi) while her black (pantalonul)
was/were thrown on the back of a chair.
8. He hated all (vehiculele spațiale). Both his (soție) and (copil) had been killed in
a (serie) of stupid accidents due to insufficient (cercetări) in the field.
9. He had found a very interesting (specie) of plants while struggling with the
(țânțarii și muștele) in the Virgin Forest.
10. (Statistica) is/are concerned with information that can be expressed in numbers.
It/They is/are a branch of mathematics.

2. Choose the correct word from the ones underlined.

1. The acoustics of the famous Albert Hall in London was/were so bad that they
had to rebuild the interior.
2. A/– means of travelling around in the galaxy was/were devised by Asimov in
The Foundation Trilogy.
3. The sad always finds/find something to sorrow about.
4. In the years he spent in the west of Africa he got acquainted with the local
fruit/fruits and found it/them delicious.
5. Billiards often replaces/replace other types of entertainment in the English
countryside.
6. His politics was/were the main reason why his family and friends rejected
him.
7. James' progress over the last few months keeps/keep amazing his teachers.
8. The elderly often forgets/forget that they were once young.

3. Rewrite the sentences using the correct possessive form of the words in
brackets.
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 1. (roof/shed) was blown off by the storm last Wednesday.
2. She was happy to get (protection/police) and never told Mark what had
happened.
3. He was satisfied with (work/that day).
4. Although (question/Anna) surprised both her parents, they didn't show their
feelings.
5. (legs/chair) were not very well glued, so Jimmy fell when he sat down.
6. (beams/moon) were lighting the valley and this made their walk much more
romantic.
7. (two hands/my watch) broke when I fell from the (wall/garden).
8. Fortunately (half/her face) was covered by the large (brim/her hat) so she didn't
give herself away.
9. She rubbed (floor/kitchen) clean and then continued with the (windows/sitting
room).
10. Marcia was very satisfied with her (holiday/two months) in the French Alps.

4. Change the masculine nouns into feminine nouns in the sentences below.
Make all the other necessary changes.

1. My father's brother was a tall, thin man in his forties.

2. The only problem with my landlord was that he couldn't stand the tom cat I had
brought with me in a basket and was not willing to give in.
3. About six in the evening, the lads used to gather in the market place in front of
the pub.
4. The policeman summoned the heir to hand in the will.
5. Every Sunday my husband and I went to my brother-in-law's place and had
lunch with my father-in-law.
6. My nephew was delighted with the present he got from his grandfather.
7. My brother could never forgive himself for running over the stag that night.

E. End-of-unit test

1. Fill in the gaps in the text below with the words from the box:

ball valve-lifter lever linkage rocker arm

stem push rod depresses roller crankcase

Riding on each cam is a follower or _____, which may be a flat or slightly convex
surface, or a _____. The valve is opened by forces applied to the end of the valve
_____ through a mechanical _____ activated by the cam follower. The diagram
shows the camshaft placed in the _____, which is usual in standard automobiles.
The operating linkage consists of cam follower, _____ and rocker arm. The push
rod is a light rod or tube with _____ ends which carries the motion of the cam
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follower to the _____. The rocker arm is a _____, pivoted near its centre so that as
the push rod raises one end, the other end _____ the valve stem, opening the valve.

2. Translate into English:

1. S-au făcut progrese semnificative în acest domeniu al cunoașterii.

2. Poliția susține că relația sa cu publicul se înbunătățește.
3. Am multe teme de făcut pentru mâine.
4. Mănânci multe fructe?
5. Pot să-ți dau niște informații în această chestiune.
6. În ziarul de azi sunt câteva știri interesante.
7. Premiul de anul trecut s-a acordat unui musician foarte tânăr.
8. Nu trebuie să pleci așa devreme, gara e la zece minute [pe jos] de hotel.
9. Crezi că bogații au vreo grijă?
10. Noua prietenă a fiului meu este o tânără încântătoare.
11. Diana, zeița vânătorii, se numea Artemis în mitologia greacă.
12. La începutul secolului nostru erau puține studente în colegiile englezești.
13. Dănilă Prepeleac, eroul povestirii lui Creangă, a dat o capră pe un gâscan.
14. Nu s-a schimbat de când cumnata și nepotul ei au văzut-o ultima dată.
15. Fermierul a vândut două iepe, cinci viței și zece oi.
16. Negăsind-o în sertar, Lisa și-a dat seama că foarfeca era pe noptieră.

Marking scheme:
1. 10 x 0.5p = 5p
2. 16 x 0.25p = 4p
ex officio = 1p

Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following main issues:
- Exhaust valves are subject to the effects of extreme temperature and must
accordingly be most carefully designed and constructed of alloy metals;
- Valve train refers to the valves and valve-operating mechanism by which an
internal combustion engine takes air or a fuel-air mixture into the cylinders and
discharges the combustion products to the exhaust;
- It is essential that the flow through the engine be restricted as little as possible,
and the valves close off the cylinder during the compression and power strokes;
- In most 4-stroke engines, the valves are of the inward-opening poppet type, with
the valve head ground to fit a conical seat in the cylinder block or cylinder head;
- The valve-operating linkage consists of cam follower, push rod and rocker arm;
- The nouns can be classified into: simple, derived, compound (form), countable
or uncountable, proper, collective (content), variable or invariable (number),
masculine, feminine, neuter, common (gender). The genitive case can be divided
into: the Saxon (’s) and the prepositional (of) genitive.

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UNIT 2. DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SOLID AND A FLUID

Time for individual study: 2 hours

Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able:
- to explain the difference between a solid and a fluid;
- to explain the difference between a gas and a liquid;
- to use adjectives in a correct and effective manner.

A. Understanding a printed text

Read the following text, then translate it into Romanian, looking up anything
you do not understand in the Glossary.

1.2 Distinction between a solid and a fluid

The molecules of a solid are closer together than those of a fluid. The attractive
forces between the molecules of a solid are so large that a solid tends to retain its
shape. This is not the case for a fluid, where the attractive forces between the
molecules are smaller. There are plastic solids which flow under the proper
circumstances, and even metals may flow under high pressures. On the other hand,
there are certain very viscous liquids which do not flow readily, and it is easy to
confuse them with the plastic solids. The distinction is that any fluid, no matter
how viscous, will yield in time to the slightest stress. But a solid, no matter how
plastic, requires a certain magnitude of stress to be exerted before it will flow.
Also, when the shape of a solid is altered by external forces, the tangential stresses
between adjacent particles tend to restore the body to its original configuration.
With a fluid, these tangential stresses depend on the velocity of deformation and
vanish as the velocity approaches zero. When motion ceases, the tangential stresses
disappear and the fluid does not tend to regain its original shape.

1.3 Distinction between a gas and a liquid

A fluid may be either a gas or a liquid. The molecules of gas are much farther apart
than those of a liquid. Hence a gas is very compressible, and when all external
pressure is removed, it tends to expand indefinitely. A gas is therefore in
equilibrium only when it is completely enclosed. A liquid is relatively
incompressible, and if all pressure, except that of its own vapor pressure, is
removed, the cohesion between molecules holds them together, so that the liquid

12
 does not expand indefinitely. Therefore a liquid may have a free surface, i.e. a
surface from which all pressure is removed, except that of its own vapor.
A vapor is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very
near the liquid phase. Thus steam is considered a vapor because its state is
normally not far from that of water. A gas may be defined as a highly superheated
vapor, that is, its state is far removed from the liquid phase. Thus air is considered
a gas because its state is normally very far from that of liquid air.
The volume of a gas or vapor is greatly affected by changes in pressure or
temperature or both. It is usually necessary, therefore, to take account of changes
in volume and temperature when dealing with gases or vapors. Whenever
significant temperature or phase changes are involved in dealing with vapors and
gases, the subject is largely dependent on heat phenomena (thermodynamics). Thus
fluid mechanics and thermodynamics are interrelated.

B. Check your understanding

1. Complete these sentences using information from the text:

 The molecules of a fluid are __ than those of a solid.

 The attractive forces between the molecules of a fluid are __ as those of a
solid.
 A liquid is much less __ than a gas.
 If it is not completely enclosed, a gas will __ .
 The state of a vapour is not __ the liquid phase.
 Changes in pressure and/or temperature __ the volume of a gas or vapour.

2. Which words or phrases used in the text mean the following:

 to keep the same shape

 to get back its former shape
 to give back its former shape
 to change
 to stop
 to disappear
 to take away
 to get bigger (in volume)
 to be changed or influenced
 to take notice of, or to consider

3. Notice that the word 'tend' is used quite frequently: e.g. A solid tends to
retain its shape.

 Can you explain what this means in your own words?

 Find three other sentences in the text where 'tend' is used.

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 4. How would you define:

 a viscous liquid?
 a vapour?

C. Understanding discourse
Listen to the conversation. Hamid is a student at a British University. It is his first
term and he still finds many things rather strange – especially British plugs...

Now answer these questions:

1. What does Hamid need to know? Why?

2. Look at the diagram of the plug. Label the wires: green, brown and blue
according to where they should go.

3. Now complete the instructions:

 Place the wire in the hole and __ the screw.
 If the wire is too long, __ it.
 After connecting the wires to the terminals, __ .
 For a cassette player, use a __ fuse.
 After screwing the cord grip down tight, __ .
 __ the two parts of the casing together with a screw.
4. Practise explaining how to wire the plugs that you use in your country.

D. Grammar review

The Adjective

1. CLASSIFICATION
♦word-formation
– simple: old, warm, empty
– derived: beautyful, unhappy, black-haired, harmless
– compound: homesick, self-taught, well-meaning

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 ♦syntactic function
– attributive (comes before a noun): wooden, total, mere
e.g. He built a wooden house. He is a mere farmer.
– predicative (comes after a verb): alive, awake, asleep, ablaze
e.g. When I walked into his room, he was awake.
– both attributive and predicative: good, tall, black
e.g. I’m reading a good novel. The novel is good.

2. POSITION/ ORDER
When adjectives are attributes, they are placed:
a) before the noun, from the most general (subjective) to the most particular
(objective), as in the table below:
general (subjective) particular (objective)
opinion size/weight age shape colour pattern origin material NOUN
nice huge young round blue checked English wooden
ugly heavy ancient square green striped Italian woollen

e.g. a short, purple, velvet dress, a precious, blue, Venetian, glass lamp, etc.
b) after the noun, as in the following examples:
e.g. court martial, somebody important, a carpet two metres long,
a man difficult to please, all the people present/concerned/involved etc.

3. COMPARISON
Adjectives have the following degrees of comparison:
a) positive: tall, good, interesting
b) comparative
– of superiority: taller, better, more interesting (than)
– of equality: as tall as, as good as, as interesting as
– of inferiority: not so tall as, not so good as, less interesting than
c) superlative
– relative: the tallest, the best, the most interesting
– absolute: very tall, extremely good, highly interesting

With the comparative of superiority and the relative superlative, comparison

observes the following rule:

No. of syllables Adjective Comparative Superlative

-er the … -est
1 sweet, fine, dry, big sweeter, finer, the sweetest, the finest,
drier, bigger the driest, the biggest
-er the … -est
2 (ending in: easy, narrow, clever,
easier, narrower, the easiest, the narrowest,
-y, -ow, -er, -le) simple
cleverer, simpler the cleverest, the simplest
more … the most …
≥2 rapid, beautiful more rapid, the most rapid,
more beautiful the most beautiful
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 ● Irregular comparison

Positive Comparative Superlative

good better the best
bad/ill worse the worst
old older/elder the oldest/eldest
far farther/further the farthest/furthest
little less/lesser the least
much/many more the most
late later/latter the latest/last
near nearer the nearest/next

Notes:
• elder/the eldest refer to family members: my elder brother
• further means ‘additional’, ‘more’: further information
• lesser means ‘smaller’, ‘not so important’: the writer’s lesser works
• latter means ‘the second of two’: I like Tom and Jerry; the former is a cat, the
latter is a mouse.
• the latest means ‘the most recent’, the last means ‘final’: the latest fashion, the
last chance
• the nearest refers to distance, the next refers to order: Where is the nearest
bank? The next train is at seven.

● Special constructions with the comparative

a) comparative and comparative (din ce în ce mai, tot mai)
e.g. He is getting better and better. His answers are more and more correct.
b) the comparative … the comparative (cu cât mai... cu atât mai...)
e.g. The more we are, the merrier we’ll be.
c) the comparative (when two things/persons are compared)
e.g. Mary is the prettier of the two sisters.

E. Grammar practice

1. Put the adjectives in parentheses in the correct order:

1. For Christmas Granny has knitted two (woolen, bright, red) gloves.
2. It was easy for Jack to spot her out because of her (pink, Dutch, plastic) skis.
3. Nina bought a set of (green, splendid, clay) pots in the bazaar.
4. Although it was quite dark, she immediately noticed the (big, oval, clean,
kitchen) table and the four (little, wooden, round) stools she's known since she
was a child.
5. She loved the (bright, gold, Italian) necklace Terry had brought her.
6. The visitors admired the (late-medieval, magnificent, stone) architecture of the
monastery.
7. The two travellers followed the (coastal, long, old) road.
16
 8. It was very hot and the glass of (fresh, cold, grapefruit) juice that Thomas
brought was delightful.
9. One of the most precious gifts I have ever received is a (Venetian, beautiful,
ceramic) mask my best friend gave me.
10. When he saw her, she was running across the (wide, green, sparkling, grass)
lawn in her (white, long, summer, Tunisian, cotton) dress.

2. Choose the correct word or phrase from the ones underlined:

1. This food is hotter/the hottest than I can bear.

2. When the weather becomes less warmer/less warm we’ll be able to start.
3. Lena was the more/the most graceful ballet dancer I’ve ever seen.
4. I must admit that he is as/so stubborn as/like a mule.
5. The fact that Peter didn’t help us is of less/lesser significance now.
6. The business he is involved in is most and most/more and more dangerous.
7. Leopold was the more/the most talented of the two brothers.
8. He is the lazier/the laziest student in the class.
9. She was able to get farther/further information at the station.
10. Her older/elder sister is five years older/elder than you.
11. ‘The Tempest’ is Shakespeare’s latest/last play.

F. End-of-unit test

1. Match the words in column A with those in column B to form collocations

as they appear in the reading passage:

A B
1. __ heat a. particles
2. __ vapor b. forces
3. __ expand c. phenomena
4. __ attractive d. mechanics
5. __ plastic e. indefinitely
6. __ adjacent f. liquids
7. __ fluid g. pressure
8. __ phase h. solids
9. __ viscous i. changes

2. Use the correct form of the adjectives in the letter below:

Dear Sir,

We all realize that unfortunately our products have been (1) __ (reliable) lately.
What is even (2) __ (disappointing) is that we still have the highest prices on the
market. But being your (3) __ (old) suppliers, we would ask you to be (4) __
(patient) you proved to be for just a little longer and we promise to do our best in
order to become (5) __ (efficient) company on the market again.
17
One reason for our (6) __ (low) sales figures this year is our (7) __ and __ (little)
competitive technology due to the equipment that has worn out along the years.
This will be changed starting with the month of September. Once the new
machines have been installed, people will work for lower costs and (8) __ (high)
wages.

We are bound to re-establish (9) __ (high) reputation in the business. It's just a
question of a few months.

Thank you for your understanding.

Faithfully yours,

Alec Newton, Vice President

Marking scheme:
1. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p
2. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p
ex officio = 1p

Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following main issues:
- The attractive forces between the molecules of a solid are so large that a solid
tends to retain its shape, while with a fluid the attractive forces between the
molecules are smaller;
- There are certain very viscous liquids which do not flow readily, and it is easy to
confuse them with the plastic solids;
- The molecules of gas are much farther apart than those of a liquid. Hence a gas is
very compressible and tends to expand indefinitely;
- A vapour is a gas whose temperature and pressure are very near the liquid phase;
- The comparative/superlative is formed with -er/-est (1 or 2 syllables) and
more/most … (2 or more syllables);
- The order of adjectives is: opinion, size/weight, age, shape, colour, pattern,
origin, material + noun.

18
UNIT 3. BEARING WEAR

Time for individual study: 3 hours

Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able:
- to use vocabulary items related to normal and abnormal bearing wear;
- to describe ways of preventing foreign matter from contaminating lubricant;
- to produce correct complex sentences in compliance with the sequence of
tenses rule.

A. Understanding a printed text

Read the following text, then translate it into Romanian, looking up anything
you do not understand in the Glossary.

Normal Bearing Wear

Before you can diagnose abnormal wear, you must first understand what is
considered to be normal wear. Most bearing wear that occurs during the first few
hours of operation is minimal and accepted as 'normal'. The bearing shown in Fig.
17-7 was taken from a truck engine which was operated for 4500 hours. It shows
normal wear. Under normal usage some of the thin lead-tin overlay surface wears
off, exposing the lining (copper, nickel, or aluminum). The pattern of wear is
concentrated toward the center of the bearing because of its larger diameter. When
motortruck engine bearings show this wear within less than 2000 hours or 100,000
miles (mi) [160,930 km] of operation, the wear is considered to be abnormal,
suggesting that abrasives have entered the oil. Check for the following: poor air
filtration, intake manifold leakage, poor lubrication filtration, overfueling, or
restricted engine breathing. Fine abrasives may also enter the oil during the engine
rebuilding period or through carelessness while making oil and filter changes.
Most bearing failures are due to foreign matter (plain old dirt) passing
between the journals and bearings. This also applies, of course, to other operating
components. Depending on the type of foreign matter in the lubricant, the journals,
bearings, and components may become scratched, pitted, or discolored, etc.

19
How to Prevent Dirt From Contaminating Lubricant

1. To begin with, your work area and tools must be clean.

2. Before assembling the engine, make sure that all components and bores are
clean. When the engine is not being worked on, cover it with plastic sheets to keep
out any fine dust.
3. Keep all oil storage containers and measuring equipment clean.
4. Follow the manufacturer's recommended procedure when making oil and filter
changes.
5. Avoid excessive delay between oil filter changes because this may cause the
filter to become plugged.
6. When adding oil, wipe the area around the dipstick clean before reinserting.
7. Remember that the entry of even a small amount of dirt into the lubricant will
create extensive damage at a later date.

20
 Bearing Failure due to Coarse Particles in Oil

Coarse particles may originate as residue from moving engine components, from
improper handling of lubricant or oil filters, or from incomplete removal of honing
or boring abrasives.
The bearing shell shown in Fig. 17-8 will fail completely because of the
long deep scratches which decrease the efficiency of the lubricant and heat
dissipation. The visible particles have displaced metal (aluminum) and have added
to the abrasion, causing heat to build up and melt the lead surface. However, if the
bearings show fine scratches as a consequence of embedded particles, but
nevertheless their surface is smooth, they can be reused.

B. Check your understanding

1. Tick all the instructions which are correct according to the text:

(a) To diagnose abnormal wear, try to understand what normal wear is. [ ]
(b) If wear shows within 2000 hours, do nothing. [ ]
(c) When working on the engine, cover it with plastic sheets. [ ]
(d) Remember to keep all equipment and tools clean. [ ]
(e) Change oil and filters according to manufacturers' instructions. [ ]
(f) Do not change oil filter unless it becomes plugged. [ ]
(g) Wipe the dipstick clean before removing it. [ ]
(h) Do not reuse bearings which show fine scratches and still have a smooth
surface. [ ]

2. Complete these statements according to information given in the text:

 If an engine bearing shows wear within less than about 160,000 km ...
 Abrasives entering the oil cause ...
 Carelessness while working on the engine can cause ...
 Most bearing failures are caused by ...
 The bearings may become scratched, pitted or discoloured as a result of ...
 If the bearing shell becomes deeply scratched ...
 If particles displace the metal and add to the abrasion ...
 If the bearings have fine scratches and the surface is still smooth ...

3. The negative forms and opposites of these words appear in the text. Can you
find them?

 increase ≠ ____________
 complete ≠ ____________
 proper ≠ ______________
 clean ≠ _______________

21
  normal ≠ ______________
 coarse ≠ ______________
 careful ≠ ______________
 coloured ≠ _____________
 smooth ≠ ______________

C. Understanding discourse

Listen to the conversation between two friends, Tom and Bill. Listen for the
answers to the following questions:

1. What is the problem with Tom's car?

2. What question does Bill ask first, to try to find the cause of the trouble with
Tom's car?
3. What are the possible reasons for the trouble?
4. Which of these possible reasons can be eliminated, according to what Tom
says?
5. What other possible causes remain to be checked?
6. How can Tom check the electrical system?

D. Grammar review

Sequence of Tenses

Sequence of Tenses is a set of grammar rules which establish relationships

between verbs at the level of complex sentences (= fraze). Thus, the tense of the
verb in the subordinate clause changes in accordance with the tense of the verb in
the main clause. In practice, these rules apply to three subordinate clauses:
1. Direct Object clauses (introduced by that or a wh-word, which answer the
question what?);
2. Time clauses (introduced by when, after, before, while/as, once, till/until,
as soon as, as long as, by the time, the moment etc., which answer questions
such as when?, since when?, till when?, how long?, how often?);
3. Conditional clauses (introduced by if, unless, provided/providing (that), on
condition (that), suppose/supposing (that), as/so long as, in case, but for,
which answer the question on what condition?)
The first two types of clauses will be approached in this unit, while the third class
will receive special attention in the next unit, due to its greater degree of
complexity.
In essence, the correspondence between tenses in the two clauses (main &
subordinate) could be summarised in the following tables:

22
1. DIRECT OBJECT CLAUSES

Main Clause Subordinate Clause

1.a. PRESENT: V/V-s Any tense required by the meaning of

PRESENT PERFECT: have/has V-en the clause
FUTURE: will V
Mary explains that she goes to London every year.
has explained will go to London next week.
will explain has gone to London twice so far.
went to London last summer.
had gone to London before her
marriage.
1.b. Imperative Verbs (ask, demand, insist, SUBJUNCTIVE: should V (BrE)
order, recommend, require, suggest, urge, etc.) V (AmE)
Mrs Parker demands that he should arrive in time.
insists arrive
suggests
2.a. PAST: V-ed PAST PERFECT: had V-en
(previous action: E < then)
Peter said he had seen the film.

PAST: V-ed
(simultaneous action: E = then)
I thought they were at home.

FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST: would V
(subsequent action: E > then)
Our neighbours promised they would visit us soon.
2.b. PAST: V-ed PRESENT: V/V-s (Generic Present)
It was proved that water boils at 100° C.

2. TIME CLAUSES

Main Clause Subordinate Clause

1. FUTURE: will V PRESENT: V/V-s

(simultaneous action: E = next)
Harry will tell us the truth when he knows it.

PRESENT PERFECT: have/has V-en

(previous action: E < next)
The boy will translate the poem after he has learnt the new words.

23
 2. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST: would V PAST: V-ed
(simultaneous action: E = next2)
I promised/ I would buy that book when I saw it.

PAST PERFECT: had V-en

(previous action: E < next2)
They knew/ they would get a pay rise after they had finished the project.

Here is a useful list of abbreviations used in the two tables above:

Abbreviations
E event (expressed by the verb)
then past reference time
next future reference time
next2 future reference time from past viewpoint
V infinitive (base form of the verb)
V-ed past (2nd form of the verb with irregular verbs/ V-ed with regular verbs)
V-en past participle (3rd form of the verb with irregular verbs/ V-ed with regular
verbs)
< previous to
= simultaneous with
> subsequent to

E. Grammar practice

1. Provide the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

Michael _____ (be) born in a village and _____ (spend) his childhood there. He
_____ (move) to Leeds when he _____ (be) fifteen and _____ (live) there since his
sister _____ (get) married. Currently, he _____ (work) as a freelance writer, but he
_____ (work) with a small company for several years. Next year he _____ (go) to
London to study at the University, but only after he _____ (finish) writing the
novel he _____ (work) at now. I _____ (write) to him a long letter a couple of days
ago and _____ (ask) him how many chapters he already _____ (write). Michael’s
daughter, Cathy, hopes that her father _____ (finish) his book by the end of
August. I _____ (see) her yesterday while she _____ (cross) the street. When I
_____ (talk) to her, she _____ (tell) me that she _____ (be) very tired because she
_____ (work) long hours to meet an important deadline.

2. Supply the correct tense, according to Sequence of Tenses rules.

1. They noticed they _____ (fly) for three hours already.

2. Harry thought he _____ (buy) a new house soon.
3. Our friends asked us why the train (not arrive) yet.
4. She had to promise him that she _____ (help) them later.
5. John didn’t remember what he _____ (tell) me the day before.
24
 6. They asked if I _____ (finish) work by tomorrow.
7. I promised her that I _____ (lend) her the book after I _____ (finish) it.
8. I’m sure that Tom _____ (come) here when he _____ (feel) better.
9. When he _____ (leave) school next year, he _____ (learn) here for seven years.
10. This time yesterday you _____ (tell) me how busy you _____ (be).
11. I explained that she _____ (play) the piano at that time the following week.
12. Visibly suffering, my cousin told me she _____ (have) a bad headache.
13. Jack will go to the swimming-pool soon after he _____ (do) his homework.
14. I assured my brother that I _____ (visit) him when I _____ (not be) that busy.

3. Translate into English.

1. Când va înțelege că îi suntem prieteni, va fi prea târziu.

2. După ce au vizitat muzeul, turiștii s-au urcat în autocar și au plecat la hotel.
3. A promis că ne va ajuta de îndată ce își va termina treaba.
4. Mi-a spus că se simte încă tânără.
5. După ce vom planta acești pomi fructiferi, livada va arăta minunat.
6. Nu ți-a spus ce-i place cel mai mult?
7. De-abia am ajuns în parc că a și început să plouă.
8. Îți voi da articolul despre care ți-am vorbit de îndată ce-l voi găsi.
9. El a spus că n-a fost decât o glumă și că, totuși, își va cere iertare.
10. Mary m-a anunțat că este bolnavă și nu ne va vizita, așa cum promisese.

F. End-of-unit test

1. Fill in the gaps in the text below with the words from the box:

wear rebuilding lining overlay overfueling

manifold abnormal abrasives truck bearings

The bearing shown in Fig. 17-7 was taken from a _____ engine which was
operated for 4500 hours. It shows normal _____. Under normal usage some of the
thin lead-tin _____ surface wears off, exposing the _____ (copper, nickel, or
aluminum). The pattern of wear is concentrated toward the center of the bearing
because of its larger diameter. When motortruck engine _____ show this wear
within less than 2000 hours or 100,000 miles of operation, the wear is considered
to be _____, suggesting that abrasives have entered the oil. Check for the
following: poor air filtration, intake _____ leakage, poor lubrication filtration,
_____, or restricted engine breathing. Fine _____ may also enter the oil during the
engine _____ period or through carelessness while making oil and filter changes.

2. Fill in the blanks using appropriate verb forms:

1. I found that my son _____ (be) awake.

25
2. The pickpocket confessed that he _____ (steal) my wallet.
3. I’ll give you the article I _____ (speak) to you about as soon as I _____ (find) it.
4. He told me that he _____ (be) old but never _____ (hear) such a beautiful voice.
5. No one could explain how the prisoner _____ (escape) from the prison.
6. Euclid proved that the three angles of a triangle _____ equal to two right angles.
7. Peter suggested that they _____ (take) the bus back home.
8. She hoped she _____ (visit) her friends after she _____ (do) her homework.

Marking scheme:
1. 10 x 0.5p = 5p
2. 8 x 0.5p = 4p
ex officio = 1p

Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following main issues:
- Most bearing wear that occurs during the first few hours of operation is minimal
and accepted as 'normal';
- Most bearing failures are due to foreign matter passing between the journals and
bearings;
- If the bearings show fine scratches as a consequence of embedded particles, but
their surface is smooth, they can be reused;
- Sequence of Tenses is a set of grammar rules which establish relationships
between verbs at the level of complex sentences (Direct Object, Time and
Conditional clauses).

26
UNIT 4. CHEMICAL AND PROCESS INDUSTRIES

Time for individual study: 3 hours

Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able:
- to use vocabulary items related to chemical and process industries;
- to describe special applications of refrigeration;
- to produce correct conditional sentences (real & hypothetical).

A. Understanding a printed text

Read the following text, then translate it into Romanian, looking up anything
you do not understand in the Glossary.

The chemical and process industries include the manufacturers of chemicals,

petroleum refiners, petrochemical plants, paper and pulp industries, etc. These
industries require good engineering for their refrigeration since almost every
installation is different and the cost of each installation is so high. Some important
functions served by refrigeration in the chemical and process industries are (1)
separation of gases, (2) condensation of gases, (3) solidification of one substance
in a mixture to separate it from others, (4) maintenance of a low temperature of
stored liquid so that the pressure will not be excessive, and (5) removal of heat of
reaction.
A mixture of hydrocarbon gases can be separated into its constituents by
cooling the mixture so that the substance with the high-temperature boiling point
condenses and can be physically removed from the remaining gas. Sometimes in
petrochemical plants hydrocarbons, such as propane, are used as the refrigerant.
Propane is relatively low in cost compared with other refrigerants, and the plant is
completely equipped to handle flammable substances. In other applications
separate refrigeration units provide refrigeration for the process.

Special applications of refrigeration

Other uses of refrigeration and air-conditioning span sizes and capacities from
small appliances to the large industrial scale.
Drinking fountains. Small refrigeration units chill drinking water for
storage and use as needed.
Dehumidifiers. An appliance to dehumidify air in homes and buildings uses
a refrigeration unit by first passing the air to be dehumidified through the cold
evaporator coil of the system, where the air is both cooled and dehumidified. Then

27
 this cool air flows over the condenser and is discharged to the room.
Ice makers. The production of ice may take place in domestic refrigerators,
ice makers serving restaurants and motels, and large industrial ice makers serving
food-processing and chemical plants.
Ice-skating rinks. Skaters, hockey players, and curlers cannot rely upon the
weather to provide the cold temperatures necessary to freeze the water in their ice
rinks. Pipes carrying cold refrigerant or brine are therefore embedded in a fill of
sand or sawdust, over which water is poured and frozen.
Construction. Refrigeration is sometimes used to freeze soil to facilitate
excavations. A further use of refrigeration is in cooling huge masses of concrete
(the chemical reaction which occurs during hardening gives off heat, which must
be removed so that it cannot cause expansion and stress the concrete). Concrete
may be cooled by chilling the sand, gravel, water, and cement before mixing, and
by embedding chilled-water pipes in the concrete.
Desalting of seawater. One of the methods available for desalination of
seawater is to freeze relatively salt-free ice from the seawater, separate the ice, and
remelt it to redeem fresh water.

Conclusion

The refrigeration and air-conditioning industry is characterised by steady growth. It

is a stable industry in which replacement markets join with new applications to
contribute to its health.
The high cost of energy since the 1970s has been a significant factor in
stimulating technical challenges for the individual engineer. Innovative approaches
to improving efficiency which once were considered impractical now receive
serious consideration and often prove to be economically justified. The days of
designing the system of lowest first cost with little or no consideration of the
operating cost now seem to be past.

B. Check your understanding

1. Answer the following questions:

1. Why do the chemical and process industries require good engineering for their
refrigeration?
2. Name two of the processes in which refrigeration is important.
3. How can a mixture of hydrocarbon gases be separated into its constituent parts?
4. Can you name a hydrocarbon which is sometimes used as a refrigerant?
5. Name two small appliances which use refrigeration or air-conditioning systems.

2. Can you explain:

 how refrigeration is used in construction?

 how it is used for desalting seawater?
28
C. Understanding discourse

Listen to the conversation. Peter, an engineering student, talks to his tutor,

Mr Edwards. Now answer the following questions:

1. How does Peter get Mr Edwards' attention? What does he say?

2. What question does he ask?
3. What questions does Mr Edwards ask Peter?
4. What does Mr Edwards say about Peter's work?
5. What is the first thing Peter asks for advice on?
6. What advice does Mr Edwards give?
7. What does Peter want to be able to do in his future career?
8. Does Mr Edwards think that refrigeration engineering would offer him
opportunities to do this?
9. What is the third thing that Peter asks about?
10. What advice does Mr Edwards give him?

D. Grammar review

Conditional Sentences (If Clauses)

Conditional sentences may be introduced by: if, unless* (= if... not), provided/
providing (that), on condition (that), suppose/supposing (that), as/so long as, in
case, but for (= if it weren’t for/if it hadn’t been for).
*cannot be used in conditional sentences with hypothetical meaning (types 2 & 3)

Examples:

If he invites me, I’ll go.

He’ll fail unless he works harder.
The librarian will lend you the books providing/provided that/as long as you
return them in due time.
I’ll deliver the goods on condition that you accept the terms of the contract.
Suppose/Supposing she didn’t answer the phone, what would you do?
They promised to give me some money in case I needed it.
But for (= if it weren’t for) this rain, I would go for a walk.
But for (= if it hadn’t been for) that brave man, my son would have drowned.

29
 BASIC TYPES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Condition Time Verb tenses

reference Conditional clause Main clause
1. probable future PRESENT: V/V-s FUTURE: will V
(real) If Paul finds the book, he will buy it.
(Dacă Paul va găsi cartea, o va cumpăra.)
2. improbable present/ PAST: V-ed (be → were) PRESENT CONDITIONAL: would V
(hypothetical) future If Paul found the book, he would buy it.
(Dacă Paul ar găsi cartea, ar cumpăra-o.)
3. impossible past PAST PERFECT: had V-en PAST CONDITIONAL: would have V-en
(hypothetical) If Paul had found the book, he would have bought it.
(Dacă Paul ar fi găsit cartea, ar fi cumpărat-o.)

OMISSION OF IF

Sometimes in formal language, for stylistic purposes, if may be omitted. In such

cases, there will be a subject-auxiliary invertion.
Note that the omission of if is only possible in the conditional clauses with
hypothetical meaning (types 2 & 3), which should compulsorily come in initial
position (before the main clause).

Neutral Emphatic [formal]

If I were tired, I would go to sleep.
Harry could buy a new car if he saved
enough money.
If he were to find us here, he would be
very surprised.
I would feel released if I could solve
this problem.
If our team had won the match, we
would have celebrated the victory.
Were I tired, I would go to sleep.
Should Harry save enough money, he
could buy a new car.
Were he to find us here, he would be
very surprised.
Could I solve this problem, I would feel
released.
Had our team won the match, we would
have celebrated the victory.

OTHER TEMPORAL SITUATIONS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Conditional clause Main clause

Present Present
If you boil water, it turns to vapour.
Present Imperative
If you see Mr Blake, give him my best regards!
Present perfect Future
If you have found a mistake, he will check it again.
30
 Past Past
If my radio disturbed people, I turned it down.
Past Present
If James bought that car, I am happy.
Past Future
If you enjoyed his last novel, you’ll love this one.
Past (type 2) Past conditional (type 3)
If they were more confident, they would have won the last match. Mixed
Past perfect (type 3) Present conditional (type 2) types
If they hadn’t missed the train, they would be here now.

E. Grammar practice

1. Use the verbs in brackets in the correct form.

1. If my brother __ (go) to London, he'll visit the British Museum.

2. Tom __ (learn) French if only he had the time.
3. If he __ (know) what to do, he would have done it.
4. Suppose she found out the truth, what she __ (do)?
5. Grannie __ (not be) able to read if she lost her glasses.
6. Mary __ (pass) her exam if she works hard.
7. If I __ (be) a pianist, I'd play the piano all day long.
8. George would accept that job provided he __ (be) offered it.
9. You wouldn't have been so tired if you __ (not go) to that party.
10. If anyone tried to open this window at night, my dog __ (hear) him.
11. I won't help her unless she __ (ask) me to.
12. If he __ (understand) the rules, he wouldn't have made so many mistakes.
13. I wouldn't like to be in his shoes in case such a thing __ (happen).
14. If my brother __ (have) a Bachelor's degree, he wouldn't have to work as a
mechanic now.
15. Suppose his parachute __ (not open), what would happen?
16. Had I met that girl before, I certainly __ (marry) her.
17. I'll lend him the money so long as he (take) my advice.
18. My parents would have been much happier if I __ (become) a doctor.
19. Supposing you __ (be) on holiday now, where would you go?
20. Someone will steal your camera if you __ (leave) it on the bench.
21. If I __ (speak) to her more slowly, she would surely have understood me.
22. When you __ (get) there if you leave at 6 o'clock in the morning?
23. The room __ (not look) so dark if she cleaned the windows more often.
24. I __ (not say) anything unless he brings up the matter himself.
25. If only she __ (tell) us about the pills, we could have saved her.
26. In case George __ (arrive) in town, I'd be glad to meet him.
27. I'll forgive her on condition that she __ (tell) the truth.
28. But for that policeman, the burglar __ (escape).

31
 2. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Dacă m-aș afla în situația lui, n-aș ști ce să fac.

2. De-aș fi întins mâna, l-aș fi putut atinge.
3. Dacă îți vei face datoria, vor fi mulțumiți.
4. Dacă aș fi în locul tău, aș face orice îmi spune.
5. Dacă mașina mea s-ar strica la fel de des ca a ta, aș vinde-o imediat.
6. Dacă ne-am fi oprit acolo, am fi ajuns înapoi foarte târziu.
7. N-ar fi furat merele dacă ceilalți băieți nu l-ar fi îndemnat să o facă.
8. Dacă-l vei întreba ce înseamnă pentru el reclama, îți va spune ceva ciudat.
9. Dacă ai lua un ziar, ai găsi probabil un număr de cuvinte pe care nu le înțelegi.

3. Match the two clauses to form conditional sentences.

1. If these tests produce positive results, …

2. If rubber is cooled to -200° C, …
3. If safety measures had been followed, …
4. If you want to study the files from the internet, …
5. If we bought a new software package, …
6. If you want to use this software package on more than one system, …
7. If the goods had been sent by sea, …
8. If we ran an additional test, …

a. … the accident would never have happened.

b. … download them onto your computer.
c. … we'd be able to do all the technical specifications in half the time.
d. … we could estimate the experimental error.
e. … they would have taken nearly two months.
f. … it becomes brittle and will break.
g. … we'll continue with clinical trials.
h. … you'll have to get a site licence.

4. Complete these sentences using the words in brackets.

1. The tests won't be continued unless __ (there/ be/ better safety measures).
2. He wouldn't have been injured if __ (he/ follow/ the correct procedures).
3. In the event of a collision, __ (the airbag/ inflate).
4. If all vehicles were fitted with a catalytic converter, __ (there/ be/ less pollution).
5. The reaction would be speeded up if __ (we/ introduce/ a catalyst).
6. If heat is applied, __ (the substance/ decompose).
7. As long as disinfectant is used, __ (infections/ not be/ pass on).
8. If iron is left in contact with air and water, __ (it/ rust).

F. End-of-unit test

1. Match the words in column A with those in column B to form collocations

as they appear in the reading passage:

32
 A B
1. __ evaporator a. refiners
2. __ replacement b. refrigerator
3. __ petrochemical c. fountain
4. __ domestic d. gases
5. __ ice-skating e. market
6. __ petroleum f. coil
7. __ ice g. rink
8. __ drinking h. plants
9. __ hydrocarbon i. maker

2. Two site workers are discussing the weather. Complete the conversation
with the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

A: We'll carry on with the work if the conditions (a) _____ (improve).
B: If we'd known the weather was going to be this bad, we (b) _____ (delay) the
start of the project.
A: Well, if the rain (c) _____ (stop) soon, we'll get the foundations laid by evening.
B: It could have been worse. Do you remember building that bridge last year? If
we (d) _____ (not build) the dike of sandbags, the river would have flooded the
town.
A: And if we hadn't brought in that earthmover, we (e) _____ (not make) it in time.
B: If we get any more rain here, we (f) _____ (have to) repair the potholes in the
road before we can use it.
A: Provided it (g) _____ (stop) soon, we'll be able to start preparing the timber. If
they'd chosen another time of year, we (h) _____ (not have) these problems. It
would be much nicer if we (i) _____ (have) indoor jobs at this time of year!

Marking scheme:
1. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p
2. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p
ex officio = 1p

Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following main issues:
- The chemical and process industries include: the manufacturers of chemicals,
petroleum refiners, petrochemical plants, paper and pulp industries, etc.;
- Some important functions served by refrigeration are: (1) separation of gases, (2)
condensation of gases, (3) solidification of one substance in a mixture to
separate it from others, (4) maintenance of a low temperature of stored liquid to
avoid excessive pressure, and (5) removal of heat of reaction;
- Special applications of refrigeration: drinking fountains, dehumidifiers, ice
makers, ice-skating rinks, construction, desalting of seawater;
- There are three basic types of conditional sentences: 1. probable (real), 2.
improbable (hypothetical), and 3. impossible (hypothetical).

33
UNIT 5. THE DESIGN PROCESS

Time for individual study: 3 hours

Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able:
- to use vocabulary items related to the process of designing a ‘system’;
- to describe the sequence of steps generally carried out in the design process;
- to accurately convert direct speech into reported speech and vice versa.

A. Understanding a printed text

Read the following text about the design process, paying attention to the
structure, paragraphing and subheadings.
As you read, look for the answers to the following questions. Remember that
you do not have to understand every word to answer the questions.

1. The writer outlines six steps which are normally followed when designing a
system. What are they and in what order are they usually followed?
2. Which is the most important step in the design process, according to the writer?
3. Which step demands most inventiveness and creativity?
4. Which step usually involves detailed calculations?
5. What can happen if the design is not properly communicated to the organisation
who will use it?

The Design Process

We frequently talk about designing 'a system'. By a system, we mean the entire
combination of hardware, information and people necessary to accomplish some
specified mission. A system may be an electric power distribution network for a
region of the nation, a procedure for detecting flaws in welded pressure vessels, or
a combination of production steps to produce automobile parts. A large system
usually is divided into subsystems, which in turn are made up of components.
There is no universally acclaimed sequence of steps that leads to a
workable design. However, let us more or less arbitrarily consider the process to
consist of the following steps:
Recognition of a need
Definition of a problem
Gathering information
Conceptualization

34
 Evaluation
Communication of the design
The design process generally proceeds from top to bottom in the list, but it must be
understood that in practice some of the steps will be carried out in parallel and that
feedback leading to iteration is a common fact of design.

Recognition of a need

Needs usually arise from dissatisfaction with the existing situation. They may be to
reduce cost, increase reliability, or just change because the public has become
bored with the product.

Definition of a problem

Probably the most critical step in the design process is the definition of the
problem. The true problem is not always what it seems to be at first glance.
Because this step requires such a small part of the total time to create the final
design, its importance is often overlooked. Figure 2-3 illustrates how the final
design can differ greatly depending upon how the problem is defined.
It is advantageous to define the problem as broadly as possible. If the
definition is broad, you will be less likely to overlook unusual or unconventional
solutions. Broad treatment of problems that previously were attacked in piecemeal
fashion can have a big payoff. However, you should realize that the degree to
which you can pursue a broad problem formulation toward a final design will
depend on factors often outside your control. In most cases, the extent to which
you are able to follow a broad problem formulation will depend on the importance
of the problem, the limits on time and money that have been placed on the problem
and your own position in the organization.
One approach that you should not take is to consider the existing solution to
the problem to be the problem itself. That approach immediately submerges you in
the trees of the forest, and you will find yourself generating solutions to a problem
you have failed to define.
The definition of a problem should include writing down a formal problem
statement, which should express as specifically as possible what the design is
intended to accomplish. It should include objectives and goals, definitions of any
special technical terms, the constraints placed upon the design, and the criteria that
will be used to evaluate the design.
Perhaps the best way to proceed is to develop a problem statement at the
initial problem definition step and then, in the second iteration after much
information has been gathered, develop a much more detailed problem statement
that is usually called the problem analysis.

35
Gathering information

Perhaps the greatest frustration you will encounter when you embark on your first
design problem will be due to the dearth or plethora of information. No longer will
your responsibility stop with the knowledge contained in a few chapters of a text.
Your assigned problem may be in a technical area in which you have no previous
background and you will not even have a single basic reference on the subject. At
the other extreme you may be presented with a mountain of reports of previous
work and your task will be to keep from drowning in paper. Whatever the
situation, the immediate task is to identify the needed pieces of information and
find or develop that information.

Conceptualization

The conceptualization step is to determine the elements, mechanisms, processes or

configurations that in some combination or other result in a design that satisfies the
need. It is the key step for employing inventiveness and creativity.
Very often the conceptualization step involves the formulation of a model
which may be either of the two general types: analyzed and experimental. A vital
aspect of the conceptualization process is synthesis. Synthesis is the process of
taking elements of the concept and arranging them in the proper order, sized and
dimensioned in the proper way. Synthesis is a creative process and is present in
every design.
Design is very individualized. There are no ironclad rules for teaching
successful design, and unfortunately very little has been written about the
conceptualization step that is at the heart of the design process.

36
 Evaluation

The evaluation step involves a thorough analysis of the design. The term
evaluation is used more in the sense of weighing and judging than in the sense of
grading. Typically, the evaluation step may involve detailed calculation, often
computer calculation, of the performance of the design by using an analytical
model. In other cases, the evaluation may involve extensive simulated service
testing of an experimental model or perhaps a full-sized prototype.

Communication of the design

It must always be kept in mind that the purpose of the design is to satisfy the needs
of a client or customer. Therefore, the finalized design must be properly
communicated or it may lose much of its impact or significance. The
communication is usually by oral presentation to the sponsor as well as by a
written design report. Detailed engineering drawings, computer programs and
working models are frequently part of the 'deliverables' to the customer. It hardly
needs to be emphasized that communication is not a one-time thing to be carried
out at the end of the project. In a well-run design project, there is continual oral
and written dialog between the project manager and the customer.

B. Check your understanding

Now read the text again carefully. While you read, look for the answers to
these questions:

1. Select the item that best completes each of these sentences:

1. A system ...
(a) is the result of a design process.
(b) is made up of a sequence of steps.
(c) means the equipment needed to do a job.
(d) may or may not need people.
2. The writer recommends that design engineers should ...
(a) define the problem as broadly as possible.
(b) attack a problem in piecemeal fashion.
(c) use the existing solution as a starting point.
(d) not spend too much time on defining the problem.
3. The problem statement should ...
(a) be considered only after all the information has been gathered.
(b) be as detailed as possible.
(c) express specifically the objectives of the final design.
(d) be written in the form of a series of questions.
4. The conceptualisation step ...
(a) has been described in detail in many books on design.

37
 (b) must be carried out in accordance with specific rules.
(c) involves rearranging the basic concepts in the proper way.
(d) is approached in the same way by all design engineers.

2. In the following, mark all the items which you think are FALSE:

1. A need for a new design can arise when the existing design ...
(a) is too expensive. [ ]
(b) doesn't work reliably. [ ]
(c) has been around a long time. [ ]
(d) is boring. [ ]
2. The difficulties of gathering information for a new design are:
(a) You may not have any previous experience of the subject. [ ]
(b) You may not know which textbook to refer to. [ ]
(c) There may be too much information. [ ]
(d) There may not be anything written on the subject. [ ]
3. The following factors are important for the success of the final design:
(a) The design must be fully analysed with reference to an analytical model,
experimental model or prototype. [ ]
(b) The qualities of the design must be observed. [ ]
(c) Interaction with the sponsor/client while the design process is going on. [ ]
(d) The sponsor or client must be told what to expect. [ ]
(e) Effective communication by means of drawings, written reports, oral
presentations, demonstrations, etc. [ ]

3. The writer uses a number of unusual words and phrases. See if you can
work out the meaning of them from the context, and express the meaning in
your own words.

 to accomplish a specified mission

 universally acclaimed
 iteration
 in piecemeal fashion
 a big payoff
 dearth and plethora of information
 ironclad rules

C. Increase your vocabulary

1. Find words in the text which mean the following:

 what you are aiming to achieve with a design

 the lack of something or requirement for something
 something which restricts what you can do

38
  standards by which something can be judged
 the impression made by an idea

2. Which of the following adjectives fits best into each of the sentences below?

• critical • finalised • unconventional • workable

 We could discuss your idea and if it seems to be ___, we could plan the
evaluation stage.
 The next stage of the project is ___. If it fails, everything else fails.
 Some of his designs are very ___. They are not what most people would expect,
but they do work.
 When everything is ___, we must prepare the presentation and report for our
sponsors.

3. Match each of the verbs below with the phrase which best goes with it:

 accomplish solutions to a problem

 proceed a new idea
 carry out the needs of a client
 create a task
 generate research or test work
 formulate from step to step
 satisfy someone to a project
 assign a problem in precise terms

D. Grammar review

Reported Speech

1. REPORTED STATEMENTS

Direct speech Reported speech

Verb tense changes
Present
I live in Manchester.
Present continuous
I’m interviewing candidates.
Present perfect
I haven’t found anyone.
Present perfect continuous
I’ve been reading all day.
Past
She said (that) she lived in Manchester.
Past continuous
He said he was interviewing candidates.
Past perfect
He said he hadn’t found anyone.
Past perfect continuous
She said she had been reading all day.
39
Past Past perfect
I chose a girl from Ohio. He said he had chosen a girl from Ohio.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
I was doing the shopping. She said she had been doing the shopping.
Future Future-in-the-past
I will do it. He said he would do it.
Future continuous Future-in-the-past continuous
I’ll be cleaning the house. She said she would be cleaning the house.
Future perfect Future-perfect-in-the-past
I’ll have finished work by then. He said he would have finished work by then.
Future perfect continuous Future-perfect-in-the-past continuous
By July, I’ll have been teaching She said that by July she would have been
for eight months. teaching for eight months.
Modal changes
will would
It won’t work out. He said it wouldn’t work out.
can could
I can’t marry her. He said he couldn’t marry her.
may might
I may be right. She said she might be right.
must/have to had to
I must make a decision. He said he had to make a decision.
Time changes
today/tonight that day/night
I’ll do it sometime today. He said he’d do it sometime that day.
this (morning) that (morning)
The letter arrived this morning. She said the letter had arrived that morning.
tomorrow the next day
I may be late tomorrow. She said she might be late the next day.
yesterday the day before
I wasn’t at work yesterday. He said he hadn’t been at work the day before.
last (week) the (week) before
They went away last week. He said they had gone away the week before.
next (week) the following (week)
She’s leaving next week. He said she was leaving the following week.
now then
I’m leaving now. She said she was leaving then.
ago before
I met her two days ago. He said he’d met her two days before.
Place changes
here there
I put it here on the shelf. He said he had put it there on the shelf.
this/these that/those
I know this place well. He said he knew that place well.

40
2. REPORTED QUESTIONS

Question type Direct speech Reported speech

Wh-questions Where’s my bike? He asked us where his bike was.
wanted to know
wondered
didn’t know
Yes/No questions Are you hungry? inquired
He wanted to know if/whether I was hungry.

3. REPORTED COMMANDS

Command type Direct speech Reported speech

+ Join me on the trip! She ordered me to join her on the trip.
- Don’t speak so loud! He asked me not to speak so loud.

4. REPORTED EXCLAMATIONS

Direct speech Reported speech

How nice to meet you again!
What a terrible noise!
Good morning!
He exclaimed he was delighted to meet me again.
He welcomed me.
She remarked that the noise was terrible.
She complained of the noise.
They wished me a good morning.
They greeted me.

VERBS OF REPORTING: STRUCTURES

Direct speech Reported speech

I’m afraid I have to leave.
Could you open the door?
I’m sorry I didn’t phone.
I’ll buy it for you.
Verb (+ that) + clause
She explained (that) she had to leave.
Verb + DO + to-Inf
He asked me to open the door.
Verb + V-ing
She apologised for not phoning.
Verb + to-Inf
He offered to buy it for me.

E. Grammar practice

1. Turn the following statements into reported speech.

1. "Jack wants to know if you will be here tomorrow", I told Cathy.

41
2. "My brother has been sleeping for three hours", said Carla.
3. "They will never guess why I have come here today", Mike told me.
4. "We wrote these letters two days ago", the children said.
5. "Peter didn't mention anything about this matter", Alice remarked.
6. "I'll stay a bit longer if you don't mind", Jenny told me.
7. "We have been working in the garden for an hour", the boys said.
8. "I didn't go to school yesterday", the boy admitted.

2. Turn the following questions into reported speech.

1. "Do you smoke?" Lady Bracknell asked Jack.

2. "Did you see this film?" Tom asked me.
3. "Will your mother come here at 5 o'clock?" I asked Mary.
4. "Does Kevin speak French?" John wanted to know.
5. "Can you translate this paragraph?" the teacher asked Henry.
6. "Have you seen her recently?" Peter asked Frank.
7. "Are you enjoying yourselves?" mother asked my guests.
8. "Must we leave now?" the children inquired.
9. "Where does your father work?" the teacher asked Helen.
10. "What have you learnt from this experience?" I asked Lucy.
11. "When will these tourists find the path?" Jack wondered.
12. "Whose pen did you borrow?" I asked my daughter.
13. "How old is your friend?" John asked me.
14. "How much did you pay for these shoes?" I asked my elder brother.

3. Turn the following commands into reported speech.

1. "Cash this check for me," he asked his friend.

2. "Let's not go to school today!" Paul told his sister.
3. "Don't cross the street without looking carefully!" the officer warned the kids.
4. "Buy me the newspaper tomorrow morning," father asked his daughter.
5. "Don't make so much noise!" the old woman told the children.
6. "See who is at the window," I told my brother.
7. "Let's sing this song again!" said the girls.
8. "Don't write your test paper in pencil!" the teacher told us.
9. "Hold little Paul by his hand," mother advised me.
10. "Don't let our kids go swimming unattended!" mother told father.
11. "Wait until the light turns green," I reminded my daughter.
12. "Don't use more sugar than necessary," Mary told her daughter.

4. Turn the following exclamations into reported speech.

1. My goodness! I've got lost!"

2. "What a glorious view!"
3. "What terrible weather!"
4. "What a silly girl you are!"

42
 5. "Heavens! It's cold!"
6. "Damn! I can't find my glasses!"
7. "Hello! Who are you looking for?"
8. "Oh dear! I have broken my leg!"
9. "Look out! There is a man coming!"
10. "Ugh! How I hate going there!"
11. "For goodness sake, stop that noise!"
12. "Good morning! How are you?"

F. End-of-unit test

1. Fill in the gaps in the text below with the words from the box:

parts hardware payoff design network

flaws pursue vessels system piecemeal

By a system, we mean the entire combination of _____, information and people

necessary to accomplish some specified mission. A _____ may be an electric
power distribution _____ for a region of the nation, a procedure for detecting
_____ in welded pressure _____, or a combination of production steps to produce
automobile _____.
Broad treatment of problems that previously were attacked in _____ fashion can
have a big _____. However, you should realize that the degree to which you can
_____ a broad problem formulation toward a final _____ will depend on factors
often outside your control.

2. Turn the following sentences into reported speech:

1. "What will you say to her now?" Dorothy asked me.

2. "Read these instructions carefully," the clerk advised me.
3. "It's difficult to say who is right," Paul said to his sister.
4. "Don't tell them anything about this," I advised Mary.
5. "Will she have enough money to buy this house?" I wondered.
6. "Did you find her in the classroom?" I asked Tom.
7. "Does your mother know that you are here?" I asked him.
8. "My goodness! I've lost my gloves!"
9. I will read the book if she gives it to me," I explained to him.
10. "Where are your friends going out tonight?" I asked Helen.
11. Let's tell her the secret tomorrow!" Dan suggested.
12. "How long have you been studying German?" Mary wanted to know.
13. "Good-bye and see you soon!"
14. "Can I go to the cinema with you next weekend?" Brian asked his sister.
15. "Do you like my new dress?" Catherine asked her sister.
16. "Send my kindest regards to your parents," he told Julia.
43
Marking scheme:
1. 10 x 0.5p = 5p
2. 16 x 0.25p = 4p
ex officio = 1p

Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following main issues:
- Engineers design systems. A system may be an electric power distribution
network, a procedure for detecting flaws in welded pressure vessels, or a
combination of production steps to produce automobile parts. A large system
usually is divided into subsystems, which in turn are made up of components;
- The sequence of steps generally carried out in the design process are: recognition
of a need, definition of a problem, gathering information, conceptualization,
evaluation, communication of the design;
- The purpose of the design is to satisfy the client’s needs. Therefore, the finalized
design must be properly communicated. In a well-run design project, there is
continual oral and written dialog between the project manager and the customer;
- In turning direct speech into reported speech, the following constituents of the
message must be changed: verb tenses (backshifting), modal verbs, time & place
adverbials, pronouns (according to meaning);
- Verbs of reporting may occur in the following structures:
Verb (+ that) + clause; Verb + DO + to-Inf; Verb + V-ing; Verb + to-Inf.

44
APPENDIX

GLOSSARY

Unit 1. Internal Combustion Engine Valves and Valve Train

poppet valve = supapă cu taler
reciprocation engine = motor cu piston
tightness = etanșeitate
high-speed automotive-type engine = motor auto de mare viteză
cam-operated = acționat cu came
spring-loaded = cu închidere prin resort
engine jacket = carcasa motorului
valve stem = tija supapei
exhaust valve = supapa de evacuare
alloy = aliaj
valve train = comanda supapelor
valve-operating mechanism = mecanism de acționare a supapelor
fuel-air mixture = amestec carburant
to discharge = a evacua
combustion products = produse de ardere
reciprocating pump = pompă cu mișcare alternativă/cu piston
to draw in = a absorbi
power output = putere, randament
flow = flux
stroke = cursă (a pistonului), timp (al motorului)
intake = admisie
compression = compresie
expansion/power = detentă
exhaust = evacuare
inward-opening poppet type = de tip „taler“ cu deschidere în interior
valve head = talerul supapei
ground = șlefuit
seat = scaun (al supapei)
cylinder block = blocul cilindrilor
cylinder head = chiulasă
valve guide = ghidajul supapei
compressed helical spring = arc elicoidal tensionat
stainless = inoxidabil
non-scaling = anticoroziv
hollow = gol (în interior)
cam = camă
(cam) follower/valve-lifter = tachet
roller = rolă
mechanical linkage = articulație mecanică
camshaft = arbore cu came
45
 crankshaft = arbore cotit
crankcase = carter (al motorului)
push rod = tijă împingătoare
rocker arm = culbutor
ball end = cap sferic
lever = pârghie, levier
to depress = a împinge în jos
thermal expansion = dilatare termică
clearance = joc
ramp = rampă, înclinație

Unit 2. Distinction between a Solid and a Fluid

molecule = moleculă
state/phase = stare de agregare
solid
fluid (liquid & gas)
attractive forces = forțe de atracție
to retain its shape = a-și păstra forma
to flow under high pressures = a curge la presiuni ridicate
viscous liquid = lichid vâscos
to yield = a ceda
stress = tensiune
magnitude = amplitudine
to alter = a modifica
adjacent particles = particule alăturate
to restore the body to its original configuration = a reda corpului structura inițială
velocity of deformation = viteză de deformare
to vanish = a dispărea
to cease = a înceta
to regain its original shape = a reveni la forma inițială
farther apart = mai depărtat(e)
compressible = compresibil
to expand indefinitely = a se dilata la infinit
enclosed = închis
vapor pressure = presiunea vaporilor
steam = abur
to take account of = a ține seama de
to deal with = a aborda, a trata (o temă etc.)
phase changes = schimbări de stare
heat phenomena = fenomene termice
fluid mechanics = mecanica fluidelor
thermodynamics = termodinamică

Unit 3. Bearing Wear

bearing = lagăr
wear = uzură
to wear off = a se uza
(motor)truck = (auto)camion
under normal usage = în condiții normale de utilizare
overlay surface = suprafață de acoperire

46
 lining = cuzinet
abrasives = particule abrazive
intake manifold = colector de admisie
overfueling = supraalimentare
engine rebuilding period = perioada de revizie/recondiționare a motorului
foreign matter = corpuri străine
dirt = impurități
journal = osie, fus, ax
lubricant = lubrifiant
scratched = zgâriat
pitted = corodat punctiform (ciupit)
discolored = decolorat
bore = alezaj
plastic sheet = folie de plastic
plugged = astupat, înfundat
dipstick = jojă (indicator de nivel al uleiului)
coarse particles = particule macrogranulare
honing = honuire (netezirea suprafeței interne, cilindrice a piesei)
boring = alezare (prelucrarea interiorului unei piese cilindrice)
bearing shell = carcasa lagărului
to displace = a disloca
embedded particles = particule pătrunse în ulei
nevertheless = totuși
smooth = neted

Unit 4. Chemical and Process Industries

process industries = întreprinderi prelucrătoare
petroleum refiners = rafinării petroliere
petrochemical plants = uzine petrochimice
paper and pulp industries = fabrici de celuloză și hârtie
good engineering = tehnologie adecvată
refrigeration = (sistem de) răcire/refrigerare
mixture = amestec
heat of reaction = căldură de reacție
hydrocarbon gases = hidrocarburi
high-temperature boiling point = punct de fierbere ridicat
refrigerant = refrigerent; agent frigorific
to handle flammable substances = a opera cu substanțe inflamabile
refrigeration unit = agregat/grup frigorific
to span = a cuprinde
appliance = aparat de uz casnic
drinking fountain = dozator (răcitor de apă)
storage = stocare, depozitare
dehumidifier = dezumidificator (uscător)
evaporator coil = serpentina evaporatorului
condenser = condensator

47
 ice maker = mașină de fabricat gheață
domestic refrigerator = frigider
ice-skating rink = patinoar
brine = soluție salină (saramură)
embedded = încastrat, inserat
fill = rambleu (umplutură)
sawdust = rumeguș
concrete = beton
expansion = dilatare
to stress = a produce tensiuni
gravel = pietriș
chilled-water pipes = țevi cu apă rece
desalting/desalination = desalinare
seawater = apă marină
to redeem fresh water = a obține apă dulce
replacement market = piață secundară (a serviciilor post-vânzare)
technical challenges = provocări de ordin tehnic
innovative approaches = abordări inovatoare
first cost = cost de investiție
operating cost = cost de exploatare

Unit 5. The Design Process

design = proiectare
hardware = echipament
electric power distribution network = rețea de distribuție a energiei electrice
flaw = fisură, crăpătură
welded = sudat
pressure vessel = vas sub presiune
workable design = proiect funcțional
iteration = iterație (repetare, reluare)
reliability = fiabilitate
to overlook = a omite, a trece cu vederea
in piecemeal fashion = pas cu pas, secvențial
a big payoff = un rezultat foarte bun
to pursue = a urmări
problem statement/formulation = enunțarea/formularea problemei
constraints = constrângeri
to encounter = a întâlni
dearth or plethora of information = lipsă ori abundență de informații
synthesis = sinteză
ironclad rules = reguli stricte
thorough = complet
grading = clasificare, sortare
analytical/experimental model = model analitic/experimental
full-sized prototype = prototip în mărime naturală
engineering drawing = desen tehnic

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Technical section

Bonamy, D. (2013) Technical English 1-4. London: Pearson.

Brieger, N., A. Pohl (2006) Technical English: Vocabulary and Grammar. Andover:
Summertown Publishing.
Ibbotson, M. (2008) Cambridge English for Engineering. Cambridge: CUP.
(2009) Professional English in Use: Engineering. Cambridge: CUP.
Johnson, C.M. & D. (1992) General Engineering (English for Academic Purposes Series).
London: Prentice Hall.
*** (2003) Dictionary of Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.
*** (2004) Dicționar tehnic englez-român. București: Editura Tehnică.

B. Grammar section

Barna, A., L. Radu (eds) (2005) Gramatica practică a limbii engleze (Morfologie). Curs pentru
uzul studenților de la facultățile cu profil tehnic și din domeniul
științelor exacte. Brașov: Editura Universității „Transilvania“.
Chalker, S. (1984) Current English Grammar. London: Prentice Hall.
Chefneux, G., M. Burada (2001) Elements of Morpho-syntax. Pitești: Editura Paralela 45.
Coșer, C., R. Vulcănescu (2004) Developing Competence in English. Intensive English Practice.
Iași: Editura Polirom.
Gălățeanu, G., E. Comișel (1982) Gramatica limbii engleze. București: EDP.
Paidos, C. (1999) English Grammar. Theory and Practice (3 vols). București:
Editura All Educațional.
Pârlog, H., P. Brânzeu (eds) (1998) Limba și literatura engleză. Timișoara: Editura Amarcord.

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