DESIGN ANALYSIS

(Clause 1.3.2.1 (F), page 18 of PEC 1 – 2017 edition)

(F) Design Analysis. Design analysis shall be included on
the drawings or shall be submitted on separate sheets of
standard size, and shall show:
• Branch Circuits, sub-feeders, feeders, busways, and service entrance;
• Types, ratings, trip settings of overload protective devices;
• Calculation of voltage drops;
• Calculation of short circuit current for determining the interrupting
capacity of the overcurrent protective device for residential,
commercial and industrial establishment;
• Protection coordination of overcurrent protective devices;
• Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis to determine the required personal
protective equipment (PPE) in other dwelling place (see Appendix H
for PPE)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 2

VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 3

Voltage Drop
• the amount of voltage loss that occurs through all or part of a circuit
due to impedance.
• can be thought of as wasted electricity.
• It is not enough
+ VD -

+ +
VSE VRE
- -

VD = VSE - VRE
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 4
Voltage Drop
• As per National Electrical Code, clause
215.2(4) FPN no. 2 states that “Conductors
for feeders as defined in Article 1.0, sized to
prevent a voltage drop exceeding 3 percent
at the farthest outlet of power, heating, and
lighting loads, or combinations of such
loads, and where the maximum total
voltage drop on both feeders and branch
circuits to the farthest outlet does not
exceed 5 percent, will provide reasonable
efficiency of operation.” (clause 2.10.2.2 (A)
FPN No.4 - PEC 1, 2017 edition)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 5

Effects of Voltage Drop
• Due to voltage drop caused by improperly sized circuit conductors,
the operating voltage at electrical equipment will be less than the
output voltage of the power supply.
• This will result in inductive loads (i.e. motors, ballasts, etc.) operating
at voltages below its rating which in turn can cause them to overheat
• Resulting in shorter equipment operating life and increased cost, as well as
inconvenience for the consumer.
• Under-voltage for sensitive electronic equipment such as computers,
laser printers, copy machines, etc., can cause the equipment to lock
up or suddenly power down resulting in data loss, increased cost and
possible equipment failure.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 6

Causes of Voltage Drop
𝐥 𝐥
𝐑=𝛒 =𝛒 𝟐
𝐀 𝛑𝐝
𝟒
• Type of Material from which the conductor is made, 
• Copper conducts electricity better than aluminum and will cause less voltage
drop than aluminum for a given length and conductor size.
• Diameter of the Conductor (size or gauge of the conductors), d
• Conductors with larger diameters will result in less voltage drop than
conductors with smaller diameters of the same length.
• Conductor Length, l
• Shorter conductors will have less voltage drop than longer conductors for the
same conductor size.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 7

Causes of Voltage Drop
• Temperature of the Conductor
• As a general rule, most conductive materials will increase their resistance with
an increase of temperature.
R2 = R1 (1+ (t2 – t1))

Other factors:
• Current being carried by the conductor (Ampere Load)
• Voltage drop increases on a conductor with an increase in the current flowing
through the conductor.
• Connections in the circuit
• Poor connections in splices or when connecting conductors to terminals
contribute to voltage drop.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 8

Voltage Drop Calculation
IEEE Std. 141-1993, Article 3.11.1:

𝒌𝑰𝑳 𝒁𝑳 𝒌𝑰𝑳 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽+𝑿𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑳

𝑽𝑫 = =
𝒍𝑵 𝒍𝑵
where:
k = constant ( 2 for 1 system and 𝟑 for 3 system)
VD = voltage drop in circuit, line to neutral, in volts (V)
IL = current flowing in the conductor, in amperes (A)
L = one way length of the circuit (m)
Z = conductor impedance in ohms per kilometer (Ω/m)
R = conductor resistance in ohms per kilometer (Ω/m)
X = conductor reactance in ohms per kilometer (Ω/m)
l = length (m) basis of R and X of the conductor
cos θ = load power factor
sin θ = load reactive factor
N = no. of cables per phase

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 9

Voltage Drop Calculation
In the PEC 1 – 2017 edition,
𝑽𝑫 = 𝒌 𝑰 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐 𝑫
Where:
k = constant ( 2 for 1 system and 𝟑 for 3 system)
D = Distance of the device from the source
I = line current, amperes
R = line ac resistance, ohms
X = line reactance at 60 hz, ohms
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑽𝑫𝒊
Percent Volt𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐃𝐫𝐨𝐩 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚, 𝑽𝑺
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 10
 Solution:

Problem: Table 10.1.1.9, p.942, PEC1-2017 edition

3 x 5.5mm2 THWN Cu in steel conduit
R3 = 1.20  per 305m
A 3, 8kVA, 80% pf, 230V, 60Hz, electric load is X3 = 0.063  per 305m
connected to a panelboard 30.5m away with 3 𝒌𝑽𝑨 𝟖
x 5.5mm2 THWN copper conductors in steel 𝑰𝑳 = = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐 𝑨
𝟑 𝒌𝑽𝑳 𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑
conduit. Calculate the percent voltage drop at
𝒌 𝑰𝑳 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝑿𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑳
the terminals of the connected load. 𝒂 𝑽𝑫 =
𝒍𝑵
Bus 1 𝟑 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑 sin cos−1 0.80 (𝟑𝟎. 𝟓)
Solution: =
𝟑𝟎𝟓 𝟏
= 𝟑. 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽
𝑽𝑫 𝟑. 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟕
%𝑽𝑫 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟗%
3 x 5.5mm2 THWN Cu in 𝑽𝑳 𝟐𝟑𝟎
30.5m
steel conduit
𝒌 𝑰𝑳𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐 𝑳
𝒃 𝑽𝑫 =
𝒍𝑵
Bus 2 𝟑 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐 (𝟑𝟎. 𝟓)
=
𝟑𝟎𝟓 𝟏
8 kVA, 80%pf, = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟕𝑽
3, 230V 𝑽𝑫 𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟕
%𝑽𝑫 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏𝟕%
𝑽𝑳 𝟐𝟑𝟎
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 11
LOAD (POWER) FLOW ANALYSIS
(IEEE Std 399 – 1997, Chapter 6)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 12

Introduction
• Load Flow Analysis, also called as Power Flow Analysis, is one of the
most important aspects of power system design, planning and
operation.
• The load flow gives the sinusoidal steady state of the entire system -
voltages, power (real and reactive, generated and absorbed), voltage
drop and line losses.
• Its purpose is to check whether the system can operate safely, i.e., if
there are equipment overloads, or some node voltages are too low or
too high.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 13

Significance
• Essential to decide the best operation of existing system and for
planning the future expansion of the system.
• It helps in designing a new power system network.
• It helps in system loss minimization and transformer tap setting for
economic operation.
• The voltage magnitudes and angles at each bus can be obtained in
the steady state.
• The bus voltage magnitudes and their angles will determine the real
and reactive power flow through each line.
• Also based on the difference between power flow in the sending and
receiving ends, the losses in a particular line can also be computed.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 14

SYSTEM MODELING

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 15

System Modeling
• Each component or each group of components of a power system will
be represented so that an analysis of the system performance can be
made
• Suitable representations, or models, of the system to meet the
objectives of a given study or analysis

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 16

System Representation in LFA
• Representing the complete system that is essential to understand the
operation of the system under its various possible operating modes.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 17

Single-line Diagram (SLD)
13.8 kV 01: T-1 Prim

T-1
225kVA, 13.8/0.23 kV
Z = 2.0%, X/R = 2.6
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec

3 x 250mm2 THWN Cu in steel conduit

15.2m
0.23 kV 03: FDR1

LD1
110 kVA, 3 x 5.5mm2 THWN Cu in steel conduit
80%pf, 3, 30.5m
230V

0.23 kV 04: FDR2

LD2
50 kVA, 80%pf, 3, 230V
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 18
System Data BUS DATA
Load Bus
Bus No. Base kV
kVA pf Name
01 - - T-1 Prim 13.8
02 - - T-1 Sec 0.23
03 110 80% FDR1 0.23
04 50 80% FDR2 0.23

CABLE DATA
From To R X Length Iamp* Rating
Circuit Conductor/Phase and Size Raceway kV
Bus Bus (/305m) (/305m) (m) (Amps) (kVA)
02 03 1 0.021 0.048 1 - 3 x 400mm2 THWN Cu Steel 15.2 0.23 480 191.22

03 04 1 0.10 0.054 1 - 3 x 60mm2 THWN Cu Steel 30.5 0.23 155 61.75

Note: * - subject to de-rating factor, if applicable

TRANSFORMER DATA
From Transformer kVA
To Bus Circuit Identifier Rating
Type Primary Secondary %Z X/R
Bus
01 02 1 T-1 225 Liquid Oil-filled 55/65 13.8kV 230V 2 2.6

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 19

PER UNIT CALCULATIONS

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 20

Per Unit System
• The per-unit calculation is simpler than the use of actual amperes,
ohms, and volts
• The per-unit value represents a normalized value of the quantity or
the constant
• The normalized value of a quantity can be expressed as a ratio of its
value in physical units to an appropriate base value and commonly
known as per-unit values
• A percent value of a quantity is its per-unit value multiplied by 100
• A major advantage of the per-unit (percent) value is that the various
constants of electric equipment of widely different voltage and power
ratings

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 21

Per Unit System
• For 3 system,
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴3
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝐵 = (𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠, 𝐴)
3 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2 𝑥 1000

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍𝐵 = (𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠, )
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴3
Or,
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍𝐵 = (𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠, )
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴3

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 22

Per Unit Quantities
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑝𝑢 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉𝐵

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑝𝑢 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝐵

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍𝐵

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 23

Base Values
1. Select base power, kVAbase = 225kVA
2. Determine the base voltages:
a. Select bus 01: T-1 Prim nominal voltage of 13.8kV as base kV at this bus
b. Calculate the base voltages at other system levels
0.23
Bus 02: T-1 Sec, kV 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 13.8 𝑥 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑 𝒌𝑽
13.8
3. Calculate the base impedance:
a. 13.8 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2 𝑥 1000 13.8 2 𝑥 1000
𝑍𝐵 = = =846.40
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3  225

b. 0.23 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2 𝑥 1000 0.23 2 𝑥 1000
𝑍𝐵 = = =0.3527
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
3  225
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 24
Base Values
4. Calculate the base currents:
a. 13.8 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴

3 225
𝐼𝐵 = = =9.4133 A
3 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3 13.8
b. 0.23 kV system
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴

3 225
𝐼𝐵 = = =564.7992 A
3 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3 0.23

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 25

Summary of Base Values
Base Values
Bus Name Impedance
Power (kVA) Voltage (kV) Current (A)
()
01 T-1 Prim 225 13.8 846.4000 9.4133
02 T-1 Sec 225 0.23 0.3527 564.7992
03 FDR1 225 0.23 0.3527 564.7992
04 FDR2 225 0.23 0.3527 564.7992

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 26

 13.8 kV
Transformer Impedance – Per Unit
01: T-1 Prim

T-1
IEEE 141 – 1993, page 125
225kVA, 13.8/0.23 kV
Z = 2%, X/R = 2.6
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 225
𝑍𝑇−1𝑝𝑢 = %𝑍 = 2.0 = 0.02 𝑝𝑢
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 100 225 100
Since:
0.23 kV 03: FDR1 𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 (1)
Let:
𝑋
𝑎 = 𝑅; X = a R (2)
Subs. (2) in (1),
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑎 𝑅 2

𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 1 + 𝑎2
𝑍2 0.022
𝑅𝑇−1𝑝𝑢 = = = 0.0072𝑝𝑢
1+𝑎2 1+2.62
0.23 kV 04: FDR2
From (2),
XT-1pu = (2.6) (0.0072 pu) = 0.0187 pu Therefore: ZT-1pu = 0.0072 + j0.0187 pu

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 27

Calculation of %R in the Transformer
According to clause 3.16.5 - Transformer of IEEE P551-D5,
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑊)
%𝑅 = 100 ∗
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑉𝐴 ∗ 1000

𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑊 − 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑊)

%𝑅 = 100 ∗
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑉𝐴 ∗ 1000

Since %𝑍 = %𝑅 2 + %𝑋 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, %𝑋 = %𝑍 2 − %𝑅 2

𝑋 %𝑋
𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = %𝑅

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 28

Calculation of %R in the Transformer
However, when losses are not given, according to SEC Standard (TES-P-
119.40):

• Transformer winding resistance measurement at site

• Referring the measured resistance value to primary or secondary side of the
transformer
• Converting the measured resistance to 75°C reference value
• Converting the resistance value at 75°C to percentage value by the following
formula:

𝑅
%𝑅 = 𝑘𝑉2
∗ 100
𝑀𝑉𝐴

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 29

 13.8 kV
Line (cable/conductor) Impedance – Per Unit
01: T-1 Prim

IEEE 141 – 1993, page 125

0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec

3 x 250mm2 THWN Cu in Line 2-3:
steel conduit
R3 = 0.021  per l=305m
X3 = 0.048  per l=305m 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
L = 15.2m 𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
0.23 kV 03: FDR1 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 1000
but:
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑙 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿= 𝐿
𝑁 𝑙 𝑁
then:
𝑅+𝑗𝑋 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝐿 ; N – no. of conductors/cables per phase
𝑙 𝑁 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 1000
So,
0.23 kV 04: FDR2 0.021+𝑗0.048 225
𝑍23𝑝𝑢 = 15.2 = 0.0045 + j0.0102 pu
305 1 0.23 2 1000

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 30

 13.8 kV
Line (cable) Impedance – Per Unit
01: T-1 Prim

Line 3-4:

𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec 𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 1000
but:
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑙 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿= 𝐿
0.23 kV 03: FDR1 𝑁 𝑙 𝑁
then:
𝑅+𝑗𝑋 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝐿 ; N – no. of conductors/cables per phase
𝑙 𝑁 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 1000
3 x 60 mm2 THWN Cu in steel So,
conduit 0.10+𝑗0.054 225
R3 = 0.10  per l=305m 𝑍34𝑝𝑢 = 30.5 = 0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
X3 = 0.054  per l=305m 305 1 0.23 2 1000
L = 30.5m

0.23 kV 04: FDR2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 31

 13.8 kV
Load – Per Unit
01: T-1 Prim

Load at bus 03: FDR1:

𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐷1𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 110 0.80 +𝑗110sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.80)
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐷1𝑝𝑢 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟏𝟏 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟑𝒑𝒖
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 225
0.23 kV 02: T-2 Sec

Load at bus 04: FDR2:

0.23 kV 03: FDR1 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐷2𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 8 0.80 +𝑗8sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.80)
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐷2𝑝𝑢 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟖 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒑𝒖
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 225

LD1
110 kVA,
80%pf, 3,
230V

0.23 kV 04: FDR2

LD2
50 kVA, 80%pf, 3, 230V
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 32
Network Model for LFA 01: T-1 Prim

0.0072 + j0.0187 pu

02: T-2 Sec

0.0045 + j0.0102 pu
03: FDR1

0.3911 + j0.2933 pu
0.0425 + j0.0230 pu

04: FDR2

0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 33
LOAD FLOW SOLUTION METHOD

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 34

FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX
(YBUS)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 35

Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
Consider a four-bus system,

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 36

Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
The system may represented by the network,
Since, V = I Z
𝑉
and, I =
𝑍
1
but, Y =
𝑧
Then,
I=YV
Where:
I – current, A
V – voltage, V
Z – impedance, 
Y – admittance, S or ℧

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 37

Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
Consider bus 1, By Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL),
I2 I1 = I10 + I2 + I3 (1)
I3 For I10,
I10 = y10 V1 (2)
I10
For I2,
I2 = y12 (V1 – V2) (3)
V2 For I3,
I3 = y13 (V1 – V3) (4)
V3 Substitute (2), (3) and (4) to (1)
I1 = y10 V1 + y12 (V1 – V2) + y13 (V1 – V3)
I1 = (y10 + y12 + y13 ) V1 +(- y12 )V2 + (-y13)V3

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 38

 Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
Consider bus 2, By Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL),
I1 I2 = I20 + I1 + I3 + I4 (1)
I3
For I20,
I4
I20 = y20 V2 (2)
I20
For I1,
I1 = y12 (V2 – V1) (3)
For I3,
V2
I3 = y23 (V2 – V3) (4)
For I4,
V3 V4 I4 = y24 (V2 – V4) (5)
Substitute (2), (3), (4) and (5) to (1)
I2 = y20 V2 + y12 (V2 – V1) + y23 (V2 – V3) + y24 (V2 – V4)
I2 = (- y12 )V1 + (y20 + y12 + y23 + y24 ) V2 + (-y23)V3 + (-y24)V4
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 39
 Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
Consider bus 3, By Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL),
I3 = I30 + I1 + I2 + I4 (1)
For I30,
I20 = y30 V3 (2)
For I1,
I2 I1 = y13 (V3 – V1) (3)
I1
I4 For I2,
V1 V4
I2 = y23 (V3 – V2) (4)
I30
For I4,
V4 I4 = y34 (V3 – V4) (5)
Substitute (2), (3), (4) and (5) to (1)
I3 = y30 V3 + y13 (V3 – V1) + y23 (V3 – V2) + y34 (V3 – V4)
I3 = (- y13 )V1 + (-y23)V2 + (y30 + y13 + y23 + y34 )V3 + (-y34)V4
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 40
Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
Consider bus 4, By Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL),
I4 = I40 + I2 + I3 (1)
For I40,
I40 = y40 V4 (2)
For I2,
I2 I2 = y24 (V4 – V2) (3)
I3 For I3,
V2
I3 = y34 (V4 – V3) (4)
I40

V3 Substitute (2), (3), and (4) to (1)

I4 = y40 V4 + y24 (V4 – V2) + y34 (V4 – V3)
I4 = (-y24)V2 + (-y34)V3 + (y40 + y24 + y34 )V4

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 41

Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
In summary,
I1 = (y10 + y12 + y13 ) V1 +(- y12 )V2 + (-y13)V3
I2 = (- y12 )V1 + (y20 + y12 + y23 + y24 ) V2 + (-y23)V3 + (-y24)V4
I3 = (- y13 )V1 + (-y23)V2 + (y30 + y13 + y23 + y34 )V3 + (-y34)V4
I4 = (-y24)V2 + (-y34)V3 + (y40 + y24 + y34 )V4
In matrix form,

 I1  ( y10  y12  y13 )  y12  y13 0  V1 

I    y ( y  y  y  y )  y  y  V 
 2   12 20 12 23 24 23 24   2
 I 3    y13  y23 ( y30  y13  y23  y34 )  y34  V3 
    
I 4   0  y24  y34 ( y40  y24  y34 ) V4 
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 42
Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
It may summarize as,
Yii – self-admittance (driving-point
admittance) of bus i
I1   Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14   V1  - the algebraic sum of all the
I   Y Y22 Y23   
Y24   V2  admittances terminating on the
 2    21 node
I3   Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34   V3  Yik – mutual admittance (transfer
     admittance) between nodes i and k
I4   Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44   V4  - negative (-) of the sum of all
admittances connected between
Bus Admittance Matrix those nodes, where i ≠ k

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 43

 Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
where:
Y11 = y10 + y12 + y13
I1   Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14   V1 
Y22 = y20 + y12 + y23 + y24
I   Y Y22 Y23 Y24   V2 
 2    21 Y33 = y30 + y13 + y23 + y34
I3   Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34   V3  Y44 = y40 + y24 + y34
     Y12 = Y21 = -y12
I4   Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44   V4  Y13 = Y31 = -y13
Y14 = Y41 = -y14 = 0
 I1  ( y10  y12  y13 )  y12  y13 0  V 
I    y ( y20  y12  y23  y24 )  y23  y24
1
 V  Y23 = Y32 = -y23
 2   12  
2

 I 3    y13
  
 y23 ( y30  y13  y23  y34 )  y34  V 
3
 
Y24 = Y42 = -y24
I 4   0  y24  y34 ( y40  y24  y34 ) V 
4
Y34 = Y43 = -y34

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 44

 Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)
For a general network with n  I1  Y11 Y12 . . . . . Y1n  V1 
bus system,  I  Y  
Y22 . . . . . Y2 n  V2  
𝑰 = 𝒀𝒃𝒖𝒔 𝑽  2   21
(n x 1) (n x n) (n x 1) :  : : : : : : : : : 
   
Current Admittance Voltage
 I i  Yi1 Yi 2 . . Yii . . Yin  Vi 
injection :  : : : : : : : : : 
V e c t o r s     
 I n  Yn1 Yn 2 . . . . . Ynn  Vn 

The current entering the bus i, 𝒏

Ii = Yi1V1 + Yi2V2 + … + YiiVi + … + YikVk + … + YinVn 𝑰𝒊 = 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝑽𝒌
𝒌=𝟏
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 45
FORMULATION OF LOAD FLOW PROBLEM

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 46

Classifications of Buses (Nodes) in Power System
1. Load Buses (P-Q Bus)
• Loads, including active power P and reactive power Q , are connected
to load buses and are known.
• Voltage magnitudes, |V| and phase angles, , are unknown.

2. Generator Buses (P-V Bus)

• Also called as voltage-controlled buses with controllable reactive
power resources.
• Active power P and voltage magnitude V are specified as known
variables, while reactive power Q and voltage angle  are to be
resolved.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 47

Classifications of Buses (Nodes) in Power System
3. Slack / Swing Bus
• In load flow studies, there should be one and only one slack bus
specified in the power system, which is specified by a known voltage,
constant in magnitude |V| and phase angle .
• The active power P and reactive power Q are the variables to be
solved.
• The effective generator at this node supplies the losses to the
network.
• The bus most closely approaching a large AGC power station should
be used since this unit has variable active and reactive power outputs
to pick-up some extra losses when needed
• For convenience, V = 1.00° per unit
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 48
Classifications of Buses (Nodes) in Power System
Typical known and unknown variables (P, Q, V and ) in each bus

Types V  P Q

Slack / Swing bus Known Known Unknown Unknown

Generator buses
Known Unknown Known Unknown
(P – V)

Load buses
Unknown Unknown Known Known
(P – Q)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 49

 Note:
Power Flow Equations
since,
𝑛
Complex number
At bus i, 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘
bus i bus n 𝑘=1
and, Complex Conjugate
Ii
Ybus 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖∗
then, 𝑛 ∗
Si = Pi + jQi
Vi
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘
𝑘=1
so, 𝑛
Generator bus: Si = Pi + jQi (external power injected at bus i) 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑘  𝛿𝑖 − 𝛿𝑘 − 𝜃𝑖𝑘
Load bus: Si = - (Pi + jQi) (external power withdrawn at bus i)
𝑘=1

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 50

Power Flow Equations
𝑛

𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑘  𝛿𝑖 − 𝛿𝑘 − 𝜃𝑖𝑘

𝑗=1

𝑷𝒊 = 𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒊 − 𝜹𝒌 − 𝜽𝒊𝒌

𝒌=𝟏 External powers
𝒏 injected into bus i

𝑸𝒊 = 𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹𝒊 − 𝜹𝒌 − 𝜽𝒊𝒌

𝒌=𝟏

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 51

 Bus Voltage Equation
At bus i,
𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑖∗
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘
𝑉𝑖∗
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
𝑘𝑖
and, 𝑛

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝒏
∗
𝑘=1 𝟏 𝑺𝒊
𝑘𝑖 𝑽𝒊 = − 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝑽𝒌
but, 𝒀𝒊𝒊 𝑽∗𝒊
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖∗ 𝒌=𝟏
𝒌𝒊
𝑆𝑖∗ Note:
𝐼𝑖 = ∗
𝑉𝑖 Generator bus: Si = Pi + jQi (external power injected at bus i)
Load bus: Si = - (Pi + jQi) (external power withdrawn at bus i)

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 52

Line Current and Line Loss Equations
Line current:

Iik = yik (Vi – Vk)

Sik’ Iik Sik’’ Power flowing in the line:
bus i bus k Sik’ (withdrawn at bus i) = Vi Iik* = (Pik + jQik)’
yik
Vii Vkk Sik’’ (injected at bus k) = Vk Iik* = (Pik + jQik)’’
Line loss:

Pik (line loss) = Pik‘ – Pik’’

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 53

POWER FLOW SOLUTIONS

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 54

Gauss-Seidel Method
• Also know as the Liebmann method or the method of successive
displacement, is an iterative method used to solve a linear system of
equations.
• It is named after the German mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss
and Philipp Ludwig von Seidel

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 55

Gauss-Seidel Method
The system is given by:
a11x1 + a12x2 +….+ a1jxj +…+ a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 +….+ a2jxj +…+ a2nxn = b2
:
an1x1 + an2x2 +….+ anjxj +…+ annxn = bn

For each iteration, k  1, generate the components of from by:

𝑖−1 𝑛
(𝑘) 1 (𝑘) (𝑘−1)
𝑥𝑖 = − 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗 − 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑎𝑖𝑖
𝑗=1 𝑗=𝑖+1
(𝑘) (𝑘−1)
Condition: 𝜀 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 ≈0
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 56
Gauss-Seidel Method
Example:
1
5x1 - 2x2 + 3x3 = -1; 𝑥1 = 2𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 − 1
5
1
-3x1 + 9x2 + x3 = 2; 𝑥2 = 3𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 2
9
1
2x1 - x2 - 7x3 = 3; 𝑥3 = − −2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 3
7
Solution:
1st iteration - Let: x1(0) = 0; x2(0) = 0; x3(0) = 0;
1
𝑥1 = 2(0) − 3(0) − 1 = −0.20
5
1
𝑥2 = 3(−0.20) − 0 + 2 = 0.1556
9
1
𝑥3 = − −2 −0.20 + 0.1556 + 3 = −0.5079
7

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 57

 Gauss-Seidel Method
2nd iteration:
1
𝑥1 = 2(−0.20) − 3(0.1556) − 1 = 0.167
5
1
𝑥2 = 3(0.167) − (−0.5079) + 2 = 0.3343
9
1
𝑥3 = − −2 0.167 + 0.3343 + 3 = −0.4286
7
Iterations
Variables
k=0 k=1 k=2 k=3 k=4 k=5 k=6
x1(k) 0 −0.20 0.1670 0.1909 0.1864 0.1861 0.1861
x2(k) 0 0.1556 0.3343 0.3335 0.3312 0.3312 0.3312
x3(k) 0 −0.5079 -0.4286 -0.4217 -0.4227 -0.4227 -0.4227

Final result:
𝑥1 = 0.1861 𝑥2 =0.3312 𝑥3 = 0.4227
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 58
Network Model
(Base Case) Swing/slack bus 01: T-1 Prim

0.0072 + j0.0187 pu

02: T-2 Sec

0.0045 + j0.0102 pu
03: FDR1

0.3911 + j0.2933 pu
0.0425 + j0.0230 pu

04: FDR2

0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 59
 LFA Solution
Swing/slack bus 01: T-1 Prim
Z12pu 0.0072 + j0.0187 pu
02: T-2 Sec
Z23pu = 0.0045 + j0.0102 pu
03: FDR1
LD1pu= 0.3911 + j0.2933 pu
Z34pu = 0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
04: FDR2
LD2pu = 0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
Admittances:
1 1
𝑦12𝑝𝑢 = = = 17.9490 − 𝑗46.6673 𝑝𝑢
𝑍12𝑝𝑢 0.0072 + 𝑗0.0187
1 1
𝑦23𝑝𝑢 = = = 36.0916 − 𝑗82.4951𝑝𝑢
𝑍23𝑝𝑢 0.0045 + 𝑗0.0102
1 1
𝑦34𝑝𝑢 = = = 18.2031 − 𝑗9.8297 𝑝𝑢
𝑍34𝑝𝑢 0.0425 + 𝑗0.0230
Y11 = y12 = 17.9490 - j46.6673 pu
Y22 = y12 + y23 = 54.041 - j129.16 pu
Y33 = y23 + y34 = 54.2947 - j92.3248 pu
Y44 = y34 = 18.2031 - j9.8297 pu
Y12 = Y21 = -y12 = -17.9490 + j46.6673 pu
Y13 = Y31 = -y13 = 0
Y14 = Y41 = -y14 = 0
Y23 = Y32 = -y23 = -36.0916 + j82.4951 pu
Y24 = Y42 = -y24 = 0
Y34 = Y43 = -y34 = -18.2031 + j9.8297 pu
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 60
Bus Admittance Matrix (YBUS)

17.9490 - j46.6673 -17.9490 + j46.6673 0 0

-17.9490+j46.6673 54.041 - j129.16 pu -36.0916 + j82.4951 0

0 -36.0916 + j82.4951 54.2947 -j92.3248 -18.2031+j9.8297

0 0 -18.2031+j9.8297 18.2031 - j9.8297

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 61

 Gauss-Seidel Method
State Variables Power Injections
Bus Type
|Vi| I Pi Qi
01 Slack bus 1 0° P1 Q1
02 No-load bus |V2| 2 - -
03 Load bus |V3| 3 -0.3911 -0.2933
04 Load bus |V4| 4 -0.1778 -0.1333

Sequence of Iteration:

V2 V3 V4

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 62

 𝒏
𝟏 𝑺∗𝒊
Sequence of Iterations 𝑽𝒊 =
𝒀𝒊𝒊 𝑽∗𝒊
−
𝒌=𝟏
𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝑽𝒌
𝒌𝒊

Voltage at bus 02: 0 - since bus only

𝟏 𝑺𝟐∗
𝑽𝟐 = ∗ − 𝒀𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝒀𝟐𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Voltage at bus 03:

𝟏 𝑺𝟑∗ Condition to stop the iteration:

𝑽𝟑 = ∗ − 𝒀𝟑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒀𝟑𝟒 𝑽𝟒  = V(k) - V(k-1)  0
𝒀𝟑𝟑 𝑽𝟑
Voltage at bus 04:

𝟏 𝑺∗𝟒
𝑽𝟒 = ∗ − 𝒀𝟒𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝟒

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 63

 𝒏
𝟏 𝑺∗𝒊
Sequence of Iterations 𝑽𝒊 =
𝒀𝒊𝒊 𝑽∗𝒊
−
𝒌=𝟏
𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝑽𝒌
S3 = - (0.3911 + j0.2933) pu = - 0.3911 - j0.2933 pu 𝒌𝒊
S4 = - (0.1778 + j0.1333) pu = - 0.1778 - j0.1333 pu
1st Iteration:
Initialization: V1pu = 1; V2pu = 1; V3pu = 1; V4pu = 1;
𝟏
Voltage at bus 02: 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 − 𝒀𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝒀𝟐𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟐𝟐
𝟏
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 − (−𝟏𝟕. 𝟗𝟒𝟗𝟎 + 𝒋𝟒𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟕𝟑 )(𝟏) − −𝟑𝟔. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟔 + 𝒋𝟖𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟏 (𝟏) = 10° pu
𝟓𝟒.𝟎𝟒𝟏 − 𝒋𝟏𝟐𝟗.𝟏𝟔

𝟏 𝑺𝟑∗
Voltage at bus 03: 𝑽𝟑 = − 𝒀𝟑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒀𝟑𝟒 𝑽𝟒
𝒀𝟑𝟑 𝑽∗𝟑
𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟑𝟗𝟏𝟏 − 𝒋𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟑 ∗
𝑽𝟑 = − (−𝟑𝟔. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟔 + 𝒋𝟖𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟏)(10°) − −𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏 + 𝒋𝟗. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟕 (𝟏𝟎°) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟖-0.1012° pu
𝟓𝟒.𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟕 −𝒋𝟗𝟐.𝟑𝟐𝟒𝟖 𝟏 𝟎° ∗

𝟏 𝑺𝟒∗
Voltage at bus 04: 𝑽𝟒 = − 𝒀𝟒𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟒𝟒 𝑽∗𝟒
𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟖 − 𝒋𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑 ∗
𝑽𝟒 = − (−𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏 + 𝒋𝟗. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟕) (𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐°) =0.9852-0.0100° pu
𝟏𝟖.𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟏 − 𝒋𝟗.𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝟏 𝟎°

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 64

 Bus Voltages:
Iter |V1|  1° |V2|  2° |V3|  3° |V4|  4° Iter |V1|  1° |V2|  2° |V3|  3° |V4|  4°
1.0000 1.0000 0 1.0000 0 0.9958 -0.1012 0.9852 -0.0100 21.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4398 0.9806 -0.6708 0.9696 -0.5751
2.0000 1.0000 0 0.9973 -0.0675 0.9910 -0.2303 0.9802 -0.1385 22.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4400 0.9806 -0.6711 0.9696 -0.5754
3.0000 1.0000 0 0.9942 -0.1530 0.9876 -0.3348 0.9768 -0.2419 23.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4402 0.9806 -0.6713 0.9696 -0.5756
4.0000 1.0000 0 0.9921 -0.2217 0.9854 -0.4171 0.9745 -0.3235 24.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4403 0.9806 -0.6714 0.9696 -0.5757
5.0000 1.0000 0 0.9907 -0.2756 0.9838 -0.4810 0.9729 -0.3868 25.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4404 0.9806 -0.6715 0.9696 -0.5758
6.0000 1.0000 0 0.9897 -0.3172 0.9827 -0.5299 0.9718 -0.4353 26.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4405 0.9806 -0.6716 0.9696 -0.5759
7.0000 1.0000 0 0.9890 -0.3490 0.9820 -0.5670 0.9711 -0.4721 27.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4405 0.9806 -0.6716 0.9696 -0.5759
8.0000 1.0000 0 0.9885 -0.3731 0.9815 -0.5949 0.9706 -0.4997 28.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4405 0.9806 -0.6716 0.9696 -0.5760
9.0000 1.0000 0 0.9882 -0.3911 0.9812 -0.6156 0.9702 -0.5203 29.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4406 0.9806 -0.6717 0.9696 -0.5760
10.0000 1.0000 0 0.9880 -0.4045 0.9810 -0.6310 0.9700 -0.5355 30.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4406 0.9806 -0.6717 0.9696 -0.5760
11.0000 1.0000 0 0.9879 -0.4144 0.9808 -0.6422 0.9699 -0.5467
12.0000 1.0000 0 0.9878 -0.4217 0.9807 -0.6505 0.9698 -0.5549
13.0000 1.0000 0 0.9877 -0.4270 0.9807 -0.6565 0.9697 -0.5609
14.0000 1.0000 0 0.9877 -0.4308 0.9806 -0.6609 0.9697 -0.5652
15.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4336 0.9806 -0.6640 0.9696 -0.5683
16.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4357 0.9806 -0.6662 0.9696 -0.5706
17.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4371 0.9806 -0.6679 0.9696 -0.5722
18.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4381 0.9806 -0.6690 0.9696 -0.5733
19.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4389 0.9806 -0.6698 0.9696 -0.5741
20.0000 1.0000 0 0.9876 -0.4394 0.9806 -0.6704 0.9696 -0.5747

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 65

Bus Voltages: 100%
13.8kV
01: T-1 Prim

kVbase = 13.8

Voltage at bus 01: 02: T-2 Sec

98.76%
|V1| = 1.0 pu = 13.8kV 227.148V

kVbase = 0.23 98.06% 03: FDR1

225.528V

Voltage at bus 02:

|V2| = 0.9876 pu = 227.148 V

Voltage at bus 03:

|V3| = 0.9806 pu = 225.528 V
96.96% 04: FDR2
Voltage at bus 04: 223.008V

|V4| = 0.9696 pu pu = 223.008 V

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 66

 Iik = yik (Vi – Vk)
Line Currents:
Ibase(13.8) = 9.4133 A; Ibase(0.23) = 564.7992 A 6.8506 A
01: T-1 Prim

Current withdrawn at bus 01 to bus 02:

I12pu = Y12pu (V1pu-V2pu) = 0.5773 - j0.4431 pu
I12 = I12pu x Ibase(13.8) = 6.8506 -37.5115° A 411.0390 A
02: T-2 Sec

Current injected at bus 02:

411.0390 A
I12pu = Y12pu (V1pu-V2pu) = 0.5773 - j0.4431 pu 85.6331% Line Loading
I12 = I12pu x Ibase(0.23) = 411.0390 -37.5115° A
03: FDR1
Line 2-3:
I23pu = Y23pu (V2pu-V3pu) = 0.5773 - j0.4431pu
I23 = I23pu x Ibase(0.23) = 411.0390 -37.5115° A
129.4442 A
𝑰𝟐𝟑 83.5124% Line Loading
%Loading of Line 2-3 = 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟎= 85.6331%
𝑰𝒂𝒎𝒑𝟐𝟑

Line 3-4:
I34pu = Y34pu (V3pu-V4pu) = 0.1820 - j0.1393 pu 04: FDR2
I34 = I34pu x Ibase(0.23) = 129.4442 -37.4459° A

𝑰𝟑𝟒
%Loading of Line 3-4 = 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟎= 83.5124%
𝑰𝒂𝒎𝒑𝟐𝟑

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 67

 𝒏

𝑷𝒊 = 𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒊 − 𝜹𝒌 − 𝜽𝒊𝒌

Power Flows: 𝒌=𝟏
𝒏

𝑸𝒊 = 𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒊𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹𝒊 − 𝜹𝒌 − 𝜽𝒊𝒌

Sbase = kVAbase = 225 𝒌=𝟏

𝑷𝟏 = 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒀𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜽𝟏𝟏 + 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝒀𝟏𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏𝟐

P1pu = 0.5773 pu
P1 = 129.8887 kW

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒀𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜽𝟏𝟏 + 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝒀𝟏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏𝟐

Q1pu = 0.4431 pu
Q1 = 99.7084 kVAr

𝑺𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟏
𝒑𝒇𝟏 =
𝑺𝟏
S1pu = 0.7278 pu
pf1 = 0.7932
S1 = 163.7463 kVA
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 68

Power Flows:
Power withdrawn from bus 1:
S12pu = V1pu I12pu* = 0.5773 + j0.4431 pu
S12 = S12pu x Sbase = 129.89 + j99.708 kVA
= 163.7463 37.5115° kVA
Power injected at bus 2 from bus 1:
S21pu = V2pu I12pu*= 0.5735 + j0.4333pu
S21 = S21pu x Sbase = 129.03 + j97.484 kVA
= 161.7179 37.0709° kVA
Power withdrawn at bus 2 to 3:
S23pu = V2pu I23pu* = 0.5735 + 0.4333 pu
S23 = S23pu x Sbase = 129.03 + j97.484 kVA
= 161.7179 37.0709° kVA
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
Sik’(withdrawn at bus i) = Vi Iik* = (Pik + jQik)’
Sik’’(injected at bus j) = Vk Iik* = (Pik + jQik)’’
Power injected at bus 3 from bus 2:
S32pu = V3pu I23pu* = 0.5711 + j0.4279 pu
S32 = S32pu x Sbase = 128.50 + j96.271 kVA
= 160.565 36.8398° kVA
Power withdrawn at bus 3 to 4:
S34pu = V3pu I34pu*= 0.1800 + j0.1345 pu
S34 = S34pu x Sbase = 40.5027 +j30.2714 kVA
= 50.5651 36.7742° kVA
Power injected at bus 4 from bus 3:
S43pu = V4pu I34pu* = 0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
S43 = S43pu x Sbase = 40.0000 +j30.0000 kVA
= 50.0000 36.8699° kVA
69
Power Flows:
129.89 + j99.708 kVA
01: T-1 Prim

163.7463 37.5115° kVA

129.03 + j97.484 kVA

161.7179 37.0° kVA 02: T-2 Sec

129.03 + j97.484 kVA

161.7179 37.0709° kVA

128.50 + j96.271 kVA

160.565 36.8398° kVA 03: FDR1

40.5027 +j30.2714 kVA

50.5651 36.7742° kVA
88.0000 +66.0000i
110 36.8699° kVA

40.0000 +j30.0000 kVA

50.0000 36.8699° kVA 04: FDR2

40.0000 +j30.0000 kVA

50.0000 36.8699° kVA
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 70
 Pik (line loss) = Pik‘ – Pik’’

Power Losses:
Power loss between bus 01 and bus 02: To check:
PL12 = P12 – P21 = 0.8556 kW PLT = P1 – P3 – P4 = 1.8887 kW

Power loss between bus 02 and bus 03:

PL23 = P23 – P32 = 0.5305 kW

Power loss between bus 03 and bus 04 :

PL34 = P34 – P43 = 0.5027 kW

System Power Loss:

PLT = PL12 + PL23 + PL34 = 1.8887 kW

Percent Power Loss:

𝑷𝑳𝑻 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟕
%𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓𝟒𝟏%
𝑷𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟖𝟗

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 71

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION AND
VOLTAGE IMPROVEMENT

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 72

Power Factor Correction
Given: Required pf: Since,
P1 = 130.0951 kW pf2 = cos2 = 0.90 𝑄2
Q1 = 99.7161 kVAr 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 =
𝑃2
S1 = 163.9147 kVA Q2 = P2 tan2
pf1 = cos1 = 0.7937 but,
1 = 37.4674° P2 = P1

Q2 = P2 tan2 = 130.0951 tan(cos-1(0.90))

QC
S1 Q2 = 63.0079kVar
Q1

Q2 QC = Q1 – Q2 = 99.7161 - 63.0079 = 36.7081 kVAr

1 2
Use: QC = 37.5 kVAr
P1=P2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 73

Scenario 1: Capacitor at bus 03 01: T-1 Prim

S3 = - (0.3911 + j0.2933) pu = - 0.3911 - j0.2933 pu

SC3 = j0.1667 pu Z12pu 0.0072 + j0.0187 pu
S4 = - (0.1778 + j0.1333) pu = - 0.1778 - j0.1333 pu
Initialization: V1pu = 1; V2pu = 1; V3pu = 1; V4pu = 1;
02: T-2 Sec
Voltage at bus 02:
𝟏
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 − 𝒀𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝒀𝟐𝟑 𝑽𝟑 Z23pu = 0.0045 + j0.0102 pu

𝒀𝟐𝟐 03: FDR1

Voltage at bus 03: SC3 = - j0.1667 pu

𝟏 𝑺𝟑 + 𝑺𝑪𝟑 ∗ LD1pu= 0.3911 + j0.2933 pu

𝑽𝟑 = − 𝒀𝟑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒀𝟑𝟒 𝑽𝟒
𝑽∗𝟑
Z34pu = 0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
𝒀𝟑𝟑
Voltage at bus 04:
04: FDR2
𝟏 𝑺𝟒 ∗
𝑽𝟒 = ∗ − 𝒀𝟒𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟒𝟒 𝑽𝟒 LD2pu = 0.1778 + j0.1333 pu

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 74

 Bus Voltages:
Iter |V1|  1° |V2|  2° |V3|  3° |V4|  4° Iter |V1|  1° |V2|  2° |V3|  3° |V4|  4°
1.0000 1.0000 0 1.0000 0 0.9971 -0.1464 0.9865 -0.0558 21.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5076 0.9855 -0.7803 0.9746 -0.6855
2.0000 1.0000 0 0.9982 -0.0958 0.9933 -0.3038 0.9825 -0.2126 22.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5078 0.9855 -0.7805 0.9746 -0.6858
3.0000 1.0000 0 0.9957 -0.1989 0.9907 -0.4256 0.9799 -0.3335 23.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5080 0.9855 -0.7807 0.9746 -0.6859
4.0000 1.0000 0 0.9941 -0.2783 0.9889 -0.5182 0.9781 -0.4253 24.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5081 0.9855 -0.7808 0.9746 -0.6861
5.0000 1.0000 0 0.9930 -0.3385 0.9878 -0.5880 0.9769 -0.4945 25.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5081 0.9855 -0.7808 0.9746 -0.6861
6.0000 1.0000 0 0.9922 -0.3837 0.9870 -0.6400 0.9761 -0.5462 26.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5082 0.9855 -0.7809 0.9746 -0.6862
7.0000 1.0000 0 0.9917 -0.4174 0.9865 -0.6785 0.9756 -0.5845 27.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5082 0.9855 -0.7809 0.9746 -0.6862
8.0000 1.0000 0 0.9914 -0.4423 0.9861 -0.7069 0.9752 -0.6127 28.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5082 0.9855 -0.7810 0.9746 -0.6862
9.0000 1.0000 0 0.9912 -0.4606 0.9859 -0.7277 0.9750 -0.6333 29.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5082 0.9855 -0.7810 0.9746 -0.6863
10.0000 1.0000 0 0.9910 -0.4740 0.9857 -0.7428 0.9748 -0.6483 30.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5083 0.9855 -0.7810 0.9746 -0.6863
11.0000 1.0000 0 0.9909 -0.4837 0.9857 -0.7537 0.9748 -0.6592 31.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5083 0.9855 -0.7810 0.9746 -0.6863
12.0000 1.0000 0 0.9909 -0.4908 0.9856 -0.7616 0.9747 -0.6670
13.0000 1.0000 0 0.9909 -0.4958 0.9856 -0.7673 0.9747 -0.6726
14.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.4995 0.9855 -0.7713 0.9746 -0.6767
15.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5021 0.9855 -0.7742 0.9746 -0.6795
16.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5039 0.9855 -0.7762 0.9746 -0.6815
17.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5052 0.9855 -0.7777 0.9746 -0.6830
18.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5062 0.9855 -0.7787 0.9746 -0.6840
19.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5068 0.9855 -0.7794 0.9746 -0.6847
20.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5073 0.9855 -0.7799 0.9746 -0.6852

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 75

Bus Voltages: 100%
13.8kV
01: T-1 Prim

99.08% 02: T-2 Sec

227.886V

98.55% 03: FDR1

226.670V

97.46% 04: FDR2

224.163V

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 76

Line Currents: 01: T-1 Prim
5.9984 A

359.9012 A
02: T-2 Sec

359.9012 A
74.9794% Line Loading
03: FDR1

128.7792 A
83.0833% Line Loading

04: FDR2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 77

Power Flows: 129.56 + 61.404 kVA
01: T-1 Prim

143.374525.3581° kVA

Power factor = 0.9036

128.90 + j59.698 kVA
142.0569 24.8498° kVA 02: T-2 Sec

128.90 + j59.698 kVA

142.0569 24.8498° kVA

128.50 + j58.769 kVA

141.2989 24.5771° kVA 03: FDR1

j37.500 kVAr

88.0000 +66.0000i 40.4975 + j30.2687 kVA

110 36.8699° kVA 50.5593 36.7752 ° kVA

40.0000 +j30.0000 kVA

50.0000 36.8699° kVA 04: FDR2

40.0000 +j30.0000 kVA

50.0000 36.8699° kVA
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 78
Power Losses:
System Power Loss:
PLT = 1.5601 kW

Percent Power Loss:

𝑷𝑳𝑻 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟏
%𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟐%
𝑷𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟔

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 79

Scenario 2: Capacitor at bus 04 01: T-1 Prim

S3 = - (0.3911 + j0.2933) pu = - 0.3911 - j0.2933 pu

S4 = - (0.1778 + j0.1333) pu = - 0.1778 - j0.1333 pu Z12pu 0.0072 + j0.0187 pu
SC4 = j0.1667 pu
Initialization: V1pu = 1; V2pu = 1; V3pu = 1; V4pu = 1;
02: T-2 Sec
Voltage at bus 02:
𝟏
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 − 𝒀𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝒀𝟐𝟑 𝑽𝟑 Z23pu = 0.0045 + j0.0102 pu

𝒀𝟐𝟐 03: FDR1

Voltage at bus 03:

𝟏 𝑺𝟑 ∗ LD1pu= 0.3911 + j0.2933 pu

𝑽𝟑 = ∗ − 𝒀𝟑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒀𝟑𝟒 𝑽𝟒 Z34pu = 0.0425 + j0.0230 pu
𝒀𝟑𝟑 𝑽𝟑
Voltage at bus 04:
04: FDR2
𝟏 𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝑪𝟒 ∗
𝑽𝟒 = − 𝒀𝟒𝟑 𝑽𝟑
𝒀𝟒𝟒 𝑽∗𝟒 LD2pu = 0.1778 + j0.1333 pu
SC4 = - j0.1667 pu

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 80

 Bus Voltages:
Iter |V1|  1° |V2|  2° |V3|  3° |V4|  4° Iter |V1|  1° |V2|  2° |V3|  3° |V4|  4°
1.0000 1.0000 0 1.0000 0 0.9958 -0.1012 0.9890 -0.4206 21.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5070 0.9855 -0.7793 0.9786 -1.1061
2.0000 1.0000 0 0.9973 -0.0675 0.9923 -0.2755 0.9855 -0.5979 22.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5072 0.9855 -0.7795 0.9786 -1.1063
3.0000 1.0000 0 0.9951 -0.1813 0.9900 -0.4080 0.9831 -0.7320 23.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5073 0.9855 -0.7797 0.9786 -1.1065
4.0000 1.0000 0 0.9936 -0.2674 0.9884 -0.5075 0.9815 -0.8325 24.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5074 0.9855 -0.7798 0.9786 -1.1066
5.0000 1.0000 0 0.9926 -0.3319 0.9874 -0.5815 0.9805 -0.9072 25.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5075 0.9855 -0.7799 0.9786 -1.1067
6.0000 1.0000 0 0.9920 -0.3798 0.9867 -0.6361 0.9798 -0.9623 26.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5075 0.9855 -0.7799 0.9786 -1.1067
7.0000 1.0000 0 0.9916 -0.4151 0.9863 -0.6762 0.9793 -1.0027 27.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5076 0.9855 -0.7799 0.9786 -1.1067
8.0000 1.0000 0 0.9913 -0.4409 0.9860 -0.7055 0.9790 -1.0321 28.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5076 0.9855 -0.7800 0.9786 -1.1068
9.0000 1.0000 0 0.9911 -0.4598 0.9858 -0.7267 0.9789 -1.0534 29.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5076 0.9855 -0.7800 0.9786 -1.1068
10.0000 1.0000 0 0.9910 -0.4734 0.9857 -0.7421 0.9787 -1.0688
11.0000 1.0000 0 0.9909 -0.4833 0.9856 -0.7531 0.9787 -1.0799
12.0000 1.0000 0 0.9909 -0.4904 0.9856 -0.7610 0.9786 -1.0878
13.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.4954 0.9856 -0.7666 0.9786 -1.0934
14.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.4991 0.9855 -0.7706 0.9786 -1.0974
15.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5016 0.9855 -0.7735 0.9786 -1.1003
16.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5034 0.9855 -0.7754 0.9786 -1.1023
17.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5047 0.9855 -0.7768 0.9786 -1.1037
18.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5056 0.9855 -0.7778 0.9786 -1.1046
19.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5062 0.9855 -0.7785 0.9786 -1.1053
20.0000 1.0000 0 0.9908 -0.5067 0.9855 -0.7790 0.9786 -1.1058

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 81

Bus Voltages: 100%
13.8kV
01: T-1 Prim

99.08% 02: T-2 Sec

227.8896V

98.55% 03: FDR1

227.8896V

97.86% 04: FDR2

225.0744V

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 82

Line Currents: 01: T-1 Prim
5.9900 A

359.4007 A
02: T-2 Sec

359.4007 A
74.8751% Line Loading
03: FDR1

104.3942 A
67.3511% Line Loading

04: FDR2

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 83

Power Flows: 129.39 + 61.304 kVA
01: T-1 Prim

143.175125.3591° kVA

Power factor = 0.9037

128.73 + j59.604 kVA
141.8613 24.8443° kVA 02: T-2 Sec

128.73 + j59.604 kVA

141.8613 24.8443° kVA

128.33 + j58.677kVA
141.1054 24.5719° kVA 03: FDR1

40.3269 – j7.3235 kVA

88.0000 +66.0000i 40.9865 -10.2929° kVA
110 36.8699° kVA

40.0000 – j7.5000 kVA

50.0000 36.8699° kVA 04: FDR2

40.0000 +j30.0000 kVA j37.500 kVAr

50.0000 36.8699° kVA

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 84

Power Losses:
System Power Loss:
PLT = 1.3866 kW

Percent Power Loss:

𝑷𝑳𝑻 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖𝟔𝟔
%𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟕%
𝑷𝑻 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟗

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 85

Summary of Results:
Variables Base Case Scenario 1 Scenario 2
(Capacitor at Bus 03) (Capacitor at Bus 04)
V1 1.0 pu 1.0 pu 1.0 pu
V2 0.9876 pu 0.9908 pu 0.9908 pu
V3 0.9806 pu 0.9855 pu 0.9855 pu
V4 0.9696 pu 0.9746 pu 0.9786 pu
%Loading
T-1 72.7761% 63.7220% 63.6334%
Line 23 85.6331% 74.9794% 74.8751%
Line 34 83.5124% 83.0833% 67.3511%
Power factor 0.7932 0.9036 0.9037
System Ploss 1.8887 kW 1.5601 1.3866
%System PLoss 1.4541% 1.2042 1.0717%

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 86