Microelectronic

Circuits
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
p Anu Gupta
p
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Frequency response of amplifier

Common gate amplifier
Example--Ideal
p Current source load CGA
EXACT ANALYSIS

two poles only, no zero

With Rd

Wider band width then csa

No miller multiplication of capacitances

Common gate amplifier
 Using Miller effect

As low freq Rin =

ro as Av ↓ with s

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Miller component , ro no effect on
Rin if Rd∞

-ve resistance suppresses conductance at input

 Miller component
 If current source is not ideal
∞

as s ↑ Av 1

No effect on Zin=
 F
Frequency dependence
d d
As low freq Rin = ≈

As high freq Zin = =

pole freq expression remains same

As s→ large, Av ↓ gm ↓ with s, Rd || 1/sCL ↓ with s

 Two poles
 no zero
 Wider band width as
compared to CSA
 Rin is small , so signal
loss. Can use source
out
follower as preamplifier
 But freq response will
degrade
CDA

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Source follower- ----Exact analysis, neglecting ro
Common drain--- source
f ll
follower--exact
t analysis
l i

1 -ve zero, two

t poles
l
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CDA---Replacing current
source

<1
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USING OCTC

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I t iti analysis
Intuitive l i

output node pole is dominant

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Dominant pole approx. method--
y
analysis

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Bits, pilani
Using Miller Theorem
First pole

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2nd pole

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Determination of 2nd pole

 Find Rout at the output node

node.
 Find the time constant
 This is valid for determining pole at any other
intermediate node

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Fi di
Finding Rout
R t

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Bits, pilani
V lidit off miller
Validity ill ththeorem

Z in parallel to main signal path

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 1 case---Miller theorem not valid when-

R1 is the only path from x to yy. Another dominant

path (possibly through amplifier) should be
present

We canot apply miller thth. in backward manner ii.e

e
o/p to i/p as Vo=A vin not valid.
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2-case—miller theorem not valid in
reverse mode
d (out
( t to
t in)
i )

Reverse transmission

 Looking from output port, no relation ship

exist as vin=[1/A]
vin [1/A] vout
 Thus Rout is nor proper if calculated using
miller theorem
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Frequency Response of Cascode Stage

 g m1
Av , XY   1 C x  2C XY
g m2
 For cascode stages, there are three poles and Miller
multiplication
lti li ti iis smaller
ll ththan iin th
the CE/CS stage.
t
31
Cascode amplifier

Cx=
I/O Impedance
p of MOS Cascode

1 1
Z in 
    Z out  RL ||
 C GS 1   1 
g m1
 C GD 1  s CGD 2  C DB 2 s
  gm2  
CSA with
ith Source
S Degeneration
D ti

vout

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CSA With Rs---OCTC

 Rcgd—R Rsig [1+GmRout]+Rout;

 Rcgs-----[Rsig+ Rs] / [ 1+gm Rs (ro) ]
ro+Rd

 Rcl--- Rout’= Rd|| gm ro Rs

 W-3dB= wh= [τgs+τgd+τL] -1

Zero frequency-----

 WZ= - gM/ Cgd

 WZ= - gM/ Cgs------- iout increases as Vx(s)

reduces because input to Mosfet increases
 When net ix(s) goes to zero
zero, then Vx(s) =0
 So, ix(s)= sCgs(vin-0)+ gm vin =0
 att s= sz, Sz=
S -gm/ Cgs
C
Intuitive analysis

 wp = - 1/ Rd CL

 wp = - 1/ [(1/gm) ||Rs) (Cs+ Cgs)]

 Zero = gm/Cgd
Cs
Or Zero = - gm/Cgs
Differential amplifier----Adm

Two poles and one zero

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Common mode—same as CSA
with
ith Rs
R
Cp=
 No mismatch---
 Acm=0
0
 Mismatch—

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 Rd
Av = [1+ (gm1+gm2) ro3]
(
(1+sC p ro3)
(1+sCL Rd) 1+ sCp ro3
K
[1+ (gm1+gm2) ro3] = K ≈ 2 gm ro3
I t iti analysis
Intuitive l i (same as CSA with Rs)
 wp = - 1/ Rd CL
 wp = - 1/ [(1/gm) ||2 ro3] Cp/2 ]
= - (2g
(2 m / Cp)

2 r03
p
 Z
Zero = - 1/Cp ro3
Cp/2

Or

 Zero = - gm/Cgs
Additional calculations---Combined effect of
cgs and cp at node p on zero
Diff amp with active load

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Equivalent

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Exact analysis

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I t iti analysis
Intuitive l i

wz = -2
2
Z
Zero calculation
l l ti

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F df
Feed-forwarding
di due
d tot Cx
C

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Operational
p amplifier
p –high
g gain
g
Single ended

pole

pole
zero zero
A
Freq. response
 Two dominant poles
poles, one non dominant pole
 Three zeroes
F ll differential
Fully diff ti l

zero
pole zero

pole
 Stability analysis
 Open loop / closed loop gain in freq domain as a
function of damping, difference in both gain transfer
function
 Bark hausen criteria, Aβ>=1, and change in pole of
transfer function
 Similarity of transfer function with RLC circuit
response
p
 RLC response –over/ under/ critically damped
cases, unit step p input
p response
p as a function of
damping
 Phase margin as a function of damping factor
 unit step response of amplifier in frequency domain
 Feedback amplifier stability

An amplifier is most often used in

feedback mode

Feedback amplifier can be unstable

Bark hausen criteria for
unstability
t bilit

1  A( s )  0
1
Similarity between amplifier/
RLC circuit
i it
 Behaviour of open loop/ closed loop amplifier
is second order circuit similar to RLC circuit

 So, understanding of RLC circuit response

can be
b usedd to
t understand
d t d theth response off
amplifier

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Second order RLC circuit—
ti
time domain
d i response

α is called the neper frequency,

frequency or attenuation,
attenuation and is a
measure of how fast the transient response of the
circuit will die away after the stimulus has been
removed.
removed
neper being a unit of attenuation.
ω0 is the angular resonance frequency.[
d
damping
i factor,
f t ζ

The value of the damping factor determines the type of

transient that the circuit will exhibit

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Characteristic equation
q

W0=wn= undamped natural frequency of the system

The roots (natural frequencies of circuit) of the equation in s

are

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Roots of second order system
f ς <1 iin tterms off ς and
for d wn

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Response
 underdamped (ζ < 1); ( α<ωo) , complex roots

 overdamped (ζ > 1); ( α>ωo) real, unequal

roots

 critically damped (ζ = 1); ( α=ωo) , real, equal

roots

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General sol of characteristic
equation
ti

 The general solution of the differential equation is an

exponential in either root or a linear superposition of both

 The coefficients A1 and A2 are determined by values of

the
e cu
currents
e sa and
d voltages
o ages in the
e ccircuit
cu a at the
eoonset
se oof the
e
transient and the presumed value they will settle to after
infinite time.
 Time domain Response
overdamped
d d response (ζ > 1),
1) similar
i il tto open lloop
gain behaviour

Underdamped response (ζ < 1),

1) similar to closed loop gain
behaviour

Critically damped response

 -αt

-αt
Critically damped response ς=1
 The critically damped response represents the
circuit response that decays in the fastest
possible time without going into oscillation.
oscillation

 This consideration is important in control

systems where it is required to reach the desired
state as quickly
q y as possible
p without
overshooting.
Unit Step response-RISING

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Unit Step response-FALLING
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Underdamped unit step response

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 ; For 2% criterion

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 Time domain performance parameters
 The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the
first (or maximum) peak.

 The settling time is defined as the time required for the

response to settle to within a certain percent of its final value
value.
Typical percentage values used are 2% and 5%.

 The delay time is the time required for the response to reach
half of its final value for the very first time

 The percent overshoot represents the amount that the

response
p overshoots its steady-state
y ((or final)) value at the p
peak
time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-state value.
Linear settling time as a function of ς—
step input response
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Time domain response of amplifier

time domain response to step input

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Time domain response of CGA to step input,
x=time
t e
UNIT STEP RESPONSE --CSA

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 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Sinusoidal steady state response of

second order system in freq domain
Sinusoidal steady state sol, σ =0

 Sinusoidal
Si id l steady
t d state
t t iis represented
t dbby
letting s = jω,

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Open/ Closed loop transfer
f
function—
ti

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Poles and zeros
 The poles of Y(s) are identical to the roots s1 and s2 of
the characteristic polynomial of the differential equation

 The zeros of A(s) are those values of s such that Y(s) =

0:

 The poles off Y(s)

( ) are those values off s such that Y(s)
( )→
∞.
 By the quadratic formula,
formula we find
Standard form of second order
system
t

| A( s ) |

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steady AC state behavior using the Laplace
transform
 s is the complex frequency
s = (σ =0 here)+ jω
 Open
p loop p Gain Transfer function,, wo=1
Ao Ao Aop1p2
| A(s) ||  
(1
s
)(1
s
) 1(
1 1
 )s (
1 2
)s p1p2 (p1 p2)s s2
p1 p2 p1 2 p1p2

2
1 1 wn
A( s )    2
1  as  bs
b 2
2 1 2 wn  2wn s  s 2
1 2 s  2 s
wn wn
Standard form of second order
system
t

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O
Open loop
l gain
i
Ao
A( s) 
s s
(1  )(1  )
 p1  p2

Ao (t ) 
Vo (t )
Vin (t )
 A0 w p1w p 2 e
 w p 1t
e
 w p 2t

; inverse _ laplace _ transform
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 Closed loop gain
Ao
A f (s) 
s s Ao 
(1  )( 1  )[ 1  ]
 p1  p2 (1 
s
)( 1 
s
)
 p1  p2
A o  p 1 p 2
A f (s) 
(1  A o  )  p 1 p 2  2 (  p 1   p 2 ) s  s 2
 nf 2

A f (s)  ; 1
 nf  2  s  s
2 2

 nf 2

A f (s)  ; 
 nf  2  nf
2
ss 2
 nf
here _  nf   n _ open _ loop (1  A o  )
Closed loop poles
Root locus plot

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Comparison-open loop/ closed
l
loop gain
i
2
wn
A( s )  2
wn  2wn s  s 2

n 2

A f (s)  ; 
nf  2n s  s
2 2
n
here _ nf  n _ open _ loop (1  Ao  ); so _ less _ 
Unit step response in frequency domain
for ς =1, valid for both open/closed loop case

nf 2

A f (s) 
nff  2nff s  s 2
2

2
wnf 1
A f (s)   ; for _   1, critically _ damped
( wnf s ) 2
(1 
s 2
)
wnf

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 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Amplifier closed loop transfer

function as feedback turn positive
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 effect of increasing frequency
on feedback
f db k
 Increasing frequency causes poles to appear, so
additional
dditi l phase
h change
h t k place.
takes l
 Feedback system has real roots only till Θ= additional 70o
phase change
p g above 180 ((total 250o) i.e ςς<=1
 Beyond additional 70o phase change , feedback system
has complex roots
 As freq increases, feedback signal starts adding to input
signal.
 Mathematically damping reduces in relation to growing
Mathematically,
magnitude of Oscillations
 So ringing increases in the output

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 input

-ve feedback
in- fb
Feedback (fb)signal

in- fb Θ= 360o, PM= 0o

+ve feedback
 How much phase drift is allowed?
Θ= 300o, PM= 60o ideal value
+ve feedback

+ve feedback but

Damped oscillations

Θ= 270o PM= 90o

+ve feedback
Allowed Total phase angle for feedback
to remain negative.

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Closed loop transfer function as feedback
turns positive.
Ao
A f (s) 
s s Ao 
(1  )(1  )[1  ]
 p1  p2 (1 
s
)(1 
s
)
 p1  p2
Ao p1 p 2
A f (s) 
(1  Ao  ) p1 p 2  2 ( p1   p 2 ) s  s 2
 nf 2
A f (s)  ; Ao   1,   1
  nf  2 s  s
2 2

 nf 2 
A f (s)  ;  ; pole _ is _ complex
  nf
2
 2 nf s  s 2
n
here _  nf   n _ open _ loop (1  Ao  )
Behavior as phase phase angle falls more and more

 As Phase of Aβ starts falling from 0 towards 180, the

feedback slowly starts turning positive, input magnitude
starts rising,
rising poles become complex
 If damping of circuit is enough, oscillations due to jw
term of complex roots are damped.
 As positive feedback increases , (say phase angle is
more than 270), jw term magnitude is stronger. Thus
damping effect is turning smaller in its comparison,
comparison so
ringing increase
 With lesser p phase margin,
g oscillations magnitude
g
increases in comparison to damping and ultimately
surpasses it, coeff of s tends to zero, leading to positive
poles , so growing oscillations
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Bits, pilani
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Relation between Phase angle and

damping factor
 Loop gain for β=1
 Frequencies where the loop gain magnitude is close
to unity (= open loop gain for β=1)

Ao
A( s )  A( s) 
s s
(1  )(1  )
 p1  p2

Ao p1
A( s ) 
s
s (1  )
 p2
 For frequencies close to the unity gain frequency,
the amplifier loop gain (= open loop gain) can be
written,
Ao p1 wn
2
A( s )  
s (1 
s
) 2 wn s  s 2

 p2
Similar expression
p obtained p
previously
y
2
wn
A( s )  2
wn  2wn s  s 2
2 2
wn wn
| A( s ) || || |; _ for _ s  w p1
2wn s  s 2
s (2wn  s )
Stability – (Open loop gain OLG =) loop gain for
magnitude=1 at Gx freq.
 loop gain function near UGB,
2
wn
| A ( s ) | ; _ for _ s  w p 1
| s ( 2 w n  s ) |

 Frequency wc, for which

Frequency, | A ( jw ) |  1
2
wn
| A( s ) | 1
|  w  j 2wn w |
2

w1  wc , p  n  2  1  4  n 1  2
2 4 2
Phase angle at unity (open=) loop
gain
i
 The phase angle of loop gain at this
frequency is

A( jw) 

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Phase margin φm
The difference between the ˂ A(jw) angle
and -180o is the p
phase margin
g
Phase Margin = Phase of loop gain - (-180)
Phase margin vs. damping ratio
(Figure 10.48, Page 653)

Relationship between phase

margin
i and
dddamping
i ratio
ti

ζ
Straight line approx.

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Getting Closed loop transfer function for β=1
unity
i gain
i ffeedback
db k system

| A( s ) |

A( jw)
| A f ( jw) || |;   1
1  A( jw)

| A f ( s ) |  nf 2

A f (s) 
 nf 2
 2  nf s s 2
 closed Loop gain magnitude response, for β=1
A( jw)
| A f ( jw) || |;   1
1  A( jjw)

2
wn
A f (s)  2 ; here _ wn _ has _ different _ value _ than _ OLG
wn  2wn s  s 2

Also, closed _ loop _ is _ also _ sec ond _ order _ response

2
wn 1
A( s )   ; for _   1
( wn  s ) 2 (1 
s 2
wn
)
 
 1 
  _ for _ w  wc 
A( jw) 1 1   
| A f ( jw) |  [ ]
1  A( jw)  1  1 
(1  )  [ ] _ for _ w  wc 
A( jw)  1
1

 A 
Closed loop unit step frequency response for β=1

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Resonant peak Mp
Wc

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 Performance parameters of closed loop system

 Resonant peak Mp—max amplitude of closed loop frequency

response

 Wc=Wc---freq at which resonant peak occurs

 Cutoff rate of frequency response—slope of closed loop

frequency response at high frequencies

 Wb= bandwidth where magnitude drops to 0.707—measure of

transient response properties.
properties

Low bandwidth means response is slow and sluggish.

Large bandwidth means faster response

 Mapping of freq domain/ time domain response

for ς<0.0707

 Closed
Cl d lloop titime response iis related
l t d tto closed
l d
loop frequency response

 Overshoot in transient response----resonance in

frequency response

 Damping ratio and natural frequency in time

domain----Bandwidth in frequency response
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wc , p  n  2  1  4  n 1  2
2 4 2

1
Mp 
2 1  2

1
wb   n [(1  2 )  4    2]
2 4 2 2

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F underdamped
For d d d response

; For
F 2% criterion
it i

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Underdamped unit step response

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END
Bits, pilani
Bits, pilani
Cda--Using OCTC
 NEGATIVE impedance
 Negative load which injects energy into circuits in
contrast to an ordinary load that consumes energy from
them
 Advantage-----
B using
By i a negativeti resistor,
i t it iis possible
ibl tto llett a reall
generator behave (almost) like an ideal generator, (i.e.,
the magnitude
g of the current or of the voltage
g g generated
does not depend on the load).

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Bits, pilani
Cda---Zin
Cda--Zout—inductive behaviour
The e p plot
o abo
abovee s shows
o s the e ououtput
pu
impedance of emitter and source
followers.
followers
Since a follower’s primary duty is to lower
the driving impedance (RS>1/gm), ) the
“active inductor” characteristic on the
right
i ht is
i usually
ll observed
b d

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Example: Rs >> 1/ gm

rO  

V X rO1 || rO 2 CGS 3 s  1

IX CGS 3 s  g m3
Bits, pilani
Current through Cgd vs freq.

wp2

wz

wp1

Wp1 region

Wp2
p region
g

wz

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 Substituting A(s) in closed loop gain

second
d order
d
system

 Compare with Standard form

 Zero calculation -intuitive
 Zero will occur when i2 = i4 i. e no iout (s) i.
e. i4 reverses its direction at wz,
i. e i4 = -i3 at wz
 Vx is negative voltage. So i3 is positive
i3 i4  So i1 = i3; i3 =vx / (1/gm3)= gm3Vx
x
 Current mirror operation at high freq.
i1
i2  i4 = i3 + IcE i4 = -i3 at wz

 iC = -2i3
E

 sCE vx = -2 gm3 vx

 sz = - 2 gm3 / CE
Bits, pilani
Bits, pilani
Loop gain transfer function for Aβ=-1
 Ao
 A (s)   1
s s
(1  )( 1  )
 p1  p2

 A o  p 1 p 2
 A (s)   1
 p 1 p2  2 ( p 1   p 2 ) s  s 2

  Ao p 1 p2  ( p 1 p 2 )  2 ( p1  p2 ) s  s 2

( p 1 p 2 )  2 ( p1  p2 ) s  s 2
  Ao p1  p2  0
[(  p 1 p 2 )( 1   A o )]  2 (  p1  p2 ) s  s 2
 0
[(  p 1 p 2 )( 1  A o )]  2 (  p1  p2 ) s  s 2
 0 ;   1, A o  1
 nLG 2
 2  nLG s  s2  0

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