sensors

Article
A Grid Connected Photovoltaic Inverter with
Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid Energy Storage
Víctor Manuel Miñambres-Marcos * ID , Miguel Ángel Guerrero-Martínez,
Fermín Barrero-González and María Isabel Milanés-Montero ID
Power Electrical and Electronic Systems Research Group, Escuela de Ingenierías Industriales, Universidad de
Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas, s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain; mguerrero@peandes.net (M.Á.G.-M.);
fbarrero@unex.es (F.B.-G.); milanes@unex.es (M.I.M.-M.)
* Correspondence: vminmar@unex.es; Tel.: +34-924-286-768

Received: 18 June 2017; Accepted: 8 August 2017; Published: 11 August 2017

Abstract: The power generation from renewable power sources is variable in nature, and may contain
unacceptable fluctuations, which can be alleviated by using energy storage systems. However, the
cost of batteries and their limited lifetime are serious disadvantages. To solve these problems, an
improvement consisting in the collaborative association of batteries and supercapacitors has been
studied. Nevertheless, these studies don’t address in detail the case of residential and large-scale
photovoltaic systems. In this paper, a selected combined topology and a new control scheme are
proposed to control the power sharing between batteries and supercapacitors. Also, a method for
sizing the energy storage system together with the hybrid distribution based on the photovoltaic
power curves is introduced. This innovative contribution not only reduces the stress levels on the
battery, and hence increases its life span, but also provides constant power injection to the grid
during a defined time interval. The proposed scheme is validated through detailed simulation and
experimental tests.

Keywords: photovoltaic power systems; inverters; energy storage; hybrid power systems; power
generation planning

1. Introduction
Energy Storage Systems (ESS) are urgently needed by the traditional electrical generation industry,
which have almost no such storage capability. Traditional electricity transmission and distribution
systems transport the electrical energy from large power plants to consumers in a unidirectional way.
Due to this, electricity must be consumed by matching precisely the generation with demand, but the
electricity demand fluctuates heavily and consequently power plants must be overdesigned which
implies an inefficient and expensive electrical system [1].
Energy production could be made independent from the demand by means of ESS.
With large-scale electricity storage capacity available, the generating capacity could be designed
in electrical average terms rather than electrical peak terms. Subsequently, ESS could provide several
advantages such as peaking power, standby reserve and load following. In addition, the harmful
emissions of the thermal power sources could be reduced with the improved grid efficiency thanks to
the fact ESS provide spinning reserves and dispatchable loads.
Furthermore, ESS is a needed technology for Distributed Energy Resource (DER) systems. A DER
is meant to be as a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to the traditional energy
system. DERs are usually installed in a distributed way, placed close to the consumers and designed
on a scale of kW to MW, unlike conventional big power plants, which are installed in a centralized
way. The energy system is evolving in a way the DERs have more presence, which implies the energy

Sensors 2017, 17, 1856; doi:10.3390/s17081856 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

 Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 2 of 19
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 2 of 18

capacity but a bettered suited to respond to drastic load fluctuations, ESS is the key in order to
increase
system is power
becomingflexibility
a mix ofand back up Uninterruptible
centralized Power Supplies
and distributed subsystems. (UPSs).
As DER The connection
provide to the
smaller capacity
but a bettered suited to respond to drastic load fluctuations, ESS is the key in order to increase powera
supply utility grid of combined RES-based generators and electric storage systems becomes
challengeand
flexibility [2]. back up Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs). The connection to the supply utility
DERs
grid of based RES-based
combined on renewable energy and
generators systems such
electric as solar
storage photovoltaic
systems becomes(PV), wind turbines
a challenge [2]. and
wave, present an inherent intermittency and non-controllability, which depends on the
DERs based on renewable energy systems such as solar photovoltaic (PV), wind turbines and wave, weather. A
well-sized ESS could deal with the energy generation unpredictability of this kind of DERs.
present an inherent intermittency and non-controllability, which depends on the weather. A well-sized
Obviously, in periods of greater generation than demand the extra energy is stored, while in higher
ESS could deal with the energy generation unpredictability of this kind of DERs. Obviously, in periods
demand than generation periods the balance is taken from the stored energy [3].
of greater generation than demand the extra energy is stored, while in higher demand than generation
periods the balance is taken from the stored energy [3].
1.1. Present State of the Art
1.1. Present State of the
A meticulous Art
techno-economic or cost-benefit analysis of ESS with consistent, updated cost data
and Aa holistic
meticulous techno-economic orare
cost analysis framework required, in
cost-benefit order to
analysis ofevaluate
ESS with theconsistent,
life cycle costs of utility-
updated cost
scale electricity storage systems. Studies done in the past years, [4–6], including
data and a holistic cost analysis framework are required, in order to evaluate the life cycle costs several energy
of
storage technologies
utility-scale electricity such as Pumped
storage systems. Hydropower
Studies done in Storage (PHS),
the past years,Compressed Air Energy
[4–6], including several Storage
energy
(CAES),technologies
storage flywheel, electrochemical
such as Pumpedbatteries,
Hydropower flowStorage
batteries,
(PHS),superconducting
Compressed Airmagnetic energy
Energy Storage
storage, supercapacitors (SCs), and hydrogen energy storage, reveals that batteries
(CAES), flywheel, electrochemical batteries, flow batteries, superconducting magnetic energy storage, are a very
interesting choice
supercapacitors dueand
(SCs), to their energy
hydrogen density
energy and recent
storage, revealsdrop in price. are
that batteries Although there are various
a very interesting choice
commercially available ESS systems, no single storage system meets all the
due to their energy density and recent drop in price. Although there are various commerciallyrequirements foravailable
an ideal
ESSsystems,
ESS (see Figure 1), that
no single is, mature
storage systemtechnology, long
meets all the lifetime, low
requirements for cost, highESS
an ideal density, high 1),
(see Figure efficiency
that is,
and environmentally benign.
mature technology, long lifetime, low cost, high density, high efficiency and environmentally benign.

Figure1.1.Energy
Figure Energystorage
storagesystems
systemstechnologies.
technologies.

Batteryversus
Battery versusHybrid
HybridEnergy
EnergyStorage
StorageSystems
Systems(HESS)
(HESS)performance
performancewas wasstudied
studiedin in[7].
[7]. Passive,
Passive,
semi-active and fully active battery-supercapacitor hybridization improves battery
semi-active and fully active battery-supercapacitor hybridization improves battery only results when only results when
theload
the loaddemands
demandspulsed
pulsedcurrents.
currents. OnOn the
the one
one hand,
hand, passive
passive hybrid
hybrid isis the
thesimplest
simplestandandcheapest
cheapest
solutionbut
solution butalso
alsocarry
carrysome
somedisadvantages,
disadvantages,as asitithas
hasnonocontrol.
control.OnOnthe
theother
otherhand,
hand,the
thefully
fullyactive
active
hybrids improve the performance, but the power stage needs two direct
hybrids improve the performance, but the power stage needs two direct current/direct current current/direct current
(DC/DC) converters and
(DC/DC) and the
the corresponding
corresponding control
control circuitry.
circuitry.
One
One ofof the feasible solutions for photovoltaic renewable
feasible solutions for photovoltaic renewable energy sources
energy is hybridization
sources is hybridizationof high-
of
energy batteries
high-energy withwith
batteries supercapacitors [8]. This
supercapacitors energy
[8]. This source
energy requires
source highhigh
requires power density
power plus plus
density high
energy
high density.
energy Modern
density. battery
Modern technologies
battery always
technologies lack one
always lackof them.
one Li-ionLi-ion
of them. batteries present
batteries better
present
power and energy density characteristics than others so they are the
better power and energy density characteristics than others so they are the ones used forones used for this kind
kind ofof
systems.Nevertheless,
systems. Nevertheless,the thepower/energy
power/energy trade-offs
trade-offsimply
implyaa non-optimized
non-optimizedbatterybatterysize
sizeas
asititprovides
provides
theproper
the properenergy
energywithwithexcess
excessofofpower
powerand andvice
viceversa.
versa.Supercapacitor
Supercapacitortechnology
technologyprovides
provideshigh high
power density and exhibits a rapid development at a reasonable cost. In addition,
power density and exhibits a rapid development at a reasonable cost. In addition, supercapacitors supercapacitors
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 3 of 18

feature a better charge/discharge performance than any battery, involving a decrease in the system
losses, which increases the system life because of the lower operating temperature.

1.2. Literature Review

Considering the promising battery-supercapacitor HESS combo, several published works [9–27]
have been analyzed and are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. From these selected documents, the
following remarks can be extracted:

• Load supply is the most used application for low power. Another common application is energy
harvesting. An interesting hybridization was done in [28,29] by means for water harvesting
coupled to a disconnected system.
• Microgrids are the most used application for high power including energy management through
global control with connection to grid when there is no energy stored. Some other applications
are power injection regulation for tracking the forecasts, smoothing the fluctuating output power
of the PV plant and power sharing.
• The trend when using ESS is to implement independent power stages for each power source,
which means a boost stage for photovoltaics [30]. Photovoltaic inverters with two or more
stages are usually implemented in the low-medium power range in order to boost the PV
array voltage [31,32]. For higher power ranges, the boost stage is avoided as the PV arrays
provide enough voltage and the efficiency is higher [33]. However, the energy management
advantages introduced by an ESS require independent stages for each energy source in order to
be optimized [34].
• Also, the control scheme is more flexible and robust when each decoupled stage introduces its
degrees of freedom, to include all the electrical functions the converter is supposed to have. That is
why most of the topologies include boost and DC/DC stages, including high power oriented
ones, despite being worse. In addition, the efficiency of the boost stages could be optimized for
the design [35].
• The main goal is usually to maintain the battery health, in addition to the particular application
purpose. This is done using the supercapacitor for the sharp changes and developing control
strategies that decrease the charge/discharge current rates of battery while maintaining a healthy
state of charge (SOC) for both. These techniques also imply reduced current stress levels, less
temperature and improved battery life span. Usually, the hybrid solution is done by using a
low pass filter (LPF) which provides a high frequency reference for the supercapacitor and a low
frequency reference for the battery.

1.3. Motivation and Objective

Photovoltaic panels are continuously improving and increasing their efficiency, but photovoltaics
is still an intermittent energy generation form. A storage system is required to meet the load and
function requirements of the applications. In general, lead acid batteries are used as a conventional
storage technology for photovoltaics but suffer from a series of failures that reduce battery life
increasing the cost of the system. Li-ion batteries solve the lead acid battery problems but the battery
life cycle is affected by the drop in voltage that occurs during high discharge currents. The combination
of a supercapacitor and a battery to form a HESS reduces the stress on the battery caused by the high
discharge currents resulting in an increase in the life of the batteries. In this scenario, the main objective
of the paper is to design and develop a photovoltaic converter with the addition of a HESS with Li-ion
batteries for mid-range nominal power applications. The aim is to find solutions to cover a wide range
of very necessary applications for the development of the current electric sector, such as the integration
of renewable energies, smart grids, smart houses and electric vehicles (EVs).
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 4 of 18

Table 1. Summary of HESS smaller than 5 kW in the literature.

Paper [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]
Pulse-operated power
Application Load supply Energy harvesting Load supply Load supply Load supply Load supply Load supply Load supply
systems
DC + 3~Alternating Current
System DC DC DC DC DC DC DC DC
(AC)
PV Boost + PV Boost PV Boost +
Active Hybrid Bidirectional PV Boost + Bidirectional Bidirectional PV Boost +
Topology Bidirectional DCDC Bidirectional Bidirectional Bidirectional
Bidirectional DCDC DCDC DCDC + 3~Inverter DCDC Bidirectional DCDC
DCDC DCDC DCDC
Rated Power 132 W 500 W 5W 50 W 100 W 1 kW 50 W 100 W 2 kW
LPF vs. Haar wavelet vs.
Comparison Passive vs. Active hybrid Napoli vs. MIAD - - - - - ESS vs. HESS
Fuzzy
Optimization
Sizing - - Statistical analysis - - - - -
flowchart
Multiplicative- state-space
Multimode fuzzy-logic power
Control Proportional Integral (PI) increase-additive- State machine Predictive control PI with LPF - averaged Flatness approach
allocator
decrease (MIAD) model
Minimization of the Battery current Improve the life
More power Lower Avoid depleting or saturating Role of SC as a
battery current Increase battery and state of span and reduce Control
Goals battery temperature the two components Healthy SOC transient power
fluctuation and SC lifetime charge SC into the the current design
Longer battery lifetime Relaxing the stress on batteries source
energy loss limits stresses on battery

Table 2. Summary of HESS greater than 5 kW in the literature.

Paper [18] [19] [20] [21] [22,23] [24] [25] [26] [27]
Remote Area Power Grid-connected Power
Application Microgrids UPS Hybrid microgrid Microgrid Microgrid Microgrid
Supply photovoltaic sharing
System DC DC DC + 3~AC DC + 3~AC DC + 3~AC DC + 3~AC DC + 3~AC DC + 3~AC
PV Boost + 3~Inverter Wind Rectifier-Boost PV Boost + PV Boost + 3~Inverter PV Boost +
Dual active Bidirectional Bidirectional DCDC + Bidirectional DCDC +
Topology and Bidirectional + Bidirectional DCDC Bidirectional DCDC + and Bidirectional Bidirectional DCDC +
bridge DCDC 3~Inverter 3~Inverter
DCDC + 3~Inverter + 3~Inverter 3~Inverter DCDC + 3~Inverter 3~Inverter
Rated Power 5 kW Modular 500 kVA 30 kW 25 kW 1 MW 10 kW 60 kW 100 kW 4 MW
Multi-objective
two-loop PI control
Comparison - - Different capacities LPF - - - optimization problem
and PI sliding mode
(MOP), LPF and LUT
Monte Carlo capacity
Sizing - Backup time Power grading Equations SC as 1/5 battery - - -
model
LPF Energy State of charge with Energy management Semischeduled PI controllers and Linear weighted
Control Power sharing Sliding mode Hysteretic loop
management load control algorithm generation Direct Power Control summation algorithm
Optimal Robust voltage and Maintain the grid
Energy Avoid low power Extend the battery Optimization of the
SC-battery Power balance and frequency regulation Using a nonlinear power demand
Goals balance with level battery lifetime by avoiding energy loss and state
combination vs ESS in healthy state Effective HESS controller coming from the grid
renewables operation small cycles of charge of the SC
SC cost management operator
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 5 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 6 of 20

1.4.
1.4. Innovative
Innovative Contribution
Contribution
The
The main contribution of
main contribution of the
the paper
paper is to develop
is to develop aa photovoltaic
photovoltaic inverter
inverter in
in the power range
the power range ofof
residential and large scale photovoltaic systems with the possibility of managing the
residential and large scale photovoltaic systems with the possibility of managing the power injection, power injection,
in spite of
in spite of being
being aa renewable
renewableenergy,
energy,by bymeans
meansofofananenergy
energy storage
storage system.
system. AsAsthethe limited
limited lifetime
lifetime of
of batteries represents a serious disadvantage, a hybrid combination of batteries and
batteries represents a serious disadvantage, a hybrid combination of batteries and supercapacitors is supercapacitors
is implemented
implemented andand studiedfor
studied forthis
thispower
powerrange.
range.AAmethod
methodfor forsizing
sizingthe
theenergy
energy storage
storage system
system and and
the hybrid distribution based on the photovoltaic generation is also presented.
the hybrid distribution based on the photovoltaic generation is also presented. The power sharing The power sharing
reduces the battery
reduces the battery stress
stress and
and increases
increases its
its lifespan
lifespan while
while providing
providing constant
constant power
power injection
injection prior
prior to
to
grid
grid necessities.
necessities.
After
After the exhaustive literature
the exhaustive literature review
review done
done in the previous
in the previous section,
section, the
the document
document is is organized
organized
in the following manner: firstly, the topology is indicated together with the materials
in the following manner: firstly, the topology is indicated together with the materials and methods and methods
developed
developed for for the
the experimental
experimental prototype.
prototype. Secondly,
Secondly, thethe sizing
sizing of
of the
the ESS
ESS and
and the
the hybrid
hybrid distribution
distribution
based on sunny and cloudy day photovoltaic data is proposed. Then, the
based on sunny and cloudy day photovoltaic data is proposed. Then, the full control algorithm full control algorithm is is
presented, including
presented, including as as objectives
objectives the
the Maximum
Maximum Power Power Point
Point Tracking
Tracking (MPPT)
(MPPT) andand reduced
reduced battery
battery
stress.
stress. Finally, the converter
Finally, the converter operation
operation isis validated
validated via
via simulation
simulation andand experimental
experimental results.
results.

2. Topology
The topology
topology selected
selectedfor
forthe
thephotovoltaic
photovoltaicinverter
inverterwith
withbattery-supercapacitor
battery-supercapacitor HESS
HESS consists
consists of
of four
four converters
converters that
that share
share the
the DC DC link.ItItisiscomposed
link. composedby byaaboost
booststage
stagefor
forthe
the PV
PV source
source for solving
MPPT, two bidirectional
bidirectional DC/DC
DC/DC converters
converters for for both
both ESS,
ESS, the
the battery
battery and
and the supercapacitor, for
maintaining a DC link voltage, and a traditional 3-phase inverter for injecting a reference power into
the grid. AA transformer
transformer oror DC
DC current injection
injection detection
detection must
must be added for avoiding DC current
injection into the grid. Figure
Figure 22 shows
shows the
the scheme
scheme ofof the topology, which contains all the electrical
variables used in subsequent sections.

PhotoVoltaic DC Link iI,a LI,a a LS,a

iPV sa+ sb + sc+
vI,ab iI,b LI,b b LS,b

vI,bc iI,c LI,c c LS,c

sa- sb - sc-
vPV
PV
CI,a CI,b CI,c

C1 Voltage Source Inverter

DC/DC Battery Transformer
o vDC +
se
C2 iB LB

CPV B
LPV se - vB
iS,a

DC/DC Super iS,b vS,ab

capacitor
sf +
iSC LSC iS,c vS,bc
sd
SC n
sf - vSC
Boost Grid

Figure 2.
Figure Topology of the photovoltaic inverter with hybrid energy storage system proposed.
2. Topology

3. Materials and Methods

The proposed grid-connected PV HESS converter concept has been been implemented
implemented experimentally
experimentally
to validate
validate its
its operation.
operation.The
Theexperimental
experimentalprototype
prototypeisis shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3 and,
3 and, basically,
basically, it contains
it contains the
the same elements as the topology shown in Figure 2. Each arrow in the diagram is a voltage
same elements as the topology shown in Figure 2. Each arrow in the diagram is a voltage or a current or a
current
magnitudemagnitude
measured measured in the prototype
in the prototype by Hall
by Hall Effect Effect transducers,
transducers, LV 25-P (LEM,LV Geneva,
25-P (LEM, Geneva,
Switzerland)
Switzerland) and LA 55P/SP1 (LEM, Geneva, Switzerland) respectively. The STM32F407
microcontroller-based control board acquires the measurements at a sample rate of 10 kHz, while the
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 6 of 18

Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 7 of 19

and LA 55P/SP1 (LEM, Geneva, Switzerland) respectively. The STM32F407 microcontroller-based

generated 5 kHz PWM signals to control the electronic switches are updated at the same rate, that is
control board acquires the measurements at a sample rate of 10 kHz, while the generated 5 kHz PWM
two times each period. The power semiconductor are two IGBT-IPM 6MBP50RA120 modules (Fuji
signals to control the electronic switches are updated at the same rate, that is two times each period.
Electric, Tokyo, Japan), where each of them includes three legs to implement the topology. MP 176065
The power semiconductor are two IGBT-IPM 6MBP50RA120 modules (Fuji Electric, Tokyo, Japan),
Li-ion batteries (Saft, Bagnolet, France) and BMOD0165 P048 B01 supercapacitor (Maxwell
where each of them includes three legs to implement the topology. MP 176065 Li-ion batteries (Saft,
Technologies, San Diego, CA, United States) are connected to the power stage by means of its filters.
Bagnolet, France) and BMOD0165 P048 B01 supercapacitor (Maxwell Technologies, San Diego, CA,
The PV array is emulated by the HP E4351B solar array simulator (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara,
United States) are connected to the power stage by means of its filters. The PV array is emulated by
California, United States) and the grid is emulated by the HP 6834B Power Source/Analyzer (Agilent
the HP E4351B solar array simulator (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, California, United States) and
Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, United States), both of them connected to the topology by the
the grid is emulated by the HP 6834B Power Source/Analyzer (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA,
appropriate filter.
United States), both of them connected to the topology by the appropriate filter.

Figure Pictureofofthe
3. Picture
Figure 3. theprototype
prototype((1)
((1)HPHP E4351B
E4351B Solar
Solar Array
Array Simulator,
Simulator, (2) (2) Boost
Boost converter
converter filter,
filter, (3)
(3) two Fuji IGBT-IPM 6MBP50RA120 power stage, (4) Li-ion batteries, (5) Maxwell
two Fuji IGBT-IPM 6MBP50RA120 power stage, (4) Li-ion batteries, (5) Maxwell BMOD0165 P048 B01 BMOD0165 P048
B01 supercapacitor,
supercapacitor, (6) ESS
(6) ESS converters
converters filters,
filters, (7) inverter
(7) inverter filter,
filter, (8) HP
(8) HP 6834B
6834B PowerPower Source/Analyzer,
Source/Analyzer, (9)
(9) STM32F407 microcontroller based control board, (10) LV 25-P voltage sensors, (11) LA 55P/SP1
STM32F407 microcontroller based control board, (10) LV 25-P voltage sensors, (11) LA 55P/SP1
current sensors).
current sensors).

Voltage
Voltage andandcurrent magnitudes
current magnitudes are are
measured by Hall
measured by Effect
Hall transducers which provides
Effect transducers galvanic
which provides
isolation
galvanic and both DC
isolation andand
bothAC
DC components. For currents,
and AC components. Forthe LA 55P/SP1
currents, the LAand for voltages
55P/SP1 thevoltages
and for LV 25-P.
Table
the LV 25-P. Table 3 summarizes the most relevant specifications of both transducers. Theofmain
3 summarizes the most relevant specifications of both transducers. The main advantages this
type of sensors
advantages are the
of this good
type of linearity,
sensors arelowthe
common mode andlow
good linearity, highcommon
precisionmode
however,
andthey
highare usually
precision
more expensive
however, than
they are othermore
usually alternatives.
expensive than other alternatives.

3. Characteristics
Table 3.
Table Characteristics of
of AC
AC and
and DC
DC voltage
voltage and
and current
current sensors.
sensors.

CurrentTransducers
Current Transducers Specification
Specification Voltage
VoltageTransducers
Transducers
0 ... ±100 A Measuring range 0 ... ±14 mA (10 mA/500 V)
0 ... ±100 A Measuring range 0 ... ±14 mA (10 mA/500 V)
25 mA Secondary nominal current rms 25 mA
25 mA Secondary nominal current rms 25 mA
±12 ......1515VV
±12 Supply voltage
Supply voltage ±15 V (±5%)
±15 V (±5%)
200200kHz
kHz Frequency
Frequencybandwith
bandwith 200200
kHzkHz
2.52.5kVkVrmsrms Isolation
Isolation 2.52.5
kVkV rms
rms
1:2000
1:2000 Conversion
Conversionratio
ratio 2500:1000
2500:1000
±0.9%
±0.9% Accuracy
Accuracy ±0.9%
±0.9%
−40 ◦ to 85 ◦ C 0 ◦to ◦
−40 C °C to 85 °C Operatingtemperature
Operating temperature 0 °C C to
70 70
°C C

LA 55P/SP1
LA 55P/SP1 current
current transducer
transducer schematic
schematic is shown in
is shown in Figure
Figure 4a.
4a. Primary
Primary current
current IIPP travels
travels
through the
through the ferromagnetic
ferromagnetic core
core and
and creates
creates a magnetic flux,
a magnetic which is
flux, which is balanced
balanced by the magnetic
by the magnetic flux
flux
created by the secondary current. An electronic stage is implemented in order to improve
created by the secondary current. An electronic stage is implemented in order to improve the accuracy the
accuracy of the primary current waveform representation by compensating the secondary current.
By using this configuration, the bandwidth is extended and the time response is reduced.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 7 of 18

of the 2017,
Sensors primary current waveform representation by compensating the secondary
17, 1856 current. By using this
8 of 19
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856
configuration, the bandwidth is extended and the time response is reduced. 8 of 19

The
The LV 25-P voltage transducer schematic is shown in Figure 4b. 4b. In
In this case, the measured
The LV 25-P voltage transducer schematic is shown in Figure 4b. In this case, the measured
voltage isis turned
turnedtotothe
the primary
primary current
current of transducer
of the the transducerby anby an external
external high high
high value valuepower
high resistor
power
voltage Ris1. turned
resistor to the primary
As the primary current current
will be of thesmall,
quite transducer
a largeby an external
internal primary high value high power
R1 . As the primary current will be quite small, a large internal primary coil withcoil with
many many
turns turns
is added
resistor R1. As the primary current will be quite small, a large internal primary coil with many turns
is
withadded withofthe
the aim aim ofthe
generate generate
properthe propermagnetic
primary primaryflux.
magnetic
Exceptflux. Except
of that, theof that, the
voltage voltage
transducer
is added with the aim of generate the proper primary magnetic flux. Except of that, the voltage
transducer
follows the follows the sameofprinciple
same principle operationofthe
operation
current the current follows.
transducer transducer follows.
transducer follows the same principle of operation the current transducer follows.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Hall effect
Hall transducers
effect schematic:
transducers (a) LA
schematic: (a)55P/SP1 currentcurrent
LA 55P/SP1 transducer; (b) LV 25-P
transducer; voltage
(b) LV 25-P
Figure 4. Hall effect transducers schematic: (a) LA 55P/SP1 current transducer; (b) LV 25-P voltage
transducer.
voltage transducer.
transducer.
A Hall semiconductor connected to an error amplifier evaluate the net flow over the ferrite core.
A
A Hall
Hall semiconductor
semiconductor connected
connected to an error
to an error amplifier
amplifier evaluate
evaluate the
the net
net flow
flow over
over the
the ferrite
ferrite core.
core.
The amplifier output injects a current in the secondary winding in order to cancel the magnetic flux.
The
The amplifier
amplifier output
output injects
injects aa current
current in
in the
the secondary
secondary winding
winding inin order
order to
to cancel
cancel the
the magnetic
magnetic flux.
flux.
Due to this fact, the Hall Effect closed-loop sensors are usually called ‘Zero-Flux’ sensor. Finally, the
Due to this fact, the Hall Effect closed-loop sensors are usually called ‘Zero-Flux’ sensor.
Due to this fact, the Hall Effect closed-loop sensors are usually called ‘Zero-Flux’ sensor. Finally, the Finally,
secondary current flows through an external resistor RM for measuring a voltage drop that is
the secondary
secondary current
current flows
flows through
through an an external
external resistor RMfor
resistorRM formeasuring
measuringaavoltage
voltage drop
drop that
that is
is
proportional to the primary magnitude.
proportional
proportional toto the
the primary
primary magnitude.
magnitude.
Four printed circuit board has been developed for the measuring the currents and voltages, two
Four printed circuit board
board has been developed for the measuring the currents and voltages, two
boards including four LA 55P/SP1 current transducers (see Figure 5a) and two boards including four
boards
boards including
including four
four LA
LA 55P/SP1 current transducers (see Figure 5a) and two boards including four
55P/SP1 current
LV 25-P voltage transducers (see Figure 5b).
LV
LV 25-P
25-P voltage
voltage transducers
transducers (see
(seeFigure
Figure5b).
5b).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Sensors printed circuit boards for the experimental setup for measuring current and voltage
Figure 5.
5. Sensors
Sensors printed
printed circuit boards for
circuitboard
boards for the
the experimental
experimental setup for
for measuring current and voltage
Figure
magnitudes: (a) current sensors and (b) voltage sensorsetup
board. measuring current and voltage
magnitudes: (a) current sensors board and (b) voltage sensor board.
magnitudes: (a) current sensors board and (b) voltage sensor board.
4. HESS Sizing
4. HESS
4. HESS Sizing
Sizing
The proper sizing of the ESS will meet the application needs while minimizing the cost, that is,
The proper
The proper sizing of of the
the ESS
ESS will
will meet
meet the application
application needsneeds while
while minimizing the the cost,
cost, that
that is,
the ESS capacity.sizing
The main goal of the ESSthe in a photovoltaic system isminimizing
to turn a non-manageable is,
the ESS capacity.
the ESSplant
capacity. The main goal of the ESS in a photovoltaic system is to turn a non-manageable
power intoThe main goal ofone.
a manageable the ESS
Oneinkeya photovoltaic
factor when system
sizingisthe
to turn
ESSaisnon-manageable
the time interval power
the
powerinto
plant plant into a manageable
a manageable one. One one. One key
keyactive
factor when factor when
sizing sizing
the some
ESS thetime
ESS interval
isoperation
the is the time interval has
theindicate
inverter the
inverter has to keep constant output power. In Spain, standards that
inverter
to keep has to keep
constant constant
activeoutput active power. Inoperation
Spain, some operation standards indicate that
the power on theoutput
grid should power. In Spain,
be forecast everysome 15 min in order standards
to supply indicate that the
the active andpower on
reactive
the power
the gridneededon the
should[36]. grid should
be forecast everybe forecast every 15 min in order to supply the active
powerand reactive
power Also, the ESS15 min inbeorder
should operatedto supply
insidethe active and
a healthy SOC reactive
range which needed
depends [36].
on
power
Also,
the ESS needed
the [36]. but
ESS should
technology, Also,
be inthe ESS inside
operated
general should
it couldabe
beoperated
healthy SOCinside
quantified range
as theawhich
healthy
80% of SOCESS
depends
the range
on which
the
rated ESS depends on
technology,
capacity.
the ESS
but in technology, but inquantified
general it could be quantified asrated
the 80% of the ESS rated capacity.
Ingeneral it could
this paper, the be
ESS sizing hasasbeen the 80%
studiedof thebyESS
simulating capacity.
a constant power injection by the
In this paper, the ESS sizing has been studied by simulating a constant power injection by the
photovoltaic converter for 15 min intervals. These intervals are denominated as management time
photovoltaic converter for 15 min intervals. These intervals are denominated as management time
intervals. A range for the sizing will be proposed, the design value is a compromise between cost and
intervals. A range for the sizing will be proposed, the design value is a compromise between cost and
photovoltaic discontinuities coverage.
photovoltaic discontinuities coverage.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 8 of 18

In this paper, the ESS sizing has been studied by simulating a constant power injection by the
photovoltaic converter for 15 min intervals. These intervals are denominated as management time
intervals. A range for the sizing will be proposed, the design value is a compromise between cost and
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 9 of 19
photovoltaic discontinuities coverage.
The
Theminimum
minimumESS capacity,ESSCa,min
ESScapacity, ,
, is, is
obtained
obtainedbybycalculating
calculatingthe
thegrid
gridinjected
injectedpower
powerasasanan
average
average ofof
the estimated
the estimatedpower generation
power generationon on thethe
next management
next management timetime
interval. Obviously,
interval. this is
Obviously, anis
this
ideal management of the ESS, as it is based on the photovoltaic generation forecast.
an ideal management of the ESS, as it is based on the photovoltaic generation forecast. The The mathematical
expression
mathematical in kWh applyinginthe
expression kWhTustin discrete
applying theapproach is:
Tustin discrete approach is:
n  MN o MN
= maxESSCh,i , ++min
min ESSCh,i

ESSCa,min , = max (1)(1)

, i =1  i =1

i 
pS,k , ++ pS,k − p PV,k − p, PV,k−1

ESSCh,i =, ∑ , −1− , − Ts (2)(2)
=
k =0 22××3600
3600
( m +1) N −1
p PV,i,
pS,i =, = ∑ N for
for mN<< < m 1+ 1)−N1 − 1
i < (+ (3)(3)
i =mN

where,
where,ESS
ESS
ChCh isisthe
theenergy
energycharge
charge ininthe
theESS, pSpis
ESS, the
S is thegrid
gridinjected
injectedpower
power inin
kW,
kW,pPV
pPVisisthe
thephotovoltaic
photovoltaic
generation
generationpower
powerininkW, kW,TsTsisissampling
samplingtime seconds,i iisisthe
timeininseconds, thesample pointer,mmisisthe
samplepointer, thetime
time
management
managementinterval pointer,k kisisthe
intervalpointer, thecumulative pointer,NNisisthe
cumulativepointer, thenumber
numberofofsamples
samplesinside
insidea a
management
management time
time interval and
interval andMM is the number
is the number of management
of management timetime
intervals. Figure
intervals. 6 shows
Figure the PV
6 shows the
power generation,
PV power the PVthe
generation, power
PV injected into the grid
power injected into (constant in every 15inmin
the grid (constant interval
every 15 min andinterval
calculated
and
ascalculated
the average as of
thethe next management
average time interval)
of the next management andinterval)
time the energy
andthat
the must
energy bethat
stored.
mustFrom this,
be stored.
it From
is possible
this, ittoisdetermine
possible tothe minimum
determine theESS size needed
minimum on aneeded
ESS size sunny andon aasunny
cloudy andday. Note that
a cloudy day.
the asymmetry
Note in the sunnyinday
that the asymmetry the could
sunnybe due
day to morning
could be due mist. The nominal
to morning mist. Thesunny
nominalday generates
sunny day
28generates
kW peak 28 whichkW implies a need
peak which for a minimum
implies a need forESS of 0.2 kWh.
a minimum However,
ESS the cloudy
of 0.2 kWh. However, day has
the sharp
cloudy
changes
day hasand
sharpthechanges
ESS neededand is
theclose
ESSto 1.2 kWh.
needed is close to 1.2 kWh.

30 30
PV generation PV generation
Grid injection Grid injection
Power (kW)

Power (kW)

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

0.2 1.5
Stored energy Stored energy
Energy (kWh)

Energy (kWh)

0.15
1
0.1
0.5
0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (h) Time (h)
(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 6. 6.PV
PVpower
powergeneration,
generation,PV
PVpower
powerinjected
injectedinto
intothe
thegrid
grid(calculated
(calculatedasasananaverage
averageofof the
the next
next
1515 min
min interval
interval forecast)
forecast) and
and the
the energy
energy stored:
stored: (a)(a)
forfor a sunny
a sunny dayday and
and (b)(b)
forfor a cloudy
a cloudy day.
day.

The maximum ESS capacity, , , could be calculated as the energy needed to provide the
The maximum ESS capacity, ESSCa,max , could be calculated as the energy needed to provide the
nominal power of the photovoltaic inverter during a management time interval. In this way, the
nominal power of the photovoltaic inverter during a management time interval. In this way, the
injected power reference could be matched in spite of a cloud covering over the PV panels during
injected power reference could be matched in spite of a cloud covering over the PV panels during
nominal photovoltaic generation at the beginning of the management time interval, assuring to
nominal photovoltaic generation at the beginning of the management time interval, assuring to provide
provide the calculated power reference in the worst case. In kWh one has:
the calculated power reference in the worst case. In kWh one has:
,
, = (4)
3600

where, pPV,nom is the nominal photovoltaic generation power in kW and Tm is the management time
interval in s. Considering a nominal PV power of 30 kW, the maximum ESS is 7.5 kWh.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 9 of 18

p PV,nom
ESSCa,max = Tm (4)
3600
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 10 of 19
where, pPV,nom is the nominal photovoltaic generation power in kW and Tm is the management time
Obviously,
interval the higher
in s. Considering the ESS size,
a nominal the better
PV power of 30from
kW,the themanagement
maximum ESS insurance point of view, but
is 7.5 kWh.
the Obviously,
cost and volume are also
the higher higher.
the ESS size,The decreasing
the better from price of some battery
the management technologies
insurance point of in thebut
view, last
years
the costcould make the
and volume aremaximum
also higher. ESSThe size affordable
decreasing for of
price some
some installations.
battery technologies in the last years
could In thisthe
make work, the power
maximum reference
ESS size affordable for for
thesome
next installations.
management time interval is calculated by
considering the PVthe
In this work, power
power at reference
the end offor thethemanagement
next management time interval. With this
time interval technique and
is calculated by
thinking of athe
considering sunny day, the
PV power atESS
the starts
end ofdischarged
the management at the beginning of the day,
time interval. Withitthis
charges duringand
technique the
first irradiance
thinking of a sunnyhours of the day,
day, and finally,
ESS starts it discharges
discharged during theoflast
at the beginning theirradiance hoursduring
day, it charges of the day.
the
Thisirradiance
first operationhourstechnique will
of the day,improve the cycle
and finally, and current
it discharges rate the
during charge/discharge
last irradianceof the battery,
hours and
of the day.
therefore
This its lifetime.
operation techniqueHowever, the ESS
will improve thesize is expected
cycle and current to be bigger
rate than with the of
charge/discharge forecast technique.
the battery, and
Figure
therefore 7 showsHowever,
its lifetime. the resultstheobtained
ESS size is with the same
expected to be15bigger
min cycle time.the
than with Onforecast
a sunny day the
technique.
required
FigureESS is 0.26the
7 shows kWh, while
results in a cloudy
obtained with day it is 1.6
the same 15kWh. The expression
min cycle is (1) again,
time. On a sunny butrequired
day the the grid
injected power is obtained differently:
ESS is 0.26 kWh, while in a cloudy day it is 1.6 kWh. The expression is (1) again, but the grid injected
power is obtained differently:
,
, = for < < +1 −1 (5))
p PV,3600
( m −1) N −1
pS,i = for mN < i < (m + 1) N − 1
3600N

30 30
PV generation PV generation
Grid injection Grid injection
Power (kW)
Power (kW)

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

0.4 2
Stored energy Stored energy
Energy (kWh)

Energy (kWh)

0.3 1.5

0.2 1

0.1 0.5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (h) Time (h)

(a) (b)
Figure7.7.PVPV
Figure power
power generation,
generation, PV power
PV power injected
injected into theinto
gridthe grid (obtained
(obtained from
from the PV the generation
power PV power
atgeneration
the end ofatthe
theprevious
end of the previous
15-min 15-min
interval) andinterval) and the
the energy energy
stored: (a) stored: (a) forday
for a sunny a sunny day
and (b) forand
a
(b) for a
cloudy day.cloudy day.

For a battery-supercapacitor HESS, the calculated ESS size must be divided for assuring the
For a battery-supercapacitor HESS, the calculated ESS size must be divided for assuring the energy
energy density term for the battery and the power term for the supercapacitor, in order to maintain
density term for the battery and the power term for the supercapacitor, in order to maintain the stress
the stress of the battery and increase its lifetime even more. By using a first order LPF, the battery-
of the battery and increase its lifetime even more. By using a first order LPF, the battery-supercapacitor
supercapacitor energy percentage depends on the time constant τ, which is inversely proportional to
energy percentage depends on the time constant τ, which is inversely proportional to the battery stress.
the battery stress.
The HESS sizing criteria followed in this work is based on the percentage of energy each ESS
The HESS sizing criteria followed in this work is based on the percentage of energy each ESS
provides when a step power reference is tracked. The photovoltaic generation changes over time, so
provides when a step power reference is tracked. The photovoltaic generation changes over time, so
taking into account a step power reference change is the worst scenario. The relation between τ and
taking into account a step power reference change is the worst scenario. The relation between τ and
the management time interval gives the capacity percentage distribution for the battery, ESSCa,B , and
the management time interval gives the capacity percentage distribution for the battery, , , and
for the supercapacitor, ESSCa,SC :
for the supercapacitor, , :
 
τ
, = 1− ∙· ESSCa
ESSCa,B = 1 − (6)
(6)
Tm

, = ∙ (7)
where ESSCa is the ESS capacity decided for the design. The value for the ratio should be big
enough in order to avoid sharp energy changes in the battery, which must be managed by the
supercapacitor. Obviously, the compromise is located when the supercapacitor storage system
 Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 10 of 18

τ
ESSCa,SC = · ESSCa (7)
Tm
where
Sensors ESS
2017, is the ESS capacity decided for the design.
Ca1856
17, The value for the Tτm ratio should be big 11
enough
of 19
in order to avoid sharp energy changes in the battery, which must be managed by the supercapacitor.
Obviously,
becomes too the compromise
expensive in theiseconomic
located when
studythe supercapacitor
of the storage system
converter. Considering thebecomes too expensive
15-min management
in the economic study of the converter. Considering the 15-min management time
time interval and the 7.5 kWh capacity of the ESS, a 0.1 index is a good balance as it implies interval andthethe
7.5 kWh capacity
supercapacitor of the ESS,
supports a 0.1 index
the battery is a good
for more thanbalance as itassuring
a minute implies low
the supercapacitor supports
battery stress [7] and thethe
battery
cost forsystem
of the more than a minute [4].
is affordable assuring low battery stress [7] and the cost of the system is affordable [4].

5.5.Control
ControlLogic
Logic
Thecontrol
The controlsystem
systemscheme
schemeproposed
proposedininthis
thiswork
workisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure8a8a(readers
(readersmay
mayrefer
refertoto
Figure 2 to identify the variables). The measured electrical variables are placed on the left
Figure 2 to identify the variables). The measured electrical variables are placed on the left and the and the
pulsewidth
pulse widthmodulation
modulation(PWM)
(PWM)duty
dutycycles
cyclescontrol
controlsignals
signalsare
areplaced
placedon
onthe
theright.
right.

(a) (b)

(d)
(c)

(e)
Figure
Figure8. 8.Control logic:
Control (a) full
logic: (a) scheme, (b) state
full scheme, (b) machine, (c) MPPT,
state machine, (d) HESS
(c) MPPT, (d) diagram and (e) and
HESS diagram dq
diagram.
(e) dq diagram.

The higher level control is based on a state machine that generates the references to be tracked
The higher level control is based on a state machine that generates the references to be tracked
for the low level control blocks. These low level control blocks are the MPPT for the PV boost, the
for the low level control blocks. These low level control blocks are the MPPT for the PV boost, the
HESS for the battery-supercapacitor bidirectional DC/DC converters and the dq control for the grid
HESS for the battery-supercapacitor bidirectional DC/DC converters and the dq control for the grid
connected inverter.
connected inverter.
Figure 8b shows the state machine for controlling the grid connected photovoltaic inverter with
Figure 8b shows the state machine for controlling the grid connected photovoltaic inverter with
battery-capacitor HESS. It is based on calculating the power reference to be injected by using the last
battery-capacitor HESS. It is based on calculating the power reference to be injected by using the last PV
PV power measures taken on the previous management time period, as explained before in Equation
(5). The states are explained below:
1. The converter enters standby mode when the PV array has low irradiance, which could be
evaluated via the PV voltage considering MPPT operation, and the management time interval
starts.
2. In normal operation mode, every parameter of the converter is working inside the good
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 11 of 18

power measures taken on the previous management time period, as explained before in Equation (5).
The states are explained below:
1. The converter enters standby mode when the PV array has low irradiance, which could
be evaluated via the PV voltage considering MPPT operation, and the management time
interval starts.
2. In normal operation mode, every parameter of the converter is working inside the good operating
range, and subsequently, the power injected into the grid is the reference power in the interval.
This mode is reached from standby when the irradiance is enough, and from the other states
when the ESS recovers a good SOC range.
3. The battery SOC has reached the top allowed level or the battery charging current becomes
saturated. This means the PV generation is too high. In order to maintain the injected power
reference, the system sets the reference power point tracking (RPPT) instead of the MPPT by
saturating the PV boost current, iPV,sat . In case of high battery SOC, the RPPT is obtained for zero
battery power flow and at the end of the management time interval, the PV boost stage operates
on MPPT for the next ps,ref calculation in an optimistic way in order to force battery discharge.
If the battery current is saturated, the RPPT is obtained to avoid current battery saturation.
4. Battery SOC is at the minimum value or battery current is saturated at its maximum value. This is
a critical state, where ps,ref must change before the end of the management time interval for
zero or non-saturated battery power flow because of low PV irradiance. pS,ref is calculated in a
pessimistic way for the next cycle.
5. Supercapacitor has reached its top voltage. Negative power flow for the supercapacitor by adding
a steady state negative offset, iSC,offset .
6. Supercapacitor voltage is too low. Positive power flow for the supercapacitor by adding a steady
state positive offset.
The MPPT scheme is depicted in Figure 8c. It is based on the incremental conductance method [37].
The PV current reference is obtained by an integral controller or by limiting it via iPV,sat depending on
the state. Then a PI controller tracks it by acting over the PV boost duty cycle.
The diagram in Figure 8d corresponds to the battery-supercapacitor control algorithm. The ESS is
controlled with the aim of regulating the DC link voltage. First of all, a PI controller tracks the DC link
voltage by calculating the ESS current reference. Then, the ESS current reference is divided into the
HESS current reference by using a LPF. The battery current reference is the low frequency one, while
the supercapacitor current reference is the high frequency one. Respective PI controllers adjust the
duty cycle of the bidirectional DC-DC converters. In this way, the stress and temperature of the battery
are reduced.
The inverter control diagram is shown in Figure 8e. It is based on the direct-quadrature theory,
where the phase-neutral grid voltages, vabc , and currents, iabc , are transformed into the dq voltages,
vdq , and currents, idq , components for and easier current control [38]. The Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
synchronizes with the fundamental positive sequence component of the grid voltage [39]. The d current
reference is directly obtained by the grid power reference generated in the state machine. The q current
reference is set to zero for null grid reactive power injection. Inverter reference voltages are obtained
in the dq frame by using a feed forward scheme, which decouples d and q terms:

did,re f
vd,re f = vd − id,re f R + iq,re f L + L (8)
dt
diq,re f
vq,re f = vq + id,re f L + iq,re f R + L (9)
dt
where, L is the grid filter inductor and R is the resistance in series. The derivative part is solved by
using respective PI controllers and the inverter modulation index is calculated by scaling the dq-abc
output depending on the DC link voltage.
 The simulation test consists of 10 s where PV irradiance changes in all its range, and the time
management interval is set to 2 s for checking the state machine operation. The parameters of the
system are summarized in Table 4. The passive element of the topology has been designed in order
to provide a low voltage and current ripple [40], while the rest of the parameters has been justified in
Sensors 2017,sections.
previous 17, 1856 12 of 18

Table 4. Simulation parameters.

6. Simulation
Symbol Value Symbol Value Symbol Value
The proposed converter has been simulated with a MATLAB/Simulink Simscape model.
pPV,nom 30 kW ESSCa,B 3 kWh LPV 10 mH
The Simscape toolbox Tm contains 2 s power ESSelectronics
Ca,SC
symbols that
0.3 kWh LB = Linclude
SC
semiconductor
20 mH parameters for
simulating switching τ losses, 0.2conduction
s PWM losses and5 kHz transients.LCLAlso, the
5 mH,simulation step for the power
10 μF, 5 mH
scheme was set to 10−6 s 720
vDC,ref while
V the simulation
C1, C2 2.2step
mF for the control
CSC algorithm
37.5 Fwas set to the sample
rate the measurements are acquired (2 × 10−4 s). In this way, the simulation could be compared with
the real behavior,
Simulation as theare
results power
shownelectronics
in several arefigures.
simulated with
Figure 9agreat detail
includes PVand the control
waveforms algorithm
plus the DC
updates
link, when
Figures theinclude
9b,c control theboardgriddoes.
variables, and Figure 10 includes the HESS response.
The sunny
simulation test consists
day profile can beofseen10 sinwhere
Figure PV9a.irradiance
The PV boostchangesMPPTin all its range,
operates and the
properly time
during
management
the interval
whole interval, is set
except fortothe
2 slow
forirradiance
checking the statewhere
startup machine operation.
the power The parameters
fluctuates a little. The of the
HESS
system are summarized
bidirectional DC/DC convertersin Table maintain
4. The passivethe DC element of the topology
link voltage has been value.
into the reference designed in order to
provide a low
Figure 9b voltage
representsandthe current
grid ripple [40], while
dq components thethe
and restinjected
of the parameters
power. Thehas been justified
d voltage becomes in
constant
previous while the q voltage is null which implies the PLL works properly. The injected power into
sections.
then grid is totally active and constant during the management time intervals, making the PV plant
manageable despite the irradiance Table 4. Simulation
changes. Figure 9c parameters.
shows a window of the inverter and grid
currents waveforms with nominal power injection. The total harmonic distortion (THD) obtained is
Symbol
less than the 5% the standardsValue propose Symbol
[41,42]. Value Symbol Value
pPV,nom and the30supercapacitor
The battery kW ESSCa,B
operation 3are kWhdepicted inLPV Figures 10a,b,10respectively.
mH Also,
Tm 2s ESSCa,SC 0.3 kWh LB = LSC 20 mH
the total HESS operation is in Figure 10b. As expected, the battery shows a smooth operation with
τ 0.2 s PWM 5 kHz LCL 5 mH, 10 µF, 5 mH
charge/discharge
vDC,ref sequence, 720 Vwhich means C1 , C2the battery stress and Ctemperature is 37.5
2.2 mF minimized
F and its
SC
lifetime is improved. The supercapacitor takes the sharp changes of voltage. Battery and
supercapacitor packs are associated in order to decrease the boost index to the DC link, where the
Simulation
performance andresults are shown
controllability in several
is better. The figures.
simulations Figure
stay9aaway
includes
fromPV waveforms
battery plus the DC
and supercapacitor
link, Figure 9b,c include the grid variables, and
SOC and saturation limits, so they do not affect in the test. Figure 10 includes the HESS response.

500
dq Grid voltage (V)

vd
0
vq
vq,ref
-500
0 2 4 6 8 10
dq Grid current (A)

50 id
id,ref
0 iq
iq,ref
-50
0 2 4 6 8 10

40
Grid power (kW)

20
ps

0 ps,ref
qs
-20
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
(a) (b)

Figure 9. Cont.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 13 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 14 of 19
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 14 of 19

(V)(V)
500
500

voltage
vs,a

voltage
0 vs,a
0 vs,b
vs,b

Grid
-500 vs,c

(A)(A)Grid
-5004.96 4.97 4.98 4.99 vs,c 5
4.96 4.97 4.98 4.99 5
100

current
100 ii,a

current
0 ii,a
0 ii,b
Inverter
(A)(A)Inverter
-100
ii,b
ii,c
-1004.96 4.97 4.98 4.99 ii,c 5
4.96 4.97 4.98 4.99 5
100
100 is,a
current

is,a
current

0
0 is,b
is,b
Grid

-100 is,c
Grid

-1004.96 4.97 4.98 4.99 is,c 5

4.96 4.97 4.98 (s)
Time 4.99 5
Time (s)
(c)
(c)
Figure 9. Simulation results. (a) Irradiance, PV output voltage; PV output current, PV output power
Figure9.9.Simulation
Figure Simulationresults.
results.(a)
(a)Irradiance,
Irradiance,PV
PVoutput
outputvoltage;
voltage;PV
PVoutput
outputcurrent,
current,PV
PVoutput
outputpower
power
andand
DCDC link
link voltage,
voltage, (b)
(b) Voltage
Voltage and
and current
current in
in the
the dq
dq frame
frame and
and power
power injected
injected into
into the
the grid
grid and (c)
and(c)
and DC link voltage, (b) Voltage and current in the dq frame and power injected into the grid and
Grid voltage, inverter currents and grid currents.
(c) Grid voltage, inverter currents and grid currents.
Grid voltage, inverter currents and grid currents.
240.1
(V)(V)

240.1 vSC
voltage

vSC
voltage

240
240
Sup.

239.9
Sup.

239.9 0 2 4 6 8 10
2000 2 4 6 8 10
(kW) Sup. current (A)

200 iSC
Sup. current (A)

iSC
0 iSC,ref
0 iSC,ref
-200
-200 0 2 4 6 8 10
500 2 4 6 8 10
50
(kW)

pSC
pSC
power

0
power

0
Sup.

-50
(kW)Sup.

-50 0 2 4 6 8 10
500 2 4 6 8 10
(kW)

50
power

0
power

0 pHESS
HESS

-50 pHESS
HESS

-50 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 Time (s)6 8 10
Time (s)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Simulation results: (a) Battery magnitudes and (b) supercapacitor magnitudes and HESS
Figure10.
10. Simulation results: (a) Battery magnitudes and (b) supercapacitor magnitudes and HESS
power. Simulation results: (a) Battery magnitudes and (b) supercapacitor magnitudes and
Figure
power.
HESS power.
7. Experimental Results
7. Experimental Results
The sunny day profile
Experimental resultscan
arebe seen in
shown in Figure
Figure 9a.
11. The PV11a
Figure boost MPPTa cyclic
depicts operates properly
injected powerduring the
reference
whole Experimental
interval, results
except are
for the shown in Figure 11. Figure 11a depicts a cyclic injected power reference
operation mode in order to low irradiancehow
demonstrate startup whereworks
the HESS the power
whilefluctuates a little.
the batteries are The HESSIn
charging.
operation mode
bidirectional DC/DC in order to demonstrate
converters maintain how
the DCthe
linkHESS works
voltage intowhile
the the batteries
reference value.are charging. In
that case, the PV maintains its power injection in the MPPT while the grid power reference changes
thatFigure
case, the PV
9bwave maintains
represents theits power
grid injection in the
dqtogether
components MPPT while the grid power reference
The d voltage changes
as a square and the battery with and the injected
the supercapacitor power.
compensate the powerbecomes
energy
as a
constantsquare
while wave
the qand the
voltage battery
is null together
which with
implies the
the supercapacitor
PLL works compensate
properly. The the
injected power
power energy
into
balance. Note how the sharp energy changes in the ESS are absorbed by the supercapacitor
balance.
then grid Note
is how
totally theand
active sharp energy
constant changes
during the in the ESS are
management time absorbed
intervals, by the supercapacitor
making the PV plant
maintaining the battery in a healthier operation mode.
maintaining
manageable the battery
despite in a healthier
the irradiance operation
Figure mode.
Figure 11b depicts a steadychanges.
state operation 9c shows
mode a window
with the aimofofthe inverterthe
checking andgrid
gridwaveforms
currents
Figure 11b depicts a steady state operation mode with the aim of checking the grid waveforms
while the battery is discharging. The power factor is one as both the voltage and the current are in
while the battery is discharging. The power factor is one as both the voltage and the current are in
phase and the current harmonic distortion stays in low terms. In the steady state only the battery is
phase and the current harmonic distortion stays in low terms. In the steady state only the battery is
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 14 of 18

waveforms with nominal power injection. The total harmonic distortion (THD) obtained is less than
the 5% the standards propose [41,42].
The battery and the supercapacitor operation are depicted in Figure 10a,b, respectively. Also,
the total HESS operation is in Figure 10b. As expected, the battery shows a smooth operation with
charge/discharge sequence, which means the battery stress and temperature is minimized and its
lifetime is improved. The supercapacitor takes the sharp changes of voltage. Battery and supercapacitor
packs are associated in order to decrease the boost index to the DC link, where the performance and
controllability is better. The simulations stay away from battery and supercapacitor SOC and saturation
limits, so they do not affect in the test.

7. Experimental Results
Experimental results are shown in Figure 11. Figure 11a depicts a cyclic injected power reference
operation mode in order to demonstrate how the HESS works while the batteries are charging. In that
case, the PV maintains its power injection in the MPPT while the grid power reference changes as a
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 15 of 19
square wave and the battery together with the supercapacitor compensate the power energy balance.
Note
the one how
thatthe sharp energy
provides energychanges in the
in the ESS. TheESS are absorbed
experimental by the supercapacitor
behavior maintaining
matches the expected the
behavior
battery in in
described a healthier operation
the simulation mode.
section.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Experimental
Experimentalresults.
results.(a)
(a)PV
PVcurrent,
current,grid
gridcurrent,
current,battery
batteryand
andsupercapacitor
supercapacitorcurrent
current for
foraa
cyclic injected power reference operation. (b) Grid voltage, grid current, battery and supercapacitor
cyclic injected power reference operation. (b) Grid voltage, grid current, battery and supercapacitor
current
current for
for steady
steady state
state operation.
operation.

8. Conclusions
Figure 11b depicts a steady state operation mode with the aim of checking the grid waveforms
whileAthegrid-connected photovoltaic
battery is discharging. inverter
The power withis one
factor battery-supercapacitor
as both the voltage and HESS thefor providing
current are in
manageable
phase and the power injection
current has distortion
harmonic been presented.
stays inAnlowadapted
terms. combination
In the steady of converter
state only thetopologies
battery is
has
the been selected.
one that Theenergy
provides systemin components
the ESS. The were designed in
experimental order tomatches
behavior match thetherequired
expectedbehavior,
behavior
taking into account different irradiance
described in the simulation section. conditions based on a typical daily profile. The control logic
was implemented with the objectives of: (1) extracting the maximum power from the PV panels
8. Conclusions
(MPPT control), (2) suitable task sharing between battery and SC and (3) injecting power into the grid
basedAongrid-connected
the direct-quadrature theory. inverter with battery-supercapacitor HESS for providing
photovoltaic
The main benefit of the proposed
manageable power injection has been presented. system isAnthe possibility
adapted to transform
combination a PV plant
of converter in a
topologies
manageable power plant. This is due to the constant power injection to the
has been selected. The system components were designed in order to match the required behavior, grid during 15-min
intervals,
taking intowhich is a value
account often
different considered
irradiance by several
conditions standards.
based In addition,
on a typical a fraction
daily profile. Theofcontrol
the battery
logic
current is diverted to the SC along with the high frequency components.
was implemented with the objectives of: (1) extracting the maximum power from the PV panelsBecause of this, there is a
significant reduction in charge/discharge current rates, which leads to a longer lifetime
(MPPT control), (2) suitable task sharing between battery and SC and (3) injecting power into the grid and permits
abased
reduction
on theindirect-quadrature
size of the battery.theory.
The proposed
The main benefit topology and strategy
of the proposed system are experimentally
is the possibility to validated
transform for
a PVsudden
plant inchange in the
a manageable
reference power to inject into grid. The results show that the proposed scheme is able
power plant. This is due to the constant power injection to the grid during 15-min intervals, which is a to: (a) reduce
the charge/discharge rates and (b) produce a nearly sinusoidal waveform for the current injected into
the grid. Also, the sizing of the ESS and the battery/supercapacitor distribution has been addressed
by using the power curves of the PV array. A range is calculated for the capacity of the ESS depending
on the nominal power of the converter and the time interval the generation wants to be manageable.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 15 of 18

value often considered by several standards. In addition, a fraction of the battery current is diverted
to the SC along with the high frequency components. Because of this, there is a significant reduction
in charge/discharge current rates, which leads to a longer lifetime and permits a reduction in size of
the battery.
The proposed topology and strategy are experimentally validated for sudden change in the
reference power to inject into grid. The results show that the proposed scheme is able to: (a) reduce the
charge/discharge rates and (b) produce a nearly sinusoidal waveform for the current injected into the
grid. Also, the sizing of the ESS and the battery/supercapacitor distribution has been addressed by
using the power curves of the PV array. A range is calculated for the capacity of the ESS depending on
the nominal power of the converter and the time interval the generation wants to be manageable.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Government of Extremadura under Grant IB13071 and by
the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad under project TEC2013-47316-C3-3-P, which is cofinanced
by FEDER.
Author Contributions: Víctor Manuel Miñambres-Marcos and Miguel Ángel Guerrero-Martinez conceived
and designed the experiments, performed the simulation and experimental tests and wrote the paper;
Fermín Barrero-Gonzalez and María Isabel Milanes-Montero analyzed the data, contributed materials/analysis
tools, supervised the experimental results and collaborated with the paper review.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acronyms
AC Alternating Current
B Battery
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
DC Direct Current
DER Distributed Energy Resource
dq Direct-quadrature
ESS Energy Storage Systems
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage Systems
LPF Low Pass Filter
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
PHS Pumped Hydropower Storage
PI Proportional Integral
PLL Phase Locked Loop
PV PhotoVoltaic
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RPPT Reference Power Point Tracking
SC SuperCapacitors
SOC State Of Charge
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply

Nomenclature
a, b, c Grid phases
C I,a ; C I,b ; C I,c Inverter output filter capacitors
C1 , C2 DC link capacitors
CPV PV boost stage capacitor
DB DC/DC battery converter duty cycle
DPV Boost converter duty cycle
DSC DC/DC supercapacitor converter duty cycle
ESSCa,B Battery ESS capacity
ESSCa,max Maximum ESS capacity needed for a certain design
ESSCa,min Minimum ESS capacity required for a certain design
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 16 of 18

ESSCa,SC Supercapacitor ESS capacity

ESSCa Full ESS capacity
ESSCh Energy charge in the ESS
i sample pointer
id,re f Grid direct reference current
i I,a ; i I,b ; i I,c Inverter output currents
i PV,sat PV current saturation for RPPT
iq,re f Grid quadrature reference current
iS,a ; iS,b ; iS,c Grid currents
iSC,o f f set Offset current term for the supercapacitor converter
iB Battery current
idq Grid dq current
i PV , PV module current
iSC Supercapacitor converter current
k cumulative pointer
L Equivalent grid filter indtor
L I,a ; L I,b ; L I,c Inverter output filter inductances (inverter side)
LS,a ; LS,b ; LS,c Inverter output filter inductances (grid side)
LB DC/DC battery converter inductance
L PV Boost converter inductance
LS Inverter output filter inductances (grid side)
LSC DC/DC supercapacitor converter inductance
M number of management time intervals
m time management interval pointer
m abc Inverter duty cycle
N number of samples inside a management time interval
o Middle point of the DC link
p PV,nom Nminal power of the converter
ps,ref Reference active power set-point
pB Battery power
p PV Photovoltaic generation power
p PV PV module power
pS Grid injected power
pSC Super-capacitor power
R Equivalent grid filter resistance
RM External measurement resistance for LEM transducers
+ + − − −
S+ a ; Sb ; Sc ; S a ; Sb ; Sc Inverter switching signals
Sd Boost converter switching signal
Se+ ; Se− DC/DC battery converter switching signals
−
S+ f ; Sf DC/DC supercapacitor converter switching signals
Tm Management time interval
Ts Sampling time
vd,re f Grid direct reference voltage
v DC,ref DC link voltage reference value
v I, a ; v I, b ; v I, c Inverter output voltages
vq,re f Grid quadrature reference voltage
vS, a ; vS, b ; vS, c Grid Voltages
vB Battery voltage
vd Grid direct voltage
v DC DC link voltage
vdq Grid dq voltages
v PV PV module voltage
vq Grid quadrature voltage
vSC Supercapacitor voltage
τ Low-pass filter time constant
Sensors 2017, 17, 1856 17 of 18

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