Designing With Plastics and Composites A Handbook PDF

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DESIGNING WITH
PLASTI CS AN D
COMPOSITES:
A HANDBOOK
Donald V. Rosato, Ph. D.

David P. Di Mattia
Industrial and Graphic Designer
Dominick V. Rosato
P.E. Rhode Island School of Design
~ SPRINGER SCiENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

Copyright © 1991 by Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Van Nostrand Reinhold in 1991
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991
Library of Congress Catalog Number 90-46378
ISBN 978-1-4615-9725-4 ISBN 978-1-4615-9723-0 (eBook)

DOl 10.1007/978-1-4615-9723-0
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by

the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any
form by any means-graphic, electronic, or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,
or information storage and retrieval systems-without
written permission of the publisher.
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Rosato, Donald V.
Designing with plastics and composites: a handbook
by Donald V. Rosato, David P. Di Mattia, and Dominick V. Rosato.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Plastics. 2. Engineering design. I. Di Mattia, David P.

II. Rosato, Dominick V. III. Title.
TP1122.R67 1991
668.4'9--dc20 90-46378
CIP
Contents
Preface / ix
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND

COMPOSITES / 1
Design Shape / 49
Success by Design / 51
Computers in Design / 52
Design Procedure / 54
Interrelating Product-Resin-Process Performances / 55
2. THE STRUCTURE AND BASIC PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS / 61

Plastic Structures and Morphology / 66
Thermal Properties of Plastics / 83
Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Insulation / 87
Heat Capacity / 88
Thermal Diffusivity / 88
The Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion / 89
Deflection Temperature Under Load / 94
Decomposition Temperature / 95
Mechanical Properties / 96
Physical Properties / 98
Rheology and Deformation / 107
Interrelating Properties, Plastics,and Processing / 116
Orientation / 11 8
Shrinkage / 123
3. PLASTICS: DESIGN CRITERIA / 125

Mechanical Properties / 133
Short-Term Behavior / 135
Long-Term Behavior / 153
Short-Duration Rapid and Impact Loads / 201
Electrical Properties / 223
Friction, Wear, and Hardness Properties / 239
iii
iv CONTENTS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING PLASTICS / 253

Temperature Introduction / 253
Chemical Resistance / 264
Weather Resistance / 272
Sterilization-Irradiation / 274
Permeability and Barrier Resistance 276
Biological and Microbial Degradation / 281
Flammability / 282
The Ocean Environment / 288
The Space Environment / 297
5. STRUCTURAL DESIGN ANALYSIS / 303

Load-Bearing Products / 303
Loads / 305
Support Conditions / 305
Simplifications and Assumptions / 308
Multiaxial Stresses and Mohr's Circle / 308
Safety Factors / 309
Beam Bending Stresses / 312
Beam Bending and Spring Stresses / 321
Shear Stress and Torsion / 323
Shear Stress and Direct Shear / 325
Pressure Vessels / 325
Externally Loaded RP Pipe / 326
Molded-In Inserts / 340
Press Fits / 342
Snap Fits / 345
Hinges / 349
Thread Strength / 355
Pipe Threads / 358
Gears / 359
Gaskets and Seals / 360
Grommets and Noise / 360
Impact Loads / 361
Thermal Stresses / 362
Structural Foams / 365
Structural Sandwiches / 368
Energy and Motion Control / 371
Failure Analysis / 387
Dimensional Tolerances / 387
Plastics / 388
Processing and Tolerances / 391
Product Specification / 398
Combining Variables / 399
Finite Element Analysis / 399
Cantilevered Snap Fits / 402
Laws and Regulations / 402
CONTENTS v
6. THE PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS / 405

Trade Names / 405
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) / 406
Acetal / 414
Acrylics / 415
Alkyds / 416
Aminos / 416
Cellulosics / 417
Chlorinated Polyethers / 417
Chlorinated Polyethylene / 418
Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE) / 418
Diallyl Phthalate / 418
Epoxies / 419
Ethylene-Vinyl Acetates 419
Fluoroplastics / 420
Furan / 421
lonomers / 421
Ketones / 422
Liquid Crystal Polymers / 422
Melamines / 423
Nylons (Polyamides) / 423
Parylenes / 425
Phenolics / 426
Phenoxy Resins / 427
Polyallomers / 428
Polyamides / 428
Polyamide-imide / 428
Polyarylates / 430
Polyarylethers / 430
Polyaryletherketone / 430
Polyarylsulfone / 431
Polybenzimidazole / 431
Polybutylenes / 432
Polybutylene Terephthalate / 432
Polycarbonates / 432
Polyesters / 433
Polyetherketone / 436
Polyetheretherketone / 438
Polyetherimide / 439
Polyethersulfone / 440
Polyethylene / 440
Polyethylene Terephthalate / 445
Polyimides / 445
Polymethyl Methacrylate / 445
Polymethylpentene / 446
Polyolefins / 446
Polyphenylene Ether / 446
Polyphenylene Sulfide / 447
vi CONTENTS
Polypropylene / 447
Polystyrene / 449
Polysulfones / 449
Polyurethane / 452
Polyvinyl Chloride / 452
Polyvinylidene Fluoride / 455
Silicones / 455
Urea Formaldehydes / 456
Elastomers / 458
Thermoset Elastomers / 467
Thermoplastic Elastomers / 472
Film and Sheeting / 473
Foams / 475
Transparent and Optical Plastics / 491
Reinforced Plastics and Composites / 493
Regrind and Recycling / 524
Guide for Plastics Identification / 525
Computerized Databases / 528
Selection Worksheets / 535
Selecting Materials / 535
Selecting Materials under Dynamic Loading / 540
7. THE PROCESSING OF PLASTICS / 589

Tolerances and Shrinkages / 596
Model Building / 596
Molds and Dies / 599
Drying Hygroscopic Plastics / 602
Heat History, Residence Time, and Recycling / 602
Process Control / 603
Troubleshooting / 603
Inspection / 606
Injection Molding / 610
Extrusion / 624
Basics of Flow / 630
In-Line Postforming / 641
Blow Molding / 646
Extrusion Blow Molding / 651
Forming / 665
Reinforced Plastics/Composites 670
Other Processes / 687
Selecting Processing / 695
8. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT AND SECONDARY OPERATIONS / 711

Material Handling / 713
Parts Handling / 713
Finishing and Decorating / 714
Joining and Assembling / 714
Machining / 727
CONTENTS vii
9. TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL / 731

Basics versus Complex Tests / 732
Specifications and Standards / 732
Orientation and Weld Lines / 734
Types of Tests / 735
Thermoanalytical Tests / 735
Nondestructive Testing / 746
Computer Testing / 753
Quality Auditing / 753
Reliability and Quality Control / 754
Failure Analysis / 754
Selecting Tests / 755
Quality and Control / 755
10. COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN / 757
Mold Design / 758

CAD/CAM Modeling / 763
Additional CAD/CAM Features Used in Plastic Part and Mold Design / 773
Process-Analysis Tools / 777
Design Databases / 782
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing / 785
Myths and Facts / 785
Capability and Training / 786
11. DESIGN FEATURES THAT INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE / 789

Basic Detractors and Constraints / 789
Injection Molding / 796
Extrusion / 844
Blow Molding / 847
Thermoforming / 854
Reinforced Plastics and Composites / 856
Rotational Molding / 865
Assembly Methods / 869
Mechanical Loading / 870
12. CONCLUSIONS / 877

Product Diversification / 879
Materials Diversification / 883
Equipment Improvements / 887
The Solid-Waste Problem and Product-Design Solutions / 889
Technical Cost Modeling / 898
Success by Design / 900
Design Considerations / 900
Challenge Requires Creativity / 914
The Future / 915
viii CONTENTS
Appendix A. General Information Sources / 919

Appendix B. Conversions / 921
Appendix C. Trade Names / 925
Appendix D. Computerized Software and Databases / 929
References / 937
Index / 967
Preface
For some time there has been a strong need in the plastic and related industries for a
detailed, practical book on designing with plastics and composites (reinforced plastics).
This one-source book meets this criterion by clearly explaining all aspects of designing
with plastics, as can be seen from the Table of Contents and Index. It provides information
on what is ahead as well as today's technology. It explains how to interrelate the process
of meeting design performance requirements with that of selecting the proper plastic and
manufacturing process to make a product at the lowest cost. This book has been prepared
with an awareness that its usefulness will depend greatly upon its simplicity. The overall
guiding premise has therefore been to provide all essential information. Each chapter is
organized to best present a methodology for designing with plastics and composites.
This book will prove useful to all types of industrial designers, whether in engineering
or involved in products, molds, dies or equipment, and to people in new-product ventures,
research and development, marketing, purchasing, and management who are involved
with such different products as appliances, the building industry, autos, boats, electronics,
furniture, medical, recreation, space vehicles, and others. In this handbook the basic
essentials of the properties and processing behaviors of plastics are presented in a single
source intended to be one the user will want to keep within easy reach.
Once a product's purpose and service requirements have been established, its successful
design and manufacture to meet zero-defects production requires knowledge of 1) the
plastic materials from which it is to be made, their nature, and the ways in which processing
may affect their properties; 2) the processing methods available for its manufacture; and
3) how to evaluate its properties and apply effective quality control.
This reference handbook has been designed to be useful to those using plastics as well
as those still contemplating their use. To this end the presentations are comprehensive
yet simplified, so that the specialist in a specific field will obtain useful information. The
cross-comparisons and interrelations of design facts and figures are extensive, to ensure
ease in understanding the behavior of plastics and composites.
Designing depends on being able to analyze many diverse, already existing products
such as those reviewed in this handbook. One important reason for studying these designs
is that this shows how many diverse topics cooperate synergistically to enhance designers'
skills.
Design is interdisciplinary. It calls for the ability to recognize situations in which
certain techniques may be used and to develop problem-solving methods to fit specific
design situations. Many different examples of problems are thus presented within this
handbook, concerning many products.
ix
x PREFACE
With plastics, to a greater extent than with other materials, the opportunity exists to
optimize design by focusing on a material's composition, its structural orientation during
processing, and other factors described throughout this handbook. Analyses are made of
problems that can occur and how to eliminate them or how to take corrective action. This
book is intended to provide practical guidelines to designers using plastics or composites.
Throughout this handbook, examples that relate to basic strengths of materials are
given so as to highlight their influence in different designs. The information to the designer
includes the behavior of plastics under extreme performance conditions, relates these
behaviors to design principles, and provides important information on design parameters
as they interrelate with plastic materials, processing characteristics, and the performance
of products.
As materials to be fabricated, plastics provide practical, unlimited benefits to the design
of products. Unfortunately, as with other materials, such as steel, wood, glass, aluminum,
and titanium, no one plastic has all the best traits, so that sometimes selecting a material
requires compromising. Successfully applying their advantages and understanding their
limitations, as reviewed in this handbook, will allow designers to produce useful, profitable
products.
There is a wide variation in the types of properties among the fifteen thousand materials
commercially available worldwide that are classified as plastics or composites. In general,
however, most plastics can be processed into different shapes and sizes. If so required,
they can have intricate shapes held to tight tolerances and be made by processes suitable
for either limited or mass production. The costs of plastics range from relatively low to
extremely expensive, enough to make a plastic appear to be too costly for a given product.
However, studying the processing method could result in meeting low product-cost re-
quirements. This handbook thus provides the designer with useful information on the
different processing methods as they relate to meeting design and cost requirements.
Plastics vitally concern almost everyone worldwide. They occupy an important part of
the research, development, design, production, sales, and consumer efforts in diverse
industries. As reviewed later, for over a century plastics have been used successfully, in
such applications as for packaging, housewares, medicine, marine, aerospace, hydro-
space, transportation, biological, appliance, building, and recreation. The significant
improvements that have been made in plastic materials, processing, and applications thus
far will no doubt be overshadowed by future improvements.
Because their broad range of properties makes plastics unique, they are adaptable to
different products and markets. With plastics, one can decide on practically any require-
ment and find for it a processable plastic, whereas other materials have comparatively
narrow capabilities. It is nevertheless important to recognize that there are tremendous
variations in the properties and performance of plastics. This handbook shows that there
is a practical, easy approach to designing with plastics.
One of the major aims of this book is to help develop the designer's ability to analyze
problems, a most important skill. Although engineering mechanics is based on only a
few basic understandable principles, these principles are needed to provide a means to
solve many problems relating to present-day design and analysis. This book emphasizes
both understanding and applying these principles, so that the designer will have a firm
basis for utilizing the principles.
It is essential to reemphasize the point made in the text that all data presented on plastic
properties are to be used only as guides. Obtain the latest, most complete data from
material suppliers and data banks from the various sources referenced throughout this
handbook.
PREFACE xi
The infonnation presented herein may be covered by United States or foreign patents.
No authorization to utilize these patents is either given or implied; they are discussed as
infonnation only. Likewise, the use of general descriptive names, proprietary names,
trade names, and commercial designations and the like in no way implies that they may
be used freely. They are often legally protected by registered trademarks or some other
fonnat even if they are not designated as such in this book. Finally, although the infor-
mation presented is useful data that can be studied or analyzed that are believed to be
true and accurate, neither the authors, contributors, nor publisher can accept any legal
responsibility for errors, omissions, or similar factors.
In preparing this handbook extensive use was made of the personal industrial and
teaching experiences of the authors, going back to 1939, as well as worldwide infonnation
from industry and trade associations on materials, equipment, and the like, published
books, articles, reports, conferences, and so on, as is evident in the references given at
the end of the book.
In the preparation of this handbook the authors have been assisted and encouraged by
many friends and international business associates. Special acknowledgment must be
made to the many different authors cited, including many different material suppliers.
All have, whether directly or indirectly, contributed to advancing the state of the art in
designing with plastics.
Chapter 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING
WITH PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES
There is a practical, easy approach to designing with plastics and composites (see Figs.
1-1 to 1-3) that is basically no different than designing with other materials: steel,
aluminum, titanium, copper, brass, wood, concrete, and so forth. This book provides
useful and necessary information on how to comprehend plastics' and composites' extreme
range of properties, structural responses, product-performance characteristics, part shapes,
manufacturing processes, and their influence on product performance, the simplifying of
designs, as guides on selecting plastics and processes as well as on how to keep up-to-
date on important information and understand the econc:>mics of designing with plastics
[1-200]. *
Many different products can be designed using plastics and composites. They will take
low to extremely high loads and operate in widely different environments, from highly
corrosive ones to those involving electrical insulation. They challenge the designer with
a combination of often unfamiliar and unique advantages, and limitations. By under-
standing the many different structures and properties as well as the design and fabrication
capabilities, the designer can meet this challenge as demonstrated by the existence of the
many different products made from plastics. They exist in all types of applications--
underground, underwater, in the atmosphere, in outer space, in the office, and in the
home.
Although plastics and composites may appear to some observers to be new, because
the industry has an unlimited capacity to produce new plastics to meet new performance
and processing requirements, plastics and composites have been used in no-load to ex-
tremely high-load situations for over a century. The ever-evolving technology does not
mean that plastics and composites will automatically replace other materials. Each material
(plastics, metals, wood, aluminum, and so forth) will, basically, be used in favorable
cost-to-performance situations. As of the early 1980s, more plastics were used worldwide
on a volumetric basis than any other materials except wood and concrete. Before the end
of this century there will be on a weight basis more plastics used than the others, except
wood and concrete.
*All references are listed in the References section in the back of the book.
1
2 DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES: A HANDBOOK
l Receive and review product I

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Figure 1·1. To be effective, the evaluation of new product ideas should proceed according to a
logical step-to-step process, as shown.
With plastics and composites, to a greater extent than with other materials, an oppor-
tunity exists to optimize design by focusing on a material's composition and orientation
as well as its structural-member geometry. There are also important interrelationships
among shape, material selection (including reinforced plastics, elastomers, foams, and
so forth), the consolidation of parts, manufacturing selection, and other factors that provide
low cost-to-performance products. For the many applications that require only minimal
mechanical performance, shaping through processing techniques can help overcome lim-
itations such as low stiffness with commodity (lower cost) plastics. And when extremely
high performance is required, reinforced plastics (RP), composites, and other engineering
plastics are available. In this book the term plastics also refers to composites.
All processes fit into an overall scheme that requires the interaction and proper control
of different operations. The Follow All Opportunities (FALLO) approach shown in Figure
1-2 can be used in any process by including the "blocks" that pertain to the fabricated
product's requirements. (See Chapters 7 and 8 regarding basic processing and auxiliary-
upstream and downstream-equipment.)
The FALLO approach has been used by many processors to produce parts at the lowest
cost. Computer programs featuring this type of layout are available (see Chapter 10).
The FALLO approach makes one aware that many steps are involved in processing, all
of which must be coordinated. The specific process (injection, extrusion, blowmolding,
thermoforming and so forth) is an important part of the overall scheme and should not
be problematic. The process depends on several interrelated factors, such as designing a
part to meet performance and manufacturing requirements at the lowest cost, specifying
the plastics, and specifying the manufacturing process. To do so basically requires de-
signing a tool (mold, die, and so forth) around the part, putting the proper-performance
fabricating process around the tool, then setting up the necessary auxiliary equipment to
interface in the complete fabricating line, and, finally, setting up completely integrated
I I ._n_OPERAnON ......---I~- t
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Reevaluate all param-
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PART cessing costs (or plas-
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ready processes faster-re-
lor suits in total lower
delivery cost), check hardware
performance, & other
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Figure 1.2. The example shown here for the complete blow-molding fabrication operation is
also applicable to the other processes. This diagram shows the FALLO approach.
IN
Dimensions, structural loads. gov'tJindustry standards, service environments, etc.
~
PROJECT
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L RELEASE Sat up value analysis (VA)
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Figure 1-3. Flow diagram with feedback loops for product design using the FALLO approach (Follow ALL
Opportunities). This flow diagram uses available CAD/CAElCAMICIM/CAT computer software programs. It provides the
project team with the information necessary to aid in making final design decisions. All programs, particularly those with
databases, should have the capability for continual updating and expansion.
\11
controls to meet the goal of zero defects. The final step in the FALLO process is that of
purchasing equipment as well as materials, then warehousing the material. This inter-
relationship is different from that of most other materials, where the designer is usually
limited to using specific prefabricated forms that are bonded, welded, bent, and so on.
Designing has never been easy in any material, particularly plastics, because there are
so many. Plastics provide more types than all other materials put together-with about
45 families of plastics, many variations are available (see Figs. 1-4 and 1-5). Of the more
than fifteen thousand different plastics, only a few hundred are used in large quantities.
Unfortunately, many designers view plastics as a single material, because they are not
aware of all the types available. Plastics are a family of materials each with its own
special advantages. The major consideration for a designer is to analyze what is required
as regards performance and develop a logical selection procedure from what is available
(see Chapter 6).
The range of properties in plastics encompasses all types of environmental conditions,
each with its own individual, yet broad, range of properties. These properties can take
into consideration wear resistance, integral color, impact resistance, transparency, energy
absorption, ductility, thermal and sound insulation, weight, and so forth (see Chapters
2,3,4, and 5). There is unfortunately no one plastic that can meet all maximum properties.
Therefore, the designer has different options, such as developing a compromise, because
many product requirements provide options, particularly if cost is of prime importance,
or combining different plastics.
The combination approach permits using plastics that have different properties. They
can just be stacked together, but with the available processes they can also be put together
so that each material retains its individuality yet has a bond with the adjoining plastics.
These processes of coinjection, coextrusion, and so on are reviewed in Chapter 7. Each
of the individual plastics can provide such characteristics as wear resistance, being a
barrier to water, an electrical conductor, and adding strength (Chapters 3-5). Recycled
(solid waste) plastics can be sandwiched between other plastics. Plastics can also be
combined with other materials such as aluminum, steel, and wood to provide specific
properties (for example, PVC/wood window frames and plastic/aluminum-foil packaging
TOUGH
POLYCARBONATE
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POLYPROPYLENE VINYL
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Strength
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Figure 1·5. A general comparison of different materials.

7
Thermal Expansion
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Thermal Conductivity
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Plastics / Reinforced Plastics
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Btu / sq.ft.?F / in. /hr.
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FO
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/ / / / / / / / / //
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100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
CO
Figure 1-5. (Continued)
8
FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES 9
material). All combinations require that certain aspects of compatibility such as processing
temperature and coefficient of expansion or contraction exist. (For a review of this area,
see Chapter 7).
The designer can use conventional plastics that are available in sheet form, in I-beams,
or other forms, as is common with many other materials. Although this approach with
plastics has its place, the real advantage with plastics lies in the ability to process them
to fit the design, particularly when it comes to complex shapes. Two or more parts-
including mechanical and electrical connections, living hinges, colors, and snap fits-
can be combined into one part (see Chapter 11).
Like other materials, all plastics can be destroyed by hot enough fires. Some bum
readily, others slowly, others only with difficulty; still others do not support combustion
after the removal of the flame. There are certain plastics used to withstand the reentry
temperature of 2,500° F (1,370° C) that occurs when spacecraft return to the earth's
atmosphere. (The time exposure is parts of a millisecond.) Different industry standards
can be used to rate plastics at various degrees of combustibility. Plastics' behavior in fire
depends upon the nature and scale of the fire as well as the surrounding conditions and
how the products are designed. For example, the virtually all-plastic 35 mm slide pro-
jectors use a very hot electric bulb. When designed with a metal light and heat reflector
and fan, no fire develops. Fire is a highly complex, variable phenomenon. Therefore,
designing in this environment requires understanding all the variables, so that the proper
plastics can be used (see Chapters 2-6).
The Design Process

The term design has many connotations, but it is essentially the process of devising a
product to fulfill as completely as possible all the requirements of the end user, and, at
the same time, satisfy the needs of the producer in terms of marketing and cost effec-
tiveness (that is, return on investment). The efficient use of the available materials and
production processes, including the all-important factor of tooling, should be the goal of
every design effort (see Fig. 1-3).
A Changing World
It would be difficult to imagine the modem world without plastics. Today they are an
integral part of everyone's life-style, with applications varying from commonplace do-
mestic articles to sophisticated scientific and medical instruments. Nowadays designers
and engineers readily turn to plastics. Exceptional progress has been made in this century
worldwide in all markets. As a matter of fact, many of the technical wonders we take
for granted would be impossible without versatile, economical plastics. Yet some who
are not mindful of the many benefits of plastics still carry negative feelings about them.
Some examples of their creative use follow.
1. In recreation. Because people everywhere tend to take their fun seriously, they spend
freely on sports and recreational activities. The broad range of properties available
from plastics has made them part of all types of sports and recreational equipment for
land, water, and airborne activities. Roller-skate wheels are now abrasion- and wear-
resistant polyurethane. Tennis rackets are molded from specially reinforced plastics
and composites using glass, aramid, graphite, or other fibers. Skis are laminated
composites selectively reinforced to eliminate flutter at high speeds. Similarly so-

phisticated advanced engineering has been applied to canoes, surfboards and sail-
boards, outboard engine shrouds, hockey sticks, sails for racing boats, and other
equipment (see Fig. 1-6).
a.
b.
Figure 1-6. Examples of plastics in recreation; a) tennis rackets; b) beach accessories (chairs,
bags, sunglasses, suntan lotion containers, toys, etc.); c) all-plastic sailboat; d) inflatable boat, a
sailboat, and surfboards.
c.
d.
11
2. In electronics. Most of the electrical equipment and electronic devices we use and
enjoy today would not be practical, economical, or occasionally even possible without
plastics (see Fig. 1-7).
3. In packaging. When packaging problems are tough, plastics often are the answer-
sometimes the only answer. They can perform tasks no other materials can and provide
consumers with products and services no other materials can (see Fig. 1-8).
a.
Figure 1-7. Examples of plastics in the electrical and electronics field; a) snap-in cable set of
plugs and adapters, using Amoco's Ardel D-HlO polyarylate; b) plastic parts in a sixty-ft.-
diameter high-precision, high-frequency antenna; c) schematic of a reinforced plastics/
composite radome that protects a I50-ft.-diameter radar antenna from its Maine environment;
view of reinforced plastics sandwich geodesic radome being assembled; the completely
assembled radome; d) space-communication antenna. The "hom of plenty" uses an RP sandwich
in its reflective panels (glass-fiber-TS polyester skins with a kraft paper-phenolic honeycomb
core). It has a two-ply air-inflated Du Pont HypalonlDacron fabric elastomeric radome that will
protect the antenna from the outside environment for many decades and uses other plastics. This
site in Maine was the world's first ground-to-ground communication satellite.
b.
c.
13
Figure 1·7. (Continued)
14
/
d.
64-m (210-11.) diem

Inllatable radome
Upper
equipment
I
room
\
~
58-m (192-11 ) dlam
radome base~==::~
15
a.
Figure 1-8. Examples of plastics in packaging; a) Extrusion and injection blow-molded bottles;
b) all-plastic fifty-two-gallon electric hot-water heater meeting UL specifications that uses four
different processes-blow molding, filament winding, structural foam molding, and injection
molding; c) a cross-section of a multilayered, coextruded, blow-molded container to meet
different performance requirements; d) a double-walled structural blow-molded design in one
piece that replaced an all-plastic part made from different injection-molded parts.
16
corrugated lo
r
structure
c. Bolt detail lorm

ed
by compresslo
o
weldlog sl o\
st ru ct ur al rib Is
S l2) pioche<! ou t
~~ PL
/
Large detail
Is plOChed ou
t
Multiple tackS
w ith
sel/eral weldS
tC'
reduce part wa
ll
sh ill
compressed
lIaoge w ith
/
slots plOChe d
out
PL
17
d.
4. In building and construction. This market is the second-largest consumer of plastics,

after packaging. Durable and easy to install, as well as cost effective, plastics continue
to find more and more applications (see Figs. 1-9 to 1-15).
5. In health care. Health-care professionals depend on plastics for everything from
intravenous bags to wheelchairs, disposable labware to silicone body parts. The di-
versity of plastics allows them to serve in many ways, improving and sometimes
prolonging lives, such as a braided, corrugated Dacron (Du Pont's polyester) aorta
tube [199] (see Figs. 1-16 to 1-17).
6. In transportation. For today's autos, trucks, and vans, plastics offer a wide variety
of benefits, including durability, light weight, corrosion resistance, safety glass, and
fuel savings (see Figs. 1-18 to 1-20).
7. In aerospace. During the last half-century, aeronautics technology has soared, with
plastics playing a major role. Lightweight durable plastics and composites save on
fuel while standing up to forms of stress like creep and fatigue, and different envi-
ronments (see Figs. 1-21 to 1-34).
, .,.. .... _-
_.."...
~~~:2~====~~~:r~~'r::;~;~~i~::::::=~~~
..
----_.. _-
. ._.C_
1Il00_
I1IW'I
..1<" ....
"'" .....
---
Figure 1-9. An example of the 1940s to 1950s concept of plastics in buildings from The House That Plastics Built [14],
1.0
-
Figure 1·10. A typical use of polyurethane foam-in-place insulation material in wall
construction.
Figure 1·11. (Facing page) In this practically all-plastic house built in 1957 by Monsanto and
designed at MIT, four cantilevered wings extended 16 ft. from a central core to support the
living quarters. To provide sufficient stiffness the 8-ft.-wide by 16-ft.-long U-shaped floor and
roof sections were monocoque box girders utilizing 0.30-in.-thick shells of heavy woven glass-
fiber rovings and thermoset polyester resin. The upper surface of the 4.5-in.-thick floor section
was a sandwich structure with 0.30-in.-thick upper facing, an O.lO-in.-thick lower one, and a
phenolic resin-impregnated kraft paper honeycomb core. To provide the monocoque action the
floor panel was epoxy bonded along its edges to the lower shell. The design loads for this
Disneyland structure in the earthquake-prone Los Angeles area were a dead load of about 10
psf, live loads of 50 psf (floor) and 30 psf (roof), and 90 mph for windloading. Stiffness rather
than strength, except at the connections, was the controlling factor in this design. To avoid a
feeling of shakiness, deflection under full live load at the outboard ends of the cantilevered
wings was limited to ! in. When this building, a main attraction for almost two decades, pulled
down to provide for a different scene, it had suffered almost no change in deflection, load-
carrying ability, and so on and was almost impossible to destroy by conventional techniques.
This was true even though the house had endured the equivalent of many centuries of existence,
based on the people traffic it had undergone.
20
R Intorced concretl _--l,l,\._ _
foundation
21
Figure 1-12. Pavilions at the U.S. Exhibition in Moscow (1959) were in an MIT design in a
series of umbrella shapes. Canopies 16 ft. across consisted of double-curved h-in.-thick
reinforced glass-fiber and TS polyester plastic skins formed integrally with supporting ribs Hn.
thick. The supporting columns, 20 ft. high, were i-in. thick.
22
b.
c.
Figure 1-13. Dome-shaped buildings in Lafayette, Indiana, were built in 1966 using
polystyrene boards by a Dow Chemical spiral-generation technique. Boards were heat bonded
(a) in a continuous pattern to produce the dome shape. The self-supporting domes required no
internal or external support during or after manufacture, provided their own insulation, and
easily allowed for sections to be cut from the dome to make doors, windows, and connecting
halls from dome to dome; b) a model of the medical clinic; c) cross-section of central medical
clinic dome, which interconnected with a smaller dome and formed connecting rooms.
23
Figure 1-14. During the 1960s and 1970s B. F. Goodrich had on display throughout the
country this polyvinyl chloride type of house.
Figure I-IS. (Facing page) On October 23, 1989, General Electric opened this 3,OOO-sq.-ft.
Living Environment concept house one half mile from its Plastics world headquarters in
Pittsfield, Mass. It featured advanced design and building methods, processes, and materials, to
serve as a laboratory for the entire building industry to explore the feasibility of widespread use
of engineering plastics in construction. The two interior floors reflect modem life-styles and the
daily living environment of a family of four. The basement contains a 2,500-sq.-ft. business
center, offices, and a display area for prototype models, such as factories to produce highly
automated housing systems. The kitchen features a center island with adjustable-height eating
and working surfaces. It also provides hot and cold areas to prepare foods while keeping them at
the proper serving temperatures. A prototypical bottle recycling unit has a bar-code reader to
separate containers made from engineering and commodity plastics.
24
b.
25
1. Lens implant
2. Contact lens
3. In vivo artificial
hearing system
4. Dental structures
5. External prothesis
6. ArtiflCiallarynx
7. ArtifICial skin
8. Heart valves
9. Artificial heart
10. Kidney-dialysis
system
11 . ArtifICial blood
(synthetic oxygen
carriers)
12. Intraaortic balloon
13. Angioplasty catheter
14. Vascular grafts
15. Sutures
16. Postrnastectomy
reconstruction
17. ArtifICial hip, knee
18. Artificia.1finger,
toe joints
19. Torn ligaments
20. Natural-action
Seattle Foot
21 . Aorta
Figure 1-16. Applications of plastics in the human body require perfonnance and
biocompatibility, through the proper combination of design and the use of plastics.
26
Nr Inlet en'D
Rain wftle ~pter
Defroster nozzles
Radio speaker &rill
Dashboard
Mirror case blck
EIodricil rqul.to< Dome lamp. lens and bue
Plugs, aromrnets. pskets. pads wse Coat hooks
UceIlse plate nuts and clops ElecIricaI Re.r shelf seal
Battery tray drl.n lube tenn.~1 Rur shelf defroster nozzle.
Battery case boards Fende, wellJnfl
Deck lid emblem pad

Plr .nfl hflhl Itns
T•• l !i8h! 8askets
Tallhahls
~mp socket
F,esh air inlel
Housln8 & valve
Voltaae ,e&lll.tor
wse Insulator Body wirins harness
EIeclticil connectors Door stn er wed,e
EIect,icil insulato<s Door h.ndle pads
Conllct post Insullto< Door handle escutcheon plate
Window crank handle burtns ~tes
Window ,qul.to< rollers
a.
Pump cutlet nut

windshield WiSher
Pump control valve
Pump control 'SS'y
Healer dlfIomr ducts
Windshield wiper .1'1
Wiper mgCor bnIsh
Instrument cluster ----.,..
I r;
hoId.r pl.tes
Speedometer dill ----.,..: Windshield Wisher t-connection
SpetdomtIer CUIS - - - _ // Windshield Wisher VlIvI body
Instrument dill IlClnss --_~ ~~
InstlUment panel p.ke!
Instrumenl cluster fac:lns
Printed circuli blck bu..
k
IndlcatOt dill
Instrument tel-tale hou. ns
ConlrDI knobs --------,-=i M PICM -
Air• duct blower Inlet
Instrument 1..,1 swilch - - - - ---: Heater duct
driver .nd slee... ~ Heater housina:
Electllcal insulators Heater. .frosttr
Door handl. e:sc.rtcheon ~ . Ir distributO<
Nm rest - - - - - Heater harness
Slid. 10< neutral Body wirins hamas
safety 5"lWikh - - -..........
~Ir selectOt lieu!
""r
conditioner housl",
Air WIll _-huter
Tu.m sli~I----...../ 1Jr conditioner 101M.
t.bIe control houslnfl
Steerin, CDlumn psket IJr conditioner front
Door p a n e l - - - - - - - " Air conditioner Id;ustitw dills
Plrkins brI e pulley cable Seat side shield
Cowl side trim panel _ _ _ _..J
AE:::~=====SeaI adjuster bushinp
Dommer sw~ch rwtchcI and cam Seam;", .... 11
Control cable tube and clamp Sewinc ",II
BII e .nd clutch ped.I bush;np
Acceltllto< ped.1 _ _ _ _ _J
b.
Figure 1·17. a) Typical plastic parts in an automotive body; b) automotive dashboards use
plastics extensively.
27
Figure 1-18. This 1925 table-model electrocardiograph built by the Sanborn Co. looks like a
cross between a bandsaw and the laboratory instrument that brought Frankenstein's monster to
life. Many changes in its design and material made it much smaller, lighter in weight, attractive,
easy to use, and less expensive to make than the previously all-wood model that went first to
aluminum in the 1960s and then to plastics.
a.
28
b.
Co
Figure 1-19. The Motor Wheel Corp. of Lansing, Mich., introduced the Fiberide plastic
composite wheel (left) that became standard equipment on the 1989 Dodge Shelby CSX
(above) . It was the first successful production wheel made of an elevated-temperature vinylester
compound from Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in a reinforced plastic/composite. Wheel weight
was reduced from 30 to 50 percent over that of mild steel wheels and 10 to 20 percent over
aluminum wheels . It is designed to maintain its appearance for years without maintenance, with
guaranteed resistance to corrosion and chemicals. Its styling flexibility also provides a potential
cost reduction to the auto manufacturer. It is compression molded using high-glass-content sheet
molding compound (see Chapter 7) that includes continuous fibers. Composite wheels are
stronger than wheels of conventional materials. Many have tried unsuccessfully since the mid-
1950s to produce RP wheels.
29
~
= GrFRP FRONT SEAT

~ FRAME (BACK ONLY)
PRODUCTION QUARTER
PANEL EXTENSIONS
GrFRP REAR SUSPENSION

ARMS - UPR. l WR .
a
2.3L 14 ENGINE
C-3 AUTO TRANS .
DOWNGAGED UPPER
& LOWER CONTROL ARMS
TIRES FR 78 - 14
(UNIQUE LIGHTWEIGHT ) o GRAPHITE COMPOSITES
Figure 1-20. Ford's lightweight concept vehicle of the 1960s made extensive use of high-performance reinforced plastics and composites
employing graphite fiber.
Figure 1-21. Final flight tests of the Air Force AT-6 (all-reinforced plastic) BT-15 airplane
occurred in 1953, completing the designing and testing that started in 1944.
Figure 1-22. The RP sandwich wing of the BT-15. Sandwich construction of glass-fiber-TS
polyester skins with cellular cellulose plastic foam core was used in different processes including
that of the lost-wax technique.
31
Figure 1-23. A section of the 1944 RP monocoque sandwich fuselage of the BT-15.
Figure 1-24. The "Gossamer Albatross," a human-powered all-plastic airplane that conquered
the English Channel in 1979, used Du Pont's Mylar bioriented TP polyester film, Kevlar aramid
fiber, Delrin acetal resin. Dacron TP polyester fiber, and nylon as key elements in its
construction. This innovative use of lightweight engineered plastics used bicycle pedals to
provide power to a propeller.
32
Figure 1-25. This solar challenger all-plastic airplane was designed and built by a team headed
by Dr. Paul MacCready of Pasadena, California. A variety of Du Pont lightweight engineering
plastics used in its construction kept its weight to two hundred pounds. In 1981 the craft made a
Paris-London flight of some two hundred miles using only sunshine as power source. Its top
speed was 43 mph. It reached heights exceeding 15,000 ft. and cruised between 5,000 and
10,000 feet. No batteries or other energy-storage devices were used.
Figure 1-26. Reinforced plastics are used extensively by Grumman in its E-2A Hawkeye
aircraft for the rotodome, vertical stabilizers, belly radome, electrical paneling, and many other
applications.
33
~
Vertical fin fixed
Trailing edge flap track support fairing [K/GJ trailing edge panels [K/G)
Vertical fin tip (G)
,,-
Inboard and outboard spoilers [G)
Fixed trailing edge panels [K/GJ

Inboard ailer Rudder [G)
panels (G
Wmg-to-body fairing [K/G
Main landing-gear doors [K/GJ stabilizer fixed trailing edge panels IK/GJ
Seal depressors keel beam
fairing and tire burst panels Engme strut,forward/aft fairings [K]
G = Graphite
K =Kevlar
F =Fiberglass
Figure 1-27. Extensive use is made of weight-saving plastic composites throughout the secondary structures of such commercial aircraft as this
Boeing 767.
f.:-.::::·a Aluminum
t.;.!#.~ Titanium
Composites
Horizontal
CJ Other stabilizer
(full span)
Over wing fairing
Engine access doors
Forward fuselage
Figure 1-28. More than 26 percent of this McDonnell-Douglas AV-SB Harrier combat aircraft's
structural weight is carbon-epoxy composite plastics.
AI STRESSED SKIN
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

VEAR
Figure 1-29. The applications of various materials in aircraft.
35
80 o ACAP
LEAR FAN 2100
60
HELICOPTERS
Ir-
A
-
BUSINESS JETS
LANDING GEAR
ADV
AGHTER
IDEVELOPMENT I PRODUCTION
APPLICATION
AV-8B
FUSELAGES
WINGS ~ COMMERCIAL
10 EMPENNAG~\~ F-18 J ./ TRANSPORTS
FLAPS '" F.15?/
DOORS............ F.14 F.16
o~----~~~--~=-----~------~----~
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
FISCAL YEAR
Figure 1-30. The implementation of composites in aircraft.
2.0
, - - - - - GrlEpNO
HOLES
1.5 GrIEp 5116 HOLES "C._____.,,' B/Ep NO HOLES
STEEL~--
_ • -
J"'_
- -B/Ep 5116 HOLES
SPECIFIC
TENSILE 1.0
STRENGTH,
6
F.'p 10 IN.
Ti
~:::::::::=::Z~~=:::::==-II'":-~..!:-=~- - G LASS/EPOX V
--
__ -;: AI
.5 ~-----~-~-~-~
My KEVLAR/EPOXY GLASS/POLYESTER
- --- --- - - - - - - - SPRUCE
O~-- __L -_ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _i -_ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _- L____- L____ ~
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR OF INTRODUCTION
Figure 1·31. The specific working tensile strengths of various materials.
36
kg/m 2 LBIIN.2
m --w.-
300
.01 AI2024·T3
200
PANEL WEIGHT
WIb
B/Ep IAVCO 55051
GrIEp IT300I52081
LB/IN.
1000 2000 3000 4000 IiOOO ""'iN.'"
o 10 20 30 MN/m
m
STRUCTURAL INDEX N./b
Figure 1·32. Weights of long compression panels.
1200
1000
ADVANCED
800
COMPOSITE NACELLES
AIRFRAME LEAR AVIA
PRODUCTION,
KLB/YR 600
FLY AWAY WT SECONDARY
STRUCTURE
(MAINLY COMMERCIAL)
400
F-14
F-15
F-16
STRUCTURE F-18
(MAINLY MILITARY) AV·8B LEAR AVIA
o~~ __ ~~ __ ~~ __ ~~ __ ~~~
'80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89
CALENDAR YEAR
Figure 1·33. U.S. advanced composite airframe production for commercial and military aircraft
and helicopters (1980-1990).
37
NOTE: VARIATIONS IN STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

ONLY. ALL OTHER ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES
(I.E., AERODYNAMICS AND PROPULSION)
WEIGHT
REMAIN UNCHANGED
% METAL AIC TOGW
100 r - -
~
~
80 t-
-
t-
~
FUEL
60 r-
t- -
- USEFUL LOAD
40 f-
SYSTEMS
~
f-
20 - -
STRUCTURE
-
o
METAL COMPOSITE
AIC AIC
Figure 1-34. The effect of structures and materials technology on aircraft weight.
8. In appliances. In this market plastics have been exceptionally beneficial (see Figs.
1-35 to 1-39. For example, in the early 1900s doing simple household tasks was a
real chore. Washing, drying, and ironing clothes was a rigorous, two-day affair
involving the filling of metal tubs, scrubbing by hand, hanging clothes to dry, and
heating cast-iron flat irons on a stove. With new technology and plastics laundry rooms
and kitchens the world over are operating and looking better than ever before.
In the fall of 1987, Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp. found itself on the short end of
the age-old supply-and-demand equation. That is, it was unable to keep up with demand
for its heavy-duty electric power tools. The problem was that their machining oper-
ations could not turn out enough aluminum die-cast motor housings to keep up with
market demand. The firm briefly considered what would have been a long-term so-
lution; a state-of-the-art machining center. But a feasibility study showed that capital
costs for such a facility would run into hundreds of thousands of dollars, while resulting
savings would amount to a few cents per part.
Fortunately, there was another option: plastic motor housings. Du Pont agreed to
produce plastic prototypes of the housing in Zytel nylon 82G resin (see Fig. 1-39).
The prototypes were quickly assembled; then they endured demanding drop tests and
other field tests that are standard for Milwaukee Electric tools. When the housings of
impact-resistant Zytel passed the tests with no problem, the firm had anew, lower-
cost solution to its machining problem: a plastic housing, produced from a production
mold that required no machining.
The redesign presented several additional opportunities. Initial target was to replace
aluminum die-casting, and thereby eliminate machining as well as deflashing, trim-
ming, and spadoning (a surface treatment that imparts a matte finish). But they also
wanted to eliminate as many parts as possible, simplify the assembly, and use a
a.
b.
Figure 1·35. Three views of electric irons showing their use of different plastics and processes.
Color decorative skirts use BMC (bulk-molding compounds) located above steel sole plates that
must withstand continuous operating temperatures of 232°C (450°F), high-impact loads, and be
durable. Under the sole plates, fluoroplastics permit an easy nonstick slipping motion of the hot
iron during use.
39
c.
product that worked as well or better than aluminum. Achieving these goals produced
some spectacular benefits; part costs dropped by two-thirds, while manufacturing
through-put rates increased. Savings in labor, machine, and assembly operations have
been augmented by lower capital and maintenance costs for the plastic tooling. As
many as one million plastic housings can be molded without major tool repair or
replacement, versus 100,000 parts for the die-casting operation.
Six parts in the housing were eliminated. Because plastic used is not conductive,
designers were able to do away with insulating parts, such as a coil shield that separated
the brush holder area from the aluminum, and the cardboard insulating sleeve that
went between the copper wiring of the field core and the housing. Removing the
sleeve had the added benefit of creating better airflow inside the housing, so the motor
now runs cooler under load. Press-fitting a rear ball bearing into the housing and
keeping the bearing securely in place proved to be a major obstacle. The solution:
eight small ribs inside the rear bearing pocket. The ribs increase the amount of
interference that can be overcome when press-fitting the ball bearing, and keep the
bearing in its pocket with a strong, uniform force.
Another concern was achieving overall perpendicularity of the housing face where
it fits with a mating gear case. The molder solved the problem by repeatedly adjusting
molded housing dimensions by a few thousands of an inch. The key to this fine-tuning
was to establish three adjustment spots; one at each screw hole location. Thus it was
much easier to design mating parts so that they sit on the lands, specific points, rather
than trying to align a complete surface. Accurately repeating such minute dimensions
requires batch-to-batch resin consistency and process control [10, 12].
9. In other markets. Plastics are literally part of all markets. A few products of the many
that exist are shown in Figures 1-40 to 1-45, and others appear throughout this volume.
Figure 1·36. The Singer Sewing Machine Co. used compression-molded glass fiber-TS
polyester material in the 1970s to meet the extremely tight tolerances required on different parts
so they would fit properly.
Figure 1·37. Being designed-

for-assembly slashed the cost of
Hoover's all-plastic vacuum
cleaner that was also designed
for the user in 1989. Clever
design resulted in cutting direct
labor in half, saving half the
manufacturing floor, reducing
the number of components from
215 to 96, requiring only 12
fasteners instead of 56 because
most components snapped into
place. This vacuum weighed
less than twelve pounds (a 25
percent reduction), reduced
seven electrical interconnections
to none, eliminated all internal
wiring, and used no painted
parts because the color was
molded in during fabrication.
Only one turnover of the base
was required to install
components, whereas many
were needed previously
41
Figure 1·38. Plastics in different refrigerator parts may include the following: (1) rollers; (2)
door gaskets; (3) gasket magnets; (4) breaker strips; (5) shelf supports; (6) light cover; (7)
switch plunger; (8) switch case; (9) hinge shims; (10) hinge bearings; (11) meat pan; (12) ice
bucket; (13) door pans; (14) pedal bumper; (15) synthetic paints; (16) coil cover; (17) veg. pan
cover; (18) egg storage; hidden parts: (19) thermo. knob; (20) thermo. indicator; (21) relay case;
(22) wire insulation; (23) foam insulation; (24) fan grill; (25) drain pan; (26) drain elbow; (27)
"wonderwall" laminate; (28) insulation bags; (29) timer knob; (30) tube grommets; (31) suction
line insulation; (32) compressor mounts; (33) sealing plugs; (34) wall bumpers; (35) fan
supports; (36) sealing compound; (37) liner supports; (38) heat breaks; (39) water pan; (40)
vinyl tapes; (41) vinyl sleeves; (42) rivets; (43) drain funnel; (44) tube coating; (45) coil cover
plate; (46) coil supports; (47) misc. bumpers; (48) misc. gaskets; other models: veg. pan; evap.
door; nameplates; shelf slides; butter door; evap. door hinges; chiller tray; ice cube tray; ice tray
grids. Courtesy, Society of Plastics Industry.
Figure 1·39. Plastic motor

housing by Du Pont for
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
The housings are molded in
Zytel 82G, which has a
lustrous, resin-like surface and
a glass fiber content of 33
percent, by weight. This super-
tough resin enabled the tool to
pass six-foot drop tests, which
are more demanding than those
performed by Underwriters
Laboratories. The plastic
housing exhibits better impact
resistance than aluminum.
Courtesy: Du Pont Co.
42
Figure 1-40. In other markets, plastics have been used for RP booms and platforms for aerial
work, high-voltage lines, and the like.
43
Figure 1-41. This 8,OOO-gallon underground ribbed fuel tank of fiberglass is highly corrosion
resistant. Its long life and reliability against leakage have seen it used in major applications
around the world.
Figure 1-42. This gigantic filament-winding machine (see Chapter 5), which is 22 ft. high, 60
ft. wide, 125 ft. long, and has a loo-ton metal mandrel, was desigbed and built in 1966 by the
Rucker Co. for Aerojet-General to wind a thirty-ton RP rocket-motor case. Its 150,OOO-gallon
tank measured 21 ft. long by 156 in. in diameter, contained about 156 million miles of glass
fiber, used an eight-ton textile creel containing sixty spools of glass fiber moving up to 4! mph,
and took three weeks to produce each epoxy RP case, in the Todd Shipyard in Los Angeles.
44
Figure 1-43. The Glasshopper, the first hopper rail car using plastics, by Cargill, Inc., Southern
Pacific, and ACF Industries. It had two major advantages: lower tare weight (54,000 lb., or
8,000 lb. lighter than steel cars [1]), and corrosion resistance, principally against the contents to
be carried, such as fertilizers. The first such car was built and successfully tested in 1973-1976;
the second in 1981-1983, the latter successfully meeting or exceeding the guidelines of the
American Association of Railroads. The series included static and dynamic tests, coupler tests,
ram tests, velocity-impact tests, fully loaded 6,000-mile tests with speeds up to 70 mph, and
more. Finite element modeling (FEM) was used throughout the design stages to aid in structural
analysis. E-glass rovings with TS polyester resin were used. The car body was filament wound.
Other RP or composite parts included outer panels, wide flange beams, stiffeners, a top sill,
roof and edge angles, and hatches. The car's capacity was about 5,000 cu. ft., its overall length
52 ft., and its height from the rail 15 ft.
Plastics have made many major contributions to the contemporary scene. For example,
a new biodegradable plastic developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology may
soon be saving lives in the form of a medical implant. This plastic is now being tested
nationwide to determine its effectiveness as a drug-releasing implant in brain cancer
patients. These implants, roughly the size of a quarter, are being placed in patients' brains
to release the chemotherapy drug BCNU (Carmustine). These biocompatible implants
have been found to be safer than injections, which can cause the BCNU to enter the bone
marrow or lungs, where the drug is toxic.
This plastic, known as polyanhydride, was designed so that water would trigger its
degradation but would not allow a drug to be released all at once. The implant degrades
from the outside, like a bar of soap, releasing the drug as it becomes smaller. The rate
at which the drug is released is determined by the surface area of the implant and the
rate of polymer degradation, which can be cU,stomized to release drugs at rates varying
from one day to many years. This design approach also holds promise for use with
different drugs for various other medical problems.
Figure 1-44. A hand-held three-gallon HDPE extrusion blow-molded sprayer tank.
Design Parameters
In contrast to working in conventional materials, such as metals, designing with plastics
usually cannot be based on one key property like tensile or shear stress. Another difference
is that usually the designer in plastics does not use standard sections, as in structural steel
work, or standard metal components, as for mechanical-engineering applications.
Figure 1-46 provides a simplified-flow diagram for setting up a design program. It
refers to the more predominant practical approach and the engineering approach.
With the practical approach most plastic products are required only to withstand static
mechanical loads (that is, no dynamic loads). Thus, conventional short-term static tests
generally suffice.
The engineering approach recognizes that many plastic products have been in use at
least since the 1940s and have been exposed to long-term static and/or dynamic loads
based on varying environmental conditions such as temperature. Designers thus consider
creep, fatigue, stress, temperature, time, and other data (see Chapters 3-5).
Designing for plastic products usually starts with the classic approach of using the
tensile, compressive, or flexural strength characteristics of the plastics. Quickly, however,
the designer must depart from conventional engineering procedures, as the viscoelastic
and heat-resistance properties of the material begin to take precedence in evaluating load
performance.
Figure 1·45. An RP stack liner being inspected prior to installation in a 682-ft.-high reinforced
concrete chimney (background) of the 1,500-megawatt Intermountain Power Project near Delta,
Utah (1985). The liner, of fiberglass supplied by PPG Industries, protects the concrete shell
from the corrosive gases that occur when sulfur dioxide is produced during coal-fired power
generation. Fiberglass-TS polyester composites can provide years of service under these
operating conditions. Such liners have been used in this type of application since at least the
1970s. They rapidly became a viable construction material as against steel and brick liners. The
liners are in canlike sections 45 ft. long and 28 ft. in diameter. The sections were filament
wound using 46 to 50 percent (by weight) resin-impregnated fiberglass rovings. The completed
liner, engineered and manufactured by Ershigs, Inc., of Bellingham, Wash., contained about
100 thousand miles, or H million pounds of fiberglass roving strands.
47
Ideal choice/Compromise
Figure 1·46. A simplified flow diagram for a design procedure.
The dimensioning of load·bearing products in many areas of design, except such highly
sophisticated parts as those used in aircraft construction, is still often the result of tradition
and empiricism, rather than being based on fact. This trial·and·error process is the usual
practical approach. Without proper evaluation this approach could lead to failure or
overengineering, which soon becomes costly. Good engineering design calls for extensive
knowledge of materials' properties as expressed in tangible data. Only then is the designer
in a position to predict the satisfactory functioning of a product.
It is not possible to obtain analytical mathematical solutions for many engineering
designs that employ plastics, metals, ceramics, wood, and other materials. An analytical
solution is a mathematical expression that provides guidelines or values for a desired
unknown quantity at any location in a product. See the section on finite element analysis
(FEA) in Chapter 6, for more information on analytical mathematical solutions.
Design Analysis
One factor that has done a great deal to harm the reputation of plastics is that in many
cases designers and engineers have, after deciding tentatively to try to introduce plastics,
then slavishly copied the metal part it was to replace. Too much emphasis cannot be
given the general principle that if plastics are to be used for maximum advantage and
with minimum risk of failure, it is essential to cast aside all preconceived notions of
design in metals and treat plastics on their own merit as one would with any other material.
A hard-and-fast rule to be followed by all intending to use plastics is to design/or plastics.
As an example, for the same-size cross-section the strength of conventional plastics (not
the high-performance reinforced ones) is considerably less than that of most metals. The
designer will thus find it necessary to increase thickness, introduce stiffening webs, and
possibly use design inserts of various types of threads to secure the proposed part. The
process will in some instances also require modification to the shape of the equipment
used to produce the part, or mean simplifying the fabricating process or reducing its cost
(see Chapter 11).
It will become obvious that what is considered good design practice insofar as metals
are concerned will not necessarily be good practice for processing plastics. It is advisable
when in doubt to review this book, the referenced literature on the subject, or consult
processing experts who know the limitations of plastics. By working in close cooperation
with the plastics fabricator it is usually possible to arrive at a satisfactory compromise.
Almost all current methods of design analysis are based on models of material behavior
that are relevant to traditional metallic materials, as for example elasticity and plastic
yield (see Chapter 3). These principles are embodied in design formulas' design sheets
or charts and in more modem techniques, such as computer-aided design (CAD) using
finite element analysis. The design analyst is merely required to supply appropriate elastic
or plastic constants for the material. Thus, traditional analysts can be expected to have
little experience with plastics, a situation that is changing.
DESIGN SHAPE
Because the formability of plastics into almost any conceivable shape is one of its design
advantages, it is important for designers to understand what can be done in this medium.
Shape, which can be almost infinitely varied in the early design stages, allows a given
weight of materials to provide a whole spectrum of strength properties, especially in the
most desirable areas of stiffness and resistance to bending.
In all materials, elementary mechanical theory demonstrates that some shapes resist
deformation from external loads or residual stresses in processing better than do others.
This phenomenon stems from the basic physical fact that deformation in beam and sheet
sections depends upon the product of modulus (E) and the second moment of inertia (I),
commonly expressed as EI. The physical part performance can be changed by varying
the moment of inertia or the modulus or both (see Chapter 3).
Thickening plastic panels to meet stiffness requirements is an expensive use of any
plastic (or other material, for that matter) because inefficiently large quantities of the
material are used, and increased heating and cooling times raise the cost of fabrication.
Adding more material to a plastic structural component does not always make it
stronger. Unless the reinforcing ribs are added in the correctly engineered proportions,
some of the additional material may be placed so that it creates high stresses, actually
decreasing the loads that cause yielding or fracture (see Fig. 1-47). Lengthy equations
for the moment of inertia and for deflection and stress are normally required to determine
the effect of ribs on stress. However, nondimensional curves have been developed to
allow quick determination of proper rib proportions, and a corresponding program for a
pocket calculator or computer will allow for obtaining greater precision when required
(see Chapters 3-5).
With potential limitations of rib reinforcements, the use of sandwich structures made
of foam, with or without facings or other cores like honeycombing, corrugation, and so
forth can be used to offer high stiffness-to-weight ratios. These proportions will have a
wide range of depths for improving the second moment of inertia and torsional stiffness.
And integral skin-molding techniques have the additional advantage of leaving the surface
of the panel effectively unfoamed.
Secondary rib
SectionB·B
Figure 1-47. Thin-skinned structures with integral ribbing to carry edge loads.
50
In pnnciple, the sandwich structure is similar to the I-beam shape in which the facings
correspond to the flanges and the cores to the webs. The facings resist axial loads and
provide the moment-resisting couple; the core stabilizes the facings against buckling or
wrinkling under axial compression and provides resistance to shear in bending. To obtain
maximum performance, facings are commonly made of reinforced plastics. Cores are
usually of foamed plastics, unreinforced or reinforced plastic honeycomb, phenolic im-
pregnated kraft paper, or balsa wood.
SUCCESS BY DESIGN
A skilled designer blends a knowledge of materials, an understanding of manufacturing
processes, and imagination into successful new designs. Recognizing the limits of design
with traditional materials is the first step in exploring the possibilities for innovative
design with relatively new materials. What is important when analyzing designs is to
incorporate ergonomics and empathy, to result in a product that truly answers the user's
needs.
With designing there has always been the need to meet engineering, styling, and
performance requirements at the lowest cost. To some there may appear to be a new era
where ergonomics is concerned, but this is not true. What is always new is that there are
continually easier methods on the horizon to simplify and meet all the specific require-
ments of a design. Some designers operate by creating only the stylish outer appearance,
allowing basic engineers to work within that outside envelope. Perhaps this is all that
is needed to be successful, but a more in-depth approach will work better. Beginning with
a thorough understanding of the user's needs and keeping an eye toward ease of manu-
facture and repair, designers should also work from the inside out. The envelope that
eventually emerges will then be a logical and aesthetic answer to the design challenge
(see Fig. 1-48).
With new plastics and processes always becoming available, the design challenge
becomes easier, even when taking today's solid-waste problem into account. Today's
plastics and processes, as reviewed throughout this book, allow designers to incorporate
and interrelate all the aspects of success. In products such as electronics, medical devices,
transportation controls (as for aircraft, cars, and boats), and many others where user-
friendly design is required, it has to be obvious to all that plastics play an important role.
Responsibilities
The responsibilities of designers encompass all aspects of design. Although functional
design is of paramount importance, a design is not complete if it is functional but cannot
easily be manufactured, or functional but not dependable, or if it has a good appearance
but poor reliability. Designers have a broad responsibility to produce designs that meet
all the objectives of function, durability, appearance, and low cost. They should not
contend that something is now designed and it is now the manufacturing engineer's job
to figure out how to make it at a reasonable cost. The functional design and the production
design are too closely interrelated to be handled separately.
Product designers must consider the conditions under which fabrication will take place,
because these conditions affect part performance and cost (Chapter 7). Such factors as
production quantity, labor, and material cost are vital. Designers should also visualize
how each part is to be fabricated. If they do not or cannot, their designs may not be
satisfactory or even feasible from a production standpoint. One purpose of this book is
PERFORMANCE COMPETITION LEGAL
....
__- ~~ R&D
__ LAB
G1 C/ G1 AI S ~II----I~
PC .... DESIGN
E:NVIRONMENT
SUPPLIERS
Figure 1-48. The overall design challenge.
to give designers sufficient infonnation about manufacturing processes so that they can
design intelligently from a productivity standpoint.
Ethics
Although there is no substitute for individual action based on a finn philosophical and
ethical foundation, designers have developed guidelines for professional conduct based
on the experience of many of them who have had to wrestle with troublesome ethical
questions and situations previously. These guidelines can be found in the published codes
of ethics for designers and engineers of a number of industry and technical societies.
COMPUTERS IN DESIGN
The use of computers in design and related fields is widespread and will continue to
expand. It is increasingly important for designers to keep up to date continually with the
nature and prospects of computer technologies. For example, plastics databases, accessible
through computers, provide product designers with property data and information on
materials and processes.
To keep material selection accessible via computer terminal and a modem, the design
database maintains graphic data on thermal expansion, specific heat, tensile stress and
strain, creep, fatigue, programs for doing fast approximations of the stiffening effects of
rib geometry, educational information and design assistance, and more (see Chapters 3-
6, 10, and the Appendix).
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the process of solving design problems with the aid of
computers. This function includes the computer generation and modification of graphic
images on a video display, printing these images as hard copy using a printer or plotter,
analyzing the design data, and electronic storage and retrieval of design information.
Many CAD systems perform these functions in an integrated fashion that can increase
the designer's productivity manyfold.
It is important to recognize that the computer does not change the nature of the design
process; it is simply a tool to improve efficiency and productivity. It is appropriate to
view the designer and the CAD system together as a design team, with the designer
providing knowledge, creativity, and control and the computer accurate, easily modifiable
graphics and the capacity to perform complex design analysis at great speeds and store
and recall design information. Occasionally, the computer can augment or replace many
of the designer's other tools, but it is important to remember that this ability does not
change the fundamental role of the designer.
Computer-Aided Design Drafting

Computer-aided design drafting (CADD), a part of CAD, is the computer-assisted gen-
eration of working drawings and other documents. The CADD user generates graphics
by interactive communication with the computer. The graphics are displayed on a video
terminal and can be converted into hard copy by a printer or plotter.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) describes a system that can take a CAD product,
devise its essential production steps, and electronically communicate this information to
manufacturing equipment such as robots. A CAD/CAM system offers many potential
advantages over traditional manufacturing systems, including the need for less design
effort through the use of CAD and CAD databases, more efficient material use, reduced
lead time, greater accuracy, and improved inventory functions.
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the ,coordination of all stages of manufac-
turing, which en~bles the manufacturers to custom design products efficiently and eco-
nomically, by a computer or a system of computers.
Computer-Aided Testing
The computer-aiding testing (CAT) addition to computer-aided activities involves the
testing that takes place in all stages of product development (see Chapter 7). The advantage
of CAT is that the output of sensors measuring the characteristics of the prototype or
finished product can manipulate the product model to improve its accuracy or identify
design modifications needed. In this way testing integrates design and fabrication into an
ongoing, self-correcting development process.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
There are certain elements common to all successful designers: knowledge of their par-
ticular design field, experience, creativity, a knowledge of the materials and processes
of manufacturing, and the ability to represent a design to others. It is in this ability to
represent a design that all the elements come together. A design may be represented by
hand-drawn renderings or be generated by computer, with instructions provided by the
designer. Regardless of the mode of representation, designing is personally satisfying
because of the creativity involved in it.
All designers must have a thorough training in graphics. Without it a designer must
fail, because as the design conception proceeds the designer's thinking must be recorded
in the form of sketches and drawings. Design drawings will often be augmented and
supported by mathematical data and diagrams, including computer data.
The Safety Factor

A factor of safety (FS) or safety factor (SF) is used to provide for the uncertainties
associated with any design. In addition to the basic uncertainties of graphic design, a
designer may also have to consider additional uncertainties:
1. Variations in material properties. Because no two plastic (or steel, for that matter)
melts are exactly alike-some may have inclusions and so on-the strength properties
given in materials tables are usually average values. If the value stated is a manufac-
turer's value, it probably is the minimum value, which can significantly reduce or
eliminate its uncertainty.
2. Effect of size in stating material strength properties. Property tables, unless otherwise
stated for plastics, metals, and so on, list strength values based on a specified size,
yet larger components generally fail at a lower stress than a similar smaller component
made of the same material (Chapter 3).
3. Type of loading. A simple static load is relatively easy to recognize, but there are
cases that fail between impact and suddenly applied loads. One thus takes into account
infrequently applied fatigue loading mixed with some shock loads, as for example
cams, links, or feeding devices (Chapter 5).
4. Effect of processes. The fabricating operations for plastics, steel, glass, and so forth
may, and usually do, introduce stress concentrations and residual stresses (Chapter
7).
5. Overall concern for human safety. All design must consider safety of the user who
may be near or in contact with the product. Unexpected overloads or other situations
may cause breakage and considerable bodily harm.
In order to take uncertainties into account in design, there is the safety factor or the
so-called "factor of ignorance." (See Chapter 5 regarding SF.) Many designers do use
the SF, but improper use of it may result in needless waste or the cost of extra material,
or even physical or operational failure. Thus, one must define what one means when
using the SF. In some cases the SF is stipulated by code or contract requirements.
Predicting Performance
Avoiding structural failure can depend in part on the ability to predict performance for
all types of materials (plastics, metals, glass, and so on). Design engineers have developed
sophisticated computer methods for calculating stresses in complex structures using dif-
ferent materials. These computational methods have replaced the oversimplified models
of materials behavior relied upon previously. The result is early comprehensive analysis
of the effects of temperature, loading rate, environment, and material defects on structural
reliability. This information is supported by stress-strain behavior data collected in actual
materials evaluations (see Chapters 3-5).
With computers the finite element method (PEA) has greatly enhanced the capability
of the structural analyst to calculate displacement, strain, and stress values in complicated
plastic structures subjected to arbitrary loading conditions. In its most fundamental form,
PEA is limited to static, linear elastic analyses. However, there are advanced finite element
computer programs that can treat highly nonlinear dynamic problems efficiently. Important
features of these programs include their ability to handle sliding interfaces between
contacting bodies and the ability to model elastic-plastic material properties. These pro-
gram features have made possible the analysis of impact problems that only a few years
ago had to be handled with very approximate techniques. Finite element techniques have
made these analyses much more precise, resulting in better and more optimum designs
(see Chapter 5).
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is used to assess a component or structure during its
operational lifetime. Radiography, ultrasonics, eddy currents, acoustic emissions, and
other methods are used to detect and monitor flaws that develop during operation (see
Chapter 9).
The selection of the evaluation method(s) depends on the specific type of plastic, the
type of flaw to be detected, the environment of the evaluation, the effectiveness of the
evaluation method, the size of the structure, and the economic consequences of structural
failure. Conventional evaluation methods are often adequate for baseline and acceptance
inspections. However, there are increasing demands for more accurate characterization
of the size and shape of defects that may require advanced techniques and procedures
and involve the use of several methods.
INTERRELATING PRODUCT-RESIN·PROCESS PERFORMANCES

In order to understand potential problems and solutions of design, it is helpful to consider
the relationships of machine capabilities, plastics processing variables, and part perfor-
mance (see Fig. 1-49). A distinction has to be made here between machine conditions
and processing variables. For example, machine conditions include the operating tem-
perature and pressure, mold and die temperature, machine output rate, and so on. Pro-
cessing variables are more specific, such as the melt condition in the mold or die, the
flow rate versus temperature, and so on (see Chapter 7).
Interrelate Product· Resin· Process
Products
Properties
Appearance ,
Cost
~
Resin Process
Density Temperature
Melt Index
~~ Pressure
Mol. WI. Distribution -'----~). Cycle
Additives Mold And Process Design
Figure 1·49. Interrelating product-resin-process performance.
A distinction between machine conditions and processing variables must be made in

order to avoid mistakes in using cause--effect relationships to advantage. It is the pro-
cessing variables, properly defined and measured, not necessarily the machine settings,
that can be correlated with part performance. There was a time when designers took little
interest in the processing of the parts they had designed. They simply sent the drawings
to the processor in another department or company and expected perfect parts to emerge,
but design and processing are now so interrelated that this separation should not exist if
products are to be consistently successful.
Those familiar with processing can detect and correct visible problems or readily
measure factors such as color, surface conditions, and dimensions. However, less-apparent
property changes are another matter. These may not show up until the parts are in service,
unless extensive testing and quality control are used (see Chapters 9 and 11).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Plastics

As a construction material, plastics provide practically unlimited benefits to the design
of products, but unfortunately no one specific plastic exhibits all these positive charac-
teristics. The successful application of their strengths and an understanding of their
weaknesses will allow designers and engineers to produce useful products. This book
reviews the advantages and disadvantages of plastics. There is a wide variation in prop-
erties among the fifteen thousand commercially available materials classified as plastics.
They now represent an important, highly versatile group of engineering materials. Like
steel, wood, and other materials, specific groups of plastics can be characterized as having
certain properties. As with other materials, for every advantage cited, a corresponding
disadvantage can probably be found (see Fig. 1-50).
In general, most plastics can easily be fabricated into all shapes and sizes. As reviewed,
if desired they can have highly intricate shapes held to tight tolerances by using processes
suitable for either limited or mass production. Many plastics can be worked using common
shop techniques. Other generalizations include the fact that many consider plastics to be
of low cost. In fact, some are so expensive that their use is limited to the most sophisticated
technology and applications. Regardless, if the cost of materials appears to be too high
for an application, a look at the processing method to be used may show that it could be
less expensive, based on the material-to-processing costs. Many designers overlook this
aspect. Plastics are typically not as strong or as stiff as metals, and they are prone to
dimensional changes, especially under load or heat. Successful designs take these con-
ditions into account when they influence design requirements (see Chapter 3). As will
be seen, there are plastics that are stronger or stiffer than metals, and there are those that
also have exceptional dimensional stability.
Highly favorable conditions such as less density, good thermal insulation, a high degree
of mechanical dampening, high resistance to corrosion and chemical attack, and excep-
tional electric resistance exist for certain plastics. There are of course those that will
deteriorate when exposed to sunlight, weather, or ultraviolet light, but then there are
those that resist such deterioration.
No matter what the material may be, there is always room for improvement, whether
it be in plastics, metals, wood, design parameters, testing procedures, or any other
category. Designers are generally most familiar with metals and wood and their behavior
under load and varying conditions of temperature and environment. For those designing
in metals and the other materials that have been used for centuries there is extensive
literature available, and since very few changes occur one can easily enter the field of
designing with these materials and refer to the handbooks that tell one what to do.
As an example, for room-temperature applications most metals can be considered to
be truly elastic. When stresses beyond the yield point are permitted in the design, per-
manent deformation is considered to be a function only of applied load and can be
determined directly from the stress-strain diagram. The behavior of most plastics is much
more dependent on the time of application of the load, the past history of loading, the
current and past temperature cycles, and environmental conditions. Ignorance of these
complexities has resulted in the appearance on the market of many plastic products that
were improperly designed. Fortunately, product performance has been greatly improved
as the amount of technical information -on the mechanical properties of plastics has
increased in the last century, particularly since the 1940s. More importantly, designers
have become more familiar with the behavior of plastics rather than just pronouncing
that one cannot design with plastics, something that has never been true (see Chapters
3-5).
Become aware that for any gain there could be a loss

not originally included in the design performance.
i c_-~ ____ - - _
Gain Ci~)===-=-=--=--=¥:::
--:j-~:;:._~_=_:__;: =:~L?i
:=
_ LOISS
~ ---.] .,J.,..
hen you gain 'something' there will be a loss .....does

that loss Inlluence product performance (for any material:
plastic, ood, s eel, glass, e c.).
Figure 1-50. For any gain, there could be a loss not originally included in design performance.
Energy to Manufacture
To produce and process plastics requires less energy than practically any other material
(see Fig. 1-51). In contrast, glass requires much more energy than any of the materials
listed in Figure 1-51.
Solid Waste
Only about 7 percent, by weight, of the solid waste produced is plastics. Incinerating,
recycling, landfill, and other methods are used to handle the worldwide plastics (and
other materials) waste problems. Incineration of plastics produces a high energy content.
For example, polystyrene has nearly twice the energy content of coal, without its ensuing
problems of ash, acid rain pollution, or harmful emissions. Plastics are just one of many
materials that produce solid waste, and, as with other materials, there are good and bad
disposal solutions.
In the United States, about 20 percent or 81,000 t (90,000 tons) of plastic (polyethylene
terephthalate; PET) soft-drink bottles are being recycled. The high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) milk bottles recycled amount to 36,000 t (40,000 tons) per year. See Chapter
12 for more details on the waste problem.
Cost
It is a popular misconception that plastics are cheap materials-they are not. On a weight
basis most plastics are more expensive than steel, and only slightly less so than aluminum
(see Fig. 1-52). It should be remembered that it is a bad design practice to select materials
on the basis of cost per unit weight rather than volume. By far the real advantage to
using plastics to produce low-cost products is the low processing cost, as discussed
previously. Figures 1-53 to 1-55 show different factors involving costs.
o Fuel
8
• Feedstock
.£
::J
U
." 6
m
Figure 1-51. Energy requirements for different materials.

Metals
CI)
3
= E
-
Ci
>
10il
-
u 2
Thermosets
-
0
.S!
I 'll
a:
Figure I-52. A general cost comparison, based on volume, for a general classification of
materials.
Premium rates over bulk rail car $20 billion annual sales
Size of contamer 6 used by over 22,000 plants
v~
SpeCial
size
containers
~
Drum
LttY 250 to
350lb
Processing Number of
plants employees
~
65% 1 to 19 20%
19% 20 to 49 of
"'"
Sag 7% 50 to 99 sales
91%
~~
Sox
I 1 ro1000lb
Truck mIJlm 40,000 Ib
Rail car E 3
r;~~===;'(jj~
150,000 to
200,000 Ib
9% of processing
plants (100 + employees)
80%
of
sales
Figure 1-53. Estimated plastics dollar purchases by plant size and size of containers.
59
High Volume Parts
Power 37%
Labor 3%
Water 19%
Plant overhead
41%
Machine
operation 11 %
Taxes 0.5%
Overhead 0.5%
Precision Parts
Power 14%
Water 6%
Labor 2%
Machine
Operation 24%
Labor 4%
Figure 1·54. Share of cost to injection mold high-volume parts and precision parts.
+-'
en
0
U
Cl :J
t
c. Cost
'+- variation
~
Target
Performance requirement ~
Figure 1·55. The influence of manufacturing costs and perfonnance requirements on product
cost.
60
Chapter 2
THE STRUCTURE AND BASIC

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
There are some fairly broad basic guidelines that can be followed when designing a
product to be made from plastics. This chapter analyzes the major groupings of plastic
materials in terms of their characteristics [201-253] Chapters 3-5 then present a review
of basic structural design considerations. Information about and data on plastic materials
are given in Chapter 6.
Plastics comprise an extraordinarily large, diverse class of materials numbering about
fifteen thousand that displays a broad range of properties and processing characteristics.
Like other materials, plastics are variously identified, such as plastics, resins, polymers,
elastomers, foams, reinforced plastics, and composites. The terms plastics, resins, and
polymers are usually taken as synonymous and are so used in this book but there are
technical distinctions. A polymer is a pure unadulterated material that is usually taken
as the family name for the materials, including rubbers, that have long chainlike atoms
or molecules. The chains contain various combinations of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
carbon, silicon, chlorine, fluorine, and sulfur. Although plastics are soft and moldable,
even approaching a liquid condition during manufacture, in their finished state they are
solid. Pure polymers are seldom used on their own. Technically, it is when additives
are present that the terms plastic or resin are used.
Elastomers are flexible. Plastics can provide flexible to rigid foams. Reinforced plastics
or composites are plastics (polymers or resins) with reinforcing additives, such as fibers
and whiskers, added, basically, to increase the product's mechanical properties. Through-
out this book these terms are used precisely according to their respective areas of interest.
The term plastics is not a definitive one. Metals, for instance, are also permanently
deformable and are therefore plastic. How else could roll aluminum be made into foil
for kitchen use, or tungsten wire be drawn into a filament for an incandescent light bulb,
or a 90 t (100 ton) ingot of steel be forged into a rotor for a generator? Likewise the
different glasses, which contain compounds of metals and nonmetals, can be permanently
shaped at high temperatures. These cousins to polymers and plastics are not considered
plastics within the context of this book.
The term plastics became attached to polymeric materials because these materials are
basically capable of being molded or formed, as are clay or plaster. Potters use wet clay
to create their art, although these objects are not called plastics. Despite this seeming
61
Table 2-1. Types of Plastics
Acetal (POM) Polyetherketone (PEK)
Acrylics Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Polyetherimide (PEl)
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) Polyimide (PI)
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Thermoplastic PI
Alkyd Thermoset PI
Allyl diglycol carbonate (CR-39) Polymethylmethacrylate (acrylic) (PMMA)
Allyls Polymethylpentene
Diallyl isophthalate (DAIP) Polyolefins (PO)
Diallyl phthalate (DAP) Chlorinated PE (CPE)
Aminos Cross-linked PE (XLPE)
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) High-density PE (HDPE)
Urea formaldehyde (UF) lonomer
Cellulosics Linear LDPE (LLDPE)
Cellulose acetate (CA) Low-density PE (LDPE)
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) Polyallomer
Cellulose acetate propionate (CAP) Polybutylene (PB)
Cellulose nitrate Polyethylene (PE)
Ethyl cellulose (EC) Polypropylene (PP)
Chlorinated polyether Ultra-high-molecular weight PE (UHMWPE)
Epoxy (EP) Polyoxymethylene (POM)
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) Polyphenylene ether (PPE)
Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) Polyphenylene oxide (pPO)
Fluorocarbons Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) Polyurethane (PUR)
Polytetralluoroethylene (PTFE) Silicone (SI)
Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) Styrenes
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Acrylic styrene acrylonitrile (ASA)
Furan Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
lonomer General-purpose PS (GPPS)
Ketone High-impact PS (HIPS)
Liquid crystal polymer (LCP) Polystyrene (PS)
Aromatic copolyester (TP polyester) Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN)
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Styrene butadiene (SB)
Nylon (Polyamide) (PA) Sulfones
Parylene Polyether sulfone (PES)
Phenolic Polyphenyl sulfone (PPS)
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) Polysulfone (PSU)
Phenoxy Urea formaldehyde (UF)
Polyallomer Vinyls
Polyamide (nylon) (PA) Chlorinated PVC (CPVC)
Polyamide-imide (PAl) Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc)
Polyarylethers Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
Polyaryletherketone (PAEK) Polyvinyl butyrate (PVB)
Polyaryl sulfone (PAS) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyarylate (PAR) Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVF)
Polycarbonate (PC)
Polyesters
Aromatic polyester (TS polyester)
Thermoplastic polyesters
Crystallized PET (CPET)
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Unsaturated polyester (TS polyester)
62
THE STRUCTURE AND BASIC PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS 63
contradiction in the use of this term, plastics definitely identifies the materials described
in this book and those produced by the worldwide plastics industry.
To better understand the properties of plastics it is important to know about the tran-
sitions that occur, such as those that have a glass transition temperature of T11' a term
explained in this chapter. Nearly all the mechanical properties of plastics are determined
primarily by these transitions and the temperatures at which they occur. With a change
in temperature different plastics can have either quick or gradual changes in viscosity
and as temperatures increase the materials can change from basically rigid solids to liquids
either quickly or gradually, depending on their chemical structure and composition.
Overview
Each plastic has its own distinct or special properties and advantages. See Tables 2-1
and 2-2 for names and properties typical of plastics. They fall into two groups: ther-
moplastics (TP) and thermosets (TS) as summarized in Figures 2-1 and 2-2 and Table 2-
3. The dividing line between a TP and a TS is not always distinct. For instance, cross-
linked TSs are TPs during their initial heat cycle and prior to chemical cross-linking.
Others, such as a cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), normally are TPs that have been
cross-linked either by high-energy radiation or chemically, during processing.
In addition to the broad categories of TPs and TSs, TPs can be further classified in
terms of their structure, as either crystalline, amorphous, or liquid crystalline. Other
classes include elastomers, copolymers, compounds, commodity resins, and engineering
resins. Additives, fillers, and reinforcements are other classifications that relate directly
to plastics' properties and performance.
Table 2-2. Properties of Some Plastics

Propeny Thermoplastics Thermosets
Low Temperature TFE DAP

Low Cost PP. PE. PVc. PS Phenolic
Low Gravity Polypropylene methylpentene Phenolic/nylon
Thermal Expansion Phenoxy glass Epoxy-glass fiber
Volume Resistivity TFE DAP
Dielectric Strength PVC DAP. polyester
Elasticity EV A. PVc. TPR Silicone
Moisture Absorption Chlorotritluorethylene Alkyd-glass fiber
Steam Resistance Polysulfone DAP
Flame Resistance TFE. PI Melamine
Water Immersion Chlorinated polyether DAP
Stress Craze Resistance Polypropylene All
High Temperature TFE. PPS. Pl. PAS Silicones
Gasoline Resistance Acetal Phenolic
Impact UHMW PE Epoxy-glass fiber
Cold Flow Polysulfone Melamine-glass fiberglass
Chemical Resistance TFE. FEP. PE. PP Epoxy
Scratch Resistance Acrylic Allyl diglycol carbonate (C-39)
Abrasive Wear Polyurethane Phenolic-canvas
Colors Acetate, PS Urea. melamine
Thermoplastic:
These plashes become soft hen exposed
to sufficient heat and harden when cooled,
no matter how often the process is repeated
ThennoseHing:
The plastics materials belont1ng to this group
are set into permanent shape when heat and
pressure are applied to them during forming
Reheating ill not so! en these materials
Figure 2-1. The characteristics of thermoplastics (TPs) and thermosets (TSs).
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are resins that repeatedly soften when heated and harden when cooled
(see Fig. 2-2). Many are soluble in specific solvents and burn to some degree. Their
softening temperatures vary with the polymer type and grade. Care must be taken to
avoid degrading, decomposing, or igniting these materials. Generally, no chemical changes
take place during processing. An analogy would be a block of ice that can be softened
(turned back to a liquid), poured into any shape mold or die, then cooled to become a
solid again. TPs generally offer higher impact strength, easier processing, and better
adaptability to complex designs than do TSs.
Most TP molecular chains can be thought of as independent, intertwined strings re-
sembling spaghetti. When heated, the individual chains slip, causing a plastic flow. Upon
cooling, the chains of atoms and molecules are once again held firmly. With subsequent
heating the slippage again takes place. There are practical limitations to the number of
heating and cooling cycles before appearance or mechanical properties are affected (see
Chapters 6 and 7).
Thermosets
Thermosets are resins that undergo chemical change during processing to become per-
manently insoluble and infusible (see Fig. 2-2 and Table 2-2). Such natural and synthetic
rubbers (elastomers) as latex, nitrile, millable polyurethanes, silicone butyl, and neoprene,
which attain their properties through the process of vulcanization, are also in the TS
THE STRUCTURE AND .BASIC PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS 65
Example of a Thermoset
Processing Heat-Time Profile Cycle
11... a. Start of process

b. Plastic melted
d. Plastic permane~t1y hard
~~--~~----~~
I..aov - Time - High
Example of a Thermoplastic
Processing Heat·Time Profile Cycle
-.- ----
.s::::
!~
tl-~--
! - _b_ - - --
,
a. Start of process
b. Plastic melted
c. Plastic hard but can
~ a c be resoftened
~--------.......
Low - - Time -... High
Figure 2-2, The melting characteristics of TSs and TPs, based on their heat-time processing
profiles.
family (see Chapter 4). The best analogy with TSs is that of a hard-boiled egg whose
yolk has turned from a liquid· to a solid and cannot be converted back to a liquid (see
Fig. 2-1). In general, with their tightly cross-linked structure TSs resist higher temperatures
and provide greater dimensional stability than do most TPs.
The structure of TSs, as of TPs, is also chainlike. Prior to molding. TSs are similar
to TPs. Cross-linking is the principal difference between TSs and TPs. In TSs, during
Table 2-3. Melt-Processing Temperatures for Thermoplastics

Processing Temperature Rate
Material ·c "F
ABS 180-240 356--464
Acetal 185-225 365-437
Acrylic 180-250 356-482
Nylon 260-290 500-554
Polycarbonate 280-310 536-590
LOPE 160-240 320-464
HOPE 200-280 392-536
Polypropylene 200-300 392-572
Polystyrene 180-260 356-500
PVC, rigid 160-180 320-365
Not.: Values are typical for injection molding and most eXIIUsion operations. Extrusion coating is done at higher temperalUIes (i.e., about6OO"F
for LOPE).
CONSTANT
>- TEMPERATURE
l-
en
o()
en
-
>
MELTING X-LINKING TIME

COMPOUNDING
("8" STAGING) (MOLDING)
Figure 2-3. Viscosity change during the processing of thennoset plastics. The B stage
represents the start of the heating cycle that recycles viscosity and is then followed by a
chemical reaction (cross-linking) and solidification of the plastics.
curing or hardening the cross-links are fonned between adjacent molecules, resulting in
a complex, interconnected network that can be related to its viscosity and perfonnance
(see Figs. 2-3 and 2-4). These cross-bonds prevent the slippage of individual chains, thus
preventing plastic flow under the addition of heat. If excessive heat is added after cross-
linking has been completed, degradation rather than melting will occur.
TSs generally cannot be used alone structurally and must be filled or reinforced with
materials such as calcium carbonate, talc, or glass fiber. The most common reinforcement
is glass fiber, but others are also used (see Chapters 6 and 7).
PLASTIC STRUCTURES AND MORPHOLOGY

In addition to the size of the molecules and their distribution, the shapes or structures of
individual polymer molecules also play an important role in detennining the properties
and processability of plastics. There are those that are fonned by aligning themselves
into long chains of molecules and others with branches or lateral connections to fonn
complex structures. All these fonns exist in either two or three dimensions. Because of
the geometry, or morphology, of these molecules some can come closer together than
others. These are identified as crystalline, all others as amorphous. Morphology influences
such properties as mechanical and thennal, swelling and solubility, specific gravity, and
chemical and electric properties.
This behavior of morphology basically occurs with TP, not TS, plastics. When TSs
are processed, their individual chain segments are strongly bonded together during a
chemical reaction that is irreversible.
Crystalline and Amorphous Plastics

Plastic molecules that can be packed closer together can more easily fonn crystalline
structures in which the molecules align themselves in some orderly pattern. During
t ----------- Elastic modulus
I
>-
+-'
...... - - -_ _ _- Strength
C1l
Q.
o......
Q.
ro
u
c Stress-intensity factor
ro
.r:.
u
C1l
~
Distance between cross-links •

Figure 2-4. The effect of distance between TS cross-linked sites on compressive properties.
processing they tend to develop higher strength in the direction of the molecules. Since
commercially perfect crystalline polymers are not produced, they are identified technically
as semicrystalline TPs but in this book are called crystalline (as it is called by the plastic
industry).
The amorphous TPs, which have their molecules going in all different directions, are
normally transparent. Compared to crystalline types, they undergo only small volumetric
changes when melting or solidifying during processing. Tables 2-4 to 2-8 compare the
basic performance of crystalline and amorphous plastics. Exceptions exist, particularly
with respect to the plastic compounds that include additives and reinforcements.
As symmetrical molecules approach within a critical distance, crystals begin to form
in the areas where they are the most densely packed. A crystallized area is stiffer and
stronger, a noncrystallized (amorphous) area tougher and more flexible. With increased
crystallinity, other effects occur. As an example, with polyethylene there is increased
resistance to creep, heat, and stress cracking as well as increased mold shrinkage.
In general, crystalline types of plastics are more difficult to process, requiring more-
precise control during fabrication, have higher melting temperatures and melt viscosities,
Table 2-4. The General Morphology of Thermoplastics

Crystalline Amorphous
No Transparent Yes
Excel Chemical resistance Poor
No Stress-craze Yes
High Shrinkage Low
High Strength Low*
Low Viscosity High
Yes Melt temperature No
Yes Critical TlTt No
*Major exception i5 PC.

tTff = Temperatureflime.
Table 2-5. The Distinctive Characteristics of Polymers

Sharp melting point Broad softening range

Usually opaque Usually transparent
High shrinkage Low shrinkage
Solvent resistant Solvent sensitive
Fatigue/wear resistant Poor fatigue/wear
and tend to shrink and warp more than amorphous types. They have a relatively sharp
melting point. That is, they do not soften gradually with increasing temperature but
remain hard until a given quantity of heat has been absorbed, then change rapidly into
a low-viscosity liquid. If the amount of heat is not' applied properly during processing,
product performance can be drastically reduced or an increase in processing cost occur
(see Chapter 7). This is not necessarily a problem, because the qualified processor will
know what to do. Amorphous plastics soften gradually as they are heated, but they do
not flow as easily during molding as do crystalline materials.
Processing conditions influence the performance of plastics. For example, heating a
crystalline material above its melting point, then quenching it can produce a polymer that
has a far more amorphous structure. Its properties can be significantly different than if
it is cooled properly (slowly) and allowed to recrystallize, during which processing it
becomes amorphous. The effects of time are similar to those of temperature in the sense
that any given plastic has a preferred or equilibrium structure in which it would prefer
to arrange itself. However, it is prevented from doing so instantaneously or at least on
"short notice." If given enough time, the molecules will rearrange themselves into their
preferred pattern. Heating causes this action to occur sooner. During this action severe
shrinkage and property changes could occur in all directions in the processed plastics.
This characteristic morphology of plastics can be identified by tests (see Chapter 9).
It provides excellent control as soon as material is received in the plant, during processing,
and after fabrication.
Liquid Crystalline Polymers

Liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) are best thought of as being a separate, unique class
of TPs. Their molecules are stiff, rodlike structures organized in large parallel arrays or
domains in both the melted and solid states. These large, ordered domains provide LCPs
with characteristics that are unique compared to those of the basic crystalline or amorphous
plastics (see Table 2-9) [2].
Table 2-6. Examples of Crystalline (Semicrystalline) and Amorphous TPs

Acetal (POM) Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)

Polyester (PET, PBT) Acrylic (PMMA)
Polyamide (nylon) (PA) Polycarbonate (PC)
Fluorocarbons (PTFE, etc.) Modified polyphenylene oxide (PPO)
Polyethylene (PE) Polystyrene (PS)
Polypropylene (PP) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Table 2-7. Examples of Key Properties for Engineering TPs

Acetal Polycarbonate
Best property balance Good impact resistance
Stiffest unreinforced thermoplastic Transparent
Low friction Good electrical properties
Nylon Modified PPO

High melting point Hydrolytic stability
High elongation Good impact resistance
Toughest thermoplastic Good electrical properties
Absorbs moisture
Glass reinforced
High strength
Stiffness at elevated temperatures
Mineral reinforced
Most economical
Low warpage
Polyester (glass reinforced)

High stiffness
Lowest creep
Excellent electrical properties
These LCPs provide the designer with unparalleled combinations of properties, such
as resisting most solvents and heat. Unlike many high-temperature plastics, LCPs have
a low melt viscosity and are thus more easily processed, and in faster cycle times, than
those with a high melt viscosity. They have the lowest warpage and shrinkage of all the
TPs. When they are injection molded or extruded, their molecules align into long, rigid
chains that in turn align in the direction of flow and thus act like reinforcing fibers, giving
LCPs both high strength and stiffness. As the melt solidifies during cooling, the molecular
orientation freezes into place. The volume changes only minutely, with virtually no frozen-
in stresses.
Table 2-8. General Properties of TPs During and After Processing

Property Crystalline· Amorphoust
Melting or softening Fairly sharp melting Softens over a range of

point temperature
Density (for the same material) Increases as crystallinity Lower than for
increases crystalline material
Heat content Greater Lower
Volume change on heating Greater Lower
After-molding shrinkage Greater Lower
Effect of orientation Greater Lower
Compressibility Often greater Sometimes lower
·Typical aystalline plastics are polyelbylene, polypropylene, nylon, acetals, ODd Ibermoplastic polyesters.
fTypical 3!DOIphous plastics are polystyn:ne, acrylics, PVC, SAN, ODd ADS.
Table 2-9. General Properties of Crystalline, Amorphous, and

Liquid Crystalline Polymers
Liquid
Property Crystalline Amorphous crystalline
Specific gravity Higher Lower Higher

Tensile strength Higher Lower Highest
Tensile modulus Higher Lower Highest
Ductility, elongation Lower Higher Lowest
Resistance to creep Higher Lower High
Max. usage temperature Higher Lower High
Shrinkage and warpage Higher Lower Lowest
Flow Higher Lower Highest
Chemical resistance Higher Lower Highest
In service, molded parts experience very little shrinkage or warpage. They have high
resistance to creep. Their fiberlike molecular chains tend to concentrate near the surface,
resulting in parts that are anisotropic, meaning that they have greater strength and modulus
in the flow direction, typically on the order of three to six times those of the transverse
direction. However, adding fillers or reinforcing fibers to LCPs significantly reduces their
anisotropy, more evenly distributing strength and modulus and even boosting them. Most
fillers and reinforcements also reduce overall cost and place mold shrinkage to near zero.
Consequently, parts can be molded to tight tolerances. These low-melt-viscosity LCPs
thus permit the design of parts with long or complex flow paths and thin sections.
Elastomers
Plastic elastomers are generally lower-modulus flexible materials that can be stretched
repeatedly to at least twice their original length at room temperature, but will return to
their approximate original length when the stress is released. Thermoset elastomeric or
rubber materials have been around for a long time, the rubber types for over a century.
They will always be required to meet certain desired properties, but thermoplastic elas-
tomers (TPEs) are replacing traditional TS natural and synthetic rubbers. TPEs are also
widely used to modify the properties of rigid TPs, usually by improving their impact
strength (see Chapter 6).
TPEs offer a combination of strength and elasticity as well as exceptional processing
versatility. They present creative designers with endless new and unusual product op-
portunities. More than 100 major different groups of TPEs are produced worldwide, with
new grades continually being introduced to meet different electrical, chemical, radiation,
wear, swell, and other requirements.
Quite large elastic strains are possible with minimal stress in TPEs; these are the
synthetic rubbers. TPEs have two specific characteristics: their glass transition temperature
(Tg) is below that at which they are commonly used, and their molecules are highly
kinked, as in natural TS rubber (isoprene). When a stress is applied, the molecular chain
uncoils and the end-to-end length can be extended several hundred percent, with minimum
stresses. Some TPEs have an initial modulus of elasticity of less than 10 MPa (1,500
psi); once the molecules are extended, the modulus increases.
The modulus of metals decreases with an increase in temperature. However, in stretched
TPEs the opposite is true, because with them at higher temperatures there is increasingly
1 10 100
Elastic Limit (Percent)
Figure 2·5. The strength and elasticity of different materials.
vigorous thennal agitation in their molecules. Therefore, the molecules resist more strongly
the tension forces attempting to uncoil them. To resist requires greater stress per unit of
strain, so that the modulus increases with temperature. When stretched into molecular
alignment many rubbers can fonn crystals, an impossibility when they are relaxed and
"kinked."
To date, with the exception of vehicle tires, TPEs have been replacing TS rubbers in
virtually all applications. Unlike natural TS rubbers, most TPEs can be reground and
reused, thereby reducing overall cost. The need to cure or vulcanize them is eliminated,
reducing cycle times, and parts can be molded to tighter tolerances. Most TPEs can be
colored, whereas natural rubber is available only in black. TPEs also weigh 10 to 40
percent less than rubbers.
TPEs range in hardness from as low as 25 Shore A up to 82 Shore D (ASTM test).
They span a temperature of - 34 to 177° C ( - 29 to 350°F), dampen vibration, reduce
noise, and absorb shock (see Fig. 2·5). However, designing with TPEs requires care,
because unlike TS rubber, which is isotropic, TPEs tend to be anisotropic during pro-
cessing, as with injection molding. Tensile strengths in TPEs can vary as much as 30 to
40 percent with direction.
Copolymers
Polymer properties can be varied during polymerization. The basic chemical process is
carried out at the resin company, during which the polymer is fonned under the influence
of heat, pressure, a catalyst, or a combination thereof, inside vessels or tubular systems
called reactors. One special form of property variation involves the use of two or more
different monomers as comonomers, copolymerizing them to produce copolymers (two
comonomers) or terpolymers (three monomers). Their properties are usually intennediate
between those of homopolymers, which may be made from the individual monomers,
and sometimes superior or inferior to them. (A polymer such as polyethylene is formed

from its monomer ethylene, polyvinyl chloride polymer from its vinyl chloride monomer,
and so on.)
Compounds
Since the first plastic, cellulosic, was produced in 1868, there has been an ever-growing
demand for specially compounded plastics. Using a postreactor technique, resins can be
compounded by alloying or blending polymers, using additives such as colorants, flame
retardants, heat or light stabilizers, lubricants, and so on, and adding fillers and rein-
forcements-or a combination thereof. The resulting reinforced compounds are usually
referred to as reinforced plastics (RPs) or composites.
Alloys and Blends

Alloys are combinations of polymers that are mechanically blended. They do not depend
on chemical bonds, but do often require special "compatibilizers" (explained below).
Plastic alloys are usually designed to retain the best characteristics of each constituent.
Most often, property improvements are in such areas as impact strength, weather resis-
tance, improved low-temperature performance, and flame retardation (see Figs. 2-6 to
2-9 and Tables 2-10 to 2-12).
The classic objective of alloying and blending is to find two or more polymers whose
mixture will have synergistic property improvements beyond those that are purely additive
in effect (see Figs. 2-6 and 2-7). Among the techniques used to combine dissimilar
Synergistic effect
Antisynergistic effect
100% A 50A/50 8 100%8

Figure 2-6. Developing synergistic effects is the most usual objective of compounding plastics
to gain significantly in performance.
20
g
..s:::::
15
~
""j'"
-
==
..s:::::
Cl
I::
~ 10
Cii
-g
Q.
.§
"8
.!::! 5
"0
Q)
..s:::::
o
--
(5
Z O~ ________________________
100/0 50/50 0/100
PVC/ASS ratio
Figure 2-7. An example of how alloying affects resin properties. Compounding and alloying
technology makes it possible to combine two or more polymers into alloys with their own
distinctive, often unique properties. The curves in this graph reflect four different poly blends.
polymers are cross-linking, to form what are called interpenetrating networks (IPNs), and
grafting, to improve the compatibility of the resins.
Alloys can be classified as either homogeneous or heterogeneous. The former can be
depicted as a solution with a single phase or single glass-transition temperature (Tg ). A
heterogeneous alloy has both continuous and dispersed phases, each retaining its own
distinctive Tg •
Until recently, blending and alloying were either restricted to polymers that had an
inherent physical affinity for each other or else a third component, called a compatibilizer,
was employed. These constraints severely limited the types of polymers that could be
blended without sacrificing their good physical properties. As a rule, incompatible poly-
mers produce a heterogeneous alloy with poor physical properties.
The advances in polymer blending and alloying technology have come until recently
through three routes: similar-rheology polymer pairs, miscible polymers such as poly-
phenylene oxide and polystyrene, or interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs).
All these systems are limited to specific polymer combinations that have an inherent
physical affinity for each other. Now, however, there is another overall approach to
producing blends via reactive polymers.
74 DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND COMPOSlirES: A HANDBOOK
ACRYLONITRILE
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
STRENGTH ABRASION RESISTANCE
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE HARDNESS
NBR SAN
TOUGHNESS LUSTER
LOW-TEMPERATURE MOLDABILITY
PROPERTY RETENTION STRENGTH
IMPACT STRENGTH RIGIDITY
B~----------------~------------------~S
BUTADIENE SBR STRYENE

STRENGTH
Figure 2-8. ABS terpolymer properties are shown here as influenced by individual constituent
polymer properties.
Interpenetrating Networks. IPNs consist of an interwoven matrix of two polymers. A

typical method for producing these alloys involves cross-linking one of the monomers in
the presence of the other. The need for a chemical similarity between the two types of
molecules is thus reduced, because cross-linking physically traps one with the other. The
result is a structure composed of two different intertwined plastics, each retaining its own
physical characteristics.
o Unmodified resin III Alloy
Plastic Cost index Yield strength index Impact strength index

Polypropylene
D t::J tJ
Polystyrene
Impact styrene (alloy)
9J ~
1
h
r7/77//I
-,
~
ABS
ABS/PVC (alloy) '//.,1 II I I I ,~/ " I I 1 IA
ABS/Polycarbonate (alloy) '///1 11'///1 '17/ ~W / I / / .II
Rigid PVC 11 I l
PVC/acrylic (alloy) 1////1 /LLI 1111i~711111lll
Polyphenyleneoxide (Noryl) r/ ///1 '////,1 I / II~VI
Polvcarbonate 1 1 ~$
Polysulfone 1 l 1
'///11/). 1/111 II /1 I II~ /7 Il
.
Polysulfone/ABS (allov)
100 500 100 200 100 450 1250 3000

Figure 2·9. Different plastics can be combined to provide cost-to-performance improvements.
Table 2-10. Upgrading PVC by Alloying and Blending

Upgraded Property Blending Polymer
Impact resistance ABS, methacyrylate-butadiene-styrene, acrylics, polycaprolactone,

polyimide, polyurethanes, PVC-ethyl acrylate
Tensile strength ABS, methacyrylate-butadiene-styrene, polyurethanes, ethylene-vinyl acetate
Low-temperature toughness Styrene-acrylonitrile, polyurethanes, polyethylene, chlorinated polyethylene,
copolyester
Dimensional stability Styrene-acrylonitrile, methacrylate-butadiene-styrene
Heat-distortion temperature ABS, methacyrylate-butadiene-styrene, polyimide, polydimethyl siloxane
Processability Styrene-acrylonitrile, methacrylate-butadiene-styrene, chlorinated
polyethylene, PVC-ethyl acrylate, ethylene-vinyl acetate, chlorinated
polyoxymethylenes (acetals)
Moldability Acrylics, polycaprolactone
Plasticization Polycaprolactone, polyurethanes, nitrile rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate,
copolyester, chlorinated polyoxymethylenes (acetals)
Transparency Acrylics, polymide
ChemicaVoil resistance Acrylics
Toughness Nitrile rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate
Adhesion Ethylene-vinyl acetate
Grafting. Grafting two dissimilar plastics often involves a third plastic whose function
is to improve the compatibility of the principal components. This "compatibilizer" material
is a grafted copolymer that consists of one of the principal components and is similar to
the other component. The mechanism is similar to that of having soap improve the
solubility of a greasy substance in water. The soap contains components that are com-
patible with both the grease and the water.
Plastic Composition
Interplay Between
Composite Constituents
Reinforcing The
Medium
Figure 2-10. The composition of plastics.

Table 2-11. Outstanding Properties of Some Commercial Plastic Alloys

Alloy Properties
PVC/acrylic Flame, impact, and chemical resistance

PVC/ABS Flame resistance, impact resistance, processability
Polycarbonate/ABS Notched impact resistance, hardness, heat-
distortion temperature
ABS/polysulfone Lower cost
Polypropylene/ethylene-propylene-diene Low-temperature impact resistance and flexibility
Polyphenylene oxide/polystyrene Processability, lower cost
Styrene acrylonitrile/olefin Weatherability
Nylon/elastomer Notched Izod impact resistance
Polybutylene terephthalate/polyethylene terephthalate Lower cost
Polyphenylene sulfide/nylon Lubricity
Acrylic/polybutylene rubber Clarity, impact resistance
Reactive Polymer. A reactive polymer is simply a device to alloy different materials

by changing their molecular structure inside a compounding machine. True reactive
alloying induces an interaction between different phases of an incompatible mixture and
assures the stability of the mixture's morphology. The concept is not new; this technology
is now capable of producing thousands of new compounds to meet specific design re-
quirements. The relatively low capital investment associated with compounding machinery
(usually less than $1 million for a line, compared with many millions for a conventional
reactor), coupled with a processing need for small amounts of tailored materials, now
allows small and mid-sized compounding companies to take advantage of it.
There are a variety of reactive alloying techniques available to the compounder today.
They typically involve the use of a reactive agent or compatibilizer to bring about a
Table 2-12. Examples of Plastic Alloys Using Trade Names

Material Producers Properties
PPO/PS GE (Noryl) Polyphenylene oxide (PPO) has high

strength and high heat resistance but
oxidizes at temperatures required for
processing; adding polystyrene (PS)
makes it possible to process
ABSIPC Mobay (Bayblend), Fiberite Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
improves process ability of
polycarbonate; PC contributes toughness
and heat resistance
PC/PET; GE (Xenoy) PC, though tough and able to withstand very
PC/PBT high temperatures, lacks good resistance
to chemicals; polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) and polybutylene terephthalate
(PBT) make up for this lack
PET/PBT GAF (Gafite), Hoechst Celanese Alloying with PET lowers PBT's impact
(Celanex), GE (Valox) resistance but brings down its cost
PVC/ABS General Tire & Rubber, GE, Cycoloy, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) adds flame
Cycovin, various compounders retardance and rigidity to ABS, a more
easily processed resin
PP/elastomer Reichhold, Hoechst Celanese Polypropylene (PP) contributes good heat
Montedison resistance and processability; elastomers
add impact resistance
molecular change in one or more of the blend's components, thereby facilitating bonding.
They include the grafting process mentioned earlier and copolymerization interactions,
whereby a functional material is built into the polymer chain of a blend component as a
comonomer, with the resultant copolymer then used as a compatibilizer in ternary bonds,
such as a PP-acrylic acid copolymer that bonds PP and AA. Another technique is solvent-
based interactions, using materials such as polycaprolactone, which is miscible in many
materials and exhibits strong polarity, as well as hydrogen bonding, using the simple
polarity of alloy components.
Additives, Fillers, and Reinforcements

Compounding to change and improve the physical and mechanical properties of plastics
makes use of a wide variety of fillers (see Fig. 2-10 and Tables 2-13 to 2-16). In general,
mechanical properties are significantly increased by adding reinforcing fibers. Particulate
fillers of various types usually increase the modulus, plasticizers generally decrease the
modulus but enhance flexibility, and so on.
Electrical properties may be affected by many additives, especially those that are
conductive. Most plastics, which are poor conductors of current, build up a charge of
static electricity. Antistatic agents can be used to attract moisture, reducing the likelihood
of a spark or discharge.
In most cases, different additives are used to provide lower cost and different char-
acteristics encompassing specific overall properties. As an example, coupling agents are
added to improve the bonding of a plastic to its inorganic filler materials, such as glass
fibers. A variety of silanes and titanates are used for this purpose. Some extenders (that
is, fillers) permit a large volume of a given plastic to be produced with relatively little
actual resin. Calcium carbonate, silica, and clay are frequently used extenders.
Many plastics, because they are organic, are flammable; thus, flame retardants are used
in them. Additives that contain chlorine, bromine, phosphorous, metallic salts, and so
forth reduce the likelihood that combustion will occur or spread. Lubricants like wax or
calcium stearate reduce the viscosity of molten plastic and improve its forming charac-
Table 2-13. Guide to the Use of Fillers and Reinforcements for Composites
Properties Improved
f'"
.~ .~
i i.s .=
i -5 ~
g=
.g.'"
=
.'g"
§ .1
j
"0
»
8
.~
.:! '8~
g
.-
01
00: = U
'" .9
.j::;;
01 01 ~
01
~ '" .~ 01
e Ii
~ i
·s ·s
~
<) <)
"i§ ;; ~
=
~
~ IE" .lj § o =
Filler or Reinforcement u.l! :l:! ~ is .'" "'"
.:l
~
iil ~ ~ 6
'" :t 00:"-
Alumina, tabular • • • • • • • • SIP

Aluminum powder • • S
Aramid • • • • • • • • • • SIP
Bronze • • • • S
Calcium carbonate • • • • • • • • SIP
Carbon black • • • • • • SIP
Carbon fiber • • S
Cellulose • • • • SIP
(conI' d)
Table 2-13. (Continued)

Properties Improved
f
.~
."
i
8 c .~
.".g
I ..9
.9
~
..·sJ" j tc
~
..·s" ..·s" . i.
til
8 ~
.:
g !i .~
.~ til u
til
~
J J
c:! ~ .~
~ ."~
~
e
~ ·c ~
Filler or Reinforcement ~ ~ .§ ~ is til ~ ~ ~ ~
@"
..:.i!
Alpha cellulose • • • S
Coal, powdered • • S
Cotton • • • • • • S
Fibrous glass • • • • • • • • • SIP
Graphite • • • • • • • • SIP
Jute • • S
Kaolin • • • • • • • • • SIP
Mica • • • • • • • • SIP
Molybdenum disulfide • • • • • P
Nylon • • • • • • • • • • SIP
OrIon • • • • • • • • • • SIP
Rayon • • • • • • S
Silica, amorphous • • • SIP
Sisal fibers • • • • • • SIP
Fluorocarbon • • • • SIP
Talc • • • • • • • • • SIP
Wood flour • • S
*p = thennoplastic, S = thennoset.
tenstlcs. Plasticizers are low-molecular-weight materials that alter the properties and
forming characteristics of plastics. An important application is the production of flexible
grades of PVc.
Colorants must provide colorfastness under the required exposure conditions of light,
temperature, humidity, chemical exposure, and so on, but without reducing other desirable
properties such as flow during processing, resistance to chalking and crazing, and impact
strength retention. Colorants are usually classed as either pigments or dyes. Pigments are in-
soluble particles large enough to scatter light but not to provide the high transparency of dyes,
which are soluble. But dyes are usually poorer in lightfastness, heat stability, and tendency
to bleed and migrate in the plastic system, so that they are much less used than pigments.
Pigments may be organic or inorganic. Organic ones usually provide stronger, more
transparent colors, are higher priced (although not necessarily more costly to use), and
more soluble in plastic systems. Inorganics are denser and usually of a larger particle
size. Common inorganic pigments include iron oxides in buff colors, titanium dioxide
in white, lead and zinc chromates (in yellows, oranges, and reds), and other metal oxides
and saIts. Important organic pigments include monochromes and diazos (in yellow,
orange, and red), phthalocyanine (in blues and greens), quinacridone (in gold, maroon,
violet, and so on), perylene, and others. Carbon blacks are also widely used, both as a
colorant and to protect polymers from thermal and UV degradation as well as a reinforcing
filler. The various special colorants include metallics, fluorescents, phosphorescents, and
pearle scent colorings.
Table 2-14. Trade-offs in Thermoplastics and Composites
Sacrifice (from Base Resin)
Desired
Modification How Achieved Amorphous Crystalline Comments
Increased Tensile Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Glass fibers are the most cost-effective
Strength Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost way of gaining tensile strength.
Fibrous minerals Ductility Carbon fibers are more expensive;
fibrous minerals are least expensive
but only slightly reinforcing.
Reinforcement makes brittle resins
tougher and embrittles tough resins.
Fibrous minerals are not commonly
used in amorphous resins.
Increased Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Any additive more rigid than the base
Flexural Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost resin produces a more rigid
Modulus Rigid minerals Ductility Ductility composite. Particulate fillers severely
degrade impact strength.
Flame Resistance FR additive Ductility, tensile Ductility, FR additives interfere with the
strength, cost tensile strength, mechanical integrity of the polymer
cost and often require reinforcement to
salvage strength. They also narrow the
molding latitude of the base resin.
Some can cause mold corrosion.
Increased Heat- Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost When reinforced, crystalline polymers
Deflection Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost yield much greater increases in HOT
Temperature Fibrous minerals Ductility than do amorphous resins. As with
(HOT) tensile strength, fibrous minerals
increase HOT only slightly. Fillers do
not increase HDT.
Warpage 5 to 10% glass fibers Cost Amorphous polymers are inherently
Resistance 5 to 10% carbon fibers Cost nonwarping molding resins. Only
Particulate fillers Ductility, cost, Ductility, cost, occasionally are fillers such as milled
tensile strength tensile strength glass or glass beads added to
amorphous materials, because they
~ reduce shrinkage anisotropically.
(cont'd)
CD
= Sacrifice (from Base Resin)
Desired
Modification How Achieved Amorphous Crystalline Comments
Addition of fibers tends to balance the

difference between inftow and cross-
flow shrinkage usually found in
crystalline polymers. When a
particulate is used to reduce and
balance shrinkage, some fiber is
needed to offset degradation.
Reduced Mold Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Reinforcement reduces shrinkage far
Shrinkage Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost more than fillers do. Fillers help
(Increased mold- Fillers Tensile strength, Tensile strength, balance shrinkage, however, because
to-size ductility, cost ductility, cost they replace shrinking polymer. The
capability) sharp shrinkage reduction in
reinforced crystalline resins can often
lead to warpage. The best "mold-to-
size" composites are reinforced
amorphous composites.
Reduced PTFE These fillers are soft and do not
Coefficient of Silicone Cost Cost dramatically affect mechanical
Friction MoSe } properties. PTFE loadings commonly
Graphite range from 5 to 20%; the others are
usually 5% or less. Higher loadings
can cause mechanical degradation.
Reduced Wear Glass fibers The subject of plastic wear is
Carbon fibers extremely complex and should be
Lubricating discussed with a composite supplier.
additives
Electrical Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Resistivities of I to 100,000 ohm-cm
Conductivity Carbon powders Tensile strength, Tensile strength, can be achieved and are proportional
ductility, cost ductility, cost to cost. Various carbon fibers and
powders are available with wide
variations in conductivity yields in
composites.
Table 2-15. The Influence of Fillers and Reinforcements on Thermoplastics

Resin Reinforcements Fillers
Amorphous + Can more than double tensile - Lower tensile strength

ABS strength + Can more than double flexural
SAN + Can increase flexural modulus modulus
Amorphous fourfold + Raise HDT slightly
Nylon + Raise HDT slightly - Embrittle resins
Polycarbonate ± Toughen brittle resins, + Can impact special properties
Modified PPO embrittle tough resins such as lubricity,
Polystyrene + Can provide 1000 ohm-cm conductivity, flame retardance
Polysulfones resistivity + Reduce and balance shrinkage
+ Reduce shrinkage - Reduce melt flow
- Reduce melt flow + Can lower cost
- Raise cost
Crystalline + Can more than triple tensile - Lower tensile strength
Aceals strength + Can more than triple flexural
Nylon 6,6/6 + Can raise flexural modulus modulus
6/10, 6/12, 11, 12 sevenfold + Raise HDT slightly
Polypropylene + Can nearly triple HDT - Embrittle resins
Polyphenylene sulfide ± Toughen brittle resins, + Can impart special properties
Thermoplastic embrittle tough resins such as lubricity,
Polyesters + Can provide 1 ohm-cm conductivity, magnetic
Polyethylene resistivity properties, flame retardance
+ Reduce shrinkage + Reduce shrinkage
- Cause distortion + Reduce distortion
- Reduce melt flow - Reduce melt flow
- Raise cost + Can lower cost
Reinforced Plastics and Composites

Reinforced plastics (RPs) or composites hold a special place in the design and manufac-
turing industry because they are quite simply unique materials. During the 194Os, rein-
forced plastics (or low-pressure laminates, as they were then commonly known) were
easy to identify. The basic definition then, as now, is simply that of a plastic reinforced
with either a fibrous or nonfibrous material. TSs such as polyester and epoxies and glass
fiber dominated the field.
What essentially characterizes RPs is their ability to be molded into extremely small
but also large shapes well beyond the basic capabilities of other processes, at little or no
Table 2-16. Example of the Effect of Carbon Black on Mechanical Properties of

an ABS
Tensile
Modulus E, Breaking Strength Impact
Filler Content N/mm2 (7" N/mm Elongation at Strength a"
c, % (kips/in. 2) (kips/in. 2) Break ET, % kI/m2
0 2,280 (331) 30.9 (4.48) 8.2 208

3 2,500 (362) 44.2 (6.41) 3.4 36
5 2,720 (394) 43.2 (6.26) 3.1 43
7.5 2,820 (409) 37.7 (5.47) 2.5 41
10 3,010 (436) 35.1 (5.09) 2.2 31
15 3,540 (513) 27.8 (4.03) 1.9 29
20 4,000 (580) 24.8 (3.60) 1.1 26
Table 2-17. Examples of Different Composite Systems

Matrix Material Reinforcement Material Properties Modified
Metal Metal, ceramic, carbon, glass fibers Elevated temperature strength

Electrical resistance
Thermal stability
Ceramic Metallic and ceramic particles and Elevated temperature strength
fibers
Chemical resistance
Thermal resistance
Glass Ceramic fibers and particles Mechanical strength
Temperature resistance
Chemical resistance
Thermal stability
Organics, Carbon, glass, organic fibers, glass Mechanical strength
Thermosets, beads, flakes, ceramic Elevated temperature strength
Thermoplastics particles, metal wires Chemical resistance
Antistatic
Electrical resistance
EMF shielding
Flexibility
Wear resistance
Energy absorption
Thermal stability
pressure. Also, there are instances in which less heat is required. (See Chapter 7 on
methods of processing RPs.) Consequently, RPs went by the name low-pressure lami-
nates.
In the past, the term high-pressure laminates was reserved for melamine- and phenolic-
impregnated papers or fabrics compressed under high pressures (about 13.8 to 34.5 MPa,
or 2,000 to 5,000 psi) and heated to form either decorative laminates (for example,
Formica and Micarta) or industrial laminates for electrical and other industries.
By the early 1960s, the processing of RPs had begun to involve higher pressures, and
"low-pressure laminates" was dropped in favor of simply "RPs." But even then, the name
referred primarily to reinforced TSs and encompassed specialized RP molding processes.
By 1970 major changes had occurred. Reinforcements other than glass fiber were in
use and TPs as well as TSs were being reinforced in volume. The application of RTS
and RTP methods of processing began to increase, using conventional processing tech-
niques like injection molding and rotational molding. By this time the industry required
a more-inclusive term to describe RPs, so composite was added. (For some of the different
composites that exist see Table 2-17.) The fiber reinforcements included higher-modulus
glasses, carbon, graphite, boron, aramid (Du Pont's Kevlar aramid is the strongest syn-
thetic fiber in the world, five times as strong as steel on an equal-weight basis), and
others. Plastics include use of the heat-resistant TPs such as the polimides, polyamide-
imide, and so on. Chapters 3-7 provide more details.
Commodity and Engineering Plastics

About 90 percent of plastics (weightwise) can be classified as commodity resins, the
others being engineering resins. The five commodities of LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC, and
PS account for about two thirds of all the resins consumed. The engineering resins-
nylon, PC, acetal, and so on-are characterized by improved performance in higher
mechanical properties, better heat resistance, higher impact strength, and so forth. Thus,
they demand a higher price. There are commodity resins with certain reinforcements
and/or alloys with other resins that put them into the engineering category. Many TSs
are engineering resins.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

In order to select materials that will maintain acceptable mechanical characteristics and
dimensional stability designers must be aware of both the normal and extreme operating
environments to which a product will be subject. Plastics' properties and processes are
influenced by their thermal characteristics such as melt temperature (Tm), glass-transition
temperature (Tg ), dimensional stability, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, heat
capacity, coefficient of thermal expansion, and decomposition (Td)' Table 2-18 provides
some of these data on different plastics.
All these thermal properties relate to how to determine the best useful processing
conditions to meet product performance requirements. There is a maximum temperature
or, to be more precise, a maximum time-to-temperature relationship for all materials
preceding loss of performance or decomposition. This section therefore reviews important
thermal properties. More details about ASTM standards are given in Chapter 9. The
effects of temperature on plastics are discussed throughout this book, particularly in
Chapters 3-6.
Melt Temperature
The Tm occurs at a relatively sharp point for crystalline materials. Amorphous materials
basically do not have a Tm; they simply start melting as soon as the heat cycle begins.
In reality there is no single melt point, but rather a range, which is often taken as the
peak of a DSC curve (see Chapter 9).
The Tm is dependent on the processing pressure and the time under heat, particularly
during a slow temperature change for relatively thick melts during processing. Also, if
the Tm is too low, the melt's viscosity will be high and more power be required to process
it. If the viscosity is too high, degradation will occur.
Glass-Transition Temperature
The glass-transition temperature (Tg) is the point below which plastic behaves as glass
does-it is very strong and rigid, but brittle. Above this temperature it is neither as strong
or rigid as glass, but neither is it brittle. At Tg the plastic's volume or length increases
(see Figs. 2-11 to 2-13). The amorphous TPs have a more definite Tg •
A plastic's thermal properties, particularly its Tg , influence its processability in many
different ways. The selection of a plastic should take these properties into account. A
more expensive plastic could cost less to process because of its shorter processing time,
requiring less energy for a particular weight.
The Tg is unique to amorphous TPs. It occurs at a specific temperature that depends'!
on pressure and specific volume and is lower than the melting point. Designers should"
know that above Tg the mechanical properties are reduced.('Most noticeable is a reduction
in stiffness by a factor that may be as high as 1,000. Therefore, the operating temperature
of an amorphous TP is usually limited to below its Tg • Amorphous TPs generally have
several transitions.
~
Table 2-18. Examples of Thermal Properties of TPs (properties of some common materials included for comparison)
Thennal
Glass Conductivity Heat Thennal Thennal
Density Melt Transition (1(}' calls Capacity Diffusivity Expansion
Plastics g/cm3 Temperature Temperature . cm 0c) callg °C 1(}' cm21s l~cmlcm °C
(morphology) (lbJft.3) Tm, °C ("F) Tg °C ("F) (BTU/lb.°F) (BTU/lb."F) 10-3 ft. 21hr.) (1~ inJin. "F)
PP (C) 0.9 (56) 168 (334) 5 (41) 2.8 (0.068) 0.9 (0.004) 3.5 (1.36) 81 (45)
HOPE (C) 0.96 (60) 134 (273) -110(-166) 12 (0.290) 0.9 (0.004) 13.9 (5.4) 59 (33)
PTFE (C) 2.2 (137) 330 (626) -115 (-175) 6 (0.145) 0.3 (0.001) 9.1 (3.53) 70 (39)
PA (C) 1.13 (71) 260 (500) 50 (122) 5.8 (0.140) 0.075 (0.003) 6.8 (2.64) 80 (44)
PET (C) 1.35 (84) 250 (490) 70 (158) 3.6 (0.087) 0.45 (0.002) 5.9 (2.29) 65 (36)
ABS (A) 1.05 (66) 105 (221) 102 (215) 3 (0.073) 0.5 (0.002) 3.8 (1.47) 60 (33)
PS (A) 1.05 (66) 100 (212) 90 (194) 3 (0.073) 0.5 (0.002) 5.7 (2.2) 50 (28)
PMMA (A) 1.20 (75) 95 (203) 100 (212) 6 (0.145) 0.56 (0.002) 8.9 (3.45) 50 (28)
PC (A) 1.20 (75) 266 (510) 150 (300) 4.7 (0.114) 0.5 (0.002) 7.8 (3.0) 68 (38)
PVC (A) 1.35 (84) 199 (390) 90 (194) 5 (0.121) 0.6 (0.002) 6.2 (2.4) 50 (128)
Aluminum 2.68 (167) 1,000 3000 (72.5) 0.23 4900 (1900) 19 (10.6)
Copperlbronze 8.8 (549) 1,800 4500 (109) 0.09 5700 (2200) 18 (10)
Steel 7.9 (493) 2,750 800 (21.3) 0.11 1000 (338) 11 (6.1)
Maple wood 0.45 (28.1) 400 (bums) 3 (0.073) 0.25 27 (10.5) 60 (33)
Zinc alloy 6.7 (418) 800 2500 (60.4) 0.10 3700 (1430) 27 (15)
• = Crystalline resin. A = Amorphous resin.

r,
Temperature
Figure 2·11. The effect of the glass-transition temperature (Tg) on the volume or length of TPs.
The glass transition generally occurs over a relatively narrow temperature span and is
similar to the solidification of a liquid to a glassy state; it is not a phased transition. Not
only do hardness and brittleness undergo rapid changes in this temperature region, but
other properties, such as the coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat, also
change rapidly. This phenomenon has been called second-order transition, rubber tran-
sition, and rubbery transition. The word transformation has also been used instead of
Temperature
Figure 2·12. Solidification during processing of glassy/amorphous and crystalline
thermoplastics.
450-
I
I
> I
~ I
U I
i=
(J) I
«...J I
LU I
LL.
.;a
0 Co
M
(J) CI
::>
...J
::> I
0 I
0 I
~ I
I
I
I
I
I
0.450
AMORPHOUS CROSS-LINKED
-100 o 100 200
Figure 2-13. An example of the dynamic and mechanical properties of thennoplastics and
thennoset plastics in relation to their glass-transition temperatures (Tg) and melt temperatures
(Tm).
transltzon. When more than one amorphous transItIOn occurs in a polymer, the one
associated with segmental motions of the polymer backbone chain, or accompanied by
the largest change in properties, is usually considered to be the glass transition.
The glass transition temperature can be determined readily only by observing the
temperature at which a significant change takes place in a specific electric, mechanical,
or other physical property. Moreover, the observed temperature can vary significantly,
depending on the specific property chosen for observation and on details of the experi-
mental technique (for example, the rate of heating, or frequency). Therefore, the observed
Tg should be considered to be only an estimate. 'the most reliable estimates are normally
obtained from the loss peak observed in dynamic mechanical tests or from dilatometric
data (ASTM D-20).
Mechanical Properties and the Tg

As can be seen from Table 2-18, the value of Tg for a particular plastic is not necessarily
a low temperature, which immediately helps explain some of the differences we observe
in plastics. Por example, because at room temperature polystyrene and acrylic are below
their respective Tg values, we observe these materials in their glassy stage. In contrast,
at room temperature natural rubber is above its Tg [Tg = -75°C ( - l03°P); Tm = 30°C
(86°P)], with the result that it is very flexible. When it is cooled below its Tg natural
rubber becomes hard and brittle.
Dimensional Stability
Dimensional stability is an important thermal property for the majority of plastics. It is
the temperature above which plastics lose their dimensional stability. For most plastics
the main determinant of dimensional stability is their Tg • Only with highly crystalline
plastics is Tg not a limitation.
Substantially crystalline plastics in the range between Tg and Tm are referred to as
leathery, because they are made up of a combination of rubbery noncrystalline regions
and stiff crystalline areas. The result is that such plastics as PE and PP are still useful at
room temperature and nylon is useful to moderately elevated temperatures even though
those temperatures may be above their respective glass-transition temperatures.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THERMAL INSULATION

Thermal conductivity is the rate at which a material will conduct heat energy along its
length or through its thickness. ASTM tests give an indication of how much heat must
be added to a unit mass of plastic in order to raise its temperature 1°C. This is an important
factor, since plastics are often used as effective heat insulation (see Fig. 2-14) in heat-
generating applications and in structures where heat dissipation is important. The high
degree of the molecular order for crystalline TPs makes their values tend to be twice
those of the amorphous types.
The conductivity of plastics is dependent on a number of variables and cannot be
reported as a single factor. It depends mainly on temperature and molecular orientation
..,-_ __ _ __ ~ 2Smm Polyurethane
...
1..0mm Polystyrene
ii~i~~i~~i~- 5
L. I. mm Cork
50mm Minerai wool
65mm Fibreboard
'40 mm Sot I woad
80mm Concrete blocks
86Cmm Bricks
Figure 2-14. An example of the equivalent thickness of common building and insulation
materials required to achieve the same degree of thermal insulation.
Oriented,
flow
r direction
--
>-
>
o
~
'0 No orientation'--_---
I
C
o
o
n;
...E
Q)
.c Oriented, cross-flow direction
I-
Temperature
Figure 2-1S. An example of the variations in thermal conductivity created by temperature
changes and plastics' molecular orientation.
(see Fig. 2-15). Its dependence can be ascertained. However, the molecular orientation
may vary within a product, resulting in a variation in thermal conductivity. Thus, it is
important for the designer to recognize such a situation. For certain products, skill is
required to estimate a part's performance under steady-state heat-flow conditions, espe-
cially those made of composites. The method and repeatability of the processing technique
can have a significant effect.
In general, thermal conductivity is low for plastics and the plastic's structure does not
alter its value significantly. To increase it the usual approach is to add metallic fillers,
glass fibers (Fig. 2-16), or electrically insulating fillers such as alumina (refer to Table
2-13). Thermal conductivity can also be decreased, by foaming (see Chapter 6).
HEAT CAPACITY
The heat capacity or specific heat of a unit mass of material is the amount of energy
required to raise its temperature 10. It can be measured either at constant pressure or
constant volume. If at constant pressure it is larger than at constant volume, because
additional energy is required to bring about a volume change against,external pressure.
The specific heat of amorphous plastics increases with temperature in an approximately
linear fashion below and above Tg , but a steplike change occurs near the Tg • No such
stepping occurs with crystalline types.
For plastics, heat capacity is usually reported during constant pressure heating (see
Fig. 2-17). Plastics differ from traditional engineering materials because their specific
heat is temperature sensitive.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
Whereas heat capacity is a measure of energy, thermal diffusivity is a measure of the
rate at which energy is transmitted through a given plastic. It relates directly to process-
ability. In contrast, metals have values hundreds of times larger than those of plastics.
THE STRUCTURE AND BASIC PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS B9
0.63 I
4.5
I
056 4.0
.
E
~
:: 042
049
.I Nylon 6/6 _ _ ~ 3.5 ~u.
~
3.0 u~·
.; /." ;:)-
0.35 I
PC 2.5 -g'":'
u
/ I
.gc
---r-
O~
028 2.0 ~"2
r"" I
'V .-
8 0.21 1.5 ~;
iii
E 014 psr 1.0
<P-
~ CD
Qj
~ 0.07 i I 0.5
I-
o o
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Glass, %
Figure 2·16. An example of the effects on thermal conductivity of varying its glass fiber
content (by weight) in composite plastics.
Thennal diffusivity detennines plastics' rate of change with time. Although this function
depends on thennal conductivity, specific heat at constant pressure, and density, all of
which vary with temperature, thennal diffusivity is relatively constant.
THE COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION

Like metals, plastics generally expand when heated and contract when cooled. Usually,
for a given temperature change TPs have a greater change than metals. The coefficient
Specific heat. Btu / lb . 0 F

o 0 10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Polyurethanes
Allyis
(diglycol
carbonate)
Polyesters
EpOXies
Phenolics
Polyimides
o 0.42 0.84 1.26 1.68 2.10 2.52

Specific heat , kJ / kg . K
Figure 2·17. The range of specific heat for neat plastics.
of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) is the ratio between the change of a linear dimension
to the original dimension of the material per unit change in temperature (per ASTM
standards). It is generally given as cm/cm/°C or in.!infF (see Table 2-19 and Figs. 2-
18 to 2-20). Figure 2-18 provides information on contraction at low temperatures.
The CLTE is an important consideration if dissimilar materials like one plastic to
another or a plastic to metal and so forth are to be assembled. The CLTE is influenced
by the type of plastic (liquid crystal, for example) and composite, particularly the glass-
fiber content and its orientation. It is especially important if the temperature range includes
a thermal transition such as Tg • Normally, all this activity with dimensional changes is
available from material suppliers readily enough to let the designer apply a logical ap-
proach and understand what could happen.
The design of products has to take into account the dimensional changes that can occur
during fabrication (see Chapters 3-7) and during its useful service life. With a fIlismatched
CLTE there could be destruction of plastics from factors such as cracking or buckling.
Expansion and contraction can be controlled in plastic by its orientation, cross-linking,
adding fillers or reinforcements (see Fig. 2-20), and so on. With certain additives the
CLTE value could be zero or near zero. For example, plastic with a graphite filler contracts
rather than expands during a temperature rise (see Fig. 1-5, "Thermal Expansion"). As
shown in Table 2-19, composites with only glass-fiber reinforcement can be used to match
those of metal and other materials. In fact, TSs are especially compounded to have little
or no change.
In a TS the ease or difficulty of thermal expansion is dictated for the most part by the
degree of cross-linking as well as the overall stiffness of the units between the cross-
links. The less flexible units are also more resistant to thermal expansion. Such influences
as secondary bonds have much less effect on the thermal expansion of TSs.
Any cross-linking has a substantial effect on TPs. With the amorphous type, expansion
is reduced. In a crystalline TP, however, the decreased expansion as a result of cross-
linking may be partially offset by a loss of crystallinity.
Thermal Stresses
If a plastic part is free to expand and contract, its thermal-expansion property will usually
be of little significance. However, if it is attached to another material, one having a lower
CLTE, then the movement of the part will be restricted. A temperature change will then
result in developing thermal stresses in the part. The magnitude of these stresses will
depend on the temperature change, the method of attachment and relative expansion, and
the modulus characteristics of the two materials at the point of the exposed heat.
For instance, a 304.8-cm (120-in.)-long extruded TP willi a high CLTE is securely
fastened to a heavy steel member. It is subjected to a 43.33°C (1lO°F) temperature change,
from 21.11 °C (70°F) to - 40°C ( - 40°F).
CLTE Temperature Length Contraction

cm.lcm.fC change (0C) (cm) (cm)
Steel 1.6 X 10-5 x 43.33 x 304.8 0.21131

TP 15.2 X 10-5 x 43.33 x 304.8 2.00746
Comparing the contraction for the two materials shows that the TP part will contract
about ten times as much as the steel. Because of the higher-modulus steel, the contraction
of the TP will be restrained and thermal stresses will occur. The level of stress developed
Table 2-19. Examples of the Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion (CLTE) for
Plastics and Other Materials
in.lin/OF x lO-s
Material (cm/cm °C x lO-s)
Fused Quartz 0.02 (0.036)

Liquid Crystal-OR 0.3 (0.54)
TS Polyester-OR 0.3 (0.54)
Phenolic-OR 0.4 (0.72)
Silicone-OR 0.4 (0.72)
Pine Wood 0.4 (0.72)
Olass 0.4 (0.72)
DAP-OR 0.5 (0.9)
Epoxy-OR 0.6 (1.08)
Nylon-OR 0.6 (1.08)
Steel 0.6 (1.08)
Concrete 0.8 (1.44)
Copper 0.9 (1.62)
Bronze 1.0 (1.8)
Brass 1.0 (1.8)
PPO-OR 1.2 (2.2)
Aluminum 1.2 (2.2)
PC-OR 1.3 (2.3)
TP Polyester 1.3 (2.3)
Polyimide 1.3 (2.3)
Magnesium 1.4 (2.5)
ABS-OR 1.6 (2.9)
Zinc 1.7 (3.1)
PS/HI 1.8 (3.2)
PP-OR 1.8 (3.2)
PPS-OR 2.0 (3.6)
Acetal-OR 2.2 (4.0)
Zinc 2.2 (4.0)
PVC/Rigid 2.7 (4.9)
Acrylic 2.8 (5.0)
TS Polyester 3.0 (5.4)
Polysulfone 3.0 (5.4)
Epoxy 3.0 (5.4)
Polycarbonate 3.6 (6.5)
Phenolic 3.8 (6.8)
ABS 4.0 (7.2)
Nylon 4.5 (8.1)
Acetal 4.8 (8.6)
Polypropylene 4.8 (8.6)
TP Polyurethane 5.6 (10.1)
Polyethylene/LD 5.6 (10.1)
Fluorocarbon 5.6 (10.1)
Epoxy 6.0 (10.8)
Polyethylene/HD 6.1 (11.0)
TPX 6.5 (11.7)
TP Polyester 6.9 (12.4)
These are only typical values to account for many different grades, molding conditions, product shapes, wall thicknesses, and other variants.
The plastics presented are basically unfilled or reinforced. GR refers to glass-fiber-reinforced compounds that usually have 10 to 40 percent, by
weight, reinforcement. Other reinforcements, particularly graphite, and different fillers can result in significant different CLTEs.
CLTEs on specific plastics or compounds are available from material suppliers. Then apply those data or your derived data to the design.
91
o
-0.21-1 . . .~S!A;E~1~0~20~st:e:el~. . . . . . . . . ." " " ' "
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0~~__~--
-1.2
-1.8
.~
u
~
§
u -2.6 I I
-273-253 -233 -213 -193 -173 -153 -133 -113 -93
Temperature. 'C.
Figure 2-18. An example at low temperatures of thennal contraction in unfilled TPs. With
filled, and particularly certain reinforced TSs (refer back to Fig. 1-5 "Thermal Expansion"),
dimensional change can be significantly reduced or even be at zero.
in the TP will be detennined basically by its coefficient of expansion and the modulus
of elasticity (see chapters 3-5) as follows:
Modulus
CLTE Temperature at -4<rF
TP-Steel change eC) for TP (kPa) Stress developed
15.2 x lO-s - 1.6 x lO-s x 43.33 x 19.3 x lOS 11.38 MPa (1,653 psi)
In this example, while the level of stress produced is below the yield stress of the TP,
the presence of stress increasers can lead to failure of the product. Stress raisers can
magnify the effect of thennally induced stress at the point at which the TP's tensile
strength will be exceeded, which will be followed by part failure. Stress raisers may be
in the fonn of sharply reduced section thicknesses, notches from poor trimming operations,
or fastener holes.
In its simplest fonn, thennal stress can be calculated by using the following equation:
where
(J' = thermal stress

Ep = elastic modulus of plastic
a 1 = CLTE of material # I
a2 = CLTE of material #2
tl.T = temperature change
The goal is to eliminate or significantly reduce all sources of thermal stress. This can
be achieved by keeping the following factors in mind: 1) when adding material for local
reinforcement, select a material with the same or a similar CLTE; 2) where plastic is to
be attached to a more-rigid material, use mechanical fasteners with slotted or oversized
holes to permit expansion and contraction to occur; 3) do not fasten dissimilar materials
tightly; and 4) adhesives that remain ductile, such as urethane and silicone, through the
product's expected end-use temperature range can be used without causing stress cracking
or other problems (see Chapter 8).
In addition to dimensional changes from changes in temperature, other types of di-
mensional instability are possible in plastics, as in other materials. Water-absorbing
plastics, such as certain nylons, may expand and shrink as they gain or lose water, or
even as the relative humidity changes. The migration or leaching of plasticizers, as in
certain PVCs, can result in slight dimensional change. Traces of an unreacted monomer
may be delayed during polymerization (the producing of plastics) and result in the con-
Thermal expansion, in/inrF x 10-5
Thermoplastics Thermosets
Polyethylenes Urethanes
I··..
Vinyls Phenolics
Fluorocarbons Polyesters
~. ~
Cellulosics ~ Epoxies
Nylons
Polypropylenes
•• Allylics
Silicones
Acrylics
•• Alkyds
Styrenes
•• Aminos
Polyallomers
Acetals
•
~
Chlorinated
polyethers
Polycarbonates 4
Polyimides
•
•
Polysulfones
Polyphenylene
oxides
•
Ethylene vinyl
acetates •
Figure 2-19. Examples of the range of the coefficient of linear thennal expansion for TPs and
TSs.
6
ai '" 5 '-
Eb
III ~ 4,~BT
4
"'"'"~~'" --- --------

oS x
iii u.
~ ~
=, 3
'0 .5: Nylon 6/6
E g 2 ~
-....:..
:~ .~ PC
:a5 ~
o ><
1
() III
o
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Glass, %
Figure 2-20. Examples of the effect on the coefficient of thermal expansion of incorporating in
TPs different amounts by weight of glass reinforcements.
traction of a plastic part after it is fabricated and has been put into service. And as a final
example plastic parts that have been stress oriented (see Chapters 3-5 and 7) as a result
of processing operations may stress-relieve themselves in service by warping and so forth.
There are procedures to eliminate or control these problems, as well as tests to determine
if a potential dimensional instability exists in the parts (see Chapter 9).
DEFLECTION TEMPERATURE UNDER LOAD

The deflection temperature under load (DTUL), also called the heat distortion temperature
(HDT) of a plastic is a method to guide or assess its load-bearing capacity at an elevated
temperature. Details on the method of testing are given in ASTM D648. Basically, a
1. 27 -cm (!-in. )-deep plastic test bar is mounted on supports 10.16 cm (4 in.) apart and
loaded as a beam (see Fig. 2-21). A bending stress of either 66 psi or 264 psi (455 g Pa
or 1,820 g Pa) is applied at the center of the span. The test is conducted in a bath of oil,
with the temperature increased at a constant rate of 2°C per minute. The DTUL is the
temperature at which the sample attains a deflection of 0.0254 cm (0.010 in.).
Figure 2-21. An apparatus to test deflection temperature under load (DTUL).

This test is only a guide. It represents a method that could be correlated to product
designs (see Chapters 4-5), but, as with most other tests conducted on test specimens
and not on a finished product, it is just a guide. In this test, if the specimen contains
internal stresses the value will be lower than a specimen with no stresses. In fact, the
test can be used to determine the degree of stress. Since a stress and the deflection for
a certain depth of test bar are specified, this test may be thought of as establishing the
temperature at which the flexural modulus decreases to particular values: 35,000 psi (240
MPa) at 66 psi load stress, and 140,800 psi (971 MPa) at 264 psi.
DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE
For applications having only moderate thermal requirements, thermal decomposition may
not be an important consideration. However, if the product requires dimensional stability
at high temperatures, it is possible that its service temperature or processing temperature
may approach its temperature of decomposition (Table 2-20). A plastic's decomposition
temperature is largely determined by the elements and their bonding within the molecular
structures as well as the characteristics of additives, fillers, and reinforcements that may
be in the compounds (see Table 2-13).
Aging at Elevated Temperatures

Aging at elevated temperatures typically involves exposing test specimens or products at
different temperatures for different extended times (see chapters 3-6). Tests are performed
at room or the respective testing temperatures for whatever mechanical, physical, or
electrical property is of interest. These tests of aging can be used as a measure of thermal
stability in design as is done with other materials.
Temperature Index
The Underwriters Laboratories (UL) tests are recognized by various industries to provide
continuous temperature ratings, particularly in electrical applications. These ratings in-
clude separate listings for electrical properties, mechanical properties (including impact),
and mechanical properties without impact. The temperature index is important if the final
product has to receive UL recognition (see Chapters 3-5).
Table 2-20. Temperature Decomposition (Td ) Ranges for Various Polymers

Material "F
PP 610--750 (321-399)
PC 645-825 (341-441)
pvc 390--570 (199-299)
PS 570--750 (299-399)
PMMA 355-535 (180--280)
ABS 480--750 (249-399)
PA 570--750 (299-399)
PET 535-610 (280--322)
F1uoropolymer 930--1020 (499-549)
Nott: Adding certain IiIIers and Jeinfon:cmcnlS can nlisc decomposition temperatwes.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Throughout this book all the different types of mechanical properties are presented and
reviewed, particularly in Chapters 3-5. These mechanical properties include a tremendous
range of different types that can usually be characterized by their stiffness, strength, and
toughness.
Stiffness
The same factors that influence thermal expansion (see Chapters 3-5) dictate the stiffness
of plastics. Thus, in a TS the degree of cross-linking and amount of overall flexibility
are important. In a TP its crystallinity and secondary bond's strength control its stiffness.
Strength
The subject of strength is much more complex than stiffness, since so many different
types exist: short- or long-term, static or dynamic, and torsion or impact strengths (see
Chapters 3-5). Some strength aspects are interrelated with those of toughness. This section
reviews certain simplified concepts of strength that are important influences on strength
based on long- and short-term exposure.
The crystallinity of TPs is important for their short-term yield strength. Unless the
crystallinity is impeded, increased molecular weight generally also increases the yield
strength. However, the cross-linking of TSs increases their yield strength substantially
but has an adverse effect upon toughness.
Long-term rupture strengths in TPs are increased much more readily by increasing the
secondary bonds' strength and crystallinity than by increasing the primary bond strength.
Fatigue strength is similarly influenced, and all factors that influence thermal dimensional
stability also affect fatigue strength. This is a result of the substantial heating that is often
encountered with fatigue, particularly in TPs.
Toughness
Toughness is usually the most complex factor to define and understand. Tough plastics
are variously described as ones having a high elongation to failure or ones in which a
lot of energy must be expended to produce failure. For high toughness a plastic needs
both the ability to withstand load and the ability to elongate substantially without failing
except in the case of reinforced TSs, which may have high strengths with low elongation
[1, 13, 14,29,32,42].
It may appear that factors contributing to high stiffness are required, but this is not
true, because there is an inverse relationship between flaw sensitivity and toughness: the
higher the stiffness and the yield strength of a TP, the more flaw sensitive it becomes.
However, because some load-bearing capacity is required for toughness, high toughness
can be achieved by a high trade-off of certain factors [62, 63]. Crystallinity increases
both stiffness and yield strength, resulting usually in decreased toughness. This is true
below Tg in most noncrystalline (amorphous) plastics, and below or above the Tg in a
substantially crystalline plastic. However, above the Tg in a plastic having only moderate
crystallinity increased crystallinity improves its toughness. Furthermore, an increase in
molecular weight from low values increases toughness, but with continued increases, the
toughness begins to drop.
Cross-linking produces some dimensional stability and improves toughness in a non-

crystalline type of plastic above the Tg , but high levels of cross-linking lead to embrit-
dement and loss of toughness. This is one of the problems with TSs for which an increase
in Tg is desired. Increased cross-linking or stiffening of the chain segments increases the
Tg , but it also decreases toughness. As previously discussed, a popular way to increase
toughness is to blend, compound, or copolymerize a brittle plastic with a tough one (see
Tables 2-10,2-11,2-12 and Figs. 2-6 to 2-9). Although some loss in stiffness is usually
encountered, the result is a satisfactory combination of properties.
Theoretical versus Actual Values

Through the laws of physics, chemistry, and mechanics, theoretical values can be de-
termined for different materials. These are compared to actual values in Table 2-21. With
steel, aluminum, and glass the theoretical and actual experimental values are practically
the same, whereas for polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, and other plastics they are
far apart, and have the important potential of reaching values that are far superior to those
of the other materials [47].
Table 2-21. Comlarison of the Theoretically Possible and Actual Experimental

Values for Mo ulus of Elasticity and Tensile Strength of Various Materials·
Modulus of Elasticity Tensile Strength
Experimental Experimental
Nonnal Nonnal
Theoretical , Fiber, Polymer, Theoretical , Fiber, Polymer,
N/mrn2 N/mrn2 N/mrn2 N/mrn2 N/mrn2 N/mrn2
Type of Material (kpsi) (kpsi) (kpsi) (kpsi) (kpsi) (kpsi)
Polyethylene 300,0000 100,000 1,000 27,000 1,500 30

(33%) (0.33%) (5.5%) (0.1%)
(43,500) (14,500) (145) (3,900) (218) (4.4)
Polypropylene 50,000 20,000 1,600 16,000 1,300 38

(40%) (3.2%) (8.1 %) (0.24%)
(7,250) (2,900) (232) (2,300) (189) (5.5)
Polyamide 66 160,000 5,000 2,000 27,000 1,700 50

(3%) (1.3%) (6.3%) (0.18%)
(23,200) (725) (290) (3,900) (246) (7.2)
Glass 80,000 80,000 70,000 11,000 4,000 55

(100%) (87.5%) (36%) (0.5%)
(11,600) (11,600) (10,100) (1,600) (580) (8.0)
Steel 210,000 210,000 210,000 21,000 4,000 1,400

(100%) (100%) (19%) (6.67%)
(30,400) (30,400) (30,400) (3,050) (580) (203)
Aluminum 76,000 76,000 76,000 7,600 800 600

(100%) (100%) (10.5%) (7.89%)
(11,000) (11,000) (11,000) (1,100) (116) (87)
'For the experimental values the percentage of the theoretically calculated values is given in parenthesis. as (47).
When polyethylene was first produced in the early 1940s, physicists in England, the
United States, and Germany predicted a tremendous potential for it [37]. At that time
the properties of PEs were much lower than those presently available. Out of that original
general-purpose PE, have been developed such specific PEs as LDPE, HOPE, and UHMWPE
(see Chapter 6).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
An overall review of physical properties is presented here, including some properties that
are specific to plastics. For more details, refer to the ASTM standard references and
Chapter 9.
Density and Specific Gravity

The density of any material is a measure of its mass per unit volume, usually expressed
as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or pounds per cubic inch (lbs.lin.3) (see Tables
2-22 and 2-23 and Figs. 2-22 to 2-24). See Fig. 2-23 for determining the specific gravity
of filled compounds. It is necessary to know the density of a particular plastic in order
to calculate the relationship between the weight and volume of the material in a specific
product.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of plastic compared to the
mass of the same volume of water, both being measured at room temperature (23°C/73.4"F);
in other words, it is the density of the plastic divided by the density of the water. Since
this is a dimensionless quantity, it is a convenient one for comparing different materials.
Like density, specific gravity is used extensively in determining parts' cost, weight, and
quality control.
The ASTM D792 standard provides the relationship of density to specific gravity at
23°C.
Density, glcc = Specific Gravity X 0.9975
Also
Specific Gravity x 0.0361 = lb.lcu. in.
Opacity and Transparency

Opacity or transparency are important when the amount of light to be transmitted is a
consideration. These properties are usually measured as haze and luminous transmittance.
Haze is here defined as the percentage of transmitted light through a test specimen that
is scattered more than 2.5° from the incident beam. Luminous transmittance is the ratio
of transmitted light to incident light. Table 2-24 provides the optical and various other
properties of different transparent plastics. Some definitions of key terms used in iden-
tifying optical conditions follow:
Refractive index. The ratio of the velocity of light in free space to the velocity of light
in the medium.
Light scattering. The change in direction of a portion of the light transmitted due to
refraction or reflection at the surfaces of inclusions in the material.
Table 2-22. Specific Gravity and Density Comparisons of Different Materials

Specific Density,
Materials Gravity Ib.lcubic in.
Thermoplastics
ABS 1.06 0.0383
Acetal 1.43 0.0516
Acrylic 1.19 0.0430
Cellulose Acetate 1.27 0.0458
Cellulose Acetate Butyrate 1.19 0.0430
Cellulose Propionate 1.21 0.0437
Ethyl Cellulose 1.10 0.0397
Methyl Methacrylate 1.20 0.0433
Nylon, Glass-Filled 1.40 0.0505
Nylon 1.12 0.0404
Polycarbonate 1.20 0.0433
Polyethylene 0.94 0.0339
Polypropylene 0.90 0.0325
Polybutylene 0.91 0.0329
Polystyrene 1.07 0.0386
Polyimides 1.43 0.0516
PVC-Rigid 1.20 0.0433
Polyester 1.31 0.0473
Thermosets
Alkyds, Glass-Filled 2.10 0.0758
Phenolic-G.P. 1.40 0.0505
Polyester, Glass-Filled 2.00 0.0722
Rubber 1.25 0.0451
Metals
Aluminum SAE-309 (360) 2.64 0.0953
Brass-Yellow (#403) 8.50 0.3070
Steel--CR Alloy (Strip & Bar) 7.85 0.2830
Steel-Stainless 304 7.92 0.2860
Magnesium ~91B 1.81 0.0653
Iron-Pig, Basic 7.10 0.2560
Zinc-SAE-903 6.60 0.2380
The number of grams per cubic centimeter is the same as the specific gravity. For example, if the specific gravity is 1.47, that substance has a
density of 1.47 gmsIcm3 .
Birefringence. The property of anisotropic optical media that causes polarized light with
one orientation to travel with a different velocity than polarized light with another
orientation.
Polarized light. Light that has the electric field vector of all the energy vibrating in the
same plane. Looking into the end of a beam of polarized light one would see the
electric field vectors as parallel or coincident lines.
Dichroism. A property of an optical material that causes light of some wave-lengths to
be absorbed when the incident light has its electric field vector in a particular
orientation and not absorbed when the electric field vector has other orientations.
Light transmissability. The ratio of the light exiting from an optical material to the light
entering the material.
Figure 2-22. Weight in grams and volume in cubic inches versus specific gravity.
Haze. The cloudy appearance in a plastic material caused by inclusions that produce light
scattering.
Color. The sum effect of the wavelengths of light transmitted by or reflected from a
material.
Dispersion. A property of an optical material that causes some wavelengths of light to
be transmitted through the material at different velocities and the velocity is a function
of the wavelength. This causes each wavelength of light to have a different refractive
index.
Table 2-23. Specific Gravity as a Function of Mass per Volume
Grams
per
Specific Ounces per Cu. Specific Ounces per Grams per Specific Ounces per Grams per
Gravity Cu. Inch Inch** Gravity Cu. Inch Cu. Inch Gravity Cu. Inch Cu. Inch
0.90 0.5220 14.748 1.31 0.7569 21.467 1.71 0.9880 28.022

0.91 0.5258 14.912 1.32 0.7627 21.631 1.72 0.9938 28.186
0.92 0.5316 15.076 1.33 0.7685 21.795 1.73 0.9996 28.350
0.93 0.5374 15.240 1.34 0.7743 21.959 1.74 1.0054 28.513
0.94 0.5431 15.404 1.35 0.7800 22.122 1.75 1.0112 28.677
0.95 0.5489 15.568 1.36 0.7858 22.286 1.76 1.0169 28.841
0.96 0.5447 15.732 1.37 0.7916 22.450 1.77 1.0227 29.005
0.97 0.5605 15.895 1.38 0.7974 22.614 1.78 1.0285 29.169
0.98 0.5662 16.059 1.39 0.8031 22.778 1.79 1.0343 29.333
0.99 0.5720 16.223 1.40 0.8089 22.942 1.80 1.0400 29.497
1.00 0.5778 16.387 1.41 0.8147 23.106 1.81 1.0458 29.660
1.01 0.5836 16.551 1.42 0.8205 23.269 1.82 1.0516 29.824
1.02 0.5894 16.715 1.43 0.8263 23.433 1.83 1.0574 29.988
1.03 0.5951 16.879 1.44 0.8320 23.597 1.84 1.0632 30.152
1.04 0.6009 17.042 1.45 0.8378 23.761 1.85 1.0689 30.316
1.05 0.6067 17.206 1.46 0.8436 23.925 1.86 1.0747 30.480
1.06 0.6125 17.370 1.47 0.8494 24.089 1.87 1.0805 30.644
1.07 0.6182 17.534 1.48 0.8551 24.253 1.88 1.0862 30.808
1.08 0.6240 17.698 1.49 0.8609 24.417 1.89 1.0920 30.971
1.09 0.6298 17.862 1.50 0.8667 24.581 1.90 1.0978 31.135
l.l0 0.6356 18.026 1.51 0.8725 24.745 1.91 1.1036 31.299
1.11 0.6414 18.189 1.52 0.8783 24.908 1.92 1.1094 31.463
l.l2 0.6471 18.353 1.53 0.8840 25.072 1.93 1.1152 31.627
l.l3 0.6529 18.517 1.54 0.8898 25.236 1.94 l.l209 31.791
l.l4 0.6587 18.681 1.55 0.8956 25.400 1.95 l.l267 31.955
l.l5 0.6645 18.845 1.56 0.9014 25.564 1.96 1.1325 32.119
l.l6 0.6702 19.009 1.57 0.9071 25.726 1.97 1.1383 32.282
l.l7 0.6760 19.173 1.58 0.9129 25.891 1.98 l.l440 32.446
l.l8 0.6818 19.337 1.59 0.9187 26.055 1.99 l.l498 32.610
l.l9 0.6876 19.501 1.60 0.9245 26.219 2.00 l.l556 32.774
1.20 0.6934 19.664 1.61 0.9303 26.383 2.01 1.1614 32.938
1.21 0.6991 19.828 1.62 0.9360 26.547 2.02 1.1672 33.102
1.22 0.7049 19.992 1.63 0.9418 26.711 2.03 l.l729 33.266
1.23 0.7107 20.156 1.64 0.9476 26.875 2.04 l.l787 33.429
1.24 0.7165 20.320 1.65 0.9534 27.039 2.05 1.1845 33.593
1.25 0.7222 20.484 1.66 0.9591 27.202 2.06 l.l903 33.757
1.26 0.7280 20.648 1.67 0.9649 27.366 2.07 l.l96O 33.921
1.27 0.7338 20.811 1.68 0.9707 27.530 2.08 1.2018 34.085
1.28 0.7396 20.975 1.69 0.9765 27.694 2.09 1.2076 34.249
1.29 0.7454 2 l.l 39 1.70 0.9823 27.858 2.10 1.2134 34.413
1.30 0.7511 21.303
·'The number of grams per cubic centimeter is the same as the specific gravity. For example. if the specific gravity is 1.47, that substance has a
density of 1.47 gms/cm3.
Factor used in converting to ounces per cubic inch = Specific gravity multiplied by 0.5778.
Factor used in converting to grams per cubic inch = Specific gravity mUltiplied by 16.387.
To compute:
Specific gravity-multiply pounds per cubic foot by .01604.
Pounds per cubic foot-multiply specific gravity by 62.4.
Pounds per cubic inch-multiply specific gravity by .0361.
One ounce equals 28.3495 gms.
One gram equals .03527 93 oz.
101
o
C Specific gravity, compound
Reference line
40 40
30 30
25 25
20 20
A
Specific gravity, resin or filler
50
40 C2
070
30 B 060
25 Weiqht fraction 050 05
10
20 08 040 04
06 035
15 05 030 03
04
03 025
10 020
09
08
07 01 015
06 C1
05 010
009
008
007
03 006
005
02 004
Figure 2-23. A nomograph for determining the specific gravity of filled compounds by using
various fillers and reinforcements.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original size and shape after being
deformed. TP elastomers (TPEs) and rubber both have excellent elasticity (see Chapter
6).
Plasticity
Plasticity is the inverse condition of elasticity. A plastic that tends to stay in a shape or
size to which it has been deformed has high plasticity. Plastics exhibit plasticity when
stressed beyond their yield points (see Chapters 3-5). This accounts for the ability of
some plastics to be cold formed. When TPs are heated to their softening point they have
almost perfect plasticity.
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to be stretched, pulled, or rolled into shape without
destroying its integrity. The different plastics provide a wide range of ductility, from
very little (even zero) to extreme amounts, like the TPEs.
Table 2-24. Properties of Some Transparent Plastics
Methyl
Methyl Methacrylate
ASTM Methacrylate Polystyrene Styrene
Properties Method Units (Acrylic) (Styrene) Polycarbonate Copolymer
Refractive index (nD) DS42 1.491 1.590 1.586 1.562

Abbe. value (v) D542 57.2 30.9 34.7 35
dnldt x Io-'I"C 8.5 12.0 14.3 14.0
Haze (%) D 1003 % <2 <3 <3 <3
Luminous transmittance (0.125-in. thickness) D 1003 % 92 88 89 90
Critical angle (ic) degree 42.2 39.0 39.1 39.6
Deflection temperature D 648-56 "F
3.6 F/min., 264 psi 198 ISO 280
3.6 F/min., 66 psi 214 230 270 212
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion D696-44 in./in.1"F x 1Q-6 3.6 3.5 3.8 3.6
Recommended max. cont. service temp. "F 198 180 255 200
Water absorption (immersed 24 hrs. at 73"F) D 570-63 % 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.15
Specific gravity (density) D792 1.19 1.06 1.20 1.09
Hardness (0.25-in. sample) D 785-62 M97 M90 M70 M75
Impact strength (Izod Notch) D 256 ft.-Ib.lin. 0.3-0.5 0.35 12-17
Dielectric strength D 149-64 V/mil 500 500 400 450
Dielectric constant
60HZ D 150 3.7 2.6 2.90 3.40
1()6 Hz 22.2 2.45 2.88 2.90
Power factor
60Hz D 150 0.05 0.0002 0.0007 0.006
1()6 Hz 0.03 0.0002-O'(XlO4 0.0075 0.013
Volume resistivity D 257 ohm-cm 1018 >1016 8 x 1016 101'
~
-=
Water Absorption
Water absorption is the percentage increase in weight of a plastic due to its absorption
of water. Standard testing procedures, such as twenty-four hours of immersion, are
prescribed in ASTM standards. The tests are conducted for different lengths of time and
at varying temperatures, as well as with different solutions. All this seeming redundancy
is important with certain plastics, since water absorption can affect mechanical and
electrical properties as well as the dimensions of parts. Plastics with very low water-
absorption rates tend to have better dimensional stability.
Water Vapor Transmission

There are substantial differences in the rates at which water vapor and other gases can
permeate different plastics. For instance, polyethylene is a good barrier for moisture or
water vapor, but other gases can permeate it rather readily. Nylon, on the other hand, is
a poor barrier to water vapor but a good one to other vapors. The permeability of plastic
films is reported in various units, often in grams or cubic centimeters of gas per 100 sq.
in. per mil of thickness (0.001 in.) of film per twenty-four hours. The transmission rates
are influenced by such different factors, as pressure and temperature differentials on
opposite sides of the film (see Chapters 3-6).
The effectiveness of a vapor barrier can be rated in a term such as perms. An effective
vapor barrier in buildings should have a rating no greater than, say, 0.2 perm. A rating
of one perm means that one sq. ft. of the barrier is penetrated by one gram of water
vapor per hour under a pressure differential of one in. of mercury. One in. of mercury
equals virtually 0.5 psi; one gram is one seven-thousandth of a pound.
A similar problem is presented by vehicle tires and certain blow-molded bottles, which
must be virtually impermeable to air and other gases. The most impermeable of the
rubbers is butyl rubber (see Chapter 6), though the carcass of a tire is not made from
this rubber. Because of its impermeability to gases, butyl rubber is also used as a roof
Stiffness.
Hardness.
TenSile (Yield),
Elongation Barner Properties,
Impact Strength Chemical ReSistance,
Abrasion ReSistance.
Dlelectnc Constant.
Softening Temperature
DenSIty, gms Icc
0910 0920 0930 0940 0950 0960 I

~LOW DenSlty~ ~Med,um Dens'ty~ 1I--. ...- - H I 9 h DenSity ., I
Figure 2-24. The effect of density on the properties of polyethylene.

coating. With plastic bottles, different layers of both coinjected and coextruded plastics
(see Chapter 7) can be used to fabricate the bottle to make it impenneable to different
vapors and gases (see chapters 4-5).
Toughness
Toughness in regard to physical properties refers to a material's ability to absorb me-
chanical energy without fracturing. A tough material can absorb mechanical energy and
undergo either elastic or plastic defonnation. Generally high-impact unfilled resins have
excellent toughness. However, low- or moderate-impact resins can also display consid-
erable toughness if the ultimate strength of a material is high enough, such as reinforced
TS composites.
Hardness
Hardness is closely related to strength, stiffness, scratch resistance, wear resistance, and
brittleness. The opposite characteristic, softness, is associated with ductility. There are
different kinds of hardness that measure a number of different properties (see Fig. 2-25).
The usual hardness tests are listed in three categories: a) to measure the resistance of a
material to indentation by an indentor; some measure indentation with the load applied,
some the residual indentation after it is removed, such as tests using Brinell hardness,
Vickers and Knoop indentors, Barcol hardness, and Shore durometers; b) to measure the
resistance of a material to scratching by another material or by a sharp point, such as the
Bierbaum hardness or scratch-resistance test and the Moh one for hardness; and c) to
measure rebound efficiency or resilience, such as the various Rockwell hardness tests.
The various tests provide different behavior characteristics for plastics, as described
by different ASTM standards such as D 785. The ASTM and other sources provide
different degrees of comparison for some of these tests, as in Figure 2-26.
Some ductile plastics, such as PC and ABS, can be fabricated like metals with punching
and cold-fonning techniques. These processing techniques are analogous to the hardness
tests in that a rigid "indentor" is pressed into a sheet of a less-rigid plastic.
Hardness Scales
Durometer A
~
Rubber
band
I nner
tube
Auto tire
tread
Figure 2-25. The hardness of different materials using different test methods.
10,000
Diamond 10
5000
2000
1000 Topaz 8
80
60 Ouartz 7
500 Orthoclase 6
40
110 Apatite 5
Easily
100 20 machined
200 steels
80 o Fluorite 4
Rockwell C Calcite 3
100 60
40 Brasses
20 and
o 140
aluminum
50 Rockwell B
120 alloys
100
80 Gypsum 2
20 60 Most
plas! ICS
130 40
10 120
20
100-
Rockwell M
80
5 60
Brmell 40
h,mJness Rockwell R Talc 1
Mohs
hardness
Figure 2-26. An approximate comparison of different hardness scales,
Brittleness
Brittleness is simply lack of toughness. Plastics that are brittle frequently have lower
impact and higher stiffness properties.
Notch Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity, not to be confused with brittleness, is a measure of the ease with which
a crack will propagate through a plastic from a preexisting notch, crack, internal void,
or sharp comer. Certain plastics are not at all notch sensitive, but others can be as sensitive
as glass. Different tests are perfonned with variously shaped and sized notches to simulate
different characteristics under Izod impact, tensile, and other test specimens. Notches
have to be carefully molded in or machined in to ensure the best reproduction of test
results. It is most important to control and identify any internal stresses that may exist
in test specimens, because the results are directly related to such factors.
Lubricity
Lubricity refers to the load-bearing characteristics of a plastic under conditions of relative
motion. Those with good lubricity tend to have low coefficients of friction either with
themselves or other materials and have no tendency to gall.
RHEOLOGY AND DEFORMATION

Rheology is the science that deals with the defonnation and flow of matter under various
conditions. The rheology of plastics, particularly of TPs, is complex but manageable.
These materials exhibit properties that combine those of an ideal viscous liquid (that is,
with pure shear defonnations) with those of an ideal elastic solid (with pure elastic
defonnation). Thus, plastics are said to be viscoelastic. The mechanical behavior of
plastics is dominated by such viscoelastic phenomena as tensile strength, elongation at
breaks, and rupture energy, which are often the controlling factors. The viscous attributes
of polymer melt flow are also important considerations in plastics processing and fabri-
cation.
Viscoelasticity
The flow of plastics is compared to that of water in Figure 2-27 to show their different
behaviors. With plastics there are two types of defonnation or flow; viscous, in which
the energy causing the defonnation is dissipated, and elastic, in which that energy is
stored. The combination produces viscoelastic plastics.
Viscosity is a material's resistance to viscous deformation (flow). Its unit of measure
is Pascals· second (Pa·s) or pounds· second/in. 2 (lb·s/in.2). Plastic melt viscosities have a
range from 2 to 3,000 Pa·s (glass 1020, water 10--1). The resistance to elastic defonnation
is the modulus of elasticity (E), which is measured in Pascals (Pa) or pounds per square
inch (psi). Its range for a plastic melt is 1,000 to 7,000 kPa (145 to 1,015 psi), which
is called the rubbery range (see Figs. 2-13 and 2-28).
Not only are there two classes of defonnation, there are also two modes in which
defonnation can be produced: simple shear and simple tension. The actual action during
melting, as in a screw plasticator, is extremely complex, with all types of shear-tension
combinations. Together with engineering design, defonnation detennines the pumping
efficiency of a screw plasticator and controls the relationship between output rate and
pressure drop through a die system or into a mold (see Chapter 7).
Shear Rate
When a melt moves in a direction parallel to a fixed surface, such as with a screw barrel,
mold runner, or die wall, it is subject to a shearing force. As the screw speed increases,
..c:
0)
~T-l
~
0
Low preSsure) High

Figure 2-27. The rheology and flow properties of plastics differ. The volume of a so-called
Newtonian fluid, such as water, when pushed through an opening is directly proportional to the
pressure applied (the straight dotted line), the flow rate of a non-Newtonian fluid such as plastics
when pushed through an opening increases more rapidly than the applied pressure (the solid
curved line). Different plastics generally have their own flow and rheological rates so that their
non-Newtonian curves are different.
-15 • • •
-
• • •
." • • •
....
o • •
•
•
•
• ••
~4 •
• •
o ••
-
~
o
•
•
• •
•
• •
C3 • •
-J • •
W • •
iL
• •
o •
.
•
0 2
~ .
5 :........ : :
-J ~ GLASSy.... • TRANSITION: . . RUBBERy . . . . . FLOW ....
o
~
1 ~--....-~~-.___~--.....-
100 120
......~-.........- - - -
140 160
TEMPERATURE (Oe)
Figure 2-28. An example of the modulus of elasticity of plastics.
108
so does the shear rate, with potential advantages and disadvantages (see Fig. 2-29). The
advantages of an increased shear rate are a less viscous melt and easier flow. This shear-
thinning action is required to "move" plastic (see Chapter 7). When water (a Newtonian
liquid) is in an open-ended pipe, pressure can be applied to move it; doubling the water
pressure doubles the flow rate of the water. Water does not have a shear-thinning action.
However, in a similar situation but using a plastic melt (a non-Newtonian liquid), if the
pressure is doubled the melt flow may increase from 2 to 15 times, depending on the
plastic used. As an example, linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), with a low shear-
thinning action, experiences a low rate increase, which explains why it can cause more
processing problems than other PEs in certain equipment. The higher-flow melts include
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene (PS).
A disadvantage observed with higher shear rates is that too high a heat increase may
occur, potentially causing problems in cooling, as well as degradation and discoloration.
A high shear rate can lead to a rough product surface from melt fracture and other causes.
For each plastic and every processing condition there is a maximum shear rate beyond
which such problems can develop.
Shear in the channel of the screw is equal to -rrDN160h (where D = average barrel
inside diameter, N = screw RPM, and h = average screw channel depth). This formula
does not include the melt slippage between the barrel wall and screw surfaces, but the
shear rate obtained is still useful for purposes of comparison. A 2! in. screw with a 0.140
in. channel rotating at 100 RPM results in a shear rate of 93.5 reciprocal seconds (rsec).
This value is approximately the desired value in most extrusion processes, with 100 rsec
generally being the target.
The same formula can be used to determine the shear rate of slippage between the
barrel and the screw. With a new barrel, which usually has a small clearance of 0.005
in., a high shear rate of about 2,618 rsec can exist. With this small clearance only a
small amount of melt is subject to the higher heat, so that any overheating is overcome
by melt mass it encounters (that is, mixes with). As the screw wears, more melt flows
through enlarged clearances, but the shear rate is lower. The effect of wear on overheating
is usually small and is not the main reason why the complete melt overheats.
Shear rates can also be determined in melt flow through mold cavities and particularly
in extrusion dies. The formulas applicable to the different-shaped dies usually do not
account for the slippage of melt on die surfaces, but they can be used to compare the
process ability of melts and to control melt flow. The formula for a die extruding a rod
is 4QI-rrR 3 , for a long slit 6Qlwh 2 , and for an annulus die 6QI-rrRh 2 (where Q = volumetric
flow rate, R = radius, W = width, and h = die gap).
Molecular Weight Distribution

Plastics are, as discussed, made up of molecules arranged in long, flexible chains. These
chains become entangled with each other, entanglements that are largely responsible for
high viscosity in melts. Shear can be envisioned as sliding molecules in rotation, which
causes the chains to disentangle. At low shear, molecular chains become entangled, but
as the shear rate increases they gradually disentangle, and the viscosity is reduced. The
result, expressed as a so-called flow curve (see Fig. 2-27), is related to the processability
of the plastic material.
One method of defining plastics uses their molecular weight (MW), a reference to the
plastic molecules' weight and size. Here MW refers to the average weight of a plastic,
which is always composed of different-weight molecules. These differences are important
Newtonian
fluid t =1)y
o Shear strain rate. y

Figure 2-29. The relationship between shear stress and shear rate.
to the processor, who uses the molecular weight distribution (MWD) to evaluate materials.
A narrow MWD enhances the performance of plastic products (discussed later). Melt
flow rates are dependent on the MWD, as illustrated in Figure 2-30.
Melt Index Test

The melt indexer (extrusion plastometer) is the most widely used rheological device for
examining and studying plastics in many different fabricating processes. It is not a true
viscometer in the sense that a reliable value of viscosity cannot be calculated from the
flow index, which is normally measured. However, it does measure isothermal resistance
to flow, using an apparatus and test method that are standard throughout the world. The
standards used include ASTM D 1238 (U.S.A.), BS 2782-105C (U.K.), DIN 53735
(Germany), 1IS K7210 (Japan), ISO RI133/R292 (international), and others.
In this instrument (see Fig. 2-31) the polymer is contained in a barrel equipped with
a thermometer and surrounded by an electrical heater and an insulating jacket. A weight
drives a plunger that forces the melt through the die opening, using a standard opening
of 2.095 mm (0.0824 in.) and a length of 8 mm (0.315 in.). The standard procedure
involves the determination of the amount of polymer extruded in 10 min. The flow rate
(expressed in g/IO min.) is reported. As the flow rate increases, viscosity decreases.
Depending on the flow behavior, changes are made to standard conditions (die opening
size, temperature, etc.) to obtain certain repeatable and meaningful data applicable to a
specific processing operation.
The MI (melt indexer) is easy to operate and relatively low cost; thus, it is widely
used for quality control and for distinguishing between members of a single family of
polymers. Specifically, this MI makes a single-point test that provides information on
c ..... Narrow MWD Wide or Broad
,
_~I
Q)"6,
-0'-
>.- Material " ~ MWD Material
"
Q)
Cii ~ 3: /
..c ..... r.... / \
,,
Ecu~ \
_ II) :J /
..... C CJ
Z ·- I \
cu-
Q)
I
.r:. 0
CJ E /
(a) Low Molecular Weight Distribution High
... ". Distribution t

~
-
>-
i
·in ·in
0 0
() Wide ()
en en
:> ~ :>
~ Temperature
(b) Shear (c) Shear ~
Figure 2·30. Melt-flow rates as a function of molecular weight distribution. a) Molecular

weight distribution (MWD) curves; b) viscosity versus shear rate, as related to MWD; and c)
factors influencing viscosity.
TION
PISTON,
ORIFICE
O.0825·INCH 3fa-INCH
DIAMETE DIAMETER
O.315INCH
LONG lat!:..~*D~:J
lM·INCH
FLUOROCAR
Figure 2·31. A melt index (MI) test per ASTM D 1238.
111
resistance to flow at only a single shear rate. Because variations in branching or molecular
weight distribution (MWD) can alter the shape of the viscosity curve, the MI may give
a false ranking of plastics in terms of their shear rate resistance to flow. To overcome
this problem, extrusion rates are sometimes measured for two loads, or other modifications
are made. Different companies produce MIs, as listed in different magazines and the
literature of test equipment suppliers.
In summary, the MI is an indicator of the average molecular weight (MW) of a plastic
and is also a rough indicator of processability. Low MW materials have high MIs and
are easy to process. High MW materials have low MIs and are more difficult to process,
as they have more resistance to flow, but they are processable. End-use physical properties
improve as the MI decreases (see Figs. 2-32 and 2-33). Because processability simul-
taneously decreases, MI selection for a given application is a compromise between prop-
erties and processability. Table 2-25 lists typical MI ranges for the more common plastics
processes and materials. Materials with other MIs are still processable, but they usually
require more sophisticated start-up procedures and process controls.
Elasticity
As a melt is SUbjected to a fixed stress or strain, the deformation versus time curve will
show an initial rapid deformation followed by a continuous flow (Fig. 2-34). The relative
importance of elasticity (deformation) and viscosity (flow) depends on the time scale of
the deformation. For a short time elasticity dominates, but over a long time the flow
becomes purely viscous. This behavior influences processes: when a part is annealed, it
will change its shape; or, with postextrusion (Chapter 7), swelling occurs. Deformation
contributes significantly to process-flow defects. Melts with only small deformation have
proportional stress-strain behavior. As the stress on a melt is increased, the recoverable
A. BARRIER PROPEK11ES
Y
HARDNESS
TENSILE S11tENGt1t
0tEMICAI. RESISTANCE
"
B. FU!XIBII1TY
A ELONGATlON
C. RJGIDm'
CREEP RESISTANCE
I
HEAT RESISTANCE
D. ClARn'Y
REDUCED SHRINKAGE
~ /'
~ E. SURFACE GLOSS
~ 8
F. TOUGHNESS
STRESS CRACK RESISTANCE
~
INCREASING MELT INDEX _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Figure 2-32. The effects of density and melt index (MI) changes on the properties of
polyethylene (PE), with the properties increasing in the direction of the arrows.
t
t
Ultimate Tensile
Elongation
:~:~I~~t~eens~!~ance
Chemical Resistance
Brittleness Temperature
~ Melt VISCOSity
2 Long Term Load Bearing Properties.
.
a.. Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance
~ Melt Strength
10 12 14 16 18 20
Figure 2-33. The effect of the melt index (MI) on the properties of polyethylene.
strain tends to reach a limiting value. It is in the high-stress range, near the elastic limit,
that processes operate.
Molecular weight, temperature, and pressure have little effect on elasticity; the main
controlling factor is MWD. Practical elasticity phenomena often exhibit little concern for
the actual values of the modulus and viscosity. Although the modulus is influenced only
slightly by MW and temperature, these parameters have a great effect on viscosity and
thus can alter the balance of a process.
Flow Performance
In any practical deformation there are local stress concentrations. Should the viscosity
increase with stress, the deformation at the stress concentration will be less rapid than
in the surrounding material; the stress concentration will be smooth and the deformation
stable. However, when the viscosity decreases with increased stress, any stress concen-
tration will cause catastrophic failure.
Flow Defects
Flow defects, especially as they affect the appearance of a product, play an important
role in many processes. Flow defects are not always undesirable, as, for example, in
producing a matt finish. Six important types of defects can be identified, which are applied
here to extrusion because of its relative simplicity. These flow analyses can be related
to other processes and even to the complex flow of injection molding.
Table 2-25. Typical Melt Index Ranges for Common Polymer Processes
Process MI Range
Injection molding 5-100

Rotational molding 5-20
Film extrusion 0.5-6
Blow molding 0.1-1
Profile extrusion 0.1-1
Test method: ASTM D 1238.

(8) Jk?
Cit
A Time
~
A·B: Viscoelasticity with slow deformation

B: Load removed
B·C: Viscoelastic recovery
(d)
t
AFTER
BEFORE LOAD LOAD
LOADING APPLIED RELEASED
(b)
D'
O-A: Instantaneous loading prOduces Immediate stram.
A·B: Viscoelastic deformation (or creep) gradually occurs with sustained
load.
B-C: Instantaneous e/as/IC teC<M!lYoccurs when load is removed.
C·O: Viscoelastic recovery gradually occurs; where no permanent detorma·
tion (0') o· 'lith 8 permanent deformation (0"·0'). Any permanent
deformation is related to type plastic, amount & rate of loading and fab-
ricating procedure.
(8)
A
(e) t
F • VutabIe Load
Strain" Conetant
O-A: Instantaneous loading prOduces immediate strain.
A·X: With strain maintained gradual elastic retaxation occurs.
X· Y: Instanteous deformation occurs when load is removed.
Y·Z: ViscoelaStic deformation gradually occurs as resIdual stresses are re-
lieved. Any permanent deformation IS related to type plastIC, amount &
rate of loading and fabricatIng procedure.
Figure 2-34. Elasticity and strain. a) Basic defonnation versus the time curve; b) stress-strain
defonnation versus time (the creep effect); c) stress-strain defonnation versus time (the stress-
relaxation effect); d) material exhibiting elasticity; and e) material exhibiting plasticity,
Nonlaminar Flow
Ideally, a melt flows in a steady, streamlined pattern in and out of a die. Actually, the
extrudate is distorted, causing defects called melt fracture or elastic turbulence. To reduce
or eliminate this problem, the entrance to the die is tapered or streamlined.
Sharkskin
During flow through a die, the melt next to the die tends not to move, whereas that in
the center flows rapidly. When the melt leaves the die, its flow profile is abruptly changed
to a uniform velocity. This change requires rapid acceleration of the surface layer, resulting
in high local stress. If this stress exceeds some critical value the surface breaks, giving
the rough appearance called sharkskin. With the rapid acceleration, the deformation is
primarily elastic, Thus the highest surface stress, and worst sharkskin, will occur in
plastics with a high modulus and high viscosity, or in high-molecular-weight plastics of

narrow MWD at low temperatures and high extrusion rates. The addition of die lip heating,
locally reducing the viscosity, is effective in reducing sharkskin.
Nonplastication
This condition produces uneven stress distribution, with consequent lumpiness. The prod-
uct could appear ugly or have a fine matt finish. With a wide MWD there could be a
lack of gloss.
Volatiles
Many plastics contain small quantities of material that boil at processing temperatures,
or they may be contaminated by water absorbed from the atmosphere. These volatiles
may cause bubbles, a scarred surface, and other defects. See Chapters 7 and 8 for methods
of removing volatiles by using vented barrels and dryers.
Shrinkages
The transition from room temperature to a high processing temperature may decrease a
plastic'S density by up to 25 percent. Cooling causes possible shrinkage (up to 3 percent)
and may cause surface distortions or voiding with internal frozen strains. As discussed
in other chapters, this situation can be reduced or eliminated by special techniques, such
as cooling under pressure in the injection-molding process (see Chapter 5).
Melt Structures
High shear at a temperature not far above the melting point may cause a melt to take on
too much molecular order. In tum, distortion could result. This subject is discussed further
in this chapter and in Chapters 3 and 7.
Table 2-26. Performance Influenced by Melt Index and Density of Plastics

With Increasing With Increasing
Melt Index Density
Rigidity Increases
Heat resistance Decreases Increases
Stress crack resistance Decreases Decreases
Penneation resistance Increases
Abrasion resistance Increases
Clarity Decreases
Flex life Decreases Decreases
Impact strength Decreases Decreases
Gloss Increases Increases
Vertical crush resistance Increases_
Cycle Decreases Decreases
Flow Increases Decreases
Shrinkage Decreases Increases
Parison roughness Decreases Increases
Parison sag Increases Decreases
Pinch quality Increases
Parting line difference Increases
Thermodynamics
With the heat exchange that occurs during processing, thennodynamics becomes impor-
tant. It is the high heat content of melts (about 100 cal/g) combined with the low rate of
thennal diffusion (10- 3 cm2/s) that limits the cycle time of many processes. Also important
are density ,changes, which for crystalline plastics may exceed 25 percent as melts cool.
Melts are highly compressible; a 10 percent volume change for a force of 700 kg/cm2
(10,000 psi) is typical. A surface tension of about 20 g/cm may be typical for film and
fiber processing when there is a large surface-to-volume ratio.
Chemical Changes
The chemical changes that can occur during processing include 1) polymerization and
cross-linking, which increases viscosity; 2) depolymerization or damaging of molecules,
which reduces viscosity; and 3) complete changes in the chemical structure, which may
cause color changes. Already degraded plastics may catalyze further degradation.
Trends
Because melts have made different properties and there are many ways to control pro-
cesses, detailed factual predictions of final output are difficult to arrive at. Research and
hands-on operation have been directed mainly at explaining the behavior of melts or
plastics like with other materials (steel, glass, and so on). Modern equipment and controls
are overcoming some of this unpredictability. Ideally, processes and equipment should
be designed to take advantage of the novel properties of plastics rather than to overcome
them.
INTERRELATING PROPERTIES, PLASTICS, AND PROCESSING

As there are many different plastics, a number of techniques for defining and quantifying
their characteristics exist. Important techniques that relate to processing are reviewed in
Chapter 7. Molecular weight (MW), mentioned earlier, relates to the size of the molecules
that make up a resin. These molecules are not of the same length or weight, and MW
has a significant effect on processability and perfonnance. Resins with low MWs are
easier to process but weaker and more brittle than those with high MWs. The latter are
tougher, more chemically resistant, and so on, and require tighter process controls.
Generally, processing the higher-MW plastics requires more energy in the fonn of tem-
perature and pressure.
Molecular weight distribution (MWD), also discussed earlier, is an indication of the
relative proportions of molecules of different weights and lengths. It shows the breadth
of distribution or the ratio of large, medium, and small molecular chains in the resin. If
most of the molecules have about the same MW, the MWD is classified as narrow. A
wide or broad MWD implies a large variation in MW. Fig. 2-30 compares wide and
narrow MWDs. The MWD is independent of both density and the melt index (MI) and
must be taken into account in considerations of both processing and product perfonnance.
A narrow MWD enables much better, and narrower, process control. Two plastics with
the same MI and density will process very differently if their MWDs are dissimilar.
Most materials producers provide designers with understandable classification tenni-
nology that is directly useful for designing the best part at the lowest price. Comparisons
of molecular differences between one plastic and another provide valuable tools for
predicting variations in properties and for making judgments regarding the trade-offs
involved among competing materials (Figs. 2-22 to 2-24 and 2-30 to 2-33).
Processing and Properties

In order to understand potential problems and their solutions, it is helpful to consider the
relationships of machine capabilities, plastics processing variables, and part performance
(see Chapter 7). A distinction should be made between machine conditions and processing
variables. Machine conditions are basically temperature, pressure, and processing time
(such as screw rotation/rpm, and so on) in the case of a screw plasticator, die and mold
temperature and pressure, machine output rate (lb.Ihr.), and the like. Processing variables
are more specific as parameters than are machine conditions, as the melt in the die or
the mold temperature, the flow rate, and the pressure used.
The distinction between machine conditions and fabricating variables is a necessary
one to avoid mistakes in using cause-and-effect relationships to advantage. If the pro-
cessing variables are properly defined and measured, not necessarily the machine settings,
they can be correlated with the parts' properties. For example, if one increases cylinder
temperature, melt temperatures do not necessarily also increase. Melt temperature is also
influenced by screw design, screw rotation rate, back pressure, and dwell times (see
Chapter 7). It is much more accurate to measure melt temperature and correlate it with
properties than to correlate cylinder settings with properties.
The problem-solving approach that ties the processing variables to parts' properties
includes considering melt orientation, polymer degradation, free volume/molecular pack-
ing and relaxation, cooling stresses, and other such factors. The most influential of these
four conditions is melt orientation, which can be related to molded-in stress or strain
[10-12].
Polymer degradation can occur from excessive melt temperatures or abnormally long
times at temperature, called the heat history from plasticator to cooling of the part.
Excessive shear can result from poor screw design, too much screw flight-to-barrel
clearance, cracked or worn-out flights, and such.
Orientation in plastics refers simply to the alignment of the melt-processing variables
that definitely affect the intensity and performance of orientation.
Plastics with a Memory

Thermoplastics can be bent, pulled, or squeezed into various useful shapes. But eventually,
especially if heat is added, they return to their original form. This behavior, known as
plastic memory, can be annoying. If properly applied, however, plastic memory offers
interesting design possibilities for all types of fabricated parts.
When most materials are bent, stretched, or compressed, they somehow alter their
molecular structure or grain orientation to accomodate the deformation permanently, but
this is not so with polymers. Polymers temporarily assume the deformed shape, but they
always maintain the internal stresses that keep wanting to force the material back to its
original shape. This desire to change shape is what is usually called plastic memory.
This memory is often unwelcome. Sometimes we prefer for thermoplastic parts to
forget their original shape and stay put, especially when the parts must be coined, formed,
machined, or rapidly cooled. Occasionally, however, this memory or instability can be
used advantageously.
Most plastic parts can be produced with a built-in memory. That is, their tendency to
move into a new shape is included as an integral part of the design. So after the parts
are assembled in place a small amount of heat can coax them to change shape. Plastic
parts can be deformed during assembly, then allowed to return to their original shape.
In this case the parts can be stretched around obstacles or made to conform to unavoidable
irregularities without their suffering permanent damage.
The time/temperature-dependent change in mechanical properties results from stress
relaxation and other viscoelastic phenomena that are typical of polymers. When the change
is an unwanted limitation it is called creep. When the change is skillfully adapted to use
in the overall design, it is referred to as plastic memory.
Potential memory exists in all thermoplastics. Polyolefins, neoprenes, silicones, and
other cross-linkable polymers can be given memory either by radiation or by chemically
curing. Fluorocarbons, however, need no such curing. When this phenomenon of memory
is applied to fluorocarbons such as TFE, FEP, ETFE, ECTFE, CTFE, and PVF z, inter-
esting high-temperature or wear-resistant applications become possible.
ORIENTATION
A plastic's molecular orientation can be accidental or deliberate. (Here, accidental refers
to orientations that occur in processing plastics that may be acceptable. However, ex-
cessive frozen-in stress can be extremely damaging if parts are subject to environmental
stress cracking or crazing in the presence of chemicals, heat, and so on). Initially the
molecules are relaxed; molecules in amorphous regions are in random coils, those in
crystalline regions relatively straight and folded. During processing the molecules tend
to be more oriented than relaxed, particularly when sheared, as during injection molding
and extrusion. After temperature-time-pressure is applied and the melt goes through
restrictions (molds, dies, etc.), the molecules tend to be stretched and aligned in a parallel
form. The result is a change in directional properties and dimensions. The amount of
change depends on the type of thermoplastic, the amount of restriction, and, most im-
portant, its rate of cooling. The faster the rate, the more retention there is of the frozen
orientation. After processing, parts could be subject to stress relaxation, with changes in
performance and dimensions. With certain plastics and processes there is an insignificant
change. If changes are significant, one must take action to change the processing con-
ditions, particularly increasing the cooling rate.
By deliberate stretching, the molecular chains of a plastic are drawn in the direction
of the stretching, and inherent strengths of the chains are more nearly realized than they
are in their naturally relaxed configurations. Stretching can take place with heat during
or after processing by blow molding, extruding film, or thermoforming. Products can be
drawn in one direction (uniaxially) or in two opposite directions (biaxially), in which
case many properties significantly increase uniaxially or biaxially (see Table 2-27, Fig.
2-35 and Chapter 7).
Molecular orientation results in increased stiffness, strength, and toughness (Table 2-
28); as well as liquid resistance to liquid and gas permeation. crazing, microcracks, and
others in the direction or plane of the orientation. The orientation of fibers in reinforced
plastics causes similar positive influences. Orientation in effect provides a means of
tailoring and improving the properties of plastics.
Considering a fiber or thread of nylon-66, which is an unoriented glassy polymer, its
modulus of elasticity IS about 2,000 MPa (300,000 psi). Above the Tg its elastic modulus
drops even lower, because small stresses will readily straighten the kinked molecular
Table 2-27. Effects of Orientation of Polypropylene Films

Stretch (%)
Properties None 200 400 600 900
Tensile strength, psi 5,600 8,400 14,000 22,000 23,000

(MPa) (38.6) (58.0) (96.6) (152.0) (159.0)
Elongation at break, % 500 250 115 40 40
Uniaxial Balanced
Properties As Cast Orientation Orientation
Tensile strength, psi (MPa)

MD* 5,700 (39.3) 8,000 (55.2) 26,000 (180)
TDt 3,200 (22.1) 40,000 (276) 22,000 (152)
Modulus of elasticity, psi
MD 96,000 (660) 150,000 (1,030) 340,000 (2,350)
TD 98,000 (680) 400,000 (2,760) 330,000 (2,280)
Elongation at break, %
MD 425 300 80
TD 300 40 65
*MD = Machine direction.

tID = Transverse direction and direction of uniaxial orientation.
chains. However, once it is extended and has its molecules oriented in the direction of
the stress, larger stresses are required to produce added strain. The elastic modulus
increases. The next stop is to cool the nylon below its Tg without removing the stress,
retaining its molecular orientation. The nylon becomes rigid with a much higher elastic
modulus in the tension direction (15 to 20 x 103 MPa or 2 to 3 X 106 psi). This is
nearly twenty times the elastic modulus of the unoriented nylon-66 glassy polymer. The
stress for any elastic extension must work against the rigid backbone of the nylon molecule
and not simply unkink molecules. This procedure has been commonly used in the com-
mercial production of man-made fibers since the 1930s.
Table 2-28. The Effect of Molecular Orientation on the Impact Properties of

Polypropylene Film
ASTM Tensile Impact, ft.-lb./in. 2
Temperature
Material Room
Unoriented PP 40 o
Oriented PP above test limit 500
High-Energy Fatigue Impact (55 lb. weight @ 50-in. height) (24.9 kg weight at 127-cm height)
Material Number of drops to failure
Steel 12
Unoriented PP
41 x 103 psi tensile
Oriented PP
28 x 103 psi, 32%
elongation 130
Graph (a)
f
>-
f-
-7 ~ strength
"~';,mod"'~
----
a:::
UJ
Cl.
o
a:::
~
·z
<{
-----------------------
~ elongation to
fracture
I
U
UJ
::;: - - - - - - - - - -..- - energy to break
INCREASING ORIENTATION _
Graph (c)
Graph (b)
Glass Flexibility
transition
temperature
I
I Rubbery
: state
I
I
Increasing temperature l>

Increasing temperature )0
Figure 2-35. The effect of orientation on the properties of plastics.
Another example of the many oriented products is the heat-shrinkable material found
in flat or tubular film or sheets. The orientation in this case is terminated downstream of
an extrusion-stretching operation when a cold-enough temperature is achieved. Reversing
the operation, or shrinkage, occurs when a sufficiently high temperature is introduced.
The reheating and subsequent shrinking of these oriented plastics can result in a useful
property. It is used, for example, in heat-shrinkable flame-retardant PP tubular or flat
communication cable wrap, heat-shrinkable furniture webbing, pipe fittings, medical
devices, and many other products.
Directional Properties
The following items are treated here briefly, since they apply to orientation, but they are
used extensively throughout this book, particularly in Chapter 3. They are used in iden-
tifying all types of plastics, particularly the reinforced plastics and composites.
Polar
Directional Properties
+.
mDlthDlfaplc or Unldlrectla,,"1
1m Ildirection.1
o IlIIIlfaplc o. PI...,
o Unnlnloratd Plastics
DiHerent Fiber Tensile Fracture Stress VS. Strain
Orientations Characteristics DIagrams at Various Angles
~I
Dlthotroplt ar Unldlrectl ... 1
v ~'""S ~I'lo ft'
I SIr
c 0
O.'lO B~ r
8 diretllonal
~
• I'lope:! ts
DiStress
I ~--- Un' ~' reed Q
5lf1l. Klgh
ISIItroplc •• PI •
p. o.s I
'A. IS',
Figure 2-36. Examples of the perfonnance of RP and composites with different orientations of
their fiber reinforcements.
Isotropic Materials
In an isotropic material the properties at a given point are the same, independent of the
direction in which they are measured. The term isotropic means uniform. As one moves
from point-to-point in this type of homogeneous plastic the material's composition remains
constant. Also, the smallest sample of material cut from any location has the same
properties. A cast, unfilled plastic is a good example of a reasonably homogeneous
Figure 2-37. An example of the three-dimensional or anisotropic directional properties of wood

that can also occur in unreinforced or reinforced plastics.
material. With reinforced plastics and other similar materials, isotropic refers only to the
plane of the fiber layup; that is, it is only two-directional, rather than a complete isotropic
behavior in three planes.
Anisotropic Materials
In an anisotropic material the properties vary, depending on the direction in which they
are measured. There are various degrees of anisotropy, using different terms such as
orthotropic or unidirectional, bidirectional, heterogeneous, and so on (see Fig. 2-36).
For example, cast plastics or metals tend to be reasonably isotropic. However, plastics
that are extruded, injection molded, and so on and rolled metals tend to develop an
orientation in the processing or machined direction. Thus, they have different properties
in the machine and transverse directions, particularly in the case of extruded or rolled
materials.
Wood in anisotropic with distinct properties in three directions. Its highest mechanical
properties are in the growth (fiber) direction, with the perpendicular (or second plane)
direction having lower properties and the other perpendicular (or third plane) direction
having much lower properties (see Fig. 2-37). During World War n, glass fiber-TS
polyester resin composites were used in many high-performance, structurally loaded
products. The reinforced plastics used many different glass-fiber woven constructions to
produce the required directional properties. The design equations and engineering tech-
nology approaches used were based on the technology and engineering knowledge of the
anisotropic wood performance based on centuries of wood applications in buildings,
bridges, and the like. The Wright-Patterson Air Force Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio, and
Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, WI, provided the original engineering equations
and technical approach to designing with RPs. As covered in Chapters 3-5 three-direc-
tional woven fabrics are used in RPs to provide three-dimensional rather than the usual
two-dimensional performance [2, 14-18].
BEING
MOLDED
(HIGHLY
EXAGGERATED)
MO: :V~~
/ ,/ ......... "-
I -'\
IT' I ,
AFTER
EJECTIONS
& COOLING J CROSS

FLOW
SHRINKAGE
FLOW DIRECTION
~ ......r-----
SHRINKAGE
Figure 2-38. An example of directional shrinkage in an injection molding that could be related
to the anisotropic performance of plastics during processing.
SHRINKAGE
This overview has primarily involved mechanical properties, but anisotropy can also be
used when referring to the way a material shrinks during processing, such as in injection
molding (see Fig. 2-38) and extrusion. Shrinkage is an important consideration when
fabricating plastics, particularly crystalline TPs or ones with glass fibers. The flow di-
rection can have more shrinkage than the cross-flow direction. The control of shrinkage
is made to meet design requirements by factors such as the design of the mold or die
shape, the processing-machine controls, the change of product shape, and the type of
plastics (see Chapters 3-6 and 9).
Chapter 3
PLASTICS: DESIGN CRITERIA
Design is essentially an exercise in predicting perfonnance. The designer of plastic parts

must therefore be knowledgeable in such behavioral responses of plastics as those to
mechanical and environmental stresses. This chapter presents important basic concepts
of plastics, mechanical and electrical properties in particular that define their range of
design behaviors. Along with the next two chapters, on environmental and structural
considerations, it provides the background needed to understand perfonnance analysis
and the design methods available to the perfonning designer and engineer, as well as for
those less familiar with conventional design and engineering practices. Parts made of
plastics can then be designed using the logical appr~ch applied to such other materials
as steel, wood, glass, and concrete, which have their own specific techniques of analysis
[1-2,5-14,29-33,40-47, 79-86, 245-347].
Many plastic products seen in everyday life are not required to undergo sophisticated
design analysis for their ability to withstand high static and dynamic loads, as forinstance
containers, cups, toys, boxes, housings for computers, radios, televisions and the like,
and nonstructural products of various kinds like buildings, aircraft, appliances, and elec-
tronic devices. For other products designing for production with any material can be
complex. Designing is, to a high degree, intuitive and creative, but at the same time
empirical and technically mechanical. An inspired idea alone will not result in a successful
design; experience plays an important part, but it can easily be developed. An under-
standing of one's materials and a ready acquaintance with the relevant processing tech-
nologies (see Chapter 7) are essential for converting an idea to an actual design. In
addition, certain basic tools are needed, such as those for computation and measurement,
to ensure that the loads and forces the product is to absorb can be safely withstood.
For these reasons design is spoken of as having to be appropriate to the materials of
its construction, its methods of manufacture, and the stresses involved. Where all these
aspects can be closely interwoven, plastics are able to solve design problems efficiently
in ways that are economically advantageous.
Here and elsewhere, the equations and calculations used are based on those found in
the basic machine design and engineering handbooks [1, 85, 201-3, 245-69, 273-80].
These technical aids have been assembled so as to facilitate the designing of plastic parts
to meet the required perfonnance requirements. Observe that the safety factors have been
omitted from most calculations, because different designers working on varying products
use the appropriate criteria for choosing SFs. In general, an SF initially of 1.5 to 2.5 is
used, as is commonly used with metals. This subject is covered in detail in Chapter 5.
125
The equations and calculations presented here are based on the development work of
many people over the centuries in simplifying the testing and evaluation of all types of
materials. Realistic approaches are thus available for comparing different materials and
providing practical and useful guidelines for designing a whole range of products.
Design Analysis Methods

Plastics and composites (RPs) have some mechanical characteristics that differ signifi-
cantly from those of the familiar metals. Consequently, design analysts may have less
confidence in these relatively new materials and in their own ability to design with them.
Materials selection thus may tend to confine itself to familiar materials, or else products
may be overdesigned, and failures may even occur in service, due to faulty design [1].
Also, the statistics available on materials are often presented so as to favor a particular
bias, which complicates the process of assessing their relative merits and adds to the
confusion. Essentially, what the design analyst requires is relevant and credible design
data, together with valid methods for calculating, predicting, and optimizing a part's
performance. These methods may involve design formulas and charts such as those
included in computer-aided design (see Chapter 10) that provide an opportunity for plastics
and composites to be handled on a basis equivalent to that of other materials.
Materials selection depends on a wide variety and range of factors, including cost,
technical suitability, safety, energy requirements in production and service, quality, the
ability to be manufactured in the required quantities and to be satisfactorily assembled
and finished, the influence of the service environment, recycling and waste recoverability,
its estimated lifetime, and many other factors, which are often interrelated. All these
elements must be considered before deciding that the use of a particular material makes
good sense.
Almost all the current methods for the design analysis of plastics are based on models
of material behavior relevant to traditional metals, as for example elasticity and plastic
yield. These principles are embodied in design formulas, design sheets and charts, and
in the more-modern techniques such as those of computer-aided design (CAD) using
finite element analysis (PEA). The design analyst is required only to supply appropriate
elastic or plastic constants for the material, and not question the validity of the design
methods. Traditional design analysis is thus based on accepted methods and familiar
materials, and as a result many designers have little, if any, experience with such other
materials as plastics, wood, and glass.
Under these circumstances it is both tempting and common practice for designers to
treat plastics and composites as though they were traditional materials and to apply familiar
design methods with what seem appropriate materials constants. It must be admitted that
this pragmatic approach does often yield acceptable results. However, it should also be
recognized that the mechanical characteristics of polymers are different from those of
metals, and the validity of this pragmatic approach is often fortuitous and usually un-
certain. It would be more acceptable for the design analysis to be based on methods
developed specifically for the new materials, but this action will require the designer of
metals to accept new ideas. Obviously, this acceptance becomes easier to the degree that
the new methods are presented as far as possible in the form of limitations or modifications
to the existing methods discussed in this book.
Caution in using such nonmetallic materials as plastics, composites, wood, and glass
is proper in view of the penalties that may be incurred if parts fail in service. However,
PLASTICS: DESIGN CRITERIA 127
there has been in the past a tendency to resist the introduction of plastics and composites
for other, less justifiable, reasons. It is thus reasonable to decide not to use them because
of a personal lack of the necessary design information or techniques but less so through
unWillingness to understand and apply existing information. Obviously, conservation and
experience have their own important roles. Thus, materials such as polymers have to
combat ignorance and false or misleading information. The latter is usually illustrated
when the relative merits of different materials are being considered and different forms
of presentation can either be misleading or can cause doubts that lead one to use familiar
materials.
Table 3-1 gives typical mechanical property data for four materials, the exact values
of which are unimportant for this discussion. Aluminum and mild steel have been used
as representative metals and polypropylene (PP) and glass fiber-TS polyester reinforced
plastics (GRP) as representative plastics. Higher-performance types could have been
selected for both the metals and plastics, but those in this table offer a fair comparison
for the explanation presented. Also, it appears from the data that these metals are much
stiffer and significantly stronger than the plastics. This approach to evaluation could
eliminate the use of plastics in many potential applications, but in practice it is recognized
that it is the stiffness and strength of the product that is important, not its material
properties.
To illustrate this correct approach, consider applications in which a material is used
in sheet form, as in automotive body panels, and suppose that the service requirements
are for stiffness and strength in flexure. First imagine four panels with identical dimensions
that were manufactured from the four materials given in Table 3-1. Their flexural stiff-
nesses and strengths depend directly on the respective material's modulus and strength.
All the other factors are shared in common with the other materials, there being no
significantly different Poisson ratios. Thus, the relative panel properties are identical with
the relative material properties illustrated in Figure 3-1. Obviously, the metal panels will
be stiffer and significantly stronger than the plastic ones, based on the identical panel
dimensions resulting in the use of equal volumes of materials.
Obviously, the lower densities of plastics allow them to be used in thicker sections
than metals, which can have a significant influence on panel stiffness and strength. For
example, assume that the four panels have equal weights and therefore different thick-
nesses (t). When the panels are loaded in flexure, their stiffnesses depend on (Er3) and
their strength on (<Ttl) where E and <T are the material's modulus and its strength. For
panels of equal weight it follows that their relative stiffnesses are governed by (EIs 3 ) and
Table 3-1. Examples of the Mechanical Properties of Typical Metal

and Plastic Materials
Glass-fiber
Reinforced
Property Aluminum Mild Steel Polypropylene (PP) Plastics (GRP)
Tensile modulus (E) 70 (10) 210 (30) 1.5 (0.21) 15 (2.2)

l(f GN/m2 (psi)
Tensile strength (0-) 400 (58) 450 (65) 40 (5.8) 280 (40.5)
103 MN/m2 (psi)
Specific gravity (S) 2.7 7.8 0.9 1.6
GN/m2 = kPa.
their relative strengths by (cr/?) where s denotes specific gravity. These relative panel
properties, illustrated in Figure 3-2, show that the plastics now appear in a much more
favorable light. Figures 3-1 and 3-2 present the same basic data from Table 3-1, but in
two different forms, and the superficial use of either form can be misleading.
In practice, metals and plastics do not have to compete under either of the extreme
conditions of equal volume or equal weight, and their positioning between these extremes
will depend on the requirements of the particular application. For vehicle body panels,
plastics may be used with thicker sections than their metals counterparts (that is, not of
equal volume), but the desire to save weight will ensure that they not be used to the other
extreme either. Thus the designer has the opportunity to balance out the requirements for
stiffness, strength, and weight saving. For the materials data given in Table 3-1 a GRP
panel having 2.4 times the thickness of a steel panel has the same flexural stiffness-but
3.6 times its flexural strength and only half its weight. The tensile strength of the GRP
panel would be 50 percent greater than that of the steel panel, but its tensile stiffness is
only 17 percent that of the steel panel. The designer's interest in this GRP panel would
then depend in this context on whether tensile stiffness was what was required.
No general conclusions should be drawn on the relative merits of various materials
based on this description alone. These examples have been presented merely to illustrate
the dangers of superficially interpreting property data and of making dogmatic or gen-
eralized statements about the relative merits of various classes of materials. Similar
remarks could be made with respect to various materials' costs and energy contents,
~ 200 400 ~
-
N N
E E
Z z
S 100 200 ~
LU
0
Figure 3-1. The relative stiffness (open bars) and strength (shaded bars) of sheets made from
the materials listed in Table 3-1.
..- 100 ....

-
N
E E
z i
...~
WI
50 N
WI
W 2 b
Figure 3-2. The relative plate stiffness (open bars) and strength (shaded bars) in flexure for
panels of equal weight.
which can also be specified per unit of weight or volume. If these factors are to be treated
properly, they too must relate to final product values, including the method of fabrication,
expected lifetime, repair record, in-service use, and so on [1].
One important conclusion illustrated by the example given is that plastic products are
often stiffness critical, whereas metal products are usually strength critical. Consequently,
metal parts are often made stiffer than required by their service conditions, to avoid
failure, whereas plastic parts are often made stronger than necessary, for adequate stiff-
ness. Thus, in replacing a component in one material with a similar part in another
material it is not usually necessary to have the same part stiffness and strength. It follows
that general statements about energy content or cost per unit of stiffness or strength, as
well as other factors, should be treated with caution and applied only where relevant.
This overview identifies the need for using design analysis methods appropriate for
plastics and composites. It also indicates the uncertainty of using with plastics methods
derived from metals, and demonstrates the dangers of making generalized statements
about the relative merits of different classes of materials. The designer who has basically
no familiarity with plastics needs to be receptive to the different methods of handling
them. It is necessary to keep an open mind when designing parts with plastics or com-
posites, rather than limiting the design to being an exact replica of the metal part. Let
us assume from this point on that this approach is accepted, so a more-detailed examination
of the needs of the design analysis methods can follow.
Design Analysis Requirements

It should be evident that the full spectrum of the possible materials and applications in
load-bearing situations involves many factors that may have to be taken into account.
Fortunately, most products involve only a few factors, and others will not be significant
or relevant. Regardless, the methods of design analysis must be made available to handle
any possible combinations of such factors as the materials' characteristics, the product's
shape, the loading mode, the loading type, and other service factors and design criteria.
Materials Characteristics
The wide choice available in plastics and composites makes it necessary to select not
only between TPs, TSs, reinforced plastics and composites, and molding compounds but
also between individual materials within each family of plastic types (see Chapter 6).
This selection requires having data suitable for making comparisons which, apart from
the availability of data, depends on defining and recognizing the relevant plastics char-
acteristics. There can be, for instance, isotropic (homogeneous) plastics and reinforced
plastics that can have different directional properties that run from the isotropic to ani-
sotropic, as seen in Chapter 2. Here RPs can be used advantageously to provide extra
stiffness and strength in predesigned directions.
Product Shape
Design analysis is required to convert applied loads and other external constraints into
stress and strain distributions within a product and calculate the associated deformations.
The nature and complexity of these calculations will be strongly influenced by the part's
shape. The designing will be simplified if the part approximates a simple engineering
fonn like a plate or shell, a beam or tube, or some combination of idealized fonns such
as a box structure. In such cases standard design fonnulas can be used, with appropriate
parameters relating to the factors being reviewed: short- and long-time loadings, creep,
fatigue, impact, and so on, using viscoelastic materials.
There are of course products whose shape does not approximate a simple standard
fonn or where more detailed analysis is required, such as a hole, boss, or attachment
point in a section of a product. With such shapes the component's geometry complicates
the design analysis for plastics, glass, or metal and may make it necessary to carry out
a direct analysis, possibly using finite element analysis (PEA).
Loading Mode
Loads applied on products induce tension, compression, flexure, torsion, or shear, as
well as distributing the loading modes. The product's particular shape will control the
type of materials data required for analyzing it. Its shape will be detennined by the
location and magnitude of the applied loads in regard to the position and nature of such
other constraints as holes, attachment points, and ribs. Also influencing the design decision
will be the method of fabricating the product. The load's magnitude and distribution can
be difficult to specify, especially in a system composed of several interacting components
of the product, and can control whether the nonlinear effects will be significant.
Loading Type
The mechanical behavior of plastics on time-dependent applied loading can cause different
important effects on materials viscoelasticity. Loads applied for short times and at nonnal
rates, discussed later in detail, causes material response that is essentially elastic in
character. However, under sustained loads plastics, particularly TPs, tend to creep, a
factor that is usually included in the design analysis (creep data are covered below).
Products can also be subjected to intermittent loading involving successive creep and
recovery over relatively long time scales. It is not unusual, for instance, for creep de-
fonnation arising during one loading phase to be only partly recovered in the unloading
cycle, leading to a progressive accumulation of creep strain (see Figs. 3-3 and 3-4) and
Time~
Figure 3·3. An example of intennittent loading involving successive creep strain and recovery.
Stress levels
---- 2000 p.s.i.
-3000p.s.i.
",'"
" ..... ----,I
;' I
I
I
I
I
c:
.~
I
\
iii \
a.
lE
U 00~~~~~----~------~------~---
120 160
Time, hr.
Figure 3·4. An example of changes in elasticity for engineering TPs involving one cycle of
loading to unloading. The curves show the effects of stress and time under load on strain
recovery after unloading.
possibly resulting in creep rupture. An analogue of creep behavior is the stress-relaxation

cycle that can occur under constant strain, as seen in Chapter 2. This behavior is partic-
ularly relevant with push-fit assemblies and bolted joints that rely on maintaining their
load under constant strain. Special design features or analysis may be required to coun-
teract excessive stress-relaxation (see Chapter 11).
In many applications, intermittent or dynamic loads arise over much shorter time scales.
Examples of such products include chair seats, panels that vibrate and transmit noise,
engine mounts and other antivibration parts, and road surface-induced loads carried to
wheels and suspension systems. Plastics' relevant properties in this regard are material
stiffness and internal damping, the latter of which can often be used to advantage in
design. Both properties depend on the frequency of the applied loads or vibrations, a
dependence that must be allowed for in the design analysis. The possibility of fatigue
damage and failure must also be considered [1].
Other Service Factors

Many other factors also discussed in tum influence product design by being directly
related to design analysis: an aggressive temperature environment, humidity, ultraviolet
light, fire, chemicals, radiation, and so on. Other such factors include thermal expansion
and conductivity, electrical conductivity, various friction and wear properties, and the
possible effects of processing and aging on materials' properties.
Design Criteria
The nature of design analysis obviously depends on having product-performance require-
ments. These requirements are basically controlled by the product's level of technical
sophistication and the consequent level of analysis that can be justified costwise. The
analysis also depends on the design criteria for a particular part. If the design is strength
limited, to avoid component failure or damage, or to satisfy safety requirements, it is
possible to confine the design analysis simply to a stress analysis. However, if a plastic
part is stiffness limited, to avoid excessive deformation from buckling, a full stress-strain
analysis will likely be required.
Even though many potential factors can influence a design analysis, each application
fortunately usually involves only a few factors. For example, TPs' properties are dom-
inated by the viscoelasticity relevant to the applied load. Anisotropy usually dominates
the behavior of long-fiber composites.
20
A. TP polyester with 30% fibers, 150

E~1.1- x 10 psi (7.6 GPa)
B. TP polyester with 15% fibers,
B E~670,000 psi (4.6 GPa)
C. Acrylic, E~O,OOO psi (3.0 GPa)
15 O. PC Dr PPO,E""350,000 psi (2.4 GPa) 100
E. TP polyester~350,000 psi (2.4 GPa)
F. Rigid PVC, E~O,OOO psi (3.0 GPa)
1':. HOPE foam (60 pcf, 955 kg/m 3),
E:::120,000 psi (827 MPa)
H. LOPE foam (57 pef, 915 kg/m 3,
.-
>C
E;10,OOO psi (69 MPa) 75
I. PUR foam (7 pcf,112KG/m3)
0
E
5
25
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Strain, percent
Figure 3-5. An example of a range in tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and elongation of
some thennoplastics with and without chopped glass fibers, by weight and type of
reinforcement.
Mild steel
Magnesium alloy
Modulus
Molybdenum 40 millIOn
Steel 30 million
Aluminum alloy 10 million
Magnesium alloy 65 million
___ J ______ L- I I I _ _____.L

o
o 0004 0008 0012 0016 0020 0.024 0.028 0032
Siram, In lin
Figure 3-6. An example of tensile stress-strain diagrams for some metals.
4 - Ratio tensile strength (psi) to density (Ibs./cu. in.) x 106

--- Ratio tensile modulus of elasticity (psi) to density (Ibs./cu. in.) Xl0 6
3 /
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Figure 3-7. The growth in and a forecast for the structural properties of reinforced plastics and
composites with steel and aluminum.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Most plastics are used because they have desirable mechanical properties at an economical
cost. For this reason their mechanical properties may be considered the most important
of all the physical, chemical, electrical, and other considerations for most applications.
Thus, everyone designing with such materials needs at least some elementary knowledge
of their mechanical behavior and how it can be modified by the numerous structural
factors that can be varied in plastics. Plastics have the widest variety and range of
mechanical properties of all materials (see Figs. 3-5 to 3-7). They vary from basically
liquids to soft rubbers (elastomers) to hard, rigid solids. A great many structural factors
determine the nature of their mechanical behavior, such as whether it occurs over the
short term (less than a quarter-hour) or the long term. As a rule, design is based on
certain minimum strength or minimum deformation criteria [1, 2, 10-22, 62-68, 245-
347].
Short-term testing is important for quality control, to ensure the constant properties of
plastics production. In addition it provides the designer data that permit comparisons
of one material with another. However, a true comparison is possible only if both sets
of data were determined in exactly the same way. For example, the speed of loading
tensile test specimens influences performance factors such as deformation (see Fig. 3-4).
Also, comparing the impact resistance of a half-inch specimen with that of an eighth-
inch specimen will result in a different analysis of the material's properties. Thus, it is
necessary to describe the exact testing conditions along with each set of data sheets.
Finally, the data from short-term testing give the user an important overall picture of the
material. Very short time, impact testing is also covered later (see Fig. 3-8).
The long-term testing of certain plastics allows their strength properties to be identified
rapidly. Three of the major control-test procedures for long-term testing and predicting
product lifetime are creep, fatigue, and impact (see Figs. 3-9 and 3-10).
40r-------~------T.r------~------~
..,E 30~------~------+_------~~--~
~
~
c;,
c
~
Vi
U
o
Co
§ 20r-------~-------+__r~~~----~
10r-------~~~7'+_------~----~
o
Notch lip radius (mm)
Figure 3-8. An example of very short-term impact strength, with a notched radius, for several
thermoplastics.
10 10 5
Tim. (s)
Figure 3·9. An example of long-term tensile creep curves at 20°C (49Of) for polypropylene
(PP) and nylon (N). The numbers in parentheses refer to the stress level, in MPa.
35 5
28 4
cti
Cl. Vl
21 3 x
~
vi
vi Vl
Vl
....
Q) 14 2 ....
Q)
Ci5 Ci5
7
0 0
10·' 10 4 10:' 106 10-
Cycles to failure
Figure 3·10. An example of long-term tensile fatigue curves for dry nylon 6 that is 4.5 nun
(0.18 in.) thick, acrylic (PMMA) that is 6.4 nun (0.25 in.) thick, and fluoropolymer (PTFE)
that is 6.6 nun (0.26 in.) thick. The test frequency is at 1,800 cpm.
SHORT·TERM BEHAVIOR
This section introduces the behavior and response of both unreinforced and reinforced
plastics under loads lasting usually only a few seconds or minutes up to a maximum of
fifteen minutes. Such short-term tests are used to define the basic or reference designing
and engineering properties of conventional materials. Such properties as tensile strength,
compressive strength, flexural strength (the modulus of rupture), shear strength, and
associated elastic moduli are often shown on the data sheets provided by suppliers of
plastic materials and are in computerized data banks. The influence of such factors as
time, temperature, additives and reinforcements, and molecular orientation on the basic
behavior of these properties is discussed in turn [1, 2, 10-14,62-68,245-87].
For many engineering plastics that are treated as linearly elastic, homogeneous, and
isotropic, their tensile and compressive properties are considered to be identical. This
eliminates the need to measure their properties in compression. Furthermore, if the tension
and compression properties are identical, under standard beam-bending theory there is
no need to measure their properties in bending. However, in a concession to the nonlinear,
anisotropic nature of most plastics, these properties, particularly the flexural ones, are
often reported on marketing data sheets.
With few exceptions, the stress-strain behavior of plastics can be characterized in terms
of the engineering stress (the load divided by the original specimen's cross-sectional area)
rather than the true stress (the load divided by the specimen's reduced cross-sectional
area that results from Poisson contraction or necking). However, some engineering and
scientific investigations do deal with true stress and strain, particularly in regard to the
softer plastics that deform significantly before failure. Unless otherwise noted, all ref-
erences to stress in this book are in terms of engineering stress, which is the most
conventional way that tests are conducted, used in design, and reported worldwide.
Tensile Properties
The tensile test is the experimental stress-strain test method most widely employed to
characterize the mechanical properties of materials like plastics, metals, and wood. From
any complete test record one can obtain important information concerning a material's
elastic properties, the character and extent of its plastic deformation, and its yield and
tensile strengths and toughness. That so much information can be obtained from one test
of a material justifies its extensive use. To provide a framework for the varied responses
to tensile loading in load-bearing materials that occur, several stress-strain plots, reflecting
different deformation characteristics, will be examined.
The standard ASTM D 638 explains the internationally accepted method of conducting
tensile tests and defines the terms generally used throughout the industry. This standard
was used in part to develop the definitions that follow. The standard itself should be
referred to for further details. Analyzing stress-strain curves in tension is usually done
by constantly measuring the force that develops as a sample is elongated at a uniform
rate of extension. Various such curves are shown in Figures 3-11 and 3-12.
Stress
Stress is the tensile load applied per unit of the original cross-sectional area at a given
moment. The standard unit of measure is in Pa (Pascal) or pounds per square inch (psi).
Strain
Strain is the ratio of elongation or deformation to the gauge length of the test specimen,
that is, the change in length per unit of original length. It is expressed as a dimensionless
ratio; that is, mm1mm (in.lin.). As the strain is increased beyond the material's propor-
tionallimit, the specimen's elastic limit is reached. In this portion of the curve stress is
no longer proportional to strain. However, below the elastic limit the material's behavior
is elastic; that is, once it is unloaded, its recovery from deformation is essentially complete
and instantaneous. Stressing the specimen above its elastic limit results in a degree of
permanent set, however, which is dependent on the amount of stressing. This nonrecov-
erable stressing is called plastic strain. This strain is usually associated with plastics,
particularly the unreinforced TPs, but it is also seen in metals and other materials.
r--------
I
I
I
-..1--
U)
U)
II!.....
III
A a E· TENSILE STRENGTH AT BREAI<

ELONGATION AT BREAI<
B· TENSILE STRENGTH AT YIELD
ELONGATION AT YIELD
C· TENSILE STRESS AT BREAK
ELONGATION AT BREAK
D· TENSILE STRESS AT YIELD
ELONGATION AT YIELD
STRAIN
Figure 3·11. Tensile designations according to ASTM D 638.
Elongation
The increase in the length of a test specimen that is expressed as a percentage of its
extensometer gauge length is called its percentage of elongation.
Yield
The first point on a stress-strain curve at which an increase in strain occurs without any
increase in stress is its yield point or yield strength or tensile strength at yield. Some
materials may not have a yield point. A yield strength can in such cases be established
by picking a stress level beyond the material's elastic limit. The yield strength is generally
established by constructing a line to the curve where stress and strain is proportional at
a specific offset strain, usually at 0.2 percent. The stress at the point of intersection of
the line with the stress-strain curve is its yield strength at 0.2 percent offset.
Proportional Limit
A material's proportional limit is the greatest stress at which it is capable of sustaining
an applied load without deviating from the proportionality of stress to strain.
100
..J-t-
j
90 II I
~~ Hard steel
80
'w
-
c. Ultimate stress
70
/
.,..
M
0
60 B r-- ~
..
~
l..-" ". ......
.....~ r- Soft steel .......
~ 50
..
Ui
~
/'
Breaking point_
'c ~
~
40
::::> ./
30 ~-Elastic limit-beginning of
yield strength, I
I I I f I
20
lA-Proportional limit
.,..
'" Polycarbonate
10
i,.-" 'rielld
0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Unit Strain € {in'!in.!
12,500
Ultimate strength
(9500 psi)
10,000 _____ Yield point
(9000 psi)
~
.1:! 7,500
/
en Break
5,000
Proportional limit
---------- (4000 psi)
2,500
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Strain (in./in.)
Figure 3-12. Tensile stress-strain diagrams. Top: Hard and soft steels, polycarbonates. Bottom:
Polycarbonates, on an extended scale, with specific characteristics usable in il design analysis.
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit of a material is the greatest stress at which it is capable of sustaining
an applied load without any permanent strain remaining, once stress is completely released.
Tensile Strength
The maximum tensile stress sustained by a specimen during a tension test is its tensile
strength. Again it is expressed either in Pas (Pascals) or pounds per square in. (psi).
---
Yield point Tensile
(proportional limit) strength
/ Engineering
/ yield strength
/
V~tress
1'<.
C
II)
II)
....... I
Q)
Cf)
.1 Strain
I
0.2% Strain, in./in. [em/em)

Figure 3-13. An example of the modulus of elasticity determined on the initial straight portion
of the stress-strain diagram.
When a material's maximum stress occurs at its yield point this stress is designated its
tensile strength at yield. When the maximum stress occurs at a break:, the designation is
its tensile strength at break:. In practice these differences are frequently ignored, often
resulting in confusion in designs as to whether or not, for example, work hardening or
cold drawing occurs before failure.
Most materials, including plastics and metals, have deformation proportional to their
loads below the proportional limit. Since stress is proportional to load and strain to
deformation, this implies that stress is proportional to strain. Hooke's Law, developed
in 1676, follows that this straight line (see Fig. 3-13) of proportionality is calculated as
Stress
--.- = Constant
Stram
The constant is called the modulus of elasticity (E) or Young's modulus (defined by
Thomas Young in 1807), the elastic modulus, or just the modulus. This modulus is the
slope of the initial portion of the stress-strain curve, normally expressed in terms such
as MPa or GPa (lQ6 psi or Msi). A material not loaded past its proportional limit will
return to its original shape once the load is removed. However, some elastic materials
do not necessarily obey Hooke's law and simply return to their original shape.
In many plastics, particularly the unreinforced TPs, the straight region of the stress-
strain curve is not linear or else the straight region of this curve is too difficult to locate.
It then becomes necessary to construct a straight line tangent to the initial part of the
curve to obtain a modulus called the initial modulus. Designwise, an initial modulus
can be misleading, because of the nonlinear elasticity of the material. For this reason,
a secant modulus (see below) is usually used to identify the material more accurately.
Thus, a modulus could represent Young's modulus of elasticity, an initial modulus, or
a secant modulus, each having its own meaning.
Standard ASTM D 638 states that it is correct to apply the term modulus of elasticity
to describe the stiffness or rigidity of a plastic where its stress-strain characteristics
depend on such factors as the stress or strain rate, the temperature, and its previous
history as a specimen. However, D 638 still suggests that the modulus of elasticity can
be a useful measure of the stress-strain relationship, if its arbitrary nature and dependence
on load duration, temperature, and other factors are taken into account.
Secant Modulus
The secant modulus is the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain at any specific point
on the stress-strain curve. As shown in Figure 3-14, the secant modulus is the slope of
the line joining the origin and a selected point C on the stress-strain curve. This mea-
surement is usually employed in place of a modulus of elasticity for materials where the
stress-strain diagram does not demonstrate a linear proportionality of stress to strain or
E is difficult to locate.
Hysteresis Effect
The hysteresis effect is a retardation of the effect (strain) when a material is subjected to
a force or load (see Fig. 3-15).
Viscoelasticity
Plastics respond to stress with elastic strain. In this material, strain increases with longer
loading times and higher temperatures.
Slope represents tangent,

or Young's modulus
' - Slope represents secant
modulus at strain C'
III
III
CD
en
"-
Proportional limit
A' C'
Strain
Figure 3-14. A diagram describing the tangent modulus and the secant modulus.
15
';j Proportional
C&.
lim~ ,,3%
8
V/
~
-'"
ct
.;
10
,,
,,
, ,
••..
III
.!
';j
c:
5
,
;; ,,
,,
.., ..,
.., ..,
.., ",
~
,, , , .., ..,
",
~
, ..,
,, ",
",
..,
,.., ",
..,
o
..,
"",
.., ..,
o 2 3 4
Strain, (%)
•
Figure 3·15. An example of recovery to near zero strain, showing that material can withstand
stress beyond its proportional limit for a short time, resulting in different degrees of the
hysteresis effect.
Area under the Curve

Generally, the area under the stress-strain curve is proportional to the energy required
to break the plastic. It is thus sometimes referred to as the toughness of the plastic (Fig.
3-16). However, there are types, particularly among the many fiber-reinforced TSs, that
are hard, strong, and tough, even though their area is extremely small.
Poisson's Ratio
Poisson's ratio is the proportion of lateral strain to longitudinal strain under conditions
of uniform longitudinal stress within the proportional or elastic limit. When the material's
deformation is within the elastic range it results in lateral to longitudinal strains that will
always be constant. This ratio is designated by the Greek letter v. In mathematical terms,
Poisson's ratio is the diameter of the test specimen before and after elongation divided
by the length of the specimen before and after elongation. Poisson's ratio will have more
than one value if the material is not isotropic.
Poisson's ratio always falls within the range of 0 to 0.5. A zero value indicates that
the specimen would suffer no reduction in diameter or contraction laterally during elon-
gation but would undergo a reduction in density. A value of 0.5 indicates that the
specimen's volume would remain constant during elongation or as the diameter decreases.
For most engineering materials the ratio lies between 0.10 and 0.40 (see Table 3-2).
Poisson's ratio is a required constant in engineering analysis for determining the stress
and deflection properties of plastic, metal, and other structures such as beams, plates,
shells, and rotating discs. Temperature, the magnitude of stresses and strains, and the
T
T
cr
HARD. TOUGH SOFT II< TOUGH HARD II< BRITTLE
tr cr
HARD II< STRONG SOFT II< WEAK
Figure 3-16. Tensile stress-strain curves for different plastics that relate the area under the
curve to their toughness or physical properties.
direction of loading all have their effects on Poisson's ratio. However, these factors
usually do not alter the typical range of values enough to affect most practical calculations,
where this constant is frequently of only secondary importance.
Crazing
When tensile stress is applied to an amorphous (glassy) plastic such as polystyrene,

crazing may occur before fracturing. Crazes are like cracks in that they are wedge shaped
and form perpendicular to the applied stress. However, they differentiate from cracks by
containing plastic that is stretched in a highly oriented manner perpendicular to the plane
of the craze, which is to say parallel to the applied stress's direction. Another major
distinguishing feature is that unlike cracks, crazes are able to bear stress. Under static
loading, the strain at which crazes start to form decreases as the applied stress decreases.
In constant strain-rate testing crazes always start to form at a well-defined stress level.
Ex tensometers
An extensometer is an instrument to monitor strain in the linear dimension of a test

specimen while a load or force is applied to it. The automatic plotting of load with strain
produces stress-strain curves.
Table 3-2. An Example of the Range of Poisson's Ratio

Material Range of Poisson's Ratio
Aluminum 0.33
Carbon steel 0.29
Rubber 0.50
Rigid thermoplastics
Neat 0.20-0.40
Filled or reinforced 0.10-0.40
Structural foam 0.30-0.40
Rigid thennosets
Neat 0.20-0.40
Filled or reinforced 0.20-0.40
Test Rates
The test rate or cross-head rate is the speed at which the movable cross-member of a
testing machine moves in relation to the fixed cross-member. The speed of such tests is
typically reported in cm/min. (in.lmin.).
An increase in strain rate typically results in an increasing yield point and ultimate
strength (see Fig. 3-17). For most rigid plastics the modulus (the initial tangent to the
stress-strain curve) does not change significantly with the strain rate. For softer TPs,
such as polyethylenes, the theoretical elastic or initial tangent modulus is usually inde-
pendent of the strain rate. The significant time-dependent effects associated with such
materials, and the practical difficulties of obtaining a true initial tangent modulus near
the origin of a nonlinear stress-strain curve, render it difficult to resolve the true elastic
modulus of the softer TPs in respect to actual data. Thus, the observed effect of increasing
strain is to increase the slope of the early portions of the stress-strain curve (see Fig. 3-
17c), which differs from that at the origin. The elastic modulus and strength of both the
rigid and the softer plastics each decrease with an increase in temperature. While in many
respects the effects of a change in temperature are similar to those resulting from a change
in the strain rate, the effects of temperature are relatively much greater.
Symbols
At this point let us summarize the more commonly used symbols used to describe tensile
properties, as follows:
Symbol Unit Symbol Unit
P Load,lb Er Relaxation modulus, psi

p Pressure, psi G Torsional modulus, psi
a Stress, psi L Length, in.
a, Tensile stress, psi R, r Radius, in.
ac Compression stress, psi D,d Diameter, in.
apm Permissible stress, psi s, h Width, section thickness, in.
T Shear stress, psi A Cross-sectional area, in. 2
e Strain, % J Moment of inertia, in. 4
11 Poisson's ratio Jp Polar moment of inertia, in.4
E Modulus of elasticity, psi ~ Bending moment, lb.lin.
Be Creep modulus, apparent modulus, psi M. Torque lb.lin.
Z Section modulus, in. 3
II
70
A
(a) 10
B
9 60
C
8
50
";;; 7
M
0-
a."
:.:E
~6 40 C
C v;-
:is
UJ
A = 20 in./min
(S.5 mm/secl '"UJ
a:: 30 ~
ti;4 B = 0.2 in./min
(.OS5 mm/secl '"
3 C = 0.002 in./min 20
(.000S5 mm/sec)
2
Eo " 350,000 psi 10
(2.41 GPo)
0
0 3 4 5 6
STRAIN, E, %
(b)
~l.lU
~c:
· Medium Speed
Low Speed
• Strain
increasing strain rate or

decreasing temperature
(c)
"
~
UJ
a::
....
'"
STRAIN, £
Figure 3-17. Examples of the influence of different test rates and temperatures on basic stress-
strain behaviors of plastics. a) Different testing rates, per ASTM D 638, as shown for a
polycarbonate; b) effects of tensile testing speeds on the shapes of stress-strain diagrams; c) a
simplified version of the effects on curves of changes in test rates and temperatures.
144
Compression Properties
The majority of tests to evaluate the characteristics of plastics are perfonned in tension
or flexure; hence, the compressive stress-strain behavior of many plastics is not well
described. Generally, the behavior in compression per ASTM D 695 is different from
that in tension, but the stress-strain response in compression is usually close enough to
that of tension so that possible differences can be neglected (see Fig. 3-18). The compres-
sion modulus is not always reported, since defining a stress at a strain is equivalent to
reporting a secant modulus. However, if a compression modulus is reported, it will
generally be an initial modulus.
A general rule is that the compressive strength of plastics is greater than its tensile
strength. However, this is not generally true for reinforced TSs. The compression testing
of foamed plastics provides the designer with the useful recovery rate (see Fig. 3-19).
Many of the procedures in compression stress-strain testing are the same as in tensile
testing, but in compression testing particular care must be taken to specify the specimen's
dimensions. If a sample is too long and narrow, for instance, buckling may cause pre-
mature failure. To avoid this, designers should test a specimen with a square cross-section
and a longitudinal dimension twice as long as a side of the cross-section.
Figure 3-18. A comparison of tensile and compression stress-strain behavior for thermoplastics.
Test stopped due to

buckling of specimen
Rate of strain
recovery = 270 psi
Density: 3.9 Ibcf

Cross-section: 5.0 x 5.4 "
Height: 6.75"
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Strain (in./in.)
Figure 3-19. A compression test for rigid foamed insulating polyurethane (3.9 lb.lft. 3) in which
almost one-half its total strain was recovered in one week.
At higher stress levels, compressive strain is usually less than tensile strain. Unlike
tensile loading, which usually results in failure, stressing in compression produces a slow,
indefinite yielding that seldom leads to failure. Where a compressive failure does occur
catastrophically, the designer should determine the material's strength in the same way
as with tensile testing-by dividing the maximum load the sample supported by its initial
cross-sectional area in Pa (psi). When the material does not exhibit a distinct maximum
load prior to failure, the designer should report the strength at a given level of strain
(often 10 percent).
Flexural Properties
Like tensile testing, flexural stress-strain testing according to ASTM D 790, determines
the load necessary to generate a given level of strain on a specimen, typically using a
three-point loading (see Fig. 3-20). The sample is characteristically 0.125 x 0.5 x 5
in. (0.25 x 0.5 x 5 in. for foamed material). The bar is supported across a two-inch
span (or 4 inches for structural foam) with a load applied at its center. Testing is performed
at a constant rate of cross-head movement, typically 0.05 in.!min. for solids and 0.1 in.!
min. for foamed samples.
Simple beam equations are used to determine the stresses on specimens at different
levels of cross-head displacement. Using traditional beam formulas and section properties,
the following relationships can be derived where Y is the deflection at the load point
(refer to Fig. 3-19):
Bending stress
3FL
0' ;;::: 2bh 2
Bending or flexural modulus
Using these relationships, the flexural strength, also called the modulus of rupture, and
the flexural modulus of elasticity can be determined (see Table 3-3). The flexural modulus
reported is usually the initial modulus from the load-deflection curve. (The flexural data
can be useful in product designs that involve such factors as bending loads.)
Significantly, a flexural specimen is not in a state of uniform stress. When a simply
supported specimen is loaded, the side of the material opposite the loading undergoes
the greatest tensile loading. The side of the material being loaded experiences compressive
Table 3-3. Examples of Polypropylene Thermoplastics as Neat, Fiber Reinforced,

and Talc Filled, and Their Effects on the Flexural Modulus of Elasticity
Unreinforced (neat) 40% Glass Fiber* 40% Talc*
180,000 psi 1,100,000 psi 575,000 psi

(1,240 MPa) (7,600 MPa) (3,970 MPa)
*GJass fiber and talc content are by weight.

stress (see Fig. 3-21). These stresses decrease linearly toward the center of the sample.
Theoretically the center is a plane, called the neutral axis, that experiences no stress.
The stress-strain behavior of plastics in flexure generally follows from the behavior
observed in tension and compression for either unreinforced or reinforced plastics. The
flexural modulus of elasticity is nominally the average between the tension and compres-
sion moduli, where they differ. The flexural yield point is generally that which is observed
in tension, but this is not easily discerned, because the strain gradient in the flexural (RP)
sample essentially eliminates any abrupt change in the flexural stress-strain relationship
when the extreme "fibers" start to yield.
APPLIED LOAD
1F
Figure 3-20. A three-point flexural test specimen bending fixture designed per ASTM D 790.
COMp,RESSIVE
STRESS
Figure 3-21. An example of a flexural test specimen being subjected to compressive and tensile
stresses.
The flexural strength for most plastics under standard ASTM bending tests is typically
somewhat higher than their ultimate tensile strength, but flexural strength itself may be
either higher or lower than compressive strength. Since most plastics exhibit some yielding
or nonlinearity in their tensile stress-strain curve, there is a shift from triangular stress
distribution toward rectangular distribution when the part is subject to flexure (see Fig.
3-22). This behavior is similar to that assumed for plastic design in steel and for ultimate
design strength in concrete. Thus, the modulus of rupture reflects in part nonlinearities
in stress distribution caused by plastification or viscoelastic nonlinearities in the cross-
section. Shifts in the neutral axis resulting from differences in the yield strain, and
postyield behavior in tension and compression can also affect the correlation between the
modulus of rupture and the uniaxial strength results.
Even plastics with fairly linear stress-strain curves to failure-for example, short-fiber
reinforced TSs-usually display moduli of rupture values that are higher than the tensile
strength obtained in uniaxial tests; wood behaves much like this. Qualitatively, this can
be explained from statistically considering flaws and fractures and the fracture energy
available in flexural samples under a constant rate of deflection as compared to tensile
samples under the same load conditions. These differences become less as the thickness
of the bending specimen increases, as would be expected by examining statistical con-
siderations.
Other methods of flexural testing that can be used are, for example, the cantilever
beam method (see Fig. 3-23), which is used to relate different beam designs. It is used
in creep and fatigue testing and for conducting testing in different environments.
tensile
yield
---- ----~::-
neutral
axis i-
--- i -
neutral
axis
shift
-----
-------- ----
-
l·compressiV:
yield stress
I
No Yield Extreme Fibers Yield Full Plastification
Unear Stress of Cross Section
Figure 3-22. The elastic and plastic flexural behavior of unreinforced and reinforced plastics.
o flection
3 InCh6
C_~~6~~
Steel
E . 30 106 P$ I
(206 10 J MPa l
Aluminum
E ~ 10 X 10 PSI
(69 10J MPa l
Polystyrene
E- 5 106 P$I
{34 103 MPal
Figure 3-23. An example of the effect of the modulus of elasticity on elastic deflection for
different materials, using cantilever test specimens. All the test beams have the same lengths
and cross-sections.
Shear Properties
Unlike the methods for tensile, compressive, or flexural testing, the typical procedure
used for determining shear properties is intended only to determine the shear strength,
not the shear modulus, of a material that will be subjected to the usual type of direct
loading (see Figs. 3-24 to 3-26). Torsion pendulum and oscillatory rheometer techniques
are used to determine the shear modulus. The shear strength values are obtained by such
simple tests as those shown in Figure 3-24 for single shear and 3-25 and 3-26 for double
shear. In these tests the specimen to be tested is sheared between the hardened edges of
the supporting block and the block to which the load is applied. The shearing strength
is calculated as the load at separation divided by the total cross-sectional area being
sheared.
o 005 In load
Table
Figure 3-24. A fixture with a test specimen for determining direct single shear.
Load
Table
Figure 3-25. A simplified schematic of a fixture with a specimen being tested for direct double-
shear strength.
LOAD
Jl'MALE PUNCH
,.--~I..-~
Figure 3-26. A direct-shear stress test with a circular specimen that is in current use by the
industry, per ASTM D 732.
The use of the word direct in these tests might seem to imply that this is the only stress
being placed on the specimen. However, an inspection of the test fixtures in these last
three figures indicates that bending stresses do in fact· exist and the stress cannot be
considered as being purely that of shear. Therefore, the shearing stress calculated above
must be regarded as an average stress. This type .of calculation is justified in analyzing
bolts, rivets, and any other mechanical member whose bending moments are considered
negligible. Also, because strain measurements are difficult if not impossible to measure,
few values of yield strength can be determined by testing. It is interesting to note that
tests of bolts and rivets have shown that their strength in double shear can at times be
as much as 20 percent below that for single shear. As mentioned, the values for the shear
yield point (in kPa or psi) are generally not available; however, the values that are listed
are usually obtained by the torsional testing of round test specimens.
As noted, the data obtained using the test method above should be reported as direct
shear strength. Designers are nevertheless cautioned to use the shear strength reported
by this method only in similar direct-shear situations, because this is not a pure shear
test. This test cannot be used to develop shear stress-strain curves or detennine a shear
modulus, because a considerable portion of the load is transferred by bending or compres-
sion rather than pure shear. Also, the test results can depend on the susceptibility of the
material to the sharpness of load faces. When analyzing plastics in a pure shear situation
or when the maximum shear stress is being calculated in a complex stress environment,
a shear strength equal to half the tensile strength or that given above is generally used,
whichever is less. Basically, shearing stresses are tangential stresses that act parallel to
the planes they stress. For example, the shearing force in a beam provides shearing
stresses on both the vertical and horizontal planes within the beam. The two vertical
stresses must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to ensure vertical equilib-
rium. However, under the action of those two stresses alone the element would rotate
clockwise. Clearly, this pair of stresses must be negated by another couple. If the small
element is taken as a differential one, the magnitude of the horizontal stresses must have
the value of the two vertical stresses. This principle is sometimes phrased as "cross-shears
are equal." In other words, a shearing stress cannot exist on an element without a like
stress being located 90 degrees around the comer.
The block diagram shown at the top of Figure 3-27 is subjected to a set of equal and
opposite shearing forces Q. If the material is imagined as an infinite number of infini-
tesimally thin layers, as shown at the bottom, then there is a tendency for one layer of
the material to slide over another to produce a shear fonn of defonnation or failure if the
force is great enough [2]. This shear stress can be arrived at as follows:
Shear load Q
'1'= =-
Area resisting shear A
The shear stress will always be tangential to the area upon which it acts. The shearing
strain is the angle of defonnation v as measured in radians. For materials that behave
according to Hooke's Law, shear strain is proportional to the shear stress producing it.
Thus,
Shear stress '1' C

---- = - = onstant = G
Shear strain v
The constant G, called the shear modulus, the modulus of rigidity, or the torsion
modulus, is directly comparable to the modulus of elasticity used in direct-stress appli-
cations. Only two material constants are required to characterize a material if one assumes
the material to be linearly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic. However, three material
constants have by now been introduced: the tensile modulus of elasticity (E), Poisson's
ratio (v), and the shear modulus (G). An equation relating these three constants, based
on engineering's elasticity principles, follows:
E
- = 2 (1 + v)
G
This calculation, which holds true for most metals, is generally applicable to injection-
molded TPs. However, the designer is already familiar from previous discussions with
the inherently nonlinear, anisotropic nature of most plastics, particularly the fiber-rein-
forced and liquid-crystal ones.
(a) Q ........t - - - - /
Q
SHEARING LOAD
AREA
(b) Q .....f - - - /
~---Q
~~ y (RADIANS;
SHEAR STRAIN
Figure 3-27. A basic analysis of shear stress. a) A material with equal and opposite shearing
forces; b) a schematic of infinitesimally thin layers subject to shear stress.
It is important to note that a material such as plastics or wood that is weak in either
tension or compression will also be basically weak in shear. For example, concrete is
weak in shear because of its lack of strength in tension. Concrete beams like RPs, which
are filament wound, are strengthened by reinforced bars specially placed to prevent
diagonal tension cracking. Although no one has ever been able to determine accurately
the resistance of concrete to pure shearing stress, the matter is not very important, because
pure shearing stress is probably never encountered in concrete structures. Furthermore,
according to engineering mechanics, if pure shear is produced in one member, a principal
tensile stress of an equal magnitude will be produced on another plane. Because the
tensile strength of concrete is less than its shearing strength, the concrete will fail in
tension before reaching its shearing strength.
Torsion Properties
As noted, the shear modulus is usually obtained by using pendulum and oscillatory
rheometer techniques [2, 62-68, 93, 262, 279, 293]. The torsional pendulum (ASTM D
2236: "Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Plastics by Means of a Torsional Pendulum
Test Procedure") is a popular test, since it is applicable to virtually all plastics and uses
a simple specimen readily fabricated by all commercial processes or easily cut from
fabricated products.
The moduli of elasticity, G for shear and E for tension (in psi), are ratios of stress to
strain as measured within the proportional limits of the material. Thus the modulus is
really a measure of the rigidity for shear of a material or its stiffness in tension and
compression. For shear or torsion, the modulus analogous to that for tension is called
the shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity, or sometimes the transverse modulus.
LONG-TERM BEHAVIOR
With high-perfonnance plastics, dynamic loads such as creep, fatigue, and impact and
related issues are important considerations in many designs (see ASTM D 4092). These
materials' behaviors are influenced by many factors, including in particular temperature,
time, previous stress history, and the ambient conditions. In order for these influencing
factors to be examined separately from one another, test methods have been developed
to pennit this separation of individual factors.
The failure of a plastic product in the perfonnance of its nonnallong-time function is
usually caused by one of two factors: excessive defonnation or fracture. For plastics it
is more often than not found that excessive creep defonnation is the limiting factor.
However, if fracture occurs, it can have more catastrophic results. Therefore, it is essential
that designers recognize the factors that are likely to initiate fracture, so that steps can
be taken to avoid them.
Fractures are usually classified as either brittle or ductile. Although any type of fracture
is serious, brittle fractures are potentially more dangerous, because there is no observable
defonnation of the material prior to or during breakage. When the failure is ductile,
however, large nonrecoverable defonnations become evident, which serve as a warning
that all is not well. Plastics fractures are ductile or brittle depending on such variables
as their polymer structure, additives, processing conditions, the strain rate, and the
temperature and stress system. The principal external causes of fracture are a prolonged
steady stress (creep rupture), the continuous application of a cyclically varying stress
(fatigue), and the application of a stress (again called creep rupture). In all these cases
the fracture processes can be accelerated if the plastic is in an aggressive environment.
Dynamic Mechanical Behavior

Dynamic mechanical tests measure the response or defonnation of a material to periodic
or varying forces. Generally, an applied force and its resulting defonnation both vary
sinusoidally with time. From such tests it is possible to obtain simultaneously an elastic
modulus and mechanical damping, the latter of which gives the amount of energy dis-
sipated as heat during the defonnation of the material.
The behavior of materials under dynamic load is of considerable importance and interest
in most mechanical analyses of design problems where these loads exist. Unfortunately,
most current engineering design is still based on the static loading properties of materials
rather than their dynamic properties. Often this means overdesigning at best and incorrect
design resulting in failure at worst. This problem has continued to exist because of
insufficient basic knowledge and, most important, an understanding of the behavior of
different materials in spite of significant advances made since the early 1940s.
The complex workings of the dynamic behavior problem can best be appreciated by
summarizing the range of interactions of dynamic loads that exist for all the different
types of materials. Dynamic loads involve the interactions of creep and relaxation loads,
vibratory and transient fatigue loads, low-velocity impacts measurable sometimes in
milliseconds, high-velocity impacts measurable in microseconds, and hypervelocity im-
pacts. Ideally, it would be desirable to know what the mechanical response would be to
the full range of these dynamic loads for each material. However, certain load-material
interactions have relatively more importance for engineering design, so that significant
work on them exists.
Metals that are uniquely under both static and dynamic loads can be cited as outstanding
cases. The continuum mechanical engineer and the metallurgical engineer have both
found these materials to be most attractive to study. At the same time, metals, as compared
to plastics, are easier to handle for analysis. Yet there is a great deal that is still not
understood about metals, even in the voluminous scientific literature available. Of course,
the importance of plastics and plastic composites has been growing steadily, requiring
more dynamic mechanical behavior data to become available.
In addition to dynamic loads, there is also materials' behavior under dynamic loads,
each behavior having its own primary load environment. Material behavior can be clas-
sified as 1) ablation, creep, and relaxation behavior with a primary load environment of
high or moderate temperatures; 2) fatigue, viscoelastic, and elastic range vibration or
impact; 3) a fluidlike flow, as a solid to a gas, which is a very high velocity or hypervelocity
impact; and 4) crack propagation and environmental embrittlement, as well as ductile
and brittle fractures. Through all this activity emerges the fact that we have reviewed
only one of four physical considerations, that of load. The other three factors are tem-
perature, from low to high; pressure, from a vacuum to a high atmospheric; and atmo-
sphere, whether humid air, a corrosive, or a gas or liquid. Basically, all these factors
influence dynamic mechanical behavior. It would be endless to start obtaining more factual
information and data, but it is sufficient to recognize that these data are available where
designs require them. Unfortunately, most of the data are proprietary to different organ-
izations. The usual approach to complex dynamic mechanical or other behavior is thus
based on using available data to at least produce a product that can be tested mechanically
under the required conditions. The designer can worry less about general mathematical
consistency if it is not available, but should concentrate on applying the available en-
gineering data correctly.
Information and data on dynamic mechanical properties are available in the literature
and CAD databases worldwide. The importance of these data in any structural design
application is well known. Different methods of testing are used, with the necessary
sophisticated equipment that is required becoming more available [62-68, 78, 252, 253].
Damping
The dynamic mechanical behavior of plastics is of great interest and importance. For one
thing, the dynamic modulus, or for that matter the modulus measured by any other
technique, is one of the most basic of all mechanical properties, with its importance being
well known in any structural application. The role of mechanical damping is, however,
not as well known. Damping is often the most sensitive indicator of all kinds of molecular
motions going on in a material, even in its solid state. Asid~m the purely scientific
interest in understanding the molecular motions that can occur, analyzing these motions
is of great practical importance in determining the mechanical behavior of plastics. For
this reason, the absolute value of a given damping and the temperature and frequency at
which the damping peaks occur can be of considerable interest and use.
High damping is sometimes an advantage, sometimes a disadvantage. For instance, in
a car tire high damping tends to give better friction with the road surface, but at the same
time it causes heat buildup, which makes tires degrade more rapidly. Damping reduces
mechanical and acoustical vibrations and prevents resonance vibrations from building up
to dangerous amplitudes. However, the existence of high damping is generally an indi-
cation of reduced dimensional stability, which can be undesirable in structures carrying
loads for long periods of time. Many other mechanical properties, including fatigue life,
toughness and impact, and wear and the coefficient of friction are intimately related to
damping [252, 253, 293].
Viscoelasticity
The section that follows discusses two important types of long-term viscoelastic behavior:
creep and stress relaxation. These forms of creep may occur over the life of a part or
structure on a time scale as long as 100,000 hours or more (see Figs. 3-28 to 3-31).
Creep
Products subjected to a given load develop a corresponding predictable deformation. If
it continues to increase without any increase in load or stress, the material is said to be
experiencing creep or cold flow. Creep is defined as increasing strain over time in the
presence of a constant stress (see, for instance, Figs. 3-28 through 3-32). The rate of
creep for any given plastic, steel, or wood material depends on the basic applied stress,
time, and temperature [1, 2, 5, 11-14, 62-68, 268-69, 282-301].
Second stage
Fracture
(secondary creep)
(pnmar~
creep)1
iii I
o
I
I
I
I
Initial stram
Figure 3-28. The basic concept for evaluating creep-test data.
---UHIGH LOAD
MEDIUM LOAD
~-----;LO'W LOAD
TIME, hours
Figure 3-29. Creep-test data deformation versus time-based deformation on three different loads
and stresses.
1000 I I I I
800~
';;;
.e- 600 - -
'"
...'"
<I)
400 f- -
Vi
200 r- -
I I I I
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
Time (hours)
Figure 3-30. An example of a stress-relaxation curve with an initial applied stress approximating
its yield stress,
O'c
~
c: ::J
...
'n;
'tit O'B2
Q.
c. 11\
11\
~
C,,) ~
ca
tB
Time
Figure 3-31. Typical creep and stress-rupture curves,
Attaining Creep Data

Creep-test specimens may be loaded in tension, compression, or flexure in a constant-
temperature environment. With the load kept constant, deflection or strain is recorded at
regular intervals of hours, days, weeks, months, or years. Generally, results are obtained
at three or more stress levels, as was seen in Figure 3-29.
Stress-strain-time data are usually presented as creep curves of strain versus log time.
Sets of such curves, seen in Figure 3-32, can be produced by smoothing and interpolating
data on a computer. These data may also be presented in other ways, to facilitate the
selecting of information to meet specific design requirements. Sections may be taken
through creep curves at constant times to yield isochronous stress versus strain curves or
at a constant strain, giving isometric stress versus log-time curves as in Figure 3-32 [2].
Standard ASTM D 2990 provides details for different creep tests.
If a designer is faced with decisions concerning creep, the most reliable source of
information is a test program run under simulated or actual conditions on the part itself
or at least on test specimens. The expected operating life of most products designed to
withstand creep is usually ten to twenty years, however. It is apparent that actual long-
time testing is not likely to be undertaken, so available creep test-data must be used. The
so-called long-time tests are undertaken for at least 1,000 hours, the recommended time
specified in the ASTM standard based on extensive data accumulated since 1943.
The tests are performed under carefully controlled stress (load), temperature, time, and
creep (elongation) conditions. To save time, tests for different constant loads are performed
simultaneously on different specimens of the same material. Creep tests may be rather
extensively conducted, as for example when developing creep data prior to the design
and fabrication of the first all-plastic airplane [17]. The usual procedure is to plot the
creep versus time curve, but other combinations are possible.
CREEP CURVES. STRAIN

VS.
LOG TIME
ISOMETRIC STRESS ISOCHRONOUS STRESS

VS LOG TIME VS STRAIN
g~ ~----.:=---
Log time Strain
Figure 3-32. A typical presentation of creep data.
The theoretically shaped curve in Figure 3-28 provides the three typical stages for
evaluation. An initial strain takes place almost immediately, consisting of the elastic
strain plus a plastic strain, if the deformation extends beyond the yield point. This initial
action in the first stage shows a decreasing rate of elongation because of strain hardening.
The action most relevant to the designer concerns the second stage, which begins at a
minimum strain rate and remains rather constant, because of the balancing effects of
strain hardening and annealing. In the third stage a rapid increase in the creep rate is
accompanied by severe necking (that is, thickness reduction) and ultimately rupture.
Designers are concerned with the second stage in the sense that their target is not to
have the product being designed enter into the third stage. Thus, after plotting the creep
versus time data of the I,OOO-hour tests, the second stage can be extrapolated out to the
number of hours of desired product life. This process is then followed for each of the
creep curves. In making this extrapolation it is assumed that the 1,OOO-hour test has
allowed the material to enter into the second stage. The material will have behaved
similarly to that shown in the curve in Figure 3-28.
Creep Rupture. Creep-rupture data are obtained in the same way as creep data except
that higher stresses are used and the time is measured to failure (see Figs. 3-33 and
3-34). The strains are sometimes recorded, but this is not necessary for creep rupture.
The results are generally plotted as the log stress versus log time to failure [2, 62-68].
In creep-rupture tests it is the material's behavior just prior to the rupture that is of primary
interest. In these tests a number of samples are subjected to different levels of constant
stress, with the time to failure being determined for each stress level. General technical
literature and product data sheets seldom provide a complete description of a material's
behavior prior to rupture, which to be considered so should include the development of
crazing and stress whitening, its strain-time behavior, and the nature of the fracture
process, describing yielding and necking and brittleness. As a result, a description of the
rupture behavior of a specific plastic compound is not usually a handout.
Figure 3-35 shows the curves of a family of thermoplastics describe a failure process
that is fairly typical of the behavior of TPs. The time-dependent strains resulting from
several levels of sustained or creep stress are shown, together with the development of
1000 hour stress
l
rupture strength
iit l000"F [538CI
450
60
."
<II
300 Q.
~
"-
40 :a:
en
20 represents a 150
test to failure
100 1000 10,000 100,000

TilTlt: to Failure, hours
Figure 3·33. Typical stress-rupture data versus temperature.
60
50 \
-:xz
N
E
40
"",
I~ ~~
. , .... ~
-- -, ,
3)
2% .....
................
........ ~ ".
OIl
OIl
~ ................ ~
_--- ----
~
iii 1%
20 ..... .... ...
~- ~
~
10
'\
o
10 10J 104 11f
Log time to foilure lsI
Froc:ture
- - - Whitening or c:rozing
- - - - - - Isometric: curves
Figure 3-34. Typical creep-rupture ductile-to-brittle behavior of thennoplastics.
crazing and of stress whitening. The features that develop in the failure process follow
a particular pattern:
Overall behavior. The time-dependent strain at which crazing, stress whitening, and
rupture occur decreases with a decreasing level of sustained stress. The time to
development of these defects increases with a decreasing stress level.
Crazing. This develops in such amorphous plastics as acrylics, PVSs, and PCs as creep
deformation enters the rupture phase. Crazes start sooner under high stress levels.
Crazing occurs in semicrystalline plastics, but in those its onset is not readily visible.
It also occurs in most fiber-reinforced plastics, at the time-dependent knee in the
stress-strain curve.
Stress whitening. This occurs in many types of plastics, including the amorphous ones
like PVC and ABS, and in the crystalline types such as PE and PP. A stress-whitening
zone may be a sign of crazing in some plastics where individual fine crazes may be
difficult to detect. Stress whitening occurs fairly late in the rupture stage, just prior
to yielding.
Rupture. Rupture strain decreases steadily with increases in the duration of stress, as dis-
cussed. Alternately, the magnitude of stress needed to cause rupture decreases as
the duration of stress increases.
Figure 3-36 shows the development first of damage and then of yielding in a PVC
compound as a function of its being under sustained stress. The decay at the onset of the
first damage and of yield strength with the increasing duration of sustained stress is also
stress whitening
a I is the highest stress
a5 is the lowest stress
III
Z
<{
0::
l-
V)
TIME, t, hrs - Log Scale

Figure 3-35. Generalized strain versus time in thermoplastics.
90
~80
\\"::-C'.
10 ~70
·iii loHu.. ''neck;"9'' ~60 c

,....,Co a..
--
0 :E
50
' ...... --.,-:~~:-.....................

~
, l·_·-
..n
,.,
0
..n
V) 40
V)
UJ
UJ 0:::
0::: 5 -~ I-
--.J ---- ....

l-
, , h·Itenmg
. 30 V)
'
V)
stress W
...... .-.,
20
craze initiation 10
0
v 0.001 0.01 0.1 10 102 103 1{)4
TIME, t, hrs
Figure 3-36. An example of stress versus time to damage and failure of polyvinyl chloride.
evident. In other words, a decrease in the magnitude of the sustained stress lengthens
the time over which crazing, stress whitening, and yielding develop. Yielding is frequently
taken as the failure criterion for plastics. However, some common types of standardized
creep-rupture tests do not determine yielding, only the sustained stress and time to failure.
One example of this is the ASTM D 1598 procedure for determining the time-dependent
PLASTICS: DESIGN CRITERIA 1 &1
Table 3-4. Rate of Strength Decay for Wood and Thermoplastics per Decade of
Time Under Sustained Stress
Range of Decay Rate, *
Material % per Decade of Time
Wood 8
PVC 7-19
PE 8-13
ABS 12-32
*Change in strength under sustained stress from beginning to end of decade, or unit change in log time.
burst strength of plastic pressure pipes. Plotting the failure or bursting stress against the
time to failure for a given material defines its strength regression relationship.
Comparisons have been made of the strength-regression characteristics of plastics with
those of wood. The capacity of wood to resist sustained stress has been determined to
decay at a rate of 8 percent for each decade of time change, that is, its capacity at the
end of each decade is 92 percent of what it was at the start of the decade. The decay
rates calculated from published strength-regression information on pressure-rated plastic
pipe compounds are shown in Table 3-4. The decay rate for the specific plastics tested
varies from 7 to 32 percent per decade, depending on the generic type of plastic and the
specific compound within that type. The time-dependent strength behavior of some of
these plastics is similar to that of wood.
Apparent Creep Modulus. The concept of an apparent modulus is a convenient method

for expressing creep, because it takes into account the initial strain for an applied stress
plus the amount of deformation or strain that occurs over time. Thus, the apparent modulus
EA is calculated as
Stress (psi)
Initial strain + Creep
Because parts tend to deform in time at a decreasing rate, the acceptable strain based
on the desired service life of the part must be determined. The shorter the duration of
load, the higher the apparent modulus and thus the higher the allowable stress. The
apparent modulus is most easily explained with an example.
As long as the stress level is below the elastic limit of the material, its modulus of
elasticity E can be obtained from this equation:
E == Stress (psi)
Strain (in.lin.)
For example, a compressive stress of 10,000 psi (69 MPa) gives a strain of 0.015 in.
per in. (0.038 cm/cm) for FEP resin at 63°F (l7°C). Then
10,000
E 667,000 psi (4,600 MPa)
0.015
INCREASING
STRESS OR STRAIN
LOG TIME
Figure 3-37. An example of plotting the apparent creep modulus versus log time.
If the same stress level prevails for 200 hours, the total strain will be the sum of the
initial strain plus the strain due to time. This total strain can be obtained from a creep-
data curve. If, for example, the total deformation under a tension load for 200 hours is
0.02 in. per in., then
10,000 .
E = n~ = 5,000,000 pSI (3,448 MPa)
\'r.U15
.o~
Similarly, EA can then be determined for one year. Extrapolating from the creep-data
curve, which is in fact a straight line, gives a deformation of 0.025 in. per in. Thus,
10,000
E = 0.025 = 400,000 psi (2,759 MPa)
When plotted against time, these calculated values for the apparent modulus provide an
excellent means of predicting creep at various stress levels (see Fig. 3-37) [2]. For all
practical purposes, curves of deformation versus time eventually tend to level off. Beyond
a certain point, creep is small and may safely be neglected for many applications.
Stress Relaxation
In a stress-relaxation test a plastic is deformed by a fixed amount and the stress required
to maintain this deformation is measured over a period of time (see Fig. 3-38). The
maximum stress occurs as soon as the deformation takes place and decreases gradually
with time from this value. From a practical standpoint, creep measurements are generally
considered more important than stress-relaxation tests and are also easier to conduct.
Those interested in the theory of viscoelasticity and in the relationship of materials'

properties to their molecular structure tend to concentrate more on stress-relaxation than
creep measurements. One reason may be that stress-relaxation figures are generally more
easily interpreted in terms of viscoelastic theory than are creep data. Stress-relaxation
data also provide practical information such as determining the stress needed to hold a
metal insert in a plastic product, evaluating the additives needed such as antioxidants,
choosing cantiliver-type beams, and so on.
The stress-relaxation behavior of plastics is extremely temperature dependent, especially
in the region of the glass transition. Most amorphous types of plastics at temperatures
well below the Tg have a tensile modulus of elasticity of about 3 X 1010 dynes/cm at
the beginning of a stress-relaxation test. The modulus decreases gradually with time, but
it may take years for the stress to decrease to a value near zero. Not only is the stress-
relaxation behavior of an amorphous plastic most sensitive to temperature in its transition
region, but at a given temperature in that region the stress changes rapidly with time.
With crystalline plastics, the main effect of the crystallinity is to broaden the distribution
of the relaxation times and extend the relaxation stress to much longer periods. This
pattern holds true at both the higher and low extremes of crystallinity. With some plastics,
their degree of crystallinity can change during the course of a stress-relaxation test. This
behavior tends to make the Boltzmann superposition principle, explained below under
"Materials and Processing," difficult to apply.
Many designs incorporate the phenomenon of stress-relaxation. For example, in many
products, when plastics are assembled they are placed into a permanently deflected
condition, as for instance press fits, bolted assemblies, and some plastic springs (see Fig.
3-39). In time, with the strain kept constant the stress level will decrease, from the same
internal molecular movement that produces creep. This gradual decay in stress at a constant
strain, known as stress-relaxation, becomes important in applications such as preloaded
bolts and springs where there is concern for retaining the load. The amount of relaxation
can be measured by applying a fixed strain to a sample and then measuring the load with
time [2].
.-. en
oentl
....
..Ja:
eLI-
~en
TIME, t TIM , t TIME, t
b0M'
(1'\ __
TIME, t TIME, t TIME,t

(0 ) (b) (e)
Figure 3-38. An example of strain behavior under various intennittent and cyclic loads. a)
Recovery after creep; b) a strain increment caused by a stress step function; c) strain with stress
applied 1) continuously and 2) intennittently.
PRESS FIT
~ LIGHT INTERFERENCE
BOL TED ASSEMBL Y
W:
LIGHT ASSEMBLED STRESS
bJ
---,/U\~ [I 11
I
Figure 3-39. Examples of constant-strain loads.
The resulting data can then be presented as a series of curves much like the isometric
stress curves in Figure 3-32 [2]. A relaxation modulus similar to the creep modulus can
also be derived from the relaxation data. Generally, relaxation data are not as available
as creep data. However, it has been shown that the decrease in load from stress relaxation
can be approximated by using the creep modulus calculated from creep curves.
Plastic parts with excessive fixed strains imposed on them for extended periods of time
could fail. One example might be the splitting of a plastic tube press fitted over a steel
shaft. Unfortunately, there is no relaxation-rupture corollary to creep rupture. For de-
veloping initial design concepts, a strain limit of 20 percent of the strain at the yield
point or of the yield strength is suggested for high-elongation plastics. Likewise, using
20 percent of the elongation at the break is suggested for low-elongation brittle materials
without a yield point, as only a guideline for initial design. Prototype parts should then
be thoroughly tested at end-use conditions to confirm the design, or the available data
on specific material of interest can provide more exacting limits.
Intermittent Loading
The creep behavior of plastics that has been considered so far has assumed that the level
of the applied stress will be constant. However, in service the material may be subjected
to a complex pattern of loading and unloading cycles (see Fig. 3-38). This variability
can cause design problems in that it would clearly not be feasible to obtain experimental
data to cover all possible loading situations, yet to design on the basis of constant loading
at maximum stress would not make efficient use of materials or be economical. In such
cases it is useful to have methods for predicting the extent of the accumulated strain that
will be recovered during the rest periods after a number of cycles of load changes.
Recovery is the strain response that occurs upon the removal of a stress or strain. The
mechanics of the recovery process are illustrated in Figure 3-40, using an idealized
viscoelastic model. The extent of recovery is a function of the load's duration and time
after load or strain release. In the example of recovery behavior shown in Figure 3-40
for a polycarbonate, samples were held under sustained stress for 1,000 hours, and then
the stress was removed from the same amount of time. The creep and recovery strain
measured for the duration of the test provided several significant points.
First, the sample, which was loaded to about 20 percent of its short-tenn yield strength,
or 13.8 MPa (2,000 psi), recovered almost completely one hour after the release of the
load, the net strain being 0.03 percent.
Second, the sample loaded to 66 percent of its short-tenn yield strength, or 41.4 MPa
(6,000 psi), retained a strain of 0.8 percent at 1,000 hours after the release of the load.
The initial strain was 2.8 percent, the strain from the 1,000-hour creep an additional 1.7
percent. Thus, only about half the creep strain was recovered. Visually extrapolating the
recovery curve reveals that even after a year (104 hr.), about one third of the creep strain
(0.6 percent) will remain.
The first damage developed during creep or relaxation also affects recovery behavior.
If the first damage is prevented by limiting the magnitude and duration of the stress,
recovery will eventually be substantially complete for all practical purposes. Conversely,
at strains above the first damage limit recovery will be incomplete and pennament de-
formation should be expected and accounted for in the evaluation. This is true not only
for plastics in general but also of reinforced plastics. When RPs are stressed beyond the
knee in their stress-strain curve, recovery becomes incomplete and hysteresis is clearly
evident.
load
Removed
5
Creep
--- Recovery
3 ~ -'
~
,
~~ ~ ~\ \
rtt
2
I--- I'
'"
,
\ \
~
10o 3QQ2 ps.!.- ~ \ \ r---.....
~
7 r-::: '2obQ psi
~
I' ,
--" ~
........
5
w ~
~ r-...
c:
-+-r
"
.~ ...........
en --1..l. III
"
3 \ -,
".
2 --L
, " ..... .......
\ ~
10-' i'...
'"'\.,
~
7
"'\.
5
r.
~
...
3
10-' 100 10' 102
---
1()3 10-' 10" 10' 102 10' 10'
Time (hours)
Figure 3-40. Tensile creep and recovery during the intermittent loading of MerIon polycarbonate
at 23°C (73"F). Courtegy, Mobay Chemical Corp.
Materials and Processing

As covered particularly in Chapters 2, 6, and 7, the various material types and compo-
sitions, as well as their processing methods, influence their properties, including creep.
In general, crystalline materials have lower creep rates than the amorphous types, and
RPs as a whole have significantly improved creep resistance. Some examples of creep
data are given in Figures 3-41 through 3-54 and Tables 3-5 and 3-6. The data show all
kinds of creep behavior, including the effects of time and temperature on amorphous
materials that basically have a curve spread over a much wider time scale than that of
the crystalline types? If the temperature is well below the TIP only the first part of the
curve will be observed, for it might require years or even centuries to observe the complete
curve. In the transition region nearly the complete curve can be observed, in a period
from a few seconds to a few hours. If the temperature is well above the Tg , only the
upswing in the curve (that is, an increase in the creep) will be observed, unless mea-
surements can be made in a fraction of a second.
Not only do the creep properties of crystalline polymers change rapidly with temper-
ature, but in some cases at a given temperature a crystalline type will creep more with
time than will the rigid amorphous or cross-linked types. However, a crystalline type
above its Tg creeps very little, compared to the others. Thus, crystalline types tend to
have an even broader distribution of retardation times than do the amorphous types.
(Remember that the term crystalline refers to polymers that are actually semicrystalline.)
At small loads the compliance of most materials at a given time is independent of
stress. For example, doubling the load doubles the deformation. At higher loads, especially
those approaching that which is required to break the plastic, compliance at any given
time increases with the load. This effect is generally most pronounced with the crystalline
types, the tough polyblends, and the amorphous types in the transition region or above
it. However, the rigid types like polystyrene and the highly cross-linked phenol-formal-
dehyde plastics also show creep elongation, which increases at a rate greater than the
first power of the stress at high loads. As a result, doubling the stress more than doubles
the amount of elongation.
The load or stress has another effect on the creep behavior of most plastics. The volume
of an isotropic or amorphous plastic increases as it is stretched unless it has a Poisson
ratio of 0.50. At least part of this increase in volume manifests itself as an increase in
free volume and a simultaneous decrease in viscosity. This decrease in tum shifts the
retardation times to being shorter.
2.5,----,----r-----r-------,-----,
2.0
Polycarbonate
0.5
o 8000 10,000
Time (hours)
Figure 3-41. Tensile creep curves for three thermoplastics.
0.06
0.05
23"C, 105 MPa
E I I
E 0.04 150 ·C, 70 MPa
~.
E
E
.~ 0.03 ~
~
~
~ 23·C,70MPa
0.02
I"'""
0.D1
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time,h
Figure 3-42. The tensile creep of unreinforced polyamide-imide. Courtesy, Amoco Perfonnance
Products, Inc.
Time to rupture, hr
Figure 3-43. Stress-rupture data for rigid 2-in.-diameter PVC pipe as a function of temperature.
A creep test can be carried out with an imposed stress, then after a time have its stress
suddenly changed to a new value and have the test continued. This type of change in
loading allows the creep curve to be predicted. The simple law referred to earlier as the
Boltzmann superposition principle, holds for most materials, so that their creep curves
can thus be predicted [1, 2, 14,94,262,293-301].
The first assumption involved in using the Boltzmann superposition principle is that
elongation is proportional to stress, that is, compliance is independent of stress. The
second assumption is that the elongation created by a given load is independent of the
elongation caused by any previous load. Therefore, deformation resulting from a complex
loading history is obtained as the sum of the deformations that can be attributed to each
separate load.
2.8 r---r----,------,---r-----,r----,----.--,---, 0.40
'iii
2.1 0.30 ..,0.
0
'"
a..
Cl
~
vi
::J
vi "3
::J "C
"3 0
"C
0 E
E 0.
0.
11>
1.4 0.20 ~
U
E
u C
C I!?
I!? '"0.0.
'"
0.
0.
oC(
oC(
0.7 0.10
O~~---~--~~-~--~--~---~-~--~O
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 103
Time,h
Figure 3-44. The flexural creep modulus for specific thermoplastics at 66°C (l50°F) and 6.9
MPa (one ksi).
10·
9
8
7
6
5
4
3 20 en
'iii
Q. ~
f/l
en 2 en
en
~
U5
103
9
8
7 5
6
5
4 I
10-2 10-' 100 10· lOs
Time (hours) 5 x 104
Figure 3-45. The tensile stress-strain-time correlation resulting from creep for polycarbonates
at 23°C (73°F). Courtesy, Mobay Chemical Corp.
168
10'
9
-- ----:---
23"C I
60
-
-.:::..::.: ~
8 (73s o F)
.
--- -..:::..: 23"C~ 50
----
-_ J~3~uF)
~
~
'---
6 °c 114OoF) 40
~ --=.:: ~'-
BoaC I
_, 140°F)
-- -... -... -
5 r--. --_
iii 80~
I
0.
-;
'"'"~
4
- -...... '00 oC( 2 I
en
.S?
iii
1"-....
...... :)...
21 O
c 3
ill
~
Failure by Fracture - -
2
Yield ___ ---
10
10·' 10·' 100 10' 10' 103 10'

Time (hours)
Figure 3-46. Time-to-fracture lines for polycarbonates at different temperatures. Courtesy,
Mobay Chemical Corp.
8000r---+---+---~--~---+--~----~~
hrs
10.2 50
7~r---~--+---+---+---1---~--~~~
~6~r---~--~--~----r---~~-+~~~~ ...;
<l)
S :;)
o !!!.
~ 5~b---+---~---4--~~~~~~~~~n2l in
~ 'f2
en 30 in
(f)
(f)
~4~r---t---i-~~~~~~~~t=~~~ 0
cCI)
~
~~r---+---~~~~~---;----r---+-~ 't1
~
2~ I---+-.I!H
1~r-~~--+---+---+---4---~--~--~
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Strain c (%)
Figure 3-47. An example of isochronous stress-strain curves for polycarbonates resulting from
stress relaxation.
169
loo0~--~----~----r---~----'-----~~
8oo~---+----~----r----+----1-----+-~
6oor----+----~---- 4
2 c.
0
s::
c::
c::
(J)
...m
G)
;R
loor----+----1-----+----+-----r----+_~
80r----+----1-----+----+-----r----+_~
0.5
60r----+-----r----+----+-----r----+_~
40~--~----~----~--~~--~----~~
10-2 10-' 100 10' 102 103 10'
Time (hours)
Figure 3·48. The relaxation modulus of polycarbonates. Courtesy, Mobay Chemical Corp.
10000
60
8000 I--
r-- 1-- --=-~ 230
50
6000 C(73f2:1-~ 40
30
:=4000
(J)
a. ~
:::J
!!!.
o
(J)
...... 20 iD
(J) e
~ 0.5% 23°C (73.5 0F) ~
en~ 2000 CD
(J)
(J)
'iii a
c::
Q) lOS::
I- ;R
1000
800
600
400
1~ 1~ l()O I~ 1~ 1~ 1~
Time (hours)
Figure 3·49. The stress relaxation of the glass-fiber-reinforced polycarbonate Merion 9310.
Courtesy, Mobay Chemical Corp.
170
6 min. rs
6.-------------~--~~----~~--~--~~
4
I.r
z
<
a::
......
II') 2
6 min.
10
O.I[-=~_.....-=::::::::::::::::::"--J
0.1 10 10 2 103 104 105
TIME, t, hrs
Figure 3-50. The tensile creep behavior of a PP copolymer. a) Total creep strain versus time on
a semilog scale; b) total creep strain versus time on a log-log scale.
171
Creep Modulus (lbs.lin.2)
5.000 ,...-- -- - - - - -- -- - - - - - - ,
4.000
3.000
2.000
Figure 3·51. An example of creep resistance perfonnance for TPs and TSs at 23°C (73°F) and
100 hours with an applied stress of about 2,000 psi.
1.00r--------,.--------,:;_ - - - - - - ,
_ _-1 FLEXURAL
73 °F
CREEP
O.75 1-------+r---;;;;:::;-::=~==~_;_;;:;:v;_::::i
__ ~~-:-"t"------------
- 30% glass bead/nyton 6/6. 1.250 psi
OL_______~------~----~
10 10" 10" 10'
1lme
Figure 3·52. An example where the creep rate is related inversely to the reinforcements and
filler content (ICI-LNP).
O.7 5 . - - - - - - -""'T""- - - - - -r-- - - - - - - ,

FLEXURAL CREEP
73°F
l O.501---- - - - - =:;;i;:;___-::::::;;=:~=:;:-~-;.";
-~ --
~-~-~
-~--
i --~---::=:.:;:~:';; -----------
~LO---------lo"~--------~lo"~------~1~
1lme(h)
Figure 3·53. An example where the creep rate is also related directly, but not proportionately,
to stress (ICI-LNP).
172
(a)
Laminates in °wet condition

'028 tes ted at 23 C In water and
parallel to warp
'024 Values indicated on
curves are percentages
of short term ultimate
·020 . stress
c
-
'-
a -Approximate strai
'-
CJ)
at rupture
·012
-008
0-001 0{)1 0·1 1 10 102

Time, hours
(b)
Laminates in wet condition
tested at 23°C in water and
·012 parallel to warp - - - - - 4
Values indicated on
curves are percentages
·010 of short term ultimate
stress
.-c0
-'-
CJ)
·006
·00 Approximate strain

at rupture
'002
0'001 0·01 01 1 10
Time,hours
Figure 3-54. An example of tensile creep curves in the direction of maximum fiber orientation.
a) A TS polyester RP having 56 percent E-glass, by weight; b) glass-fabriclTS polyester RP in
48 percent glass by weight.
173
Table 3·5. Flexural Creep Data of Mixed Filler and Reinforced Composites at
73°F (ICI·LNP)
Apparent Modulus
Strain (%) Hours (103 psi)* Hours
Filler Type Stress
Base Resin and Content (%) (psi)* 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000
Nylon 6/6 Glass fiber 15, 2,500 0.555 0.623 0.709 450 401 353
mineral 25 5,000 0.823 0.967 1.140 607 517 439
Polyester Glass fiber 15, 2,500 0.452 0.470 0.482 553 532 519
(PBT) mineral 25 5,000 0.693 0.742 0.819 721 674 610
Nylon 6/10 Ferrite 83 2,500 0.463 0.507 0.568 540 493 440
5,000 0.638 0.732 0.952 784 683 525
Polypropylene Carbon powder 2,500 1.100 1.140 1.970 114 87 63

5,000 6.230 6.920 8.660 40 36 29
Nylon 6/6 Glass fiber 15, 2,500 2.160 2.400 2.510 116 104 100
carbon powder 5,000
Nylon 6 Glass beads 30 1,250 0.140 0.320 0.368 893 391 340
5,000 0.290 0.650 0.750 862 385 333
'To convert psi to pascals (Pa), multiply by 6.895 x UP.
Creep Modeling
Creep is related to plastics' viscoelastic behavior and can be explained with the aid of a
Maxwell model such as that shown in Figure 3-55 [12, 287]. When a load is applied to
the system, shown diagrammatically, the spring will deform to a certain degree. The
dashpot will first remain stationary under the applied load, but if the same load continues
to be applied, the viscous fluid in the dashpot will slowly leak past the piston, causing
the dashpot to move. Its movement corresponds to the strain or deformation of the plastic
material.
When the stress is removed, the dashpot will not return to its original position, as the
spring will. Thus we can visualize a viscoelastic material as having dual actions: one of
an elastic material, like the spring, and the other like the viscous liquid in the dashpot.
The properties of the elastic phase are independent of time, but the properties of the
viscous phase are very much a function of time, temperature, and stress. This phenomenon
is further explained by looking at the dashpot again, where we can visualize that a thinner
fluid resulting from increased temperature under a higher pressure (stress) will have a
higher rate of leakage around the piston during the time that the conditions described
prevail. Translated into plastic creep, this means that at higher use temperature and higher
stress levels the strain will be higher, resulting in greater creep.
Visualizing the reaction to a load (without time) by such a dual-component interpretation
is valuable to our understanding of the creep process but is basically meaningless for
design purposes. For this reason the designer is interested in the actual deformation or
part failure over a specific time span. Observations of the amount of strain at certain time
intervals must be made, which will then make it possible to construct curves that can be
extrapolated to longer time periods. The initial readings, at 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 20
hours, are followed by readings every 24 hours up to 500 hours, then readings every 48
hours up to 1,000 hours.
The time segment for the creep test is common to all materials. Strains are recorded
until the specimen ruptures or is no longer useful because it has yielded. In either case,
a point of failure of the test specimen has been reached.
Designing with Creep Data

The factors that affect being able to design with creep data include a number of consid-
erations. First, the strain readings of a creep test can be more accessible to a desigrier if
they are presented as a creep modulus. In a viscoelastic material the strain continues to
increase with time while the stress level remains constant. Since the creep modulus equals
stress divided by strain, we thus have the appearance of a changing modulus.
Second, the creep modulus, also known as the apparent modulus or viscous modulus
when graphed on log-log paper, is normally a straight line and lends itself to extrapolation
for longer periods of time. The apparent modulus should be differentiated from the
modulus given in the data sheets, which is an instantaneous value derived from the testing
machine, per ASTM D 638.
Third, creep data application is generally limited to the identical material, temperature
use, stress level, atmospheric conditions, and type of test (that is, tensile, compressive,
flexural) with a tolerance of ± 10 percent. Only rarely do product requirement conditions
coincide with those of a test or, for that matter, are creep data available for all the grades
of materials that may be selected by a designer. In such cases a creep test of relatively
short duration, say 1,000 hours, can be instigated, and the information be extrapolated
to long-term needs. In evaluating plastics it should be noted that reinforced thermoplastics
and thermosets display a much higher resistance to creep than do unreinforced plastics.
Finally, there have been numerous attempts to develop formulas that could be used to
predict creep information under varying usage conditions. In practically all cases the
suggestions have been made that the calculated data be verified by actual test performance.
Furthermore, numerous factors have been introduced to apply such data to reliable pre-
dictions of product behavior.
•
/DaShPot
____ Weight
Figure 3·55. A Maxwell model used to illustrate viscoelastic behavior.

Table 3-6. flexural Creep Data of Glass- and Carbon-fiber-Reinforced
Thermoplastics at 73°f (lCI-LNP)
Strain (%) Apparent Modulus
Fiber Hours (103 psi)* Hours
Content Stress
Base Resin (%) (psi)* 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000
Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Composites
ABS 20 2,500 0.263 0.288 0.325 951 868 769

5,000 0.520 0.607 0.643 962 824 778
40 5,000 0.290 0.302 0.332 1,724 1,656 1,506
10,000 0.585 0.615 0.660 1,709 1,626 1,515
SAN 20 2,500 0.277 0.239 0.271 1,101 1,046 923

5,000 0.455 0.478 0.540 1,099 1,046 926
10,000 0.910 0.956 1.086 1,099 1,046 921
30 5,000 0.367 0.389 0.402 1,362 1,285 1,244
40 10,000 0.558 0.600 0.642 1,792 1,667 1,558
Polystyrene 20 2,500 0.273 0.301 0.338 916 831 740

5,000 0.519 0.550 0.585 %3 909 855
10,000 1.090 1.205 1.350 917 830 741
40 5,000 0.280 0.290 0.300 1,786 1,724 1,667
10,000 0.570 0.630 0.690 1,754 1,587 1,449
Polycarbonate 20 5,000 0.618 0.628 0.654 809 796 764

30 5,000 0.451 0.462 0.466 1,109 1,082 1,073
40 5,000 0.312 0.319 0.322 1,603 1,567 1,553
10,000 0.620 0.700 0.710 1,613 1,429 1,408
Polyetherimide 20 5,000 0.512 0.551 0.580 976 907 862

40 5,000 0.275 0.299 0.315 1,818 1,672 1,587
10,000 0.554 0.599 0.631 1,805 1,669 1,585
Polyethylene 20 2,500 0.796 0.894 0.936 314 280 267
Polysulfone 30 5,000 0.362 0.439 0.453 1,381 1,139 1,104

40 5,000 0.290 0.340 0.340 1,724 1,471 1,471
10,000 0.590 0.670 0.680 1,694 1,492 1,471
Polyacetai 30 1,250 0.159 0.182 0.190 786 687 658

2,500 0.278 0.320 0.337 899 781 742
5,000 0.546 0.629 0.670 916 795 746
40 5,000 0.380 0.480 0.520 1,316 1,042 961
10,000 0.640 0.800 0.860 1,562 1,250 1,163
Polypropylene 30 5,000 0.410 0.460 0.480 610 543 421

40 5,000 0.680 0.940 1,130 735 532 442
Polyphenylene 30 2,500 0.190 0.190 0.190 1,316 1,316 1,316

sulfide 5,000 0.350 0.350 0.350 1,429 1,429 1,429
Nylon 6 20 5,000 0.890 1.070 1.090 562 467 459

30 5,000 0.750 0.800 0.830 667 625 602
10,000 1.533 1.892 1.933 652 528 517
Nylon 6/10 40 5,000 0.550 0.640 0.680 909 781 735

10,000 1.320 1.450 1.490 756 690 671
60 5,000 0.280 0.340 0.360 1,785 1,471 1,389
(cont'd)
176
Strain (%) Apparent Modulus
Fiber Hours (103 psi)* Hours
Content Stress
Base Resin (%) (psi)* 10 100 1,000 10 100 1,000
Nylon 6/6 30 2,500 0.340 0.470 0.490 735 532 510

5,000 0.434 0.617 0.662 1,152 810 755
40 2,500 0.298 0.391 0.391 839 639 639
5,000 0.380 0.514 0.528 1,316 973 947
10,000 0.800 0.960 0.990 1,250 1,041 1,010
60 5,000 0.250 0.320 0.350 2,000 1,563 1,429
10,000 0.560 0.630 0.640 1,786 1,587 1,562
Polyurethane 40 2,500 0.375 0.481 0.500 667 520 500
High-impact nylon 30 1,250 0.270 0.290 0.330 463 431 379

2,500 0.482 0.534 0.679 519 468 368
5,000 1.369 1.719 2.018 365 291 248
Polyester (PBT) 30 2,500 0.210 0.241 0.252 1,190 1,037 992

5,000 0.416 0.478 0.502 1,202 1,046 996
40 5,000 0.278 0.284 0.298 1,799 1,761 1,678
10,000 0.590 0.630 0.640 1,695 1,587 1,562
Amorphous nylon 30 2,500 0.248 0.275 0.324 1,008 909 772

5,000 0.640 0.678 0.757 781 737 660
Polyester 30 1,250 0.365 0.397 0.411 342 315 304

elastomer 2,500 0.448 0.496 0.538 558 504 465
5,000 1.460 1.550 1.660 342 322 301
Polyphenylene 30 2,500 0.255 0.277 0.314 980 902 796

oxide 5,000 0.518 0.548 0.625 965 912 800
Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Polycarbonate 30 2,500 0.120 0.128 0.129 954 940 880

5,000 0.240 0.251 0.260 1,104 1,089 1,044
Polyetherimide 20 5,000 0.367 0.399 0.420 1,362 1,253 1,190

10,000 0.721 0.779 0.820 1,387 1,284 1,219
Polysulfone 30 2,500 0.098 0.112 0.126 2,551 2,232 1,984

5,000 0.224 0.239 0.250 2,232 2,092 2,000
Polyphenylene 30 2,500 0.070 0.078 0.084 3,571 3,205 2,976

sulfide 5,000 0.168 0.170 0.170 2,976 2,941 2,941
Nylon 6 30 2,500 0.221 0.235 0.245 1,131 1,064 1,020

5,000 0.443 0.467 0.485 1,128 1,066 1,030
Nylon 6/6 30 2,500 0.140 0.168 0.194 1,786 1,488 1,287

5,000 0.334 0.376 0.390 1,497 1,330 1,282
40 2,500 0.112 0.133 0.140 2,232 1,880 1,785
5,000 0.240 0.254 0.257 2,083 1,968 1,945
Polyester (PBT) 30 2,500 0.084 0.110 0.112 2,976 2,273 2,232

5,000 0.196 0.224 0.243 2,551 2,232 2,058
'To convert psi to pascals (Pa), multiply by 6.895 x 10'.
177
Creep data can be very useful to the designer. The data in Figure 3-56 have been
plotted from material available from or published by material manufacturers. The first
point is the 100-hour time interval. The data for shorter intervals do not as a rule fit the
straight-line configuration that exists on log-log charts for the long-term duration beyond
the first lOO-hour test period. The circled points are the 100-, 300-, and 1,000-hour test
periods, and other observed values, and a straight line is fitted either through the circles
or tangent to them to give the line a slope for long-term evaluation.
From this line can be estimated the time at which the strain will be such as to cause
tolerance problems in product performance or, by using the elongation at yield as the
point at which the material has attained the limit of its useful life, we can estimate the
time at which this limit will be reached.
The formula "modulus (apparent) = stress/strain" enables us to locate the modulus
that corresponds to the test stress and strain (the strain being obtained by using the
dimensional change or elongation limit) where it intersects the straight line leading to an
appropriate time value. The polycarbonate creep line shows that a limit of 0.010 in
elongation is reached at the end of lOS hours (apparent modulus = 200,000 psi) and an
elongation (yield) of 0.06 is arrived at after 107 hours, or indefinitely if the 0.010 limitation
does not exist.
In the interest of sound design-procedure, the necessary creep information should be
procured on the prospective material, under the conditions of product usage. In addition
to the creep data, a stress-strain diagram, also at the conditions of product usage, should
be obtained. The combined information will provide the basis for calculating the pre-
dictability of material performance.
Allowable Working Stress. The viscoelastic nature of the material requires not merely
the use of data sheet information for calculation purposes but also the actual long-term
performance experience gained for it, which can be used as a guide. The allowable
working stress is important for determining dimensions of the stressed area and for
predicting the amount of distortion and strength deterioration that will take place over
the life span of the product. The allowable working stress for a constantly loaded part
that is expected to perform satisfactorily over many years has to be established, using
creep characteristics for a material with enough data to make reliable long-term predictions
of short-term test results.
Creep test data when plotted on log-log paper usually form a straight line and lend
themselves to extrapolation. The slope of the straight line, which indicates a decreasing
modulus, depends on the nature of the material (principally its rigidity and temperature
of heat deflection), the temperature of the environment in which the part is used, and the
amount of stress in relation to tensile strength.
Certain conclusions can now be developed, based on creep-data test results:
First, for practical design purposes, the data accumulated for up to 100 hours of creep
Figure 3-56. (Facing page) The apparent modulus versus time at 23°C (73"F) for a) MerIon
polycarbonate at 13.8 MPa (2,000 psi); b) an extrapolation of a) beyond 107 hrs.; c) Noryl 731
modified PPO at 13.8 MPa (2,000 psi); d) Delrin 500 acetal at 6.9 MPa (1,000 psi); and e)
Zytel 109 nylon at 50 percent relative humidity and 6.9 MPa (1,000 psi). The broken lines
represent extrapolated values, the circles, actual test-reading points. The log-log graph sheets
are 9 in. x 15 in. and contain 3 x 5 cycles. The end of the first time cycle of 103 represents
1,000 hours.
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179
are of no real benefit. There is usually too much variation during this test period, which
is of a relatively short duration.
Next, the apparent modulus values, starting with a test period of 100 hours and con-
tinuing up to 1,000 hours, form a straight line when plotted on log-log paper.
And finally, this line may be continued for longer periods on the same slope for
interpolation purposes, provided the stress level is one quarter to one fifth that of the
ultimate strength and the test temperature is no greater than two thirds of the difference
between room temperature and the heat deflection temperature at 264 psi.
When these limitations are exceeded, there is a sharp decrease in the apparent modulus
after 1,000 hours, with indications that failure is from creep is approaching (that is, the
material has attained the limit of its usefulness).
Since the designer will be expected to plot curves to suit requirements, some examples
will be cited that can serve as a guide for potential needs (see Fig. 3-57).
This first example (an ABS) uses creep data for 1,000 psi stress at 23°C (73°C). When
the line is extended to lOS hours, the apparent modulus is 140,000 psi. If the product is
designed for the duration of lOS hours and calculations are made for part dimensions,
the modulus of 140,000 psi should be inserted into any formula in which the modulus
appears as a factor.
At lOS hours the total strain is
Stress
E=--
Strain
140000 = 1,000
, Strain
1,000
Strain = 140,000 = 0.007 or 0.7%
Based on this calculation, if the product can tolerate this type of strain without its
affecting performance, then the dimensional requirements are met.
The elongation at yield for this particular ABS is 0.0275, which could be considered
the end of the useful strength of the material. The apparent modulus corresponding to
this strain at 1,000 psi and 23°C (73°F) is
1,000
E = 0.0275 = 36,364 psi
In the lower part of the graph in Figure 3-57, draw at the point of 56 x 1()3 on the
left side a line parallel to the original creep line and find that it intersects the apparent
modulus line at a time of 109 x 0.5 hours. The product would fail at this time, owing
to its loss of strength, even if dimensional changes permitted satisfactory functioning of
the product.
Some charts show creep test data beyond the 1,000-hour duration, and in fact under
most conditions the straight line between the 100- and 1,000-hour points is continued
into the 10,000- and 20,000-hour range. Even in such charts a deviation from the straight
line occurs occasionally, which should not be considered unreasonable, because of all
the variables that enter into the test data.
.;;;
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-.
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;,
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0
:e
c
102
'"
Q.
Q.
<{
I
102 103 104 105 106 107
10 7 108 109 10 10
End of
useful life
Time (hours)
Figure 3·57. Creep data for ABS.
Selecting an allowable continuous working stress at the required temperature must be

a process that allows for making an estimation of the elongation at the end of the product's
life. For example, if a product will be stressed to 1,700 psi at a temperature of 66°C
(150OP) , and data are available for 2,000 psi stress at ?loC (160OP) , this information
plotted on log-log paper should allow us to extrapolate the long·term behavior of the
material.
Isometric and Isochronous Graphs. Creep curves are a common method of displaying
the interdependence of stress-strain-time. However, there are other methods that may
also be useful in particular applications, specifically isometric and isochronous graphs.
An isometric graph is obtained by taking a constant strain section through the creep curves
and replotting this as stress versus time (see Figs. 3·33 and 3·34). It is an indication of
the relaxation of stress in the material when strain is kept constant. These data are often
used as a good approximation of stress relaxation in a plastic. In addition, if the vertical
(stress) axis is divided by the strain, one obtains a graph of the modulus against time
(see Figs. 3-37 and 3-44). This graph provides a good illustration of the time-dependent
variation of the modulus.
An isochronous graph may be obtained by taking a constant time section through the
creep curves and then plotting stress versus strain as shown in Figure 3-47. It can also
be obtained experimentally by performing a series of brief creep and recovery tests on a
plastic. In this procedure a stress is applied to a plastic test piece and the strain is recorded
after a specified time, typically 100 seconds. The stress is then removed and the plastic
allowed to recover, normally for a period of 4 (4 X 100 sec.). A larger stress is then
applied to the same specimen, after recording the strain at the l00-sec. time period; then
this stress is removed and the material allowed to recover. This procedure is repeated
until enough points have been obtained to let an isochronous graph to be plotted.
Isochronous data are usually presented on log-log scales. One reason for doing so is
that on linear scales any slight, but possibly important, nonlinearity between stress and
strain may go unnoticed, whereas the use of log-log scales will usually produce a straight-
line graph the slope of which gives an indication of the linearity of the material. If the
material is perfectly linear, the slope will be at 45 degrees, but if it is nonlinear the slope
will be less than 45 degrees.
Isochronous graphs are particularly valuable when obtained experimentally, because
they are less time consuming and require less specimen preparation than creep curves.
Such graphs at several time intervals can also be used to build up creep curves and indicate
areas where the main experimental creep program could be most profitable. They are
also popular as means of evaluating deformational behavior, because their method of data
presentation is similar to the previously discussed conventional tensile test data.
Application as a Theory. To illustrate the applications of various industry theories

related to creep, here are some examples of design problems [14].
Example 1 Tension (compression) of linearly viscoelastic prismatic bars (see Fig. 3-

58). The bar of viscoelastic material is subjected to a load F that is assumed to produce
an initial stress below its short-time yield strength. Hence, the initial modulus is
(3-1)
where (J is the applied stress and Eo is the initial strain. If the load E is sustained for
time t, the strain at t will equal the sum of the initial strain and the additional strain due
to viscoelastic flow. Therefore,
Et = (J/( Eo + Et ) (3-2)
where E, is the creep or viscoelastic strain.

With this in mind, assume that the lO-in. bar in Fig. 3-58 is subjected to a stress of
1,000 psi, which induces a total elongation of 0.10 in. or a strain of 0.01 (0.10/10).
Then, from Equation 3-1 the initial modulus Eo is 100,000 psi (1,000/0.10).
If the load is sustained for 1,000 hours and the sample stretches or creeps an additional
0.15 in., then the total of initial and creep strains is 0.025 (0.10 + 0.15/10) and the
modulus at 1,000 hours, E" is now 40,000 psi.
Thus, for linearly viscoelastic behavior, by measuring the creep strains it is possible
to draw time-modified modulus curves. Having established these curves, it is then possible
to use these data to predict the behavior of the plastic under other conditions. Such time-
modified modulus curves for several common thermoplastics were shown in Figure 3-
58. It is important to remember that such curves are valid only for a specific temperature
and for strains that do not exceed the limits of the validity of the data.
~b=lin.
F --1f----------l~
If-o<oEf-----.L= 10 in.---~)I
F 13 2
in.
Figure 3-58. A diagram of the variables involved in analyzing the primatic bar in tension.
Table 3-7. Trial Estimate of Variation in Creep Strain with Time

Apparent Calculated
Time Modulus psi Creep Strain
(hours) (MPa) (in.lin.)
0 20,000 (138) 0.0150

19,000 (131) 0.0158
10 16,500 (114) 0.0182
100 14,000 (96) 0.0212
1,000 12,000 (83) 0.0250
10,000 10,000 (69) 0.0300
100,000 7,500 (52) 0.0400
For example, suppose that the bar in Figure 3-58 is made of the polyethylene having
the modulus curve in Figure 3-59. The initial elastic modulus of this material was de-
termined to be 20,000 psi at 23°C (73°F). Now suppose that the bar is loaded with a 300
psi stress. Then, using Equation 3-1, the strain in the bar is 0.015 in.lin. (300/20,000).
In addition, from Equations 3-2 and 3-3, the creep strain E t is
(3-3)
Using this relationship and the data in Figure 3-59, it is possible to calculate the creep
strain over a l00,OOO-hour period, as in Table 3-7.
It will be noted that all the strain values thus calculated are in excess of 0.5 percent.
Thus, since the data in Figure 3-59 on which these strain values are based are valid only
for strains not exceeding 0.5 percent, the creep values thus calculated are inaccurate.
Also, since we obtain an unrealistic answer when we use the specified design stress with
this material, we must conclude that it is not possible to apply a stress to a bar of this
material of 300 psi.
Acrylic plastic
x
'in
:! 300
::J
"3
'8
':200
~
c
~
~100
[~-----;~~~~~-------=:::::::::::::::d
Polyamide plastic
19,000 psi Polyethylene plastic 7500 psi

°1t:~oanrrlt=0~~nrn10cO~~Icr1mOO=0=C~~lmO~,00=0~~lnOO~,Ooo
Time, hr
Figure 3-59. Time-modified modulus curves for four common thermoplastics. The data were
obtained at 23°C (73°F) and are applicable only for strains of 0.5 percent or less.
To stay below the maximum strain of 0.5 percent, the imposed load cannot exceed
100 psi. Furthermore, if the stress were 50 psi, the value of the initial strain would be
0.0025 in.!in. Knowing this, and that the limiting strain at time t, or E" is 0.0050 in.!
in. and that the initial modulus is 20,000 psi, we can use Equation 3-3 to determine the
apparent modulus of the bar E after creep at time t. Doing this we find that the apparent
modulus at time t is 10,000 psi. Taking this value and referring to Table 3-7 or to Figure
3-59, we find that this value of the modulus occurs at a strain of 0.005 at 10,000 hours.
Thus, with a load of 50 psi on the bar, accurate predictions of creep deformation can be
made for service up to 10,000 hours for this particular polyethylene.
Example 2 Bending of bars (see Fig. 3-60). To illustrate the design procedure, assume
the bar in this figure is made of an acrylic plastic whose modulus-time properties are
those shown in Figure 3-59. Assume that the maximum permissible deflection of the
middle of the bar during one year's service is 0.15 in. and that the problem is to find
the maximum permissible value of bending moment M or load W.
It can be shown that the maximum deflection 8max occurs in the center of the bar and
that the magnitude of the deflection is given by
(3-4)
where M is the bending moment, L the length of the bar, E the modulus, and I the
moment of inertia of the cross-section.
From Figure 3-59, the modulus of the acrylic after one year's time is 300,000 psi and
for the conditions imposed Equation 3-4 tells us that the bending moment M is equal to
267 in.-lb.
The next step in the process is to determine the tensile strain in the bar associated with
the calculated bending moment. It has been shown that for a rectangular cross-sectional
bar in pure bending the maximum bending stress O'max is given by
O'max = (Mh/2J)[(2n + 1)/3n] (3-5)
where h is the height of the beam and n is a material constant having a value of 3 for
the problem at hand. Using Equation 3-5, O'max is calculated to be 156 psi. Then the
tensile strain is 156 psil300,000 or 0.00052 in.!in. Since this strain value does not exceed
the applicability of the data in Figure 3-59, the above calculations are consistent with
the real behavior of the acrylic plastic being investigated.
Turning to the sketch of the bar in Figure 3-60, the maximum deflection occurs at
midspan and is given as
(3-6)
Solving Equation 3-5 for W, using the conditions listed above, gives us a value for
maximum load of 56 lb.
Remembering that in pure tension it can be shown that M = Wa, Equation 3-5 can
be used to calculate the bending stress associated with the load calculated above and
thence the strain, using modulus data from Figure 3-59. Doing this, we find that with a
load W of 56 lb. the bending strain is 0.000543 in.!in., well within the limitations of
Figure 3-59.
M
( ~I_~I ) -v-b=l M l]h=2in.
in.
If.!=ot:----,L = 30 in.,--...;>~I
End moments
a = 5 in. I a = 5 in. r- -, r- b = 1 in.
I]
W W
r----'------'---i h = 2 in.
foot---L = 30 in.--->-I
Symmetrical
Figure 3-60. Variables involved in an analysis of primatic bars in pure bending. The top
drawing applies to the analysis of end moments, the lower drawing to symmetrical loaded bars.
Example 3 Pipeline on supports (Fig. 3-59). A pipeline on supports involves essentially

the same problem as that associated with a continuous beam. It is well known that the
bending moments at the pipe's supports can be calculated by the theorem of three moments:
where An is the area of the bending-moment diagram for the span and an is the horizontal
distance of the centroid of the moment area from supports n - 1, etc. For a system
having a large number of equal spans it is easily shown by Equation 3-7 that the maximum
moment is equal to WL/12. Therefore, the length between spans L is
L = (l20'maxIW) (lIe) (3-8)
where c is the radius of the pipe as shown in Figure 3-61, and I is the moment of inertia
of the cross-section of the pipe.
Thus, by determining the maximum stress to be expected in the pipe, the designer can
specify the spacing of the pipe supports.
Suppose that the problem involves a length of 2-in.-diameter, Schedule 80 rigid PVC
pipe holding water under a pressure of 50 psi at room temperature. The maximum
allowable sag or deflection between supports is 0.25 in., which is a realistic value actually
used to avoid drainage problems. It is also required that the pipe sag by not more than
this amount after 10,000 hours of service. There are no wind loads and the material has
an initial elastic modulus of 450,000 psi. It can now be shown that the 2-in.-diameter
PVC pipe filled with water has a weight of 0.194 Ib.lft.
The various stresses in the pipe can be described by the following relationships:
Hoop stress = O'h = pdl2t (3-9)
Longitudinal stress = O'z = (pdI4t) + (MIZ) (3-10)
Radial stress = O't = -p (for I.D.) (3-11)

o 1 n-l n n+l
- - - - L = 30 in.------;~
Figure 3-61. Variables involved in pipe-design problems. The upper-left drawing is used to
analyze problems involved in spacing pipe supports; the lower drawing deals with designing
thin-wall tubing to contain an internal pressure; the drawing at the right covers the analysis of
heavy wall piping under pressure.
where p is the internal water pressure, d is the diameter of the pipe, t is the thickness of
the pipe, M is the bending moment, and Z is the section modulus or lie. It can also be
shown that the equivalent maximum stress level (1 in the pipe is given by
(3-12)
Using Equation 3-12, the approximate equivalent wall stresses for several span lengths
of the pipe described in the problem are shown in Table 3-8.
It is concluded that stress-rupture failure is not likely even when the span between
supports is as much as 15 ft. Even when a conventional safety factor of 4.0 is used to
increase the expected design stress to 2,960 (4 x 740) psi, this stress is still below the
expected rupture stress at 10,000 hr in Figure 3-62.
However, the spacing of the pipe supports must also be such that the deflection between
supports does not exceed i in. This requires an analysis of the creep that may be expected
with any proposed pipe-support spacing specification. The elastic deflection of the mid-
point of continuous pipe between supports is calculated as
8max = WCI384El (3-13)
Using this formula, the initial deflection values of the pipe between supports can be
calculated as shown in Table 3-8. Using Equation 3-8 and appropriate values of (101(1
from Figure 3-63, the creep deflections after 10,000 hours may also be calculated; the
values are also shown in Table 3-8.
From Table 3-8 it becomes obvious that although a 15-ft. span between pipe supports
would be satisfactory from a pipe-stress standpoint, excessive sag or deflection of the
pipe between the supports would take place over the service life with this span length.
To avoid exceeding the specified maximum deflection of 0.25 in., Table 3-8 tells us that
the span between supports should not exceed 6-8 ft.
Table 3-8. Analysis of Stress and Deflection in a Pipeline on Supports1

Equivalent Stress 3
Maximum
Span Outer Inner Initital Elastic Deflection After
Length 2 Diameter Diameter Deflection4 10,000 Hourss
ft. (m) psi (MPa) psi (MPa) mils (mm) mils (mm)
2 (0.61) 193 (1.33) 267 (1.84) 0.43 (0.011) 0.72 (0.02)

4 (1.2) 199 (1.37) 284 (1.96) 6.83 (0.173) 11.47 (0.2913)
8 (2.4) 279 (1.92) 366 (2.52) 109.0 (2.769) 183.5 (4.661)
10 (3.0) 372 (2.56) 442 (3.05) 268.0 (6.807) 450.0 (11.43)
15 (4.6) 740 (5.10) 738 (5.09) 418.0 (10.62) 705.0 (17.91)
I See Figure 3-61.
2Between pipe supports.

3Difference arises from thickness of pipe wall.
48ased on outer diameter measurements.
5Any deflection due to internal pressure has been omitted.
Example 4 Expansion of thin-wall pipe under internal pressure (see Fig. 3-61). The
stresses in a thin-wall tube are given by Equations 3-9, 3-10, and 3-11 and the strains
may be calculated from
Eh == (lIE) [crh - v(crz + crt)] (3-14)
Ez == (liE) [crz - V(crh + crt)] (3-15)
Et == (lIE) [crt - V(crh + crz)] (3-16)
Using Equations 3-14 and 3-9, 3-10, and 3-11,
(3-17)
and since radial expansion u at the bore of the cylinder (the J.D. of the pipe) is equal to
(ET]) (dI2), Equation 3-17 can be rewritten in the form
(3-18)
Assuming viscoelastic behavior, all terms in Equation 3-18 containing E and v can be
substituted for using the relationships in Equations 3-8 or 3-9 or
(3-19)
where B is the bulk modulus of the material. Similarly, it can be shown that the longitudinal
expansion E is given by
(3-20)
..,
-
I
o
x
o~----~~~~~------~----~------~----~
om 1000 10,000
Time to rupture, hr
Figure 3-62. Stress-rupture data for rigid PVC 2-in.-diameter pipe as a function of temperature.
1.0
·0
~0.8
b A
::f
~0.7 B
'5
1°·6
0.5
Relaxation time, hr
Figure 3-63. Stress-relaxation characteristics at 23°C (73°F). a) Rigid PVC, pressure relaxation;
b) rigid PVC, tension relaxation; c) PE, pressure relaxation; d) PE, tension relaxation; e) nylon,
tension relaxation; f) PTFE, tension relaxation.
Assuming such a thin-wall tube is made from a polyamide material conforming to the
behavior in Figure 3-59, determine the deformation that will occur over a five-year service
life. The tube has a 2-in. diameter d, wall thickness t of 0.3 in., length L of 30 in., and
it is subjected to internal pressure p of 100 psi. The material has a yield strength of about
6,000 psi at room temperature and a modulus of 210,000 psi.
From Figure 3-59 the effective modulus of the material after five years is about 80,000
psi. Therefore, crr:/cr = Er:/E = (210,000/80,000) :::::: 2.62. The bulk modulus B may be
calculated from
B = (E/3)(1 - 2v) (3-21)
using Eo for E and a value of 0.3 for v. Then B = 66,500 psi.

Substituting these values in Equation 3-19, u is found to be 0.00695 in. and, from
Equation 3-19, E the total length change is 0.0237 in.
In order to compute the external expansion of the pipe (since u is the I.D. change),
the material volume per length of pipe is assumed to remain constant during the expansion
of the I.D. From this calculation the expanded external diameter of the pipe is found to
be 2.61 in. (the original O.D. was 2.6 in.). Therefore, the radial expansion is 0.5 percent
or within the limits of the data in Figure 3-59.
In addition to estimating the deformation, a check must be made to determine the
possible failure of the pipe by yielding. This is done by using the following equation for
the equivalent stress in a pipe with capped ends:
(3-22)
P = [(3/16)(d/tf + (3/d)(d/t) + 1]112
From Equation 3-22 and knowing the yield strength of the material to be 6,000 psi, the
maximum allowable pressure is calculated to be 1,590 psi. This is far above the l00-psi
design pressure, so there is little chance of the pipe's failing.
Example 5 In the case of a heavy-walled cylinder under internal pressure (see Fig. 3-
61). Using methods similar to those used for the thin-walled cylinder, the creep type of
radial expansion for a heavy-walled cylinder can be shown to be
(3-23)
where the terms are as before and the dimensions a, r, and c are as detined in Figure 3-
61.
Creep Guidelines. Here is a summation of the factors to consider when reviewing creep
properties:
1. Predictions can be made on creep behavior based on creep and relaxation data.
2. There is generally a less-pronounced curvature when creep and relaxation data are
plotted log-log. This facilitates extrapolation and is commonly practiced, particularly
with creep modulus and creep-rupture data.
3. Increasing the load on a part increases its creep rate.
4. Increasing the level of reinforcement in a composite increases its .resistance tocreep.
5. Particulate tillers provide better creep resistance than untilled resins but are less ef-
fective than tibrous reinforcements.
6. Glass-tiber-reinforced amorphous TP composites generally have greater creep resis-
tance than glass-tiber-reinforced crystalline TP composites containing the same amount
of glass tiber.
7. Carbon-fiber reinforcement is more effective in resisting creep than glass-fiber rein-

forcement.
8. The effect of a flame-retardant additive on the flexural modulus provides an indication
of its effect on long-time creep.
9. Over the past century, many plastic products have been successfully designed every-
where for long-time creep performance, based on the information and test data then
available, but much more exists now and will in the future.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the phenomenon of having materials under cyclic loads at levels of stress below
their static yield strength. Fatigue data are used so the designer can predict the performance
of a material under cyclic loads. The fatigue test, analogous to static long-term creep
tests, provides information on the failure of materials under repeated stresses. This fatigue
behavior is by no means a new problem-the term was applied to the failure of a wooden
mast by hoisting too many sails too often in the pre-Christian era.
As plastics replaced metals and other materials in many critical structural applications,
fatigue tests became even more important, since the maximum oscillatory load that a
material can sustain is a part of its tensile strength. Thus, the more conventional short-
term tests give little indication about the lifetime of an object subjected to vibrations or
repeated deformations. Fatigue tests (see Fig. 3-64) are especially important for the
Figure 3-64. A typical test setup for analyzing bending fatigue.

designer of plastics and composites that are used in load-bearing structures that will be
subjected to varying loads [1, 2, 5, 11-14, 16-21,62-68, 150-155,268-70,287-97].
Some examples of products subject to fatigue when they are stressed repeatedly or in
some defined cyclic manner are a snap-action plastic latch that is constantly opened and
closed, a reciprocating mechanical part on a machine, a gear tooth, a bearing, and any
structural component subjected to vibration, such as an aircraft wing or any part that will
be subjected to repeated impacts. Such cyclic loading can cause mechanical deterioration
and progressive fracturing of the material, leading to its ultimate failure.
Basically, under a repeated applied cyclic load, fatigue cracks begin somewhere in the
specimen and extend during the cycling. Eventually the crack will expand to such an
extent that the remaining material can no longer support the stress, at which point the
part will fail suddenly. However, failure for different service conditions may be defined
differently than just as the separation of two parts. ASTM D 671 defines failure as
occurring also when the elastic modulus has decreased to 70 percent of its original value.
Practical failure must also include the melting of any part of a specimen, excessive
change of dimensions or the warping of the part, and the crazing, cracking, or formation
of internal voids or deformation markings. These types of defects all may seriously affect
performance strength. Plastics are susceptible to brittle crack-growth fractures as a result
of cyclic stresses in much the same way metals are. In addition, because of their high
damping and low thermal conductivity, plastics are prone to thermal softening if the
cyclic stress or cyclic rate is high. The thermoplastics with the best fatigue resistance
include PP and ethylene-propylene copolymers.
Testing
In testing, a specimen is subjected to the periodic varying of stresses by means of a
mechanically operated device. The stresses applied generally alternate between equal
positive and negative values or from zero to the maximum positive or negative values.
For practical purposes, in testing plastics a certain minimum stress, instead of zero, is
often used. The test can be performed in alternating bending (called flexural fatigue
testing; see Fig. 3-64), and also as tensile, compn~ssion, or torsion testing, or as an
alternating tensile-compression test.
Fatigue data are normally presented as a plot of the stress (S) versus the number of
cycles (N) that cause failure at that stress; the data plotted defined as an S-N curve. Test
results are illustrated graphically in the form of curves. Examples of fatigue curves for
unreinforced and reinforced plastics are shown in Figure 3-65. The values for stress
amplitude and the number of load cycles to failure are plotted on a diagram with loga-
rithmically divided abscissa and English or metrically divided ordinates.
The fatigue behavior of a material is normally measured in either a flexural or a tensile
mode. Specimens may be cracked or notched prior to testing, to localize fatigue damage
and permit measuring the crack-propagation rate. In constant-deflection amplitude testing
a specimen is repeatedly bent to a specific outer fiber strain level. The number of cycles
to failure is then recorded. In constant flexural load amplitude testing a bending load is
repeatedly applied to the specimen. This load causes a specified outer-fiber stress level.
The number of cycles to failure is then recorded.
Both modes of flexural fatigue testing can be related to the performance of real struc-
tures, one to those that are flexed repeatedly to a constant deflection and the other to
those that are repeatedly flexed with a constant load. In constant-elongation amplitude
testing, a specimen is repeatedly stretched to a specified tensile strain or elongation level.
5r-------,------c~--------._------.
PMMA, 0 250 10 Ihlck

4
3
-<II
ci 2
o PTFE, 0.260 In Ihlck Endurance limits
~
~ O~------~--------~--------~------~
10l 10' 10' 10'
a, Cycles 10 failure
8.-~~~----~-----,------._-------,
6 ...... PheooIic
Epoxy '
5 ~ Oiatlyl
:: ----phthalate
4
" -....., Alkyd
~0.. 3 " ,
' " ',....
'" ...., Nylon (dfy)
~ 2 '.... .... _____ Polycarbonate
~ .... ~--- ___ ::."'= .... =PTFE

~
Polysullone
0'03 10' 10'
b. Cycles to lat ure
8 Carbon / epoxy
ISS)
Boron / epoxy )
200 14
iii
no
6
(4 1) 180
Ararrold / epoxy
I
::!E 12
160
li iii 140 ~ 10
BO~
~
§ 4
120 0.8
~
1281 Acrylic aluminum
100 S-glass / epoxy
on 0.6
~
Polye.hylene
80
2 I ~rOPY lene 2024-T3
-
Vi (1 4) E 60 aluminum 04
~ :::l
~ 40 0.2 11I
I III 20 CL
PTFE ::E C)
0 0
lol 10' 10~ 10' 10' 10 10 10'
C_ Cycles '0 Failure d. Number of cycles to failure. N
Figure 3-65. Typical room-temperature fatigue characteristics for certain TPs and TSs (a, b,
and c); different TS composites and metals (d, e). The stresses are from cantilever bending
under constant load, zero mean stress, and a frequency of 1,800 cycles/min. per ASTM D 671.
192
l00~----r-----r-----r-----r-----r---~
~
C)
~ ~~----+-----+-----~-----+-----+----_4
a:
t-
!/)
~
c(
OO~--~~~-+--==~~~~----~--~
:i:
~
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:::>
II..
o
t-
Z
~ 20r-----r-----+-----;------+--~~~~_4
a:
w
Q.
103 10· 105

e. CYCLES TO FAILURE
Its number of cycles to failure is then recorded. In constant tensile load-amplitude testing,
a tensile load is repeatedly applied· to a specimen to produce a specified tensile stress
level. Then the number of cycles to failure is recorded. In both tensile tests the minimum
stress-strain should remain positive, to prevent the specimen from buckling. Of the four
testing methods reviewed, the two flexural techniques are the most commonly used.
Since fatigue cracks often start at a random surface imperfection, considerable scatter
occurs in fatigue data, increasing with the increasing lifetime wherever crack initiation
occupies most of the fatigue life of a specimen. When a line of the best fit is drawn from
the available data points on an S-N curve, this represents the mean life expected at any
given stress level or the stress that would cause, say, 50 percent of the part failures in a
given number of cycles.
If sufficient data are available, much more information can be provided when different
curves for various percentages of failure are plotted. Where such data are available,
reasonable design criteria would be based on some probability for failure, depending on
how critical the effects of failure would be. If a large, expensive repair of a complex
mechanism would result from the fatigue failure of one part, then a 10 or even 1 percent
probability of failure would be a more likely design criterion than the 50 percent suggested
above.
The fatigue strength of most TPs is about 20 to 30 percent of the ultimate tensile
strength determined in the short-term test but higher for RPs. It decreases with increases
in temperature and stress-cycle frequency and with the presence of stress concentration
peaks, as in notched components.
ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 91 discusses in detail the important rami-
fications to be considered in the various statistical aspects of fatigue testing. Most often,
the fatigue curves as well as the tabulated values of endurance strengths and endurance
limits are based on the 50 percent probability curve. As a result, designers do not resort
to using scatter-band curves unless they are involved with a design that takes a statistical
approach. The designer requiring information on the highest order of reliability should
always contact the manufacturer or run tests.
Endurance Limit
To develop S-N curves like those in Figures 3-65 and 3-66, the fatigue specimen is
loaded until, for example, the maximum stress in the sample is 275 MPa (40 ksi). At
this stress level it may fail in only 10 cycles (see Fig. 3-66). These data are recorded
and the stress level is then reduced to 206 MPa (30 ksi). This specimen may not break
until after 1,000 stress cycles at this rather low stress level.
This procedure is repeated until a stress level is determined below which failure does
not occur. In this example of a relatively high fatigue performance material that develops
a flat portion of the S-N curve, this stress level is found to be 158 MPa (23 ksi). A test
duration of 10 million (107) stress cycles is usually considered infinite life. This type of
testing is expensive, principally because it involves a large number of samples and much
statistical evaluation. The end result, determining the fatigue endurance limit of a material,
is an extremely important design property. This property should be used in determining
the allowable stresses in products, rather than just the short-term yield strength, any time
a part will see cyclic loading in service.
Cyclic loading significantly reduces the amount of allowable stress a material can
withstand. If data are not available on the endurance limit of a material being considered
for use, a percentage of its tensile strength can be used. This percentage varies with the
different material systems. For engineering plastics the endurance limit could be about
50 percent of its tensile strength, as with metals. Taking this 50 percent approach requires
the designer to become familiar with fatigue-testing results on plastics and other materials,
so that the proper evaluation can be applied. However, to design correctly, requires
obtaining reliable S-N curves with the required endurance limit, as in Figure 3-66. Plastics
are subject to fatigue, with a wide range of performance, and efforts should be made to
arrive at endurance limit information if a fail-safe design is desired.
300
Individual f allgue tests
250
Endurance limit 123.000 pSI) ."
[159MPal 200 ~
Vl :E
0>
C
"0 150
C
Q.I
co
100
100 lOS
Number of Cycles to Failure
Figure 3-66. The use of an S-N curve to establish a fatigue endurance limit strength. The
curve asymptotically approaches a parallel to the abscissa, thus indicating the endurance limit as
the value that will not produce failure. Below this limit the material is much less susceptible to
fatigue failure.
Heat Generation
Since plastics are viscoelastic, there is the potential for having a large amount of internal
friction generated within the plastics during mechanical deformation, as in fatigue. This
action involves the accumulation of hysteretic energy generated during each loading cycle.
Examples of products that behave in this manner include coil or leaf springs and shoe
soles.
Because this energy is dissipated mainly in the form of heat, the material experiences
an associated temperature increase. When heating takes place the dynamic modulus
decreases, which results in a greater degree of heat generation under conditions of constant
stress. The greater the loss modulus of the material, the greater the amount of heat
generated that can be dissipated. Plastics for fatigue applications can therefore have low
losses. If the plastic's surface area is insufficient to permit the heat to be dissipated, the
specimen will become hot enough to soften and melt. The possibility of adversely affecting
its mechanical properties by heat generation during cyclic loading must therefore always
be considered. The heat generated during cyclic loading can be calculated from the loss
modulus or loss tangent of the plastics.
The rate dependence of fatigue strength demands careful consideration of the potential
for heat buildup in both the fatigue test and in service. Generally, since the buildup is a
function of the viscous component of the material, the materials that tend toward viscous
behavior will also display a sensitivity to cyclic load frequency. Thus, thermoplastics,
particularly the crystalline polymers like polyethylene that are above their glass-transition
temperatures, are expected to be more sensitive to the cyclic load rate, and highly cross-
linked plastics or glass-reinforced plastics are less sensitive to the frequency of load.
From this discussion it should be obvious that care must be taken in the use of the
type of accelerated fatigue testing that is common for metals. For example, a frequency
of 30 Hz is not uncommon for metal tests. Figure 3-67 shows the significant change in
the fatigue life of a PMMA as measured by excessive thermal softening at frequencies
well below 30 Hz. Depending on the type of plastic, testing at frequencies of a few Hz
or less is required, to avoid such softening. In contrast, ifthe component is to be subjected
to high-frequency loads in service, the test should be performed at similar frequencies.
As is evident in Figure 3-67, high-frequency loadings may show no significant heat
buildup, provided stresses are small, particularly when the part is to be cooled.
Fatigue results in a shift from ductile to brittle failure with the increased number of
load cycles. Figure 3-67 also compares the strength-regression behavior obtained under
sustained stress with the regression under a 0.5 Hz cyclic stress applied in a square wave
form. The curves for an equal duration of tensile stress, as represented by either the time
under sustained load or the cumulative time under stress during the square-wave loading
of the fatigue test. Compared to the static loading, the fatigue loading results in both a
pronounced shift from ductile to brittle fracturing and a marked decrease in the time to
failure at a given stress.
Reinforced Plastics and Composites

In common with metals and unreinforced plastics, RPs also are susceptible to fatigue.
However, they provide high performance when compared to unreinforced plastics and
many other materials (see Figs. 3-65d and e, 3-68, 3-69, and Table 3-9). If the matrix
is a TP, there is a possibility of thermal softening failures at high stresses or high
frequencies. However, in general the presence of fibers reduces the hysteritic heating
effect, with a reduced tendency toward thermal softening failures. When conditions are
chosen to avoid thermal softening, the normal fatigue process takes places as a progressive
weakening of the material from crack initiation and propagation (see Fig. 3-69).
Plastics reinforced with carbon, graphite, boron, and aramid are stiffer than the glass-
reinforced plastics (GRPs) and are less vulnerable to fatigue. (E-glass is the most popular
type used; S-glass improves both short- and long-term properties.) In short-fiber GRPs
cracks tend to develop easily in the matrix, particularly at the interface close to the ends
of the fibers. It is not uncommon for cracks to propagate through a TP matrix and destroy
the material's integrity before fracturing of the molded product occurs (see Fig. 3-70).
With short-fiber composites fatigue life can be prolonged if the fiber aspect ratio of its
length to its diameter is large, such as at least a factor of five, with ten or better for
maximum performance.
In most GRPs debonding can occur after even a small number of cycles, even at modest
levels. If the material is translucent, the buildup of fatigue damage can be observed. The
first signs (for example, with glass-fiber TS polyester) are that the material becomes
opaque each time the load is applied. Subsequently, the opacity becomes permanent and
more pronounced, as can occur in corrugated RP roofing panels. EventUally, resin cracks
will become visible, but the product will still be capable of bearing the applied load until
localized intense damage causes separation in the component. However, the first ap-
pearance of matrix cracks may cause sufficient concern, whether for safety or aesthetic
reasons, to limit the useful life of the product. Unlike most other materials, GRPs give
visual warning of their fatigue failure.
Since GRPs can tend not to exhibit a fatigue limit, it is necessary to design for a
specific endurance, with safety factors in the region of three to four being commonly
used. Higher fatigue performance is achieved when the data are for tensile loading, with
zero mean stress. In other modes of loading, such as flexural, compression, or torsion,
the fatigue behavior is worse than that in tension. This is generally thought to be caused
by the setting up of shear stresses in sections of the matrix that are unprotected by some
method such as having properly aligned fibers that can be applied in certain designs.
Another technique, which has been used successfully in high-performance RP aircraft
wing structures and other applications, incorporates a thin, high-heat-resistant film such
as Mylar between layers of glass fibers. With GRPs this construction significantly reduces
the self-destructive action of glass-to-glass abrasion and significantly increases the fatigue
endurance limit.
Fracture Mechanics
The fracture mechanics theory developed for metals is also adaptable for use with plastics.
The basic concepts remain the same, but since metals and plastics are different they
require different techniques to describe their fatigue-failure behaviors. Some of the com-
ments made about crack and fracture influences on fatigue performance relate to the theory
of fracture mechanics. The fracture mechanics theory method, along with readily measured
material properties, component geometry, and loading information, can be used to design
against fatigue failure. The fracture mechanics model also gives insight into materials'
development by showing how their resistance to crack propagation depends on both
molecular and structural factors.
Service failures in plastics can be caused by fatigue. When time is the critical factor,
this type of failure is called static fatigue or creep rupture. If mechanical load reversal
STRESS AMPLITUDE, a, MPa

o
I 75...
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
. . . . . . . .Ioo... . ._ ......._
50 55 60
....- -....._ _........!...-. .SO
65
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~ ....,j--.. . . ._
~150
.... cooling 70 .... ~
g
- - - -forced cooling
~ 60
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~
....~ ....~
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a
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z 75
2.5 Hz \ " 30 a
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20 -
~~ 50
.-'
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10 UJ
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u
a:: __ - ... -- - ...""'~"-:1"'" a::
u
~ 32 0 ~
o 2 34567 8 9
STRESS AMPLITUDE, a, 103 psi
1 ".________(b_)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. . 70 ~
~ 10 It
9 Q
~ 60
~
~
7
6 ... 50
40 ~
5
4 \', 30 ~
----
3 fracture under cyclic load (0.5 ~ '- __ 20 ~
""
- part ductile, part brittle ........ - .... _ ~
2
... .....
10 ~
~ I brittle fract':re ~
a::
In
O~.---~--~--~--~~--~--~--~~O
0.001 0.0 I O. I 10 102 I0
....
V)
TIME UNDER CYCLIC OR CONSTANT STRESS, hrs

Figure 3·67. Examples of how fatigue loading in flexure affects thennoplastics. a) Temperature
effects in PMMA acrylic with and without the cooling of specimens; b) a comparison of strength
regression in rigid PVC under cyclic and sustained loads of equal duration.
or the number of cycles controls failure, the term employed is cyclic fatigue. Interaction
between the material and an environment capable of damaging it can lead to stress cracking
in the static case and fatigue in the cycle one. An additional failure mode is thermal
degradation, in which the temperature increases within the sample from hysteretic energy
dissipation.
10.0
FATIGUE ENDURANCE OF
CRYSTALLINE-RESIN-BASE
---
~SrTES
7.5
.... -30% glass fiber/acetal
.~,.... ~
-----
..; 300/0 glass fiber/nylon 6
0
~
fJ)
5.0
........
.......3ro glass tiber/nylon 6/10
X -30% glass fiber/polypropylene
2.5
o
10'
C}des to failure, N
10.0r---..........- - - - , - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - ,
(f) FATIGUE ENDURANCE OF

li 5.0 AMORPHOUS-RESIN.BASE
! COMPOSITES
rn 0% glass fiber/polycarbonate
30% glass fiber /polysulfone
2.51--- - - - - - + - - - - -- -+-=--.....:..:..--=-- - - \
OL-__________~~----------~~----------~
1~ 1~ 1~ 1~
Cycles to failure. N
Figure 3-68. Fatigue curves for reinforced plastic composites using different types and amounts
of fibers and resins (lCI-LNP).
Traditional fatigue testing produces the familiar S-N diagram. In this type of testing
the crack initiation phase usually represents a large fraction of a part's life. However,
the crack propagation phase reveals a material's inherent fracture resistance under fracture
mechanics testing. The mechanical description of a fracture is usually divided into three
stages: crack initiation, stable or incremental fatigue crack propagation, and rapid or
catastrophic fracture.
10.0 ~'-----IIE:"""---~-------r--------'
30% carbon fiber/PBT
FATIGUE ENDURANCE
2.5 GLASS VS CARBON
REINFORCEMENT
°1~~----------~&~----------~·~--------~7
U 10· 10· 10
Cycles to fa/lure. N
r----'\--
111
Fatigue endurance at 23°C
111 I I
\~rton 50% lo~g gl••• fI~r/ny~ 8/8

114 ~~=8
Dry, •• molded I
.. ~ rndffired • 501 RH
~ 12
" " " 50%
j 10
...... _I .hort ~
I gl... fiber/nylon
1.
6/6
...... "'-
v.
--
Dry••• molded I
_ _M~tur8 condffioned, 50% RH
8
5 5 5 10'
CycIa to f. lu.re
"--- r---Fatigue
18
endurance at 23° and 120°C
111 ~ I I I I
.... f
............... ~ Yerton 50% long gla.. fiberl nylon 6/6
--
~
114 -- ~r--_
At 23°C
'0
E
---
:::. 12
:z
10
~ .............
-....
"'-
--.
""~% .hort gl ••• fiber/nylon
At23°c
8,e-
--
... ~~
8
5 5
r--.
5
- 10'
Cycle. to f. ure
Figure 3·68. (Continued)

199
N
8
.:J 1()5 Percent of Ultimate Static Strength--100

Cycles r--,-.
_ _ _ _ _ _ L...-JJ 107 _ _ _ _ _ _--,
~ 80
1---60
1---40
1---20
Epoxy Fiber Fiber Fiber! Fiber! Fiber!

Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy
"E" US" (Thomel 300) (Kevlar 49) (HTS)
Figure 3-69. A summary of the high-perfonnance fatigue properties of advanced composites, comparing plastic types with different materials
based on their percent of ultimate static tensile strength.
Designing with Fatigue Data

The ranking of fatigue behavior among various plastics should be conducted after an
analysis is made of the application and the testing method to be used or being considered.
It is necessary to also identify whether the product will be subjected to stress or strain
loads. Plastics that exhibit considerable damping may possess low fatigue strength under
a constant stress amplitude but exhibit a considerably higher ranking in constant deflection
amplitude and strain testing. Also needed consideration is the volume of material under
stress in the product and its surface area-to-volume ratio. Because plastics are viscoelastic,
this ratio is critical in that it influences the temperature that will be reached. At the same
stress level, the ratio of stressed volume to area may well be the difference between a
thermal short-life failure and a brittle long-life failure, particularly with TPs.
Another factor is whether the product will be in an isothermal or adiabatic heat condition
or its thermodynamic behavior. This heat condition is strongly dependent on the loading
rate and environmental influences such as temperature, water, solvents, ultraviolet light,
air speed, and others discussed in Chapter 4. There are different design approaches to
eliminating the basically hysteretic heating. For example, using a plastic with a low
viscous response to mechanical stress minimizes heat generation because this material is
usually very stiff. Heat-transfer conditions can be improved by increasing the flow of air
(see Fig. 3-65) or other coolant (water, gases, etc.) across the surface of the part. The
part's design can also be altered to decrease mechanical energy input, slow the cyclic
loading rate, increase the surface area for dissipating heat through fins and the like, and
other alterations.
As usual with plastics and other materials, sharp comers or abrupt changes in their
cross-sectional geometry or wall thickness should be avoided because they can result in
weakened, high-stress areas. The areas of high loading where fatigue requirements are
high need more generous radii, combined with optimal material distribution. Radii of ten
to twenty times are suggested for extruded parts, and one quarter to one half the wall
thickness may be necessary for moldings to distribute stress more uniformly over a large
area (see Chapters 7 and 11).
In evaluating plastics for a particular cyclic loading condition, the type of material and
the fabrication variables are quite important. Remember that the many plastics perform
very differently, whether they are TPs, TSs, unreinforced and reinforced composites.
The basic rules to providing fatigue endurance can now be summarized. First, fiber
reinforcement provides significant improvements in fatigue with carbon fibers and graphite
and aramid fibers being higher than glass fibers (see Fig. 3-68). The effects of moisture
in the service environment should also be considered, whenever hygroscopic plastics such
as nylon, PCs, and others are to be used (see Fig. 3-68 and Chapter 8).
For service involving a large number of fatigue cycles in TPs, crystalline-type com-
posites offer the potential of more predictable results than those based on amorphous
types, because the crystalline ones usually have definite fatigue endurance (Chapter 2).
Finally, for optimum fatigue life in service involving both high-stress and fatigue
loading, the reinforced high-temperature performance resins like PEEK, PES, and PI are
recommended (see Table 3-9).
SHORT-DURATION RAPID AND IMPACT LOADS

This chapter has thus far dealt with the behavior of plastics and composites during short-
and long-term loading conditions. As with any material, the properties obtained under
Table 3-9. a) Fatigue Endurance Limit Data of Reinforced Thermoplastics per
ASTM D 671 at 1,800 cycles/min.
Short-Fiber Molding Compounds
Fiber Type and Stress at Failure (psi)
Content (%) Cycles to Failure
Base Resin Glass Carbon lQ4 HP 106 107
SAN 30 8,500 7,500 6,500 5,500
Styrene 30 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000

40 9,500 7,750 6,500 5,500
Polycarbonate 20 9,000 6,000 5,200 5,000

30 12,500 7,000 5,500 5,350
40 14,500 8,750 6,100 6,000
ETFE copolymer 30 4,500 3,600 3,500 3,500

30 9,000 6,300 6,100 6,100
Polysulfone 30 14,000 6,500 5,000 4,500

40 16,000 7,750 6,000 5,500
Polyethersulfone 30 16,000 7,500 6,000 5,000

40 19,000 8,500 7,600 6,200
30 22,000 10,000 8,000 6,700
Acetal copolymer 30 9,000 7,000 7,000 7,000
Polypropylene 30 5,500 4,500 4,500 4,500
Polyphenylene sulfide 30 13,000 9,700 9,500 9,500
Nylon 6* 30 7,000 6,000 5,750 5,750
Nylon 6/10* 30 6,800 5,750 5,600 5,500

40 8,000 7,000 7,000 7,000
Nylon 6/6 6,500 5,900 5,300 5,200

40 10,500 9,300 9,100 9,100
Nylon 6/6* 3,400 3,200 3,100 3,100

30 8,000 6,500 6,000 5,900
40 9,000 7,300 7,000 7,000
30 13,000 10,500 8,000 8,000
40 15,000 10,300 8,800 8,500
30t 6,400 4,400 3,900 3,700
Polyester (PBT) 30 ll,ooo 7,200 5,600 5,100

30 13,000 9,200 7,400 6,500
Modified PPO 30 7,200 5,800 4,900 4,750
PEEK 30 18,000 17,500 17,500 17,500

*Moisture-conditioned to 50% RH.
tGlass bead.
202
Table 3-9. b) Elevated Temperature Property Comparisons of Short- and Long-

Fiber Glass with Nylon 6/6 Composites (lCI-LNP)
Short Fiber Long Fiber
Property 30% 50% 30% 50%
At 300°F
Tensile strength (10 3 psi) 12.8 13.8 14.3 19.2

Elongation (%) 9.3 7.8 5.3 5.6
flexural strength (10 3 psi) 13.8 14.3 17.4 23.7
flexural modulus (10s psi) 4.64 5.27 5.50 8.90
At 400°F
Tensile strength (103 psi) 6.3 7.3 7.8 8.3

Elongation (%) 8.6 9.5 6.2 6.8
flexural strength (103 psi) 6.9 7.4 8.9 10.0
flexural modulus (10s psi) 3.96 4.80 5.19 7.51
Data on long-fiber glass-reinforced grades are for Verton compounds.

'To convert psi to pascals (Pa), multiply by 6.895 X UP.
such conditions provide a basis for understanding and characterizing their basic behavior.
For the most part, many of the behavioral characteristics discussed are valid for a wide
range of loading rates (see Figs. 3-71 and 3-72). There may be significant shifts in
behavior, however, at load or strain durations that are much shorter than those discussed,
which usually take about a second or less to perform. This section deals with loading
rates that are significantly faster than those covered so far, namely rapid and impact
loading [l, 2, 11-14, 62-68, 268, 269, 302-5).
Designers with a background in using other materials will recognize both the similarities
and the differences in the behavior of the plastics discussed.
As an example, impact resistance has also been a continuing issue with other engineering
materials, particularly certain metals [268] with similarities to many of the phenomena
observed in plastics. The concept of a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature in plastics
is likewise well known in metals, notched metal parts being more prone to brittle failure
than unnotched specimens. Of course there are major differences, such as the short time
moduli of many plastics compared with those in steel, that may be 30 x 106 psi (207
x 106 kPa). Although the ductile metals often undergo local necking during a tensile
test, followed by failure in the neck, many ductile plastics exhibit the phenomenon called
a propagating neck. These different engineering characteristics also have important effects
on certain aspects of impact resistance.
Deformation and Toughness

Deformation is an important attribute in most plastics, so much so that it is the very
factor that has led them to be called plastic. For designs requiring such traits as toughness
or elasticity this characteristic has its advantages, but for other designs it is a disadvantage.
However, there are plastics, in particular the RPs, that have relatively no defonnation or
elasticity and yet are extremely tough (see Fig. 3-73). This type of behavior characterizes
the many different plastics available (see Table 3-10). Some, tough at room temperature,
are brittle at low temperatures. Others are tough and flexible at temperatures far below
freezing but become soft and limp at moderately high temperatures. Still others are hard
and rigid at nonnal temperatures but may be made flexible by copolymerization or adding
plasticizers .
By toughness is meant resistance to fracture. However, there are those materials that
are nominally tough but may become embrittled due to processing conditions, chemical
attack, prolonged exposure to constant stress, and so on. A high modulus and high
strength, with ductility, is the desired combination of attributes. However, the inherent
nature of plastics is such that their having a high modulus tends to associate them with
low ductility, and the steps taken to improve the one will cause the other to deteriorate.
Crack initiation
l 1
Fiber buckles
r
Fiber breaks
1
Slot/crack
Crack propagation
~ II
Adjoining
~
Adjoining Crack
I
fibers buckles fibers break propagates
Fracture
~ t
I ROO~l
cross
~
~
section
Open surfaces still Fails during tensile

support during compression half of loading
half of loading
Figure 3-70. A sequence of push-pull fatigue in unidirectional glass-tiber-reinforced plastics
(TS polyester) by a microbuckling process.
10 1•
10 12
10 1: I day a~ more
c
.2 10·
<0
E 10·
(;
~
"t> 10· I cia.
0
10 2
.J: I
...u~ 10 C 1st( I I
I I
.2 10-
2
and I
'"c:
"t> 10-·
Cr~
stress ruptu~ I I I
0
u Stlndard I
J! 10-· stille testing I Raptd I
10-' I I I ioadlnl I
I I I I Impact
10- 10 I I I I
10- 12
10- 10 10- 8 10- 6 10-· 10- 2 10° 102 10· 10'
Strain rate in.fin./sec.
Figure 3·71. The relationship of rapid-loading strain rates to those developed in other methods
of testing.
VElOCITY. TYPICAL CASES

FT.ISEC
1.000 -FIRED PROJECTILE
- BA nED BASEBAll
- PITCHED BASEBAll
100 -FOOTBAll HElMET
- TEN·FOOT FAll
-IZOO IMPACT TEST
10 -REFRIGERATOR OOOR·SLAM
1.0
0.1
-CONVENTIONAL TENSilE STRENGTH

TESTS
0.01
Figure 3·72. Some typical velocities that refer to rapid loading.
205
Temperature. ° F
- 150 -60 30 120 210 300
30 20
10 ~--~----~--~----~--~7
HIPS I
3 ~--~----'----'
1 ---.--~2
~~~--~----~---+----i07
=
03 ~+-+---.---~---+~~02
...
13
a.
E
01 ~--~--------+---~--~ 007
0 03 ~--~------~~--~---;002
00 L-__ __ ~ ~ ____~______~0007
- 100 - 50 o 50 100 150

b. Temperature . oC
Figure 3-73. Some examples of toughness in plastics. a) Toughness related to heat deflection or
rigidity; b) toughness or impact related to temperature for polystyrene (PS) and high impact,
rubber modified, polystyrene (HIPS).
206
Table 3-10. Examples of Toughness or Fracture Characteristics for

Thermoplastics
Material Unnotched Notched
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate
PA Polystyrene Brittle Brittle
SAN Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

CA Cellulose acetate
HDPE High-density polyethylene
PA Polyamide (Nylon)
PB Polybutene Ductile Brittle
PC Polycarbonate
POM Polyoxymethylene
PP Polypropylene
PTP Polyethylene terephthalate
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
LDPE Low-density polyethylene

PB Polybutene Ductile Ductile
TFE Polytetraftuoroethylene
Stress-Strain Behavior
As previously described, the area under short-term stress-strain curves provides a guide
to a material's toughness and impact performance (see Fig. 3-74).
Soft, weak materials have a low modulus, low tensile strength, and only moderate
elongation to break. (According to ASTM standards, the elastic modulus or the modulus
or elasticity is the slope of the initial straight-line portion of the curve.) Hard, brittle
materials have high moduli and quite high tensile strengths, but they break at small
elongations and have no yield point. Hard, strong plastics have high moduli, high tensile
strengths, and elongations of about 5 percent before breaking. Their curves often look
at though the material broke about where a yield point might have been expected. Soft,
tough plastics are characterized by low moduli, yield values or plateaus, high elongations
of 20 to 1,000 percent, and moderately high breaking strengths. The hard, tough plastics
have high moduli, yield points, high tensile strengths, and large elongations. Most plastics
in this category show cold drawing or necking during the stretching operation.
From a practical viewpoint toughness is readily understood, but technically there tends
to be no scientific method of measuring it. One definition of toughness is simply the
energy required to break the plastic. This energy is equal to the area under the stress-
strain curve. The toughest plastics should be those with very great elongations to break,
accompanied by high tensile strengths; these materials nearly always have yield points.
One major exception to this rule is the plastic composites that use reinforcing fibers like
glass and graphite.
Stress-strain tests may be made in compression as well as tension. A modulus may
be calculated from the initial slope of its curve. And materials under compression are
much less brittle than when under tension. Thus, many plastics that are brittle when tested
in tension become ductile and show yield points under compression, as, for instance,
polystyrene. Typical values of ultimate strength in compression for many plastics are
c:
o
ro
01
c:
.2
LJ..J
a
.~
(3
:::J
o
Figure 3-74. Toughness tends to relate to the area under the stress-strain curve. The ability of
a therrnplastic to absorb energy is a function of its strength and its ductility, which tend to be
inversely related. The total absorbable energy is proportional to the area within the lines drawn
to the appropriate point on the "curve" from the axis. The material in Area A is rubberlike and
is just as tough (that is, of equal area) as material C, which is metallike. Most plastics, like
material B, fall between these extremes, but some fall into both A and C.
Fle.ural modulus,
million psi
(601 6
3 0 1651
(60) 0 0 160)
2 -.-__ 0 (551
(401 6
0 (401
(401 0
Short-fiber
nylon, poly.ste, Long-fiber compounds
6 PET 0 PBT 0 Nylon
~o Gloss shown ,n porenlheses
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
notched Izod Impact Strength, (tt.lb/in.)
Figure 3-75. Long glass-fiber RP molding compounds are tougher and more metallike than
conventional short-fiber compounds.
208
about twice that of the tensile strength. Flexural strength tests in which part of a specimen
is under tension and part under compression generally give values of ultimate strengths
that are between the values for ultimate tension and compression.
Processing and Material Behavior

The flow patterns resulting from the conditions of a particular fabricating process are
very important in affecting impact strength. Specimens with their molecules or fibers
oriented perpendicular to the plane of fracture will exhibit higher impact energies than
those with their molecules parallel to the fracture plane. Because the molecules tend to
align in the direction of flow during processing, the designer should be able to judge
which direction in the finished product will be more brittle. Stress concentrations and
unfavorable molecular orientations should in any case not be located at the same place
in a design.
Reinforcing fibers, specifically the glass fibers, are brittle. Thus, when they are used
in conjunction with a brittle matrix, as are certain TSs, it might be expected that the
composite would have low fracture energy. In fact, this is not true, and the impact strength
of most glass-TS-reinforced plastics is many times greater than the impact strengths of
either the fibers or the matrix. An impact strength is higher if the bond between the glass
fibers and the matrix is relatively weak, because if it is so strong that it cannot be broken,
cracks will propagate across the matrix and fibers, and very little energy will be absorbed.
Thus, there is a conflict between the requirements for maximum tensile or flexural modulus
or strength (long glass fibers and strong interface bonds) and maximum impact strength
(see Fig. 3-75).
Short-Duration Loads
Two situations need to be considered when evaluating materials for their response to
short-duration loads: rapid loading and impact loading. With rapid loading the loading
rate may be much higher than that imposed in basic short-term tests (see Fig. 3-76).
However, the loading rate is still less than the transit rate of the stress waves that develop
under the applied stress. Stress waves usually travel at about the speed of sound in the
material. This loading condition may be considered dynamic in nature, but it usually
does not involve collision of the load with the test specimen or product, as occurs under
impact. With impact loading, the loading is faster than the transit rate of the stress waves.
This loading condition involves a collision of the load with the test specimen or product
[62-68].
Rapid Loadings
Typical standard test rates in basic tests for plastics vary from 0.0017 to 0.25 mmlmmIsec
(0.10 to 15 in.!in.!min.) per ASTM D 638. In standard tests the softer plastics and rubbers
are tested at the higher rates, and the rigid plastics and reinforced plastics are tested at
the slower rates.
Certain high-speed testing machines are capable of applying loads at rates that are
much higher than those used in determining the basic behavior in standard tests. Behavior
can be characterized over a range of stress or strain rates to determine any behavior
changes under rapid loadings. Load and sample elongation may be recorded throughout
the test, thereby providing a full description of the elastic or viscoelastic modulus, the
yield point, and post yield behavior (if any), all of which vary with the rate of load
application. These data can be most useful in design.
An example of the type, significance, and character of the data obtainable under rapid
loads is shown in Figure 3-76. The data shown describe behavior over a spectrum of
elongation rates up to several orders of magnitude higher than those obtained in standard
tests. These data illustrate the following trends for the specific materials examined: a)
tensile strength usually increases with higher strain rate, for all plastics; b) the elongation
at break decreases with the strain rate; c) energy to failure, as determined from the area
under the stress-deformation plot, generally decreases or remains the same with an
increasing test rate. Moreover, a different plastics show a markedly different rate of decay
of failure energy with increased test speed.
A good example of the usefulness of such data is illustrated by comparing the energy
to failure of ABS and PVC at low and high rates of test. PVC shows a much higher
energy to failure at lower rates. At the higher test rates, PVC's performance is not much
better than that of ABS. Note that these are not general conclusions for the two materials.
Their relative behavior may shift drastically, depending on the temperature, the extent
of plasticization or modification of the PVC, acrylonitrile and butadiene rubber contents
of ABS, and their past exposure to aggressive environments.
Behavior under rapid loading can be viewed as merely an extension of behavior obtained
under short-term loads. The effects of the load rate and the dynamic effects of rapid
loading must of course be recognized in designing a particular structural component.
Rapid loadings may be imposed on structures under vehicular traffic, wind gusts, water
hammer, in forced movements resulting from vibrating mechanical equipment, and the
like.
Impact Loadings
Whenever a part is loaded rapidly, it can be said to be subjected to impact loading; Any
product that is moving has kinetic energy. When this motion is somehow stopped because
of collision, its energy must be dissipated. The ability of a plastic part to absorb energy
is determined by such factors as its shape, size, thickness, type of material, method of
processing, and environmental conditions of temperature, moisture, and so on. Although
the impact strengths of plastics are widely reported, these properties have no particular
design value. However, they are important, because they can be used to compare the
relative responses of materials. Impact strength can pick up a discriminatory response to
notch sensitivity. A better value, impact tensile values, is unfortunately not generally
reported.
With limitations, the impact value of a material can broadly separate those that can
withstand shock loading from those that fare poorly in this response. Of great importance
is that they can be compared to the impact performance on the fabricated products. The
resulting guidelines will be more meaningful and empirical to the designer. To eliminate
broad generalizations, the target is to conduct impact tests on the final product or, if
possible, at least on its components. In conducting impact tests on products the usual
problem that has to be resolved as well as possible is how it should be conducted. The
real test is after the product has been in service and field reports are returned for evaluation.
Regardless, the usual impact tests conducted on test samples can be useful if they are
properly coordinated with product requirements. The typical tests for impact loading are
now reviewed.
TEST RATE, mm/min.
10 102 103 104 105 106 10 7
ISO Go Tensile Strength
20 0
·iii Il.
.:tI. ~
r.. 16 I
I- 100 I-
~
w ~
12 UJ
a::
l-
a::
I-
VI In
W 8 UJ
...J 50 ...J
2
w elastomer
~
w
l- 4 I-
0 0
U.I 10 102 103 104 105 106
TEST RATE, in./min.
TEST RATE, mm/min.

10 102 103 104 105 106 10 7
500
b. Tensile Elongation
</.
at Break
~ 400
w
a::
CO
I- 300
-<
Z
0 200
i=
-<
~ 100
0
...J
W
10 102 103 104 105 106

TEST RATE, in./min.
TEST RA TE, mm/min.

10 103 104 I 105 107 N
Nc!000------........- -....- - - -....- - - , 2 E c. Energy to Failure
~ ~
lwo ~
- I~~
~600
...J
~3
~
~~
<
~
g 0
I-
!
>- 200 0.5 >-
0
U~•.-I--~----.---
10
.. ----9----.nh~--I~OS~-I~A~0 W
102 103 lIT'" uv
~
TEST RA TE. in./min.
Figure 3-76. Examples of type, significance, and the character of data obtained under rapid
loading or high-speed tests.
211
Izod and Charpy Testing

The most common impact tests for plastics and metals are Izod and Charpy tests (see
Figs. 3-77 and 3-78). A heavy hammer at the end of a pendulum arm swings down and
strikes a cantilevered specimen (in the Izod test) or a beam sPecimen supported on both
ends (in the Charpy test). The specimens are unnotched unless the data reports that they
are to be notched; for information on specimens and test procedures see ASTM D 256.
The kinetic energy of the hammer is large enough that its velocity can be considered
constant during the impact. The energy required to break the specimen is determined
from the maximum height to which the hammer rises after breaking the sample. The
impact strength is defined as the energy loss by the pendulum caused by the impact
divided by the thickness of the specimen (see Figs. 3-79 through 3-81). The thickness
of the specimen along the direction of the notch or unnotched part and perpendicular to
the hammer movement at impact can be varied to give a reasonable energy-absorption
value.
The geometry of notched impact specimens and in the finished part can have profound
effects on impact strength. This notch sensitivity is influenced by the different parameters
shown in Figures 3-79 through 3-81. In Figure 3-81, rigid PVC shows a high sensitivity
to the radius of the notch tip, whereas the normal-impact ABS is almost insensitive to
it. For a given impact condition, the effect of decreasing the notch radius is to increase
the strain rate at the notch tip. The effects of notch geometry on PVC and ABS materials
can also be qualitatively determined where the energy-to-failure of the PVC decreases at
higher strain rates, whereas this property is fairly constant for ABS. These observations
apply specifically to the test conditions and specific compounds tested.
Pointer and Pendulum Striking Edge

after striking of Pendulum
'.
ISN~~~"'''' .• ;: .' .' '~~pporting

%'" x %... x 2 Y.r '" Clamp
~I---'_
" -oJ
Figure 3-77, A schematic of an Izod impact tester. A free-swinging pendulum strikes a

vertically supported specimen held in a clamp; a notched specimen is located so that its notch is
level with the top of the clamp and is facing the pendulum, per ASTM D 256.
r-----0.315 in. (8 mm) rod
30° ± 2°
Striking edge
Specimen
0.039 in. Anvil

(1 mm/rod)
1.574 in. (40 mm)
Center of
strike
(W/2)
Specimen
support
Figure 3-7S. A schematic of a Charpy impact tester. The specimen is supported as a horizontal
simple beam, per ASTM D 256.
IZOO Impact Strength, Joules/em

1234567891011121314
ABS
Acetal
Acrylics
Nylon
Polycarbonate
Reinforced
polyester
Polyethylene
Polyimide
Polystyrene
PVC
Cloth phenolics
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
IZOO Im~dct Strength. It Ib/ll'.
Figure 3-79. An example of Izod impact strength for various plastics, conducted at room
temperature.
213
Radius of notch (mils)
10
0.600
14
13
12 ~:f50 0.500
~pThiCkness
~ 11 c
~ 10 0.400
~
~
9 along
~
~ OJ
C
~ 8 notch -'"
-;:; 7 2.54 mm
0.100 in
0.300 .'-;:;"
8
'"
.~ 6
5 0.200
'"
u
.;;
8
4
3
0.100
2
2.5 X 10- 2 1.25 X 10- 1 6.25 X 10- 1

Radius of notch R (mm)
Figure 3-80. Izod impact strength for polycarbonates at various temperatures and notch radii.
NOTCH TIP RADIUS, mm

VI 0.25 0.5 1.0
:::J
-200
~ I
n::: 180
I
U standard notch 1
b 160 tip radius _I
Z
E140 I
)-E
1--
I I - unplasticized PVC
~ II
I- .-
I 2- polypropylene homopolymer
10
~~ 100 3- high density polyethylene
4- polypropylene homopolymer
"10
In:::
U< 5- polypropylene copolymer
b~ 6- high density polyethylene
Z<
l-
V) 7- ABS (high impoct)
I- 8-
< polypropylene copolymer
UJ
::)
9- toughened polystyrene
..J 10 - ABS (normal impact)
<
>
~
! 0 0_0 I 0.02 0.04 0.08
NOTCH TIP RADIUS, in.
Figure 3-81. Comparative Izod impact strength notch sensitivities for a range of thermoplastics.
214
TENSILE
IMPACT
TEST BAR
~c..--- ANVIL
Figure 3·82. A schematic of a tensile impact tester.
Tensile Impact Testing

This test uses a swinging pendulum similar to that in the Izod test, except that this sample
specimen is a relatively small tensile bar (compared to the standard static tensile specimen),
which is mounted as shown in Figure 3-81, per ASTM D 1822. It involves determining
the energy required to fracture a sample under tensile impact loads. One end of the
dumbbell-shaped specimen is mounted in a pendulum. The other end is gripped by a
cross-head that travels with the pendulum until the instant of impact, when the cross-
head is suddenly arrested at the bottom of the pendulum's swing. The strain rate induced
during this test is lower than that developed in Izod test(s) but is significantly higher than
that of the standard tensile tests for basic properties. Like other impact testers, the tensile
impact test has many of the advantages and disadvantages of the Izod test. A principal
advantage is that it can be used to evaluate films, thin sheets, and soft materials that
cannot be tested by the Izod method.
Falling-Weight Testing
In this test a weight or dart is dropped onto a flat disc of the material being tested. The
leading edge of the weight where it impacts the specimen has a specific size. The specimen,
larger than an Izod one, is supported or clamped to a metal ring, depending on the test
procedure being used. Figure 3-83 shows one example of a falling-dart test. In certain
applications this test is valuable for ranking materials based on larger-sized specimens.
The effects of impacts on actual parts can also be studied.
Standard ASTM D 3029 describes this method of testing with a falling weight. Since
the extent of the damage cannot be determined on unbroken specimens, each specimen
is tested only once, so at least 20 specimens are required. If a specimen is not broken,
weights are added to it according to a specified schedule until failure does occur (with
certain test procedures the drop height is changed).
The method for analyzing data that is specified in ASTM D 1709 is an excellent
technique for evaluating the statistical variations of impact behavior. In this method
Figure 3-83. A schematic of a falling-ball tester.
samples are tested at various drop weights between which either none or all of the
specimens fail. The percentage of specimens that breaks is then plotted against the impact
energy. Doing so yields a straight line on probability paper. Such plots provide information
as to the probability of failure of a material under light impacts. The less steep the curve
is, the greater is the chance of these light impacts producing some failures. It is possible-
even likely-for two batches to have the same values of impact energy at which 50
percent will fail under a particular energy impact (a common quality control standard)
and yet will have quite different slopes and behave differently during other impact load-
ings.
Gardner Testing
This test, often called that of the falling dart, varies slightly from the falling-ball test. In
a Gardner test the ball rests directly on the specimen and a weight falls on the ball,
whereas in the falling dart one the ball itself falls from a specific height. With the Gardner
test failure is defined as a crack on the tensile (that is, nonimpacted) side of the specimen.
However, this determination is somewhat subjective. For more-reliable results, at least
twenty-four specimens should be used.
Dynatup Testing
One of the most complete impact tests from the standpoint of the information it provides
is the Dynatup impact test. In this test the impact energy is delivered in much the same
way as in the falling-weight test. In both tup is dropped from some height onto a specimen.
However, in the Dynatup test the same amount of impact energy is delivered to each
sample, an energy level that is high enough to ensure that each sample breaks. Data from
each impact are then recorded (stored in a computer). From this information the crack-
initiation energy, crack-propagation energy, and total energy absorbed by the material
during impact can be calculated and plotted (see Fig. 3-84). Of all the impact tests, the
Dynatup is considered the most complete one. However, it is very expensive compared
to the others and is more difficult to adapt to nonambient test temperatures.
300 150
280 140
260 130
240 120..;
220 110 ~
200 100 ~
~ 180 90 m
z
ci 160 80 r'I1
6 120
140
...J
70 ::0
Cl
60 :<
100 50 ::1
80 40 i-
~
60 30
20
10
0
2 4 6 8
TIME. MSEC
Figure 3-84. Plotted information on load and energy versus time that was elicited by using a
Dynatup tester.
Other Tests
There are other tests used to evaluate the impact behavior of plastics, including many
special setups just for evaluating specific products. These special test setups are usually
applicable only to one company or association that has found them to be proven useful.
Some of these special tests have then become standards in their own industry, such as
ASTM and UL guidelines. Among the more popular ASTM standards are its 0 256, 0
1709, 0 1822, 0 2289, 0 3029, 0 3099, 0 3420, and a few others. In these tests
including the special ones, a material is impacted by using various devices such as a ball
on a pendulum or puncture tests (see Fig. 3-85), air-driven spherical or piercing-type
missiles and others.
Factors Influencing Impact

The impact results from each of these tests are extremely sensitive to many different
variables, including practically all those throughout this book that have any influence on
plastics' performance. At this point it might appear that all impact testing is futile, but
this is not the case. Just as in running other tests, the results of impact tests all have
meaning as long as some logic is used in evaluating them. An important variable in regard
to impact testing, as well as other types, involves the fabricating conditions. Figure 3-
86 is an example relating to melt flow during the injection-molding process, and Figure
3-87 shows the effect that gate locations can have on mold cavities (see Chapter 7).
Annealing plastics to relieve or stabilize fabricated parts for certain plastics can also have
an effect (see Fig. 3-88).
Impact behaviors are affected by fabrication defects such as internal voids, and inclu-
sions and additives such as pigments, allof which can cause stress concentrations within
the material. In addition, internal welds caused by the fusion of partially cooled melt
fronts, even those with single gates, usually tum out to be areas of weakness.
The surface finish of the specimen may also affect its impact behavior. Machined
surfaces usually have tool marks that act as stress concentrators, whereas molded surfaces
have a characteristic "skin" that may offer some protection against crack initiation.
Displacement. in.
Q8 1~ 12
25.------:.,.:----..,.-----=T=----..:;,.:-------r------.5.63
20
15 :;
z Metal clamps x
-'"
.,; £
'"0
...J
.,;
'"0
...J
10
5~---1--~~_+--~~+---~dr---_+---~
~---~---~10----1~5---~2~0---~25~--~3g·
Displacement. mm
Figure 3·85. An example of plotting different loads versus their displacement for a puncture
test.
_10
z
u
~
......
~ 8
...J
t-=
u..
Z 6
I-
(!)
Z NOTCH PERPENDICULAR
IJJ
a:: TO FLOW
I-
CJ)
4
I-
U
~
::E 2
c ··-----.~__~.~____ NOTCH
o "'PARALLEL TO FLOW
N
O~--~~--~~--~----~----~
MELT TEMPERATURE (OF)

Figure 3·86. An example of an injection molding melt flow's orientation in a cavity on the lzod
impact strength of a given PVC compound.
218
PC ABS PVC (1) PVC (2)
SI NGLE GATE, NOTCHED 15.2 2.4 2.6 14.7

DOUBLE GATE, NOTCHED 14.8 2.1 1.2 0.5
DOUBLE GATE, UNNOTCHED 3.1 1.5 2.6
Figure 3-87. During injection molding, a double gate can cause weld lines, when two melt
fronts meet in a cavity, and reduce impact strengths, as well as other properties. Single-gated
and double-gated Izod impact-test specimens were molded using different plastics to provide
impact-strength comparisons.
219
100
l- aoc-
80 '--~ ! i
,
~ae
o . II
i
.. ..'"
!!~
o c: 60 \~
.............
I I 140C
....
c: • I I
.2 ;;
I
.. '"
c: ..
.. =. 40
~
I
100C
a:.. .•E 120C

20
0
5 10 15
Time of annealing. hr
Figure 3-88. An example of how annealing time affects Izod impact strength retention.
Annealing is the process of subjecting fabricated plastic parts to specific heat-time cycles to
relieve or stabilize fabricated parts when so required.
ASTM Melt flow rate

g/10 min
1000
2.5
~ 800F-__~9________--,
2. 18 I
I I
!---VI I
£
g> 600
~ I Critical
1;; thickness ~
~ 400
c. I I I
E I I I
-g 200 I I L---
N
I
O~~~------~------~----~
Specimen thickness (mml

Figure 3-89. An example of the effect of specimen thicknesses on Izod impact strength for
various molecular weights or melt-index values for polycarbonates.
However, if the molded surface becomes scratched, this protection no longer exists. In
addition, moldings occasionally have for decorative effect an embossed surface that can
cause a considerable reduction in impact strength as compared to a plain surface.
Sample thicknesses can also have an effect (see Fig. 3-89). As the thickness increases
the impact usually also increases, since there is more material to carry the load. However,
some materials have a critical thickness above which the impact drops off sharply.
Designing with Impact Data

A real problem with specifying the impact properties on a product is to define what is a
failure. The designer has to decide, for example, to what degree a surface condition,
dent, bend, breakage, or shatter will be defined as a failure. Thus, the failure of a product
can take many forms. There are situations, for instance, in which excessive elastic
deformation will constitute failure. In tum, the definition of failure has to be related to
impact testing's results.
A plastic automotive bumper is a good example of how to identify failure. A bumper

system is required to absorb specified levels of energy and simultaneously protect the
rest of the automobile from damage. If a plastic bumper can withstand an impact without
being damaged but undergoes such a large displacement that it dents the automobile's
front, it has failed in its function. In other applications the criteria defining failure may
be linked directly to damage and be influenced by the situations covered in this section
on impact and particularly the last portion, on influencing factors, which includes en-
vironment.
The environment may have significant effects on impact behavior. When certain plastics
are exposed to sunlight and weathering for prolonged periods, they tend to become
embrittled through degradation. Alternatively, if the plastic is in the vicinity of a fluid
that attacks it, the crack initiation energy may be reduced. Some plastics are affected by
very simple fluids, such as domestic heating oils, which act as plastizers for conventional
PEs. The effect water can have on impact behavior can be either a disadvantage or an
advantage.
Various plastics will undergo a change in failure mode as their temperature changes.
The usual ductile-brittle transition is specific not only to the generic class of the material
but also to its specific grades (see Figs. 3-90 through 3-93). Plastics are easily modified
(see Chapter 2) so that their performance in respect to temperatures can change. The PC
transition can be lowered from at least -18 to - 29°C (0° to - 20°p). With high-impact
ABS, temperatures can go down to - 40°C - 40°F). The behavior of PS can be changed
(see Fig. 3-73).
1nc.,eaSlng loug ss
PoIysly,_ ....
,
.. .. .
PoIy"",'hylmt'lhoc,yICl'. . •:0: ..
.' . .
GlCIss-Iolle<l nylon Id,yl
~Ihy~ poIymtr
PoIyprOpyl_
Crou· ,n,s'Clnl CIe,yhc
Polyethylene tereplllhCIlote
Pol yClcelOl
R.giCI poIyv,nyl eNor""
c.llu acetole bu'y,ole
Nylon lel'yl
PoIysuip/lOf'lfcS
Hogh-CItn$,ly polyelhylene
Fblyphe<'ryl_ o.,de
Propylene-ethy_ copolymers
"as
PoIyco.bonCIle
NyICin I~II
FblytetrolluOlWthyl_
Low -denslly poIyelhy_
Figure 3-90. A comparison of impact strengths as measured by the Charpy test at different
temperatures.
15r-------~--------~------~r_------~
Nylon
I 0·25mm notch
Iwetl
10
E
-
-,
:Ie
.c
0.
c:
~
iii
U
0
Q.
.§ Acetal
5
OL-______ ~ ______ ~L_ _ _ _ _ _ _J __ _ _ _ _ _ ~
-40 -20 0 20 40
Test temperature loe I

Figure 3-91. A variation in Izod impact strength with temperature for several thermoplastics.
TEMPERA TURE, °c
-30 -10 0 0
14
..
.0
-;
":1
].
;J
I:
.... I....
~I 15 !iUJ
....a::
V)
....a::
....
V)
U
....
U
< <
Q. 10 Q.
~ ~
.... ....
I: I:
I..:l I..:l
W W
~ ~
5
!i::J !i::J
;;i. 2 .J
<
u.. u..
0
20 0 20 40 60 80
TEMPERA TURE, or
Figure 3-92. The effects of temperature on the falling-weight impact strength of different
thermoplastics.
222
A statistical analysis of the data and careful interpretation of the results is required in
any evaluation of impact strength, because variability or scatter in impact-strength results
is the rule rather than the exception. It would not be uncommon, for example, to observe
a fourfold difference between the highest and lowest values in a population of 100 TP
samples.
Impact testing with a product at its expected end-use conditions is always the best way
of determining its behavior during use or abuse. However, specimen testing definitely
has merit and can provide guidelines, particularly when it is properly analyzed. It must
be recognized that conducting impact and other tests can be difficult or impossible on
fabricated parts. This is to because many different impact actions can occur that are not
repetitive or otherwise easily amenable to testing.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Plastics and composites offer the designer a great degree of freedom in the design and
manufacture of products requiring specific electrical properties (see Fig. 3-94). Their
combination of mechanical and electrical properties makes them an ideal choice for
everything from tiny electronic components to large electrical equipment enclosures. The
Thickness (mm)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
20r-+_---r--~----+_--_r--~~--~
1.0
18
0.9
16
0.8
14
c:
"
l
,Q
~ 12
.<::
c;,
c:
~ 10
Ci5
U
co
~ 8
6
0.3
4 0.2
2 0.1
o~--~--~----+----+----~--~~
.100 .140 .180 .220 .260 .300 .340
Thickness (in)
Figure 3-93. Izod impact strength of a PC (MerIon) versus its thickness at various
temperatures, per ASTM D 256. Courtesy, Mobay Chemical Corp.
Figure 3-94. This wire system for GE Plastics' Living Environments Concept House seen in
Chapter 1 is made of GE's Noryl resin, for high heat resistance and easy processing. The
raceway is a wire channel that runs along the wall, much like a baseboard, to contain electrical
outlets, receptacles, telephone plugs, and cable connections. This extruded resin prototype
raceway, which is featured in every room, as a UL 94 flammability listing of V-D.
most notable electrical property of plastics is their ability as good insulators, but here
and throughout this book there are considered many other important electrical properties
available to the designer working with different plastics [12, 14, 44, 54, 62-68, 207,
306-8].
The development of many different plastic compounds and basic polymers continues
to expand the use of plastics in electrical applications. However, it is important to
understand the factors that can affect their long-term performance. Figure 3-95 and Tables
3-11 and 3-12 show that there are different orders of magnitude between plastics and
metals. Depending on the application, plastics may be formulated and processed to exhibit
a single property or a designed combination of mechanical, electrical, chemical, thermal,
optical, and aging properties and others. The chemical structure of polymers and the
various additives they may incorporate provide compounds to meet many different per-
formance requirements.
Table 3-11. The Conductivities of Different Materials

Conductivity IT Density 0 ITlo
Material S/cm g/cm3 S/(cm2 g)
Copper 5.9 X 105 8.9 6.6 x 10"

Silver 6.3 x 105 10.4 6.0 x 10"
Aluminum 3.6 x lOS 2.7 1.3 x 105
Polyacetylene with iodine 2.0 x 10" 0.8 2.5 x 10"
Polypyrrole with phenyl sulfonate 1.5 x 102 1.3 1.2 x 102
Polystyrene 10- 16 1.05 9.5 x 10- 17
Performance
The electrical properties of plastics vary from their being basically excellent insulators
to being quite conductive in different environments. Figure 3-96 illustrates some of the
properties used in design. There are several U.S. and foreign test specifications available
for characterizing plastics' electrical properties. The major testing organizations that set
the conditions and specifications pertaining to electrical properties are the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Canadian Standards Association (CSA),
the Underwriters Laboratories (UL), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC),
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). Examples of different properties with different plastics ac-
cording to ASTM test methods are given in Tables 3-13 through 3-17 and Figures 3-97
and 3-98.
Conductive Plastics and EMI

The use of electronics has shown large growth in a variety of kinds of equipment, such
as for data processing, transportation and industrial controls, automation, and medical
devices. As traditional metal housings for plastic housings continue to become more
widespread, the issue of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has arisen. EMC is the
ability of an electrical device to function normally without interference from or interfering
with another electrical device. EMC regulations usually emphasize the containment of
electromagnetic interference (EMI) to specific levels across the designed frequency ranges.
Table 3-12. Typical Conductivities of Compounds with Different Additives

and Fillers
Conductivity IT
Fillers S/cm
Carbon black 0.01 to 0.1

Aluminum platelets I to 50
Steel fibers I to 50
Carbon fibers 0.1 to 10
Mica coated with nickel I to 10
10"
10"
10" Base polymers
10"
10"
10"
10"
10"
10'0 AnlISI&I IC malenals
:;; 1()9
::>
~ lOA
"
C 10'
~
~ 1()6 S1""C dlsslpa"ve
;;; malenals
;;; 10
~
...
u
10'
~
:; 10'
on
100
0
01
001
10 '
10 •
Figure 3-95. The surface-resistance spectrum of polymers, conductive plastics, and other
materials.
~
0
r ~J,
0)
"1
LEGEND
OIEt.ECTRIC STRE GTH
......._ _ _--'3 SPECI" EN = ELECTRODE
DIElECTRIC CONSTANT
DI~~IPATlO" FACTOR
• VO~U"E R[ ~ISTIVII'
~ SU RFACE RESISTIVITY
6 ARC RES IS lANCE
7 CORONI R[SIS TANCE
Figure 3-96. Schematic illustrations of electrical properties.

226
10 • 10· 10' 10' 10 ' • 10 " 101/ 10' 1 10" 10" 10" 10 • 10" 10'· 10' I
10 •
~ 1_
Vinyl
Cuo Polyethylene Porcelain Polystyrene
Ethyl Cellu· resin
Zno
Ni lose Nylon Teflon
Celluloid
Phenol Ceramics
Formalde-
hyde Cellu lose
Acetate Epoxy Resins. Polyesters
Urea Formaldehyde Cast Phenolics PolYVinyl Butyral Plastics
Conductors
Semi-Conductors Insulators
Figure 3-97. The spectrum of volume resistivity.
I-.J
I-.J
'I
20 40 60 80 100
"10 fill
Figure 3-98. An example of how additives or fillers can be compounded into many plastics to
provide a wide range in the dielectric constant.
The nonconductive characteristics of plastics can become a major drawback in certain

applications. Because they are electrical insulators, they do not shield electronic impulses
generated by outside sources. Nor do they prevent electromagnetic energy from being
emitted from equipment housed in a plastic enclosure. Government regulations have
already been set up requiring shielding when the operating frequencies are greater than
10 kHz.
Every electronic system has some level of electromagnetic radiation associated with
it. If this level is strong enough to cause other equipment to malfunction, the radiating
device will be considered a noise source and usually be subjected to shielding regulations.
This is especially so when EMI occurs within the normal frequencies of communication.
When the electronic noise is sufficient to cause malfunctioning in equipment such as
medical devices, however, the results could prove life threatening. Reducing the emission
of and susceptibility to EMI or radio frequency interference (RFI) is thus the prime reason
to shield medical devices in whatever their type of housing, including plastic. Plastics
alone lack sufficient conductivity to shield EMI and RFI interference, however.
Designers can reduce or eliminate sufficiently electromagnetic emissions from plastic
housings like those of medical devices and computers just by shielding the inner emission
sources with metal shrouds in the so-called tin can method. They may reach the same
effect by designing electronics to keep emissions below standard limits or by incorporating
shielding into the plastic housing itself. Designers and engineers will often employ all
Table 3-13. Resistivity of Volume and Surface and the Dielectric Constant at Different Frequencies
Resistivity Dielectric Constant/Dissipation Factor
Material Volume Surface 100 Hz I kHz I mHz 10 mHz 100 mHz 1,000 mHz
ABS 2 x 10 16 10 14 .005/2.9 .006/2.8 .008/2.8 .00712.8 .005/2.7 .00112.7

Acrylic 10 18 10 14 .062/3.6 .058/3.2 .04513.1 .033/2.9
Cellulose Ester 3 x 10 15 10 14 .00613.8 .01ll3.6 .024/3.3 .022/3.2 .020/3.0 .014/2.1
FEP 10 18 10 16 .000512.1 .0005/2.1 .0005/2.1 .000512.1 .0008/2.09 .0007/2.05
Nylon 6 10 15 1013 .03114.2 .024/3.8 .03113.8 .020/4.0
Polycarbonate 10 16 10 15 .00113.1 .0013/3.1 .00713.1 .01ll3.1 .015/3.1
Polyethylene 10 19 10 16 .000112.34 .000112.34 .000112.34 .000112.34 .000112.34 .000112.34
Alkyd 1013 10 14 .02/6.0 .0215.8 .01515.4
DAP (SDl5) 10 16 1013 .026/3.8 .020/3.7 .016/3.6
Phenolic MFE 10 14 109 .01315.4 .013/5.3 .033/4.9
Epoxy 10 16 10 14 .004/3.22 .004/3.25 .004/3.25
N
N
<.Q
Table 3-14. Dielectric Strength and the Dielectric Constant

Dielectric Strength Dielectric
Material (MV/m) Constant
ABS (high impact) 25 2.8

Acetal (homopolymer) 20 3.8
Acetal (copolymer) 20 3.8
Acrylic 25 3.5
Cellulose acetate 11 6.0
CAB 10 5.0
Epoxy 16 3.5
Modified PPO 22 2.6
Nylon 66 (33% glass) 15 8.0
PEEK 19 3.2
PET (crystalline) 17 3.3
PET (36% glass) 50 4.0
Phenolic (mineral filled) 12 5.0
Polyamideimide 23 3.5
Polycarbonate 23 3.0
Polyetherimide 33 3.2
Polyethersulphone 16 3.5
Polyimide 22 3.5
Polypropylene 28 2.3
Polysulphane 16 3.0
Polystyrene 20 2.5
Polythene (LD) 27 2.3
Polythene (HD) 22 2.3
PTFE 45 2.1
PVC (rigid) 14 3.1
PVC (flexible) 30 6.0
SAN 25 3.0
BMC (polyester) 15 5.0
SMC (polyester) 12 5.0
three strategies in a single design. What is most important is to attempt to locate all the
shielding in a relatively small volume within the larger housing and then tin can it, to
provide a simplified solution rather than spreading it out.
Among the shieldings incorporated into housings, the most popular and useful applied
technologies are those for conductive coatings, zinc-arc spray, and electroless plating.
Other methods include the use of conductive foils or molded conductive plastics, silver
reduction, vacuum metalization, and cathode sputtering. Although zinc-arc spraying once
accounted for about half the market, conductive coatings surpassed it and now maintains
the longest single market share. The properties of various coatings are described in Figure
3-99 and Tables 3-18 through 3-20. Other conductive coatings are also used. Unlike other
shielding methods, conductive coatings are usually applied to the interiors of housings
and do not require additional design efforts to achieve external aesthetic goals. All offer
trade-offs in shielding performance, the physical properties of the plastics, ease in pro-
duction, and cost.
Often, differences in test measurements and samples' configurations make comparisons
difficult. The ASTM has a relatively new standard that defines the methods for stabilizing
materials measurement, thus allowing relative measurements to be repeated in any lab-
oratory. These procedures permit relative performance ranking, so that comparisons of
materials can also be made. Nonetheless, the designer will still have to confirm the
Table 3-15. Arc Resistance and Critical Tracking Index

Critical Tracking
Material Arc Resistance, s Index, V
ABS 89 400+
ABS-PC 91 250+
DAP 150 600+
POM 220 600+
PAR 78 200
LCP 192 175+
MF 180 600+
Nylon 6 60 600+
Nylon 6/6 60 600+
Nylon 12 120 600+
PAE 125 175+
PBT 184 600+
PC 10 100+
PBT-PC 99 260
PEl 126 100+
PESV 20 150
PET 125 250+
PF 190 100+
PPO (mod) 34 400+
PPS 60 130
PSU 120 100+
SMA 600+
UP 600+
suitability of a material's shielding performance for each system through such conventional
means as screen-room or open-field testing. Each approach to shielding should also be
sUbjected to simulated environmental conditions, to determine the shield's behavior during
storage, shipment, and exposure to humidity, which could accelerate the effects of aging
of shielding materials. In this way degradation can be observed, along with other problems
that might occur in a product's service life.
The Underwriters Laboratories utilizes a combination of methods for environmental
conditioning and adhesion testing to evaluate various approaches to shielding and to
determine the plastic types that are suitable for use in electronic devices. Their concern
is primarily safety should a metalized plastic delaminate or chip off, creating an electrical
short that could cause a fire.
To maximize results, with any product, the designer should reduce the circuit-noise
generation and susceptibility of the product to as much as possible. Consider the choice
of shielding early on in the design process, before deciding on final packaging, to minimize
the amount of external shielding required. Doing so will also alleviate last-minute shielding
fixes and, of course, a good deal of exposure and delay in marketing the product.
Design Concepts
Many ideas for advancing electrical and electronic systems have been adopted since the
early 1940s, which saw the start of high electronic frequency radar systems, but the
.' '. 1 , '. ' .1 , I ! I I_ -

=
f-- I- Elec:troct.g COIItings on 1/S-in. thick polycerbonete sh..t
I I.~ silver oV'l'
10
""'- I'.... L 0.'2 mI. raP"ite
'\ 0 mIl \I
I ~
70 ~ ...........
. m s"eet _
~ ............. liS-in. solid. alumlnU ~mi' sil"e!.--
- --
~~ //~
60
\\ ..........:: :::- ~ -I
,\ ~ .1 lu~inum
~
"'- .ted a
.c:\epoSI ----r .
" ~
....... ~ ~
"""- ~ ['...
.- ~
\Iacu~
I.
.
I
I
ppef
'2.0 mIl c~r--
(t\i' 9r8
O'Ief '2.0........ ~
""ite ~
L..-- I---
--
'" ""
~
'- .....................
~
'2.0 mil copper
I
V f-"""
20
--
r--.... ............ I
........... -r-.- 1.0 mil graphite
10 1.5 mil carbon I I
o 1
1 10 100 1000 10,000
Frequency, MHz
Figure 3-99. How conductive coatings compare in their shielding effectiveness on a l-in.-thick
polycarbonate sheet.
earliest major use of plastics for electrical insulation early in this century come with the
advent of developments in electrical and telephonic installations requiring insulation.
Phenolic plastic compounds became the basic material for insulating wires and other
related products. Since then many new plastics have been developed, for widely variant
applications, some of which have been included elsewhere in this book and others of
which are now discussed.
Folded Membrane and Snap Switches

In controlling electronic devices such old standbys as pushbutton and thumb-wheel switches
have been joined by a whole new generation of advances in materials and manufacturing
like the folded-membrane switch (see Fig. 3-1(0), the elastomer/snap switch, and others.
Membrane technology is the technique of producing flat, thin, lightweight switch arrays
by joining two or more membranes, usually a TP polyester or a PC. Each membrane
features etched or screened conductors placed face to face with a thin material to separate
the active elements. A second, surface-printed overlay is attached to the top of the switch
assembly to provide a graphic indication of the switch's location. Tactile feel is provided
by inserting either plastic or metal snap domes inside the switch assembly. In the mem-
brane technique snap domes provide only tactile feel and are not used as an active switch
element, as they are in the case of plastic-elastometer snap-dome technology.
The advantages of membrane systems are their low cost in high volumes, their moderate
tooling charges, and their capability of providing attractive, bright, durable frontal graph-
ics. These attributes account for the surge in the use of these switches in many applications,
Figure 3-100. A folded-membrane switch that uses thin, flexible, plastic film layers.
including home appliances (particularly microwave ovens), computers, commercial and

industrial controls, and all kinds of instrumentation.
Elastomer-snap dome switches are rugged, watertight assemblies with a single-piece
molded elastomer keypad, usually of silicone, over a printed circuitboard. Metal dome
switches are assembled over switch conductors on the board that to date have been able
to withstand the most severe environments. Their applications range from machine tools
to medical electronics to military tactical ground and shipboard use. The tactile snap of
the elastomer-snap dome combination is particularly effective in noisy environments
where the operation of a switch must be felt through fingers or even gloves, rather than
heard.
The material in question can be a molded opaque or translucent elastomer, the latter
being selected for applications where backlighting is required. Translucent silicone elas-
tomers are good transmitters of light for smooth, diffuse illumination from intemallight
sources such as incandescents, light emitting diodes (LEDs), or emitting lights (ELs).
Injection-Molded Circuifboards
Injection-molded substrates for printed wiring boards have the potential of providing
significant cost savings over standard epoxy or glass substrates. Such three-dimensional
features as spacers, stand-offs, soldering sites, and slots for through-hole connections
can be molded in initially rather than added later in costly handling operations (see Fig.
3-101). These features can all be incorporated with the high precision characteristic of
the injection-molding process (see Chapter 7) [12].
The use of high-temperature TPs has made this technology feasible, since conventional
commodity types of injection-molding materials cannot withstand the high temperatures
encountered during soldering operations and actual use. Molded printed circuitboards
(MPCBs) must be manufactured of high-strength, high-impact materials, since they are
expected to withstand dropping and other abuse without breakage. Circuitboard materials
must be chemical resistant to tolerate the various cleaning and processing steps as well
as being fire-retardant to meet all relevant codes and requirements. Molded boards have
the added advantage of possessing superior properties with regard to conductive anodic
filament growth (CAP).
Recent work by material suppliers, plating shops, and board manufacturers has made
important advances in the metalization and processing of MPCBs. This survey provides
Fully additive process

Screen or
photoprlnt
Unclad base material Adhesion promote

and deposit
electroless copper
Strip plating resist Apply solder mask

(optional) and protective
coating
Figure 3-101. An injection-molded production technique for three-dimensional circuitboard

packages where the metalizing process creates a conductor path.
a brief overview of MPCB technology, including its materials, molding, and subsequent
processing. It highlights the opportunity this emerging technology holds for the electronics
industry and for injection molders.
Materials for MPCB applications fall into the general category of engineering ther-
moplastics. There are currently four classes of materials evaluated for this demanding
application: polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), polysulfone (PS), polyether sulfone (PES), and
polyetherimide (PEl). Various filled, reinforced, and blended formulations of these base
resins have also been tested and often show important improvements in properties and
metalization. All these materials show high heat distortion temperatures, with attendant
high process melt temperature requirements. All require heated mold cavities with tem-
peratures near or in excess of 149°C (300°F). Their high melt viscosities require unusually
high clamping pressures.
Glass fibers and inert mineral fillers can be used to provide additional rigidity, and it
has been shown that reinforcements may be needed to prevent warpage during high-
temperature wave soldering.
Printed circuitboard substrates are produced in a conventional injection-molding op-
eration. In injection molding, high-temperature polymer melts of the various engineering
thermoplastics discussed are injected into precision steel molds in a complex, dynamic
process. High molding pressures (often approaching 138,000 kPa (20,000 psi) are required
for these materials, whose flow lengths are relatively short. The molding of larger boards
(> 100 in. 2 ) and use of multicavity tools is, though difficult, not impossible, with proper
mold design and multiple gating.
The injection of a high-viscosity melt into a narrow cavity can cause significant molded-
in stresses from the orientation effects of the polymer flow. Although these residual
stresses can be minimized with careful gating and mold design, MPCBs often require
annealing to prevent warpage. Even slight imperfections in surface planarity are debili-
tating for PCB applications, since their plating will be defective. Metalization is also
influenced by orientation in a manner unrelated to the planarity of the board.
Radomes
A radome (radiation dome) is simply a cover for a microwave antenna used to protect
the antenna from the environment (see Fig. 3-102). Such a dome is basically transparent
to electromagnetic radiation and structurally strong. The need for being transparent to
radiation rules out metals. The earliest radomes (1942) were of a rubber-coated, air-
supported fabric, followed later by an RP made of randomly chopped short glass-fiber,
mat-reinforced TS polyester. By 1943 the glass-fiber fabric-TS polyester or epoxy was
in use that has been the industry standard worldwide ever since [1, 13, 14, 17, 19, 30,
32,44,49,54,67,68, 86, 310].
The shape of a radome, which is an important factor in its design, is normally chosen
on the basis of the optimal electrical characteristics (see Fig. 3-103). For aircraft the ideal
shape is a spherical surface with the antenna's gimbal point located at the center of the
sphere. Since a spherical radome is virtually impossible to obtain, a simpler configuration
of a hemisphere together with a right-circular cylinder are often used, resulting in 95 to
98 percent efficiency for a relatively low-loss dielectric construction material. Streamlined
radomes usually must be a compromise between electrical and aerodynamic considera-
tions. As a result, many of today's aircraft and missile radomes bear a strong resemblance
to an icicle, both in terms of having an awkward appearance and in their optical or
electrical properties.
The typical all-plastic ground radome is spherical and constructed of a solid RP or an
RP in a sandwich construction. All-plastic radomes up to 150 ft. in diameter have been
built using sandwich construction (see Figs. 1-7c, d). Space-frame radomes consist of
thin, flat panels of solid laminates in triangular, diamond, rectangular or hexagonal shapes.
Each panel is bounded by stiff members to form a polyhedron approximating the shape
of a truncated sphere. Although this approach was originally developed for 50- to 150-
ft. radomes, it also has economic advantages for use in smaller space-frame radomes.
Ducted radomes are used that are hemispherical domes mounted on a cylindrical base.
These consist of several "orange peel" side panels connected by a spherical cap panel.
Such an RP structure can include hot-air ducts between the inner and outer skins of the
side panels for anti-icing purposes.
The widely used 55-ft.-diameter ground spherical radome consists of membranes of
1I16-in.-thick randomly chopped glass fiber in a TS polyester-resin matrix with the
membranes formed integrally and having edge ribs about 114 to 3/8 in. thick and 3 to 4
in. deep. After assembly, by field bolting, the sections form a network of ribs supporting
the membrane. The design must take into account both the positive wind load on the
windward side and the negative load caused by reduced air pressure on the leeward side.
Under compressive stress the ribs must not be unstable and allow the shell to collapse
inward. The larger radomes, up to 150 ft. in diameter, either have a network of metal
Figure 3-102. A technician adjusts the streamlined nose radome for a McDonnell-Douglas DC-
10 commercial jet in preparation for a radar beam-pattern test. In the background is the
transmitting antenna that serves as the radar signal source. This glass-fiber-TS polyester
radome, almost seven feet in diameter, houses a radar antenna capable of radiating a beam of
60,000 watts at peak power over a 300-nautical-mile range and of scanning a ISO-degree sector
of sky ahead to give an advance picture of the weather. A black neoprene covering 0.005 in.
thick protects the nose from water erosion.
ribs supporting their RP panels (see Fig. 1-7c) or are hexagonal 6-in.-thick sandwiches
with 1I16-in.-thick RP facings bonded to a resin-impregnated honeycomb core. This is
the usual construction, but others exist.
Properly designing a radome requires complete knowledge of its physical, chemical,
and electrical requirements, as well as of the properties of the materials involved. Since
the ultimate design criteria are high transmissibility with a minimum of distortion, the
ideal wall design would be one that provided, 100 percent transmission and a constant
insertion phase for all angles of incidence and polarizations, at all frequencies.
Siroami,ned rarfnmo
I Or lgmof wave-
~-
--
RofleClod wayo .J
Radame -
TwtCe
'efl~clod wnwe
Figure 3·103. Radome configurations showing their effects on radar waves emanating from the
radar reflector or antenna so that the waves are properly focused in the required direction. This
is basically the same setup as when optical waves are transmitted through a transparent medium
so as not to cause visual distortion.
From an electrical standpoint, a radome is concerned primarily with any loss of gain
caused by the presence of plastics or other materials in front of the antenna. In certain
applications, side-lobe changes, bore-sight shifts, and the rate of change of the bore-sight
shift must be known. The wavelength changes in a way that is approximately proportional
to the square root of the difference between the dielectric constants of two media. There-
fore, the thickness of a radome's wall becomes exceedingly important in radome design.
There are three common types of wall configurations. The thin wall has a small fractional
physical thickness (and consequently an electrical thickness) that is usually less than one
twentieth of a wavelength. The second type is the half-wave, a solid wall within a thickness
of 180 electrical degrees. The third conventional type is the sandwich, which consists of
two one-quarter-wavelength panels.
The normal-incidence radome has most of its area illuminated approximately normal
to its beam. The thickness of a radome's wall is usually constant, except where beam
bending occurs in high-incident angles. It is then necessary to vary the thickness of the
wall over the surface of the radome. The transmission properties are similar to those
exhibited by plane or dielectric sheets when they are transferred by plane waves normal
to the surface.
Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectric transducers either convert an electrical signal to physical motion or vice
versa. In the past, the sensor material was usually a ceramic based on titanates of barium
or lead zirconium. Their rigidity made them especially useful for converting electrical
energy to mechanical motion in products like audio speakers and signaling alarm devices.
Unfortunately, ceramics are brittle and cannot be made with large surface areas or into
complex shapes where plastics are also used.
Piezoelectric plastic materials such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) overcomes such

drawbacks, however, and offers many other design advantages. Large, thin sheets of
PVDF can be cut or stamped into nearly any shape. This flexible film provides less
transducing power than ceramics, especially at low frequencies, but it is more sensitive
to mechanical stress and can withstand a higher voltage, operate over a broader frequency
range, and respond to a wider degree of mechanical stress. These typical properties make
it superior to ceramics for many sensor applications. The materials are available in different
forms, such as thin sheets ranging from 0.4 to 30 mils thick. Generally, the entire upper
and lower surfaces of the material are both metalized. For specific applications, such as
keyboards, the metalization is removed from all but selected areas.
Applying a DC voltage across piezo film makes the material thinner, longer, and wider
in proportion to the voltage level. Reversing the voltage makes the film in tum thicker,
shorter, and narrower. Strain constants define the relationship between the applied voltage
and the induced mechanical strain. The constants have different values for each axis.
Similarly, this film generates a proportional voltage when it is compressed or stretched.
Stress constants also define the relationship between the applied mechanical stress and
the voltage generated. There is one constant for each axis.
Piezo film also produces an electrical signal when it is exposed to infrared light. When
heat induces mechanical stresses in the material, a pyroelectric constant defines the
resulting voltage. This film is more sensitive to stretching than to compression, as a result
of its higher mechanical stress. For example, stretching the film can produce peak voltages
from about 20 to 30 volts. A similar result occurs by bending the film over a sharp comer,
an alternative and often convenient way of stretching the plastic. The film can also act
as a microphone, if it is clamped around its edges so that its central portion is free to
vibrate. The resulting audio response is good enough to faithfully produce human voices
on a tape recorder.
Piezo film acts as an impact detector when it is compressed between two plates.
Attaching the film's output to an audio amplifier yields the sound of impacts made on
the top plate or the resting surface. The response is the same, whether the top plate is
heavily loaded or not. The point is that film response is independent of static pressure,
because it responds only to pressure changes.
The piezo qualities of PVDF are stable at temperatures up to about 70°C (IS8°C).
When suitably treated, the film is stable up to 100°C (2l2°F) but is unfit for exposure
above that point. Its dynamic sensitivity runs from about 10-8 to 106 N/m, a 286-dB
range. With its many performance capabilities, PVDF has found many uses, a few of
which are touched upon here.
A simple type of PVDF sensor consists of a strip of film securely fastened to a surface
of a thin, flat spring. As a force deforms the spring it also stretches the film, producing
a signal. In some versions a permanent magnet or electromagnet exerts force in a manner
analogous to that in reed switches. Keyboards, for instance, use sheets of film containing
multiple sensor elements that under the films' surfaces are completely metalized. The
upper surface will be metalized only in the areas corresponding to the keys and their
respective conductors. The sheets of film are secured to a supporting surface that has
recesses under each key. Pressure at these points bends the film, producing a relatively
high level of signal. External circuitry is used to cancel out extraneous signals produced
by noise and vibration.
In one type of keyboard, depressing a key causes an infrared source to scan across a
coded pattern on the film. The pattern for each key will differ from all the others on the
board. With this scheme only two leads are required for the entire keyboard, rather than
needing one for each key, as in the arrangement previously described. Surveillance systems
also make use of the film's infrared qualities. One simple version contains two closely
coupled sensors. Only one is exposed to a target area, but the two sensors will respond
identically to noise, vibration, and overall temperature changes. Signals from the two
sensors feed a differential operational amplifier that magnifies the IR response and cancels
out common mode noise signals.
Designers can use sophisticated schemes in sensors to take advantage of their PYDF
capabilities of being able to convert an electrical signal to physical motion or reverse this
action. For example, a parabolic reflector can direct IR emanations onto a piezo-film
sensor. This sensor will have two identical metal patterns on the exposed surface and a
ground plane on the rear one. External circuitry will reject identical signals from either
pattern that are caused by noise or vibration, but a person moving in a room will produce
an easily identifiable series of pulses from both sensors.
Conductive Polymers
The field of conducting polymers continues to undergo active research in many labora-
tories, such as the Allied Corporation, GTE-Waltham, Polaroid British Petroleum, the
University of Califqrnia at Santa Barbara, the University of Pennsylvania, MIT, the
University of Massachusetts, the University of Texas at Arlington, and Bell Communi-
cation Research. The physics of conduction in these materials is still under study and
debate, especially with regard to interchain charge transport mechanisms. The potential
applications for these materials range from thin-film applications such as solar cells and
integrated circuit devices to lightweight conductors for aircraft and radio frequency or
antistatic shields for electronic apparatus. Perhaps the most seriously explored application
is that of electrodes for lightweight rechargeable storage batteries.
Unfortunately, none of these applications has yet been realized, owing to problems of
stability and processability. With few exceptions, these materials lose their conductivity
over time, especially on exposure to air or moisture. Polypyrrole exhibits better stability
than most conductive polymers and gives hope that even better materials will eventually
be found. Another major weakness of these polymers is their processing intractability
once converted to their conducting form. The advantage of processing ease that most
polymers enjoy over metals is thus not realized. A few exceptions to this situation (e.g.,
the solubility of p-phenylene sulfide in AsF J as it is doped with AsFs) have led researchers
to explore innovative solutions for casting paths and other processing routes. In addition,
Polaroid hilS recently commercialized a latex wherein a few percent of polypyrrole is
polymerized on the latex-particle surface. The formulation can then be cast into a film
on a substrate to form a conductive shield for EMI protection, provided that pinholes can
be eliminated.
FRICTION, WEAR, AND HARDNESS PROPERTIES

Friction is the resistance against change in the relative positions of two bodies touching
one another. If the area of contact is a plane, the relative motion will be a sliding one
and the resistance will be called sliding o~ kinetic friction. If the material in the area of
contact is loaded beyond its strength, abrasion or wear will take place. Both phenomena
are affected by numerous factors such as the load, relative velocity, temperature, and
240 DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES: A HANDBOOk
:~ r-...._ ../
o 5 10 15 20
%PTFE
Figure 3-104. Relative wear versus percent by weight of fluoropolymer/PTFE.
material. Although plastics may not be as hard as metal products, their resistance to wear
and abrasion may still be excellent. Plastic hardware parts such as cams, gears, slides,
rollers, and pinions frequently provide outstanding wear resistance and quiet operation.
Smooth plastic surfaces result in reduced friction, as they do in pipes and valves [1, 2,
14, 62-68, 252, 253, 319-31].
The frictional properties of thermoplastics, specifically the reinforced and filled com-
posites, vary in a way that is unique from metals. In contrast to metals, even the highly
reinforced resins have low modulus values and thus do not behave according to the classic
laws of friction, as developed by theories from the ICI-LNP. Metal-to-thermoplastic
friction is characterized by adhesion and deformation resulting in frictional forces that
are not proportional to load, because friction decreases as load increases, but are pro-
portional to speed (see Tables 3-21 through 3-24) [323]. The wear rate is generally defined
as the volumetric loss of material over a given unit of time. Several mechanisms operate
simultaneously to remove material from the wear interface. However, the primary mech-
anism is adhesive wear, which is characterized by having fine particles of polymer removed
from the surface.
The presence of this powder is a good indication that the rubbing surfaces are wearing
properly. Conversely, the presence of melted polymer or large gouges or grooves at the
interface normally indicates that the materials are abrading, not wearing, or the pressure
velocity limits of the materials may be being exceeded [323].
The ease and economy of manufacturing gears, cams, bearings, slides, ratchets, and
so on with injection-moldable TPs have led to a widespread displacement of metals in
these types of applications. In addition to their inherent processing advantages, the parts
made from these materials are able to dampen shock and vibration, reduce part weight,
run with less power, provide corrosion protection, run quietly, and operate with little or
no maintenance, while still giving the design engineer tremendous freedom.
These characteristics can be further enhanced and their applications widened by fillers,
additives, and reinforcements (see Fig. 3-104 [323] and Chapter 2). Compounding prop-
erly will yield an almost limitless combination of an increased load-carrying capacity, a
reduced coefficient of friction, improved wear resistance, higher mechanical strengths,
improved thermal properties, greater fatigue endurance and creep resistance, excellent
dimensional stability and reproducibility, and the like. For example, the primary rein-
forcements and lubricants used by ICI-LNP, a worldwide leader in friction- and wear-
resistant compounds, for its internally lubricated composites, called Lubricomb, are:
PTFE. A low molecular weight modified polytetraftuoroethylene.

Silicone. A high-viscosity, low-vapor-pressure polysiloxane.
Glass fiber. For use at 0.00045 in. (0.00114 cm) in diameter; an electrical-grade fiber.
Carbon fiber. A high-modulus, highly graphitized reinforcing fiber.
Aramid fiber. A high strength and modulus, heat- and wear-resistant fiber.
Others. Lubricants such as graphite and molybdenum disulfide, used to obtain different
performance characteristics.
Tests
Different test results are available to the designer wanting friction and wear data as well
as the usual mechanical short- and long-term data, corrosion resistance, readings, and so
on. The data presented include the load and velocity capabilities of a bearing material as
expressed by the product of the unit load P (in psi) based on the projected bearing area
and linear shaft velocity V (in ft.lmin.). The symbol PV denotes the important property
of the pressure-velocity relationship. A description of the test method used to generate
the limiting PV (LPV) of a compound, and other tests, are provided so that the data can
be understood. Note that the LPV test is a short-term independent variable of the wear
rate. Once the operating parameters of an application exceed approximately one half the
LPV, wear begins to accelerate. Therefore, the working PV can be approximated by this
test method by using a factor of two [323].
Wear
Wear tests are conducted with a thrust-washer test apparatus. A sample thrust washer is
mounted in an antifriction bearing equipped with a torque arm (see Fig. 3-105) [323].
The test-specimen holder is drilled to accept a thermocouple temperature probe. The
raised portion of the thrust washer bears against a dry, cold-rolled, carbon-steel wear
ring with a 12- to 16-microinch finish at an 18 to 22 Rockwell C scale hardness at room
temperature. Each evaluation is conducted with a new wear ring that has been cleaned
and weighed on an analytical balance. The bearing temperature and friction torque are
continuously monitored.
The test duration is dependent upon the period required to achieve a 360-degree contact
between the raised portion of the thrust washer and the wear ring. The average wear
factor and duration of this break-in period are then reported. The wear factors reported
for each compound are based on its equilibrium wear rate independent of break-in wear.
Volume wear is calculated as follows:
w = _W_e....;ig:::...h_t_lo_s_s
Density
where W is the volume wear (cm3) , weight loss is in milligrams, and density is in
grams/cm3 . This volume is used to calculate the wear factor, K:
W
K=-
FVT
Table 3-16. Dielectric Properties of Kevlar (Aramid) Fiber/Epoxy Composites*

Fiber
Test
Electrical Property Frequency, Hz Conditionst Kevlar 149 Kevlar 49 Kevlar 29
Dielectric constant, K 10,000 Dry 4.14 4.44 4.51

10,000 Wet 4.84 5.42 5.47
10,000,000 Dry 3.90 4.14 4.19
10,000,000 Wet 4.35 4.77 4.79
Dissipation factor, D 10,000 Dry 0.0103 0.0131 0.0135
10,000 Wet 0.0180 0.0250 0.0260
10,000,000 Dry 0.0142 0.0170 0.0171
10,000,000 Wet 0.0240 0.0280 0.0290
'Fabric Style 285 (four·harness satin weave) in Fiberite 934 epoxy. Fiberite Corp., Winona, Minn.
tWet indicates that sample was tested after 600 hours at 71°C and 75% RH.
where W volume wear (in. 3 ), V = velocity (ft.lmin.), F = force (lb.), and T = elapsed
time (hr.).
Friction
The coefficient of friction data are obtained with the same thrust-washer test apparatus.
The test specimen is run in against the standard wear ring until a 360-degree contact
between the raised portion of the thrust washer and the wear ring is achieved. The
temperature of the test specimen is then allowed to stabilize at the test conditions (generally
40 psi, 50 ft.lmin., room temperature, and dry). After thermal equilibrium occurs, the
dynamic frictional torque generated is measured with the torque arm that is mounted on
the antifriction bearing. An average of a minimum of five readings is taken.
0
I '--,r': I
Movi ng-Surface
"-, '.m'" "'..,

Lower Sample Holder ~
1"'"1'T'!- -....
; ""1
Stationary Surface
Table
LOWN Samplf' Holdt'r

Anti Fnctlon Be.lr1ng
Figure 3·105. A washer-test apparatus to determine the wear, friction, and limiting PV for
molding compounds.
Table 3-17. Examples of Electrical, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of

High-Performance Thermoplastics
ASTM PElt PEst ppst PSFt PCt
Physical
Specific gravity, glc 3 1.27 1.37 1.30 1.55 1.20
Water absorption, % by D 570 0.25 0.43 0.02 0.3 0.26
weight
Electrical
Dielectric strength, v/mil D 149 710 400 380 425 425
Arc resistance, sec D495 128 120 34 39 115
Volume resistivity, ohm/cm D 257 10 18 10 16 lOIS 10 17 10 17
Thermal
HDT at 264 psi. of D 648 392 397 275 345 265
Long-term service temp, 338 356 -* 302 255
UL index, of
Oxygen index, % 40 38 47 38 25
Mechanical
Aexural modulus, psi D 780 480,000 375,000 550,000 390,000 340,000
(MPa) (3,310) (2,586) (3,792) (2,689) (2,344)
Impact strength, notched D 256 1.0 1.6 0.4 1.3 2.2
Izod, ft.llb.lin.
Tensile strength, psi D638 15,200 12,200 9,500 10,200 9,500
(MPa) (104.8) (84.12) (65.5) (70.33) (65.5)
-Not UL listed.
tNote: Glass filler can considerably extend the perfonnance of the above polymers. PEl = polyetherimide; PES = polyether sulfone; PPS =
polyphenylene sulfide; PSF = polysulfone; PC = polycarbonate.
Limiting PV
To determine the limiting PV for a compound, a sample cylindrical half-bearing, generally
with a 1 x 1 x 0.060 in. wall, is installed in an antifriction bearing mounted in the test
apparatus. The bearing's holder is equipped with a torque arm. Load is applied through
the antifriction bearing to the test bearing. The shaft can be rotated at surface velocities
from 10 to 1,000 fUmin. The load (in psi), velocity (fUmin.), friction torque (lb.-ft.),
and temperature eF) at the bearing holder, which is 0.125 in. from the rubbing surfaces,
are continuously monitored. A minimum of three velocities are selected to cover a practical
range, as, for instance, 10, 100, and 1,000 ft.lmin.
Table 3-18. The Electric-Field Shielding Effectiveness of Three Typical

Conductive Coatings
Shielding Effectiveness (dB)
Emission Frequency
(mHz) Zinc Arc Nickel Copper
30 67 55 75
100 57 56 63
300 70 69 71
1,000 73 47 51
160 4.0 400 BRG. MATERIAL: lYpical I" x I"

SHAFT: Cold rolled Carbon Steel
FINISH: 16 Micro-Inches (RMS)
140 HARDNESS: 18-22Rc
SURFACE VELOCITY: 100 Ft.lMin.
"PV" UMIT @ 100 Ft.lMin.=12,OOO (PSI x Fl/Min.
120 3.0 300
~
1
I&.
100
Z: }
1~
0::;
ID
..J 80 ~ 2.0
I 200
F
] 60
S
~
I&.
Temperature-OF
40 1.0 100
20
0 0 0
0 2 3 4 5
Time-Hrs.
Figure 3-106. A load-stepping test to determine the limiting PV capability of a bearing

material.
At each velocity a load-stepping test is conducted. The friction torque and bearing
temperature, which are plotted continuously, are allowed to reach equilibrium at each
loading (see Fig. 3-106) [323]. The equilibrium condition is maintained for about 30
min., at which point the load is increased. At an advance load increment the friction
torque and temperature will not stabilize. The slope of the curve will increase sharply in
the friction torque or temperature plot. An increase in temperature or torque will eventually
result in bearing failure. The pressure limits at several velocities provide a curve showing
the limiting PV capability of the bearing material [323].
Hardness
Although hardness is a somewhat nebulous term, it can be defined in terms of the tensile
modulus of elasticity. From a more practical side, it is usually characterized by a com-
bination of three measurable parameters: 1) scratch resistance; 2) abrasion or mar resis-
tance; 3) indentation under load (see Table 3-23).
To measure scratch resistance or hardness, a specimen is moved laterally under a loaded
diamond point. The hardness value is expressed as the load divided by the width of the
scratch. In other tests, especially in the paint industry, the surface is scratched with lead
pencils of different hardnesses. The hardness of the surface is defined by the pencil
hardness that first causes a visible scratch. Other tests include a sand-blast spray evalu-
ation.
Abrasion resistance is usually measured by the material's loss in weight (see Table 3-
25) or the change in optical transmission and reflectance after a sample has been exposed
to an abrasive surface. This is usually done under load, for a predetermined number of
cycles or a time period specified by ASTM methods.
Tests for indention under load are performed basically like the ASTM tests used to
measure the hardness of other materials, such as metals and ceramics. There are at least
four popular hardness scales in use. Shore A and Shore D are for soft to relatively hard
plastics and elastomers. Barcol is used from the mid-range of Shore D to above it. Rock-
well M is used for very hard plastics. Figure 3-107 shows the relative ranges covered by
these durometers. This diagram does not correlate the different systems in Chapter 2.
VERY HARD
140
--- ROCKWELL M
90 50 80
~ BARCOL
90 ~ SHORED
" SHOREA
VERY SOFT
Figure 3-107. The range of hardness common to plastics.

Plastics-to-Plastics Wear
The wear characteristics of one plastic as opposed to another vary widely, even among
materials that have good natural lubricity . When an application calls for plastic-to-plastic
bearings, shafts, gears, or other wear members, the combination of materials must be
chosen carefully [323]. Because plastics are not rigid, they do not behave according to
the classic laws of friction. It is these deviations that cause some of the unexpected results
when plastics are run against metals. Frictional forces are not proportional to load-
friction increases with increasing speed, and the static coefficient of friction is lower than
its dynamic one. When two viscoelastic low-modulus materials are run against each other,
additional inconsistencies result.
Despite these differences, one trend remains clear: the wear factor generated when TP
is run against itself is extremely high, unless its operating temperature and pressure are
quite low. In applications requiring all-plastic components, the wear rate can be reduced,
if crystalline plastics are being used, by running dissimilar plastics against each other.
If amorphous plastics are involved, or if environmental or manufacturing procedures
require that only a single compound be used, that compound should contain an internal
lubricant, like PTFE at loadings of 15 to 20 percent by weight.
Wear is often greater on a moving surface when dissimilar neat resins are paired.
Similar behavior occurs with pairs consisting of lubricated, unreinforced resins running
against themselves or against dissimilar lubricated resins. The addition of a reinforcing
fiber generally produces increased wear in a mating, unreinforced resin. The addition of
a reinforcing fiber to both surfaces may result in decreased wear, compared to that in
unreinforced resins.
The wear factors of glass-fiber composites are lower than those with carbon-fiber
materials when run against a carbon-reinforced material, because glass fibers are much
harder than carbon ones. Lubricating composites with PTFE dramatically reduces the
wear factors in both similar or dissimilar mating resins. During the initial break-in period
a film of PTFE is transferred to the mating surface, thus creating a PTFE-to-PTFE bearing
condition that lowers the wear factors for both the moving and stationary surfaces. The
addition of a PTFE lubricant to the mating material reduces the detrimental effects of
glass fibers, with respect to wear, on an opposing surface.
Adding a silicone fluid to TP composites results in compounds with reduced wear
factors as compared to neat resins, but these factors are greater than those of the PTFE-
lubricated composites. In plastic-to-plastic wear applications, composite pairs having
similar wear factors when run against each other are preferable to pairs having great
differences in their wear factors, if the total wear in the system is acceptably low [323].
Plastics-to-Metals Wear
Most studies on the wear and friction characteristics of plastic composites have concen-
trated on plastic versus plastic or plastic versus steel wear rings in the same finish and
hardness. However, the increased use of aluminum in structural and bearing components
has resulted in available, reliable wear-property data involving TP composites run against
aluminum surfaces. In addition, cost-reduction programs in the business-machine and
appliance industries, which have led to the elimination of some parts-finishing operations,
have resulted in characterizing the action between rough metal surfaces and plastic com-
posites.
Tests have been run to broaden this database to include the behavior of TP composites
against several metals with different surface finishes. Also, wear factors for the metal
surfaces, caused by the rubbing of plastic composites, have been studied. Certain metals
chosen for stationary counterface materials were cold-rolled 1141 steel, 304 and 440
stainless steel, 70/30 brass, 2024 aluminum alloy, and phosphor bronze (ICI-LNP) [323].
Design Concepts
Short Term
In general, the addition of properly sized reinforcing fibers in typical materials like carbon
and glass will result in dramatic increases in strength, stiffness, and thermal properties
while the solid internal lubricants act as fillers-MoS 2 is an exception-and reduce the
properties of an unmodified or reinforced resin by an amount about equal to the percentage
volume of the lubricant. Liquid silicone, for instance, is used at relatively low volume
contents and has only a modest effect on mechanical and thermal properties. The product's
tensile and flexural properties will be slightly reduced but its impact characteristics im-
proved. Its thermal properties will remain unchanged or be lowered [323].
Long-Term Creep
The flexural creep curves for a family of reinforced or lubricated nylon 6/6 compounds
are shown in Figure 3-108. At a given stress, the creep curves for a 30 percent glass-
reinforced nylon 6/6 will equilibrate after an initial increase in strain while the unmodified
curve continues to increase, making normal engineering calculations meaningless. When
a lubricant such as 15 percent PTFE is added to the glass-reinforced nylon, however, its
mechanical properties are reduced. This property reduction causes the creep curve to shift
upward but typically remain parallel to that of the curve with no PTFE. Other changes
in the type or amount of internal lubricant or reinforcement will cause the curve to shift
up or down on the graph. The magnitude of this shift can be approximated for a given
resin family by assuming that the shift will be directly proportional to the change in the
short-term flexural modulus (ASTM D 790) value.
Table 3-19. Magnetic-Field Shielding Effectiveness of Three Typical

Conductive Coatings
Shielding Effectiveness (dB)
Emission Frequency
(mHz) Nickel Copper Solid Steel
0.01 0 0 50
0.10 2 2
0.50 5 7
1.0 8 13
10 33 37
30 39 47
Table 3-20. Typical Conductive Coating Systems to Provide EMI/RFI
Shielding for Plastics
Shielding System Advantages Disadvantages
Conductive Coatings
Silver Highly conductive (0.1 ohm per High cost
square foot or less); applied by
conventional spray equipment; easy
application; electrically stable
(minimal change in resistance with
environmental cycling); easily
applied to selected area; field
repairable.
Nickel Low cost (15-30 cents per square Lesser quality formulations
foot); good conductivity (less than available; some are stable, some
1.0 ohm per square foot); applied are not.
by conventional spray equipment;
easy application; relatively stable
(differs with manufacturer); easily
applied to selected area; field
repairable.
Copper Highly conductive (less than 0.5 Oxidation can reduce conductivity
ohm per square foot); easy (resistance can change to
application; low cost (15-30 cents effectively make copper an
per square foot). insulator); some may be alloys-if
layered with silver, cost will rise.
Graphite Low cost (5-15 cents per square Less conductivity (ranging from 2
foot); easy application; excellent ohms to the thousands per square
ESD (electrostatic discharge) foot, depending upon the amount
performance. of graphite); modest shielding
capability (up to 30-40 dB).
ArclFlame Spray Highly conductive (less than 0.1 Requires grit blasting to promote
ohm per square foot; hard, dense mechanical bonding to plastic;
coating. special applications equipment
required; requires special applicator
safety procedures for dust and
fumes; warps thermoplastics; not
suitable for thin-walled designs; not
field repairable.
Vacuum Metalizationl Highly conductive (less than 0.1 Requires primer coat; entire part
Ion Plating ohm per square foot); controllable must be done, forcing exterior
film thickness; not limited to painting; not field repairable;
simple housing designs. specialized application equipment;
vacuum chamber size a limiting
factor; requires specialized
knowledge; subject to corrosion in
humid atmosphere unless protected.
Electrolysis Deposition Highly conductive (both nickel and Requires specialized
copper less than 0.1 ohm per equipmentlknowledge; entire part
square foot). must be coated, forcing exterior
painting; if copper is used it must
be protected by a nickel coating or
some other coating.
Conductive Plastics Good thermal transfer; elimination Requires a secondary operation for
of secondary operation for grounding.
shielding.
248
Long-Term Fatigue
The fatigue endurance curves shown in Figure 3-109 can be shifted upward by improving
their mechanical properties through additional reinforcement. If the reinforcement is
reduced or internal lubricants are added, the mechanical properties will be lowered and
the fatigue endurance curve shift downward. The magnitude of these shifts can be ap-
proximated by assuming them to be directly proportional to the changes in short-term
flexural strength.
Lower Costs
Many examples could be cited to show cost reductions in replacing other materials with
plastic wear-resistant compounds. For example, Rutihauser Data AG, of Switzerland, a
leading manufacturer of gearing arrangements for single- and dual-sheet loaders and paper
feeders, became more productive with plastics. They eliminated metal gears on their
computer printers on the basis of the cost of materials and the expense of finishing
operations.
Their unfilled PBT (Celanese's Celanex 2012 grade) used a UL flammability rating of
94VO. This is essential to meet requirements in the major computer markets. Printers
operate in an extremely demanding environment. For one thing, paper dust is highly
abrasive, requiring all components to have good wear resistance. Chemical resistance is
also essential, to withstand greases and solvent cleaners. An ability to withstand fatigue
from long-term vibration is likewise important.
To help ensure dimensional repeatability, concentricity, and true running, the gears
were molded on a three-plate mold, gated at the top with three points of entry [12].
Thus, in addition to performing efficiently as gears, the PBT gears provided excellent
frictional properties, with an inherent lubricity contributing to long-term wear resistance.
Torque tests conducted on these gears in operation performed at levels ten times in excess
of the normal operating values. In the next chapter we shall see how plastics and com-
posites can be made to hold up well under environmental stresses.
Table 3-21. Examples of the Coefficient of Friction for Plastics

Coefficient of Friction
Material Static Dynamic
Nylon 0.2 0.28

Nylon/glass 0.24 0.31
Nylon/carbon 0.1 O.ll
Polycarbonate 0.31 0.38
Polycarbonate/glass 0.18 0.20
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) 0.19 0.25
PBT/glass O.ll 0.12
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) 0.3 0.24
PPS/glass 0.15 0.17
PPS/carbon 0.16 0.15
Acetal 0.2 0.21
PTFE 0.04 0.05
1.00
(moisture
conditioned
to 50% R.H.)
0.75
".
f 0.50
---
J
50% G/R Nylon 6/6 (5,000 psi)
0.25
0.00
10 102 103 104

nme, Hrs.
Figure 3·108. The flexural creep of nylon 6/6 and its composites at 23 0 C (73 0 F) (ICI-LNP).
10.0
(moisture
conditioned
to 50% R.H.)
7.5
40% G/R Nylon 6/6
-----i
...
PI
0
)C
30% G/R Nylon 6/6
1 5.0
I
2.5
20% PTFE Lub. Nylon 6/6
0.0
104 105 106 107

Cycles of Failure
Figure 3·109. The fatigue endurance of nylon 6/6 and its components at 23 0 C (73 0 F) (ICI·
LNP).
250
Table 3-22. Wear and Friction Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics
and Composites
Fiber Type and Content (%) Coefficient of Friction
Wear Factor
(10-10 in. 3min.l Static Dynamic
Short Long ft.llb.lhr. ) (40 psi) (40 psi, 50 fpm)
Nylon 6/6 Matrix
0 0 200 0.20 0.28

50 glass 60 0.28 0.35
50 glass 30 0.26 0.36
20 aramid 30 0.21 0.24
40 carbon 14 0.13 0.18
40 carbon 8 0.09 0.09
Polycarbonate Matrix
40 carbon 26 0.16 0.13

40 carbon 17 0.13 0.13
Table 3-23. Guide for the Properties of Some Plastic Coatings

..=
B
] 0)
'OJ
.§
G
0)
."
·c
.§
u: .. ..
....l
B
> .g
0
=
~
.S! .... ::I 0) 0)
.~
e::- "&u .S! B ·c fi: ."
·c
."
·c
'"0) g ....l
>. >.
g "&u 1l 0
."
~ .§
S.... =s>. >.S i -<
i
."
>. ." ....
B fi:
0)
:9 ~ u
~ B -< = "0
'"0 "0 '"
Ul
Q)
'"0
-< -< >. >. >. >.
c
u:
t
.E >.
0) 0)
c
0)
c .5 .5 .5 .;; .S!
.§
0)
'" ~ ; '" E § > >
i b ;£ ;£ "&u
'.p 0
.~
0) 0
-< "0
Q..
>.
;;
c
til
g ~
il: J::l
til
0)
~
~
i:ii
.S!
~
~
i:ii cl:
>. >.
~
Q..
-<
Hardness 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Adhesion 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Flexibility 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 1 1
Mar resistance 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 2
Gloss (85 units 2 2 3 4 2 4 4 4 4 2
plus 60°)
Fabricability after 4 2 3 2 2 3 3 2
aging
Humidity resistance 2 1 1 1 2 2 1
Grease and oil 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
resistance
General chemical 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
resistance
General corrosion 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
resislance
(industrial
atmospheres)
Exterior durability 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 4 2 2
(pigmented)
Exterior durability 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 4
(clear films)
Ratings: J = excellent, 2 = good, 3 = fair, 4 = poor.
251
Table 3-24. Plastic-to-Plastic Wear and Frictional Properties (ICI-LNP)
Coefficient of
Stationary Surface Moving Surface Wear Factory Friction
Stationary
Surface 10-10 Dynamic
in. 3min.1 Static (40 psi,
Base Resin Filler System Base Resin Filler System ft.llb.lhr. (40 psi) 50 fpm)
Polycarbonate 10% PTFE Nylon 6/10 15% PTFE 35 0.04 0.06

30% Glass fiber
Polycarbonate 15% PTFE Nylon 6/10 15% PTFE 15 0.05 0.07
20% Glass fiber 30% Glass fiber
Acetal 20% PTFE Nylon 6/6 20% PTFE 30 0.03 0.04
Copolymer
Nylon 6/10 15% PTFE Polycarbonate 10% PTFE 15 0.04 0.06
30% Glass fiber
Nylon 6/10 15% PTFE Polycarbonate 15% PTFE 18 0.05 0.07
30% Glass fiber 20% Glass fiber
Nylon 6/6 20% PTFE Acetal 20% PTFE 12 0.03 0.04
Copolymer
Table 3-25. The Abrasion Resistance of Moisture-Curing Polyurethane Coatings

Type of Coating Taber Index*
Moisture-curing urethanes
Clear floor coating 8
Clear coating 22
Clear exterior coating 24
Brick red 31
Tile green 33
Gray 35
Other coatings
Amine catalyzed epoxy varnish 38
Two-part polyester urethane enamel 60
Polyamide epoxy enamel 95
Clear nitrocellulose lacquer 96
Vinyl enamel 106
Urethane oil varnish 155
Phenolic spar varnish 172
Epoxy ester enamel 196
'Taber index values indicate weight loss in mgll ,000 revolution of the abrasion tester per (ASTM).
252
Chapter 4
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
AFFECTING PLASTICS
This chapter reviews different environmental conditions that can affect plastics. (Further
data pertaining to these conditions is provided in Chapter 6.) Like other materials with
which designers work, different plastics can be sensitive to their environments. Even
ordinary exposure from sunlight or to household cleaning agents can change the properties
of certain plastics. Whereas rust, corrosion, and loss of its properties can plague metals,
the cracking, crazing, and loss of its properties can affect certain plastics in the presence
of different environments. Basically, environmental effects on certain plastics can be
related to their performance, as summarized in Figure 4-1 [1-22, 62-68, 332-89].
TEMPERATURE INTRODUCTION
As mentioned throughout this book, plastics can be affected in different ways by tem-
perature. Among other things, it can influence short- and long-time static and dynamic
mechanical properties (see Fig. 4-2), aesthetics, dimensions, electronic properties, and
other characteristics. Some plastics cannot take boiling water, others can operate up to
149°C (300°F), and the so-called high-temperature types can take various degrees of
continuous use above 149°C (300OP). Then there are the plastic composites used as heat-
shield ablative materials on the nose cones of space vehicles that reach temperatures of
about 1,370°C (2,500°F) for fractions of a second upon reentering the atmosphere. Prac-
tically all plastics can take heat up to at least what the human body can endure, which
is one important reason they are so extensively used.
Thermoplastics soften to varying degrees at elevated temperatures, but thermosets are
much less affected (Figs. 4-3 and 4-4). In fact, a few plastics even reach 538°C (1,000 oF)
(see Chapter 6). The maximum temperatures under which plastics can be employed are
generally higher than the temperatures found in buildings, including walls and roofs, but
some such as LOPE are marginal and others cannot carry appreciable stresses at moderately
elevated temperatures without undergoing noticeable creep. Many plastics can take ship-
ping conditions that are more severe than their service conditions, as in an automobile trunk
or railroad boxcar that might reach 52°C (126°F).
The response of a plastic to an applied stress depends on the temperature and the time
at that temperature to a much greater extent than does that of a metal or ceramic. The
variation of an amorphous TP over an extended temperature range can be exemplified
253
Environment
Figure 4-1. Basic elements in designing with plastics: a three-dimensional representation of

contour plots,
100,
90 Composite and Engineered Plastics
=
C"
.... 80
><
·iii
CI.
70 l'
Typical Steel
-~
en
"CI
Qi
60
50
:;: 40
~
'iii 30
cQ)
I-
20
10
O+--'--.--r~r--r~--'-~~'--'~
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
o
Temperature, F
Figure 4-2. A guide to maximum short-term tensile stress versus temperature,
254
Figure 4-3. For more marketable attractive colors and toughness, the Sunbeam Appliance Co.
assembles its irons with a skirt molded from a glass-reinforced isopolyester (Amoco's resin)
bulk molding compound (BMC). The skirt, which is located just above the sole plate, must be
able to withstand a continuous operating temperature of 232°C (450°F).
Figure 4-4. Special thermoset polyester resins sometimes demonstrate maximal resistance to
high temperature and corrosion for chemical equipment uses, as for example, this carbon
tetrachloride storage glass-fiber-reinforced plastic tank.
255
by the behavior of its elastic modulus as a function of temperature. Four principal regions
of such viscoelastic behavior were identified in Chapter 2.
With a temperature change the short-term static strength, the elastic modulus, and the
elongation behavior of a material will be similar for its tensile, compressive, flexural,
and shear properties. As shown in Figure 3-8, a material's strength and modulus will
decrease and its elongation increase with increasing temperature at constant strain. The
same set of curves can be generated by testing at a constant temperature and various
strain rates. The effects of temperature changes on the tensile properties of TPs are shown
in Figures 4-5 through 4-7.
Curves for creep isochronous stress and isometric stress are usually produced from
measurements at a fixed temperature. Complete sets of these curves are sometimes avail-
able at temperatures other than the ambient. It is common, for instance, to find creep
rupture or apparent modulus curves plotted against log time, with temperature as a
parameter. Figure 4-8 shows time-temperature shifting of apparent modulus curves pro-
jecting to times beyond a normal testing range [2].
These curves suggest that it would be reasonable to estimate moduli at somewhat longer
times than the data available from the lower temperatures. However, a set of creep-
rupture curves from various temperatures, as in Figure 4-9, would suggest that projecting
the lowest-temperature curves to longer times as a straight line could produce a danger-
ously high prediction of rupture strength, so this approach is not recommended [2]. One
advantage of conducting complete creep-rupture testing at elevated temperatures is that
although such testing for endurance requires long times, the strength levels of the plastic
at different temperatures can be developed in a relatively short time, usually just 1,000
to 2,000 hours. Such a system has been employed for many years by the Underwriters
Laboratories and other such organizations [14, 17, etc.].
Testing different impact properties at various temperatures produces a plot that looks
75
Yield strenRth varies
considerab Y WIth -20°C
temperature
60
E [,5
z 20°C
:::E
III
III
50°C
QJ
L.- 30
Vi
.Strain (%)
Figure 4·5. Examples of the effects of temperature on the stress-strain behavior of basic
commodity thermoplastics that influence their ultimate and yield strengths, as well as their
moduli.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING PLASTICS 257
11 '+ ----+----i 800 , .

II>
Q
700 E
u
M
o 0>
9- ""
600
en
c
7 ---300,.r---I 500 ...~
II)
At 0 2 In lin in (Q 51 ern/mill) 400

"0
Q.I
>- 5 >-
300 !E
<II VI
c: c:
Q.I
3 -- Q.I
~
200 ~
1~__~____L -_ _ _ ~_ _ _ _~_ _~_ _~100

50 0 50 100 150 200 250
TeITlIJeri:lture . F
Figure 4-6. The effects of temperature on acetal, using semilog coordinates.
very much like an elongation versus temperature curve (see Fig. 4-10) [2]. As temperatures
drop significantly below the ambient temperatures, most TPs lose much of their room-
temperature impact strength. A few, however, are on the lower, almost horizontal portion
of the curve at room temperature and thus show only a gradual decrease in impact prop-
erties with decreases in temperature. One major exception is provided by the glass fiber
RPs, which have relatively high Izod impact values, down to at least -40°C (-40°F).
In regard to testing, the S-N (fatigue) curves for TPs at various temperatures show a
decrease in strength values with increases in temperature. The TSs, specifically the TS
RPs, can have very low losses in strength, however.
AMORPHOUS
UNFILLED REINFORCED
TEMPERA TURE ~
Figure 4-7. The modulus behavior of crystalline and amorphous thermoplastics showing their
glass-transition temperatures (Tg), melt temperatures (Tm ), and the effects of reinforcement on
their DTUL (see Chapter 2 for explanations of Tg , Tm , and DTUL).
C/)
::J
:5 INCREASING TEMPERA TURE
~~
~~
ct __________ ................ .................
ct:
Q.. -~ .............. . . . . . ......
<:( ~ ..... .........
o"
TlME- TEMPERA TURE SHIFTING
-.J
70 50 YEARS
i~
-7 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
LOG TiME (HOURS)

Figure 4-8. Apparent modulus curves at different temperatures showing time-temperature
shifting to estimate the extended time values at lower temperatures.
Heat Distortion Temperature

The heat distortion temperature (HDT), also called the deflection temperature under load
(DTUL), has a softening temperature that denotes the maximum temperature at which a
plastic can be used as a rigid material (Figure 4-11, Table 4-1). It may also be considered
the upper limit at which the material can support a load for any appreciable time. Thus,
the HOT or OTUL can be a very practical, important property. For amorphous TPs the
HDT is near the Tg , but for the highly crystalline types it is closer to the melting point.
Most HOTs or softening temperatures are arbitrarily defined as being a single point in
some kind of deflection-temperature curve.
Such a test is quite dependent on the testing and processing conditions. It tends to have
only limited use in actual design, but it can be used as a guide or approach to selection.
Often, the high-temperature apparent modulus data for a particular time span gives a
INCREASING
TEMPERA TURE
Lu
ct
2
Q..
::J
ct
Q..
Lu
Lu
ct
()
o"
-.J
-1 2 3
LOG TIME (HOURS)

Figure 4-9. Creep-rupture curves indicating the danger of making linear projections to longer
times at lower temperatures.
-
co
u
Q.
E
TEMPERA TURE ---+

Figure 4-10. The effects of temperature on tensile elongation.
much better estimation of a material's behavior under load in an actual application.

However, the deflection test is relatively simple to run, as well as being quick and relatively
inexpensive.
The basic test procedure under ASTM D 648 for determining the DTUL is to place a
sample in an oil bath, give it a simple three-point support, with either a 264- or 66-psi
distributed load, and increase the temperature at a rate of 2°C/min. Deflection temperature
under load is defined as the oil temperature at which a sample deflects 0.010 in. Several
critical parameters have a significant effect: 1) The test method specifies that the sample
have a mininum thickness of 0.125 in, but does not specify an upper limit. Since it takes
longer for a thick bar to come to thermal equilibrium than a thinner one, a thicker bar
will have a higher DTUL than the thinner one, which must be taken into account when
comparing data sheets; 2) in general, the higher the load at 66 or 264 psi, the lower the
DTUL; 3) an annealed bar usually has a higher DTUL. Annealing refers to placing a bar
in an oven at a prespecified elevated temperature for a certain time to relieve any processed-
in strains in the plastic; and 4) when processing the same material by different processes,
the DTULs can be different, as for example compression-molded bars, which usually
give higher values than injection-molded ones.
Temperature (OF)
700
600 -
500 r- r- r-
r- -
400
- _r-
300
..--
-
200
100
ASS Poly- PPO Acetal Poly- PST PET Nylon Thermo- PPS Phenolic
carbonate sulfone set
Polyester
Figure 4-11. An example of the heat-resistance perfonnance of thennoplastics and thennosets,

based on HDT data ("F at 264 psi).
Table 4-1. An Example of Flexural Strength (X 103 psi) at Various Temperatures

Engineering 73°F 212°F 300°F 400°F
Polymer 23°C 100°C 150°C 200°C
Nylon 66 17.4* 6.2 5.0 4.1

Nylon 66 35.8 18.1 14.8 12.8
PET 29.2 13.3 8.7 7.0
PET 37.6 19.2 12.5 9.8
Phenolic (GP) 13.2 8.8 8.2 5.6
Phenolic (HR) 13.2 10.2 8.4 6.3
Phenolic 19.4 15.9 3.5 10.4
Alkyd 14.3 9.0 5.8 4.2
DAP 18.7 14.2 7.8 3.4
*To convert psi to pascals (Pa). multiply by 6.895 x HP.
Thermal Aging
Section UL 746B provides a basis for selecting high-temperature plastics and provides a
long-term thermal-aging index, the RTI or relative thermal index. The testing procedure
calls for test specimens in selected thicknesses to be oven aged at certain elevated tem-
peratures (usually higher than the expected operating temperature, to accelerate the test),
then be removed at various intervals and tested at room temperature. Another reason for
using higher temperatures is that for an application requiring long-term exposure a can-
didate plastic is often required to have an RTI value higher than the maximum application
temperature. The properties tested can include mechanical strength, impact resistance,
and electrical characteristics. A plastic's position in a test's RTI is based on the temperature
at which it still retains 50 percent of its original properties.
The time required to produce a 50 percent reduction in properties is selected as
an arbitrary failure point. These times can be gathered and used to make a linear Arrhenius
plot of log time versus the reciprocal of the absolute exposure temperature. An Arrhenius
relationship is a rate equation followed by many chemical reactions [62, 63, 262]. A
linear Arrhenius plot is extrapolated from this equation to predict the temperature at which
failure is to be expected at an arbitrary time that depends on the plastic's heat-aging
behavior, which is usually 11,000 hours, with a minimum of 5,000 hours. This value is
the RTI.
As practiced by the UL, the procedure for selecting an RTI from Arrhenius plots usually
involves making comparisons to a control standard material and other such steps to correct
for random variations, oven temperature variations, the condition of the specimens, and
others. The stress-strain and impact and electrical properties frequently do not degrade
at the same rate (see Fig. 4-12), each having their own separate RTIs. Also, since thicker
specimens usually take longer to fail, each thickness will require a separate RTI.
The UL uses RTIs as a guideline to qualify materials for many of the standard appliances
and other electrical products it regulates. This testing is done in a conservative manner
qualified by judgments based on long experience with such devices; UL does not apply
indexes automatically. In general, these RTIs are very conservative and can be used as
safe continuous-use temperatures for low-load mechanical products (see Fig. 4-13).
Other Heat Tests

There are different heat tests, some being specific to a product environment. Some
examples of routine tests were shown in Figure 4-13 and Table 4-1. There are, for instance,
,00
o
o
-
c
o
c
cu
~
Izod
Impact
strength
Tens ile
strength
O~----------------------------j
o Time at elevated temperature, h _
Figure 4-12. An example of physical property loss due to long-term heat aging from UL 746B.
tests where a tensile load is applied to a specimen and its length is then measured in the
same manner as in a creep test, except that in this case the temperature is increased at a
constant rate. Distortion temperature is defined as that temperature at which elongation
becomes 2 percent. A typical test is that of ASTM D 1637, for tensile heat distortion
temperatures. In this test a load of 50 psi is applied to a strip and the temperature is
increased at a rate of 2°C/minute. If a sheet is oriented, it will usually shrink before it
starts to elongate rapidly.
Another thermal consideration concerns warp temperature, the temperature at which a
material begins to distort. A test for it can be performed either on the product itself or
test specimens. It is somewhat subjective, since the definition of failure with this test
usually varies for each application. However, the test can be useful, since it attempts to
duplicate actual conditions of use. In a warp test it is important to note not only the
% of Retention at 200°C
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
o U L Temp 150"C 140"C 22O"C 13O"C 18O"C 200"C 17O"C
Index
P Sultone PET PPS Nylon 66 PES PAl P!lenoloc
Figure 4-13. An example of room-temperature tensile strength retention at 204°C (400°F),

based on the UL's relative thermal index (RTI) test.
temperature but also the humidity. With certain materials, humidity combined with el-
evated temperatures has a significant effect on the material's behavior. This effect would
not be evident in HDT (DTUL) tests.
Test specimens can also be used to simulate some degree of warpage. Figure 4-14
compares unreinforced and reinforced glass fiber-TS polyester flexural-type specimens
at different temperatures in a droop test (with a center support), sag test (end supports),
and an expansion test (bolted at three points). The study for this particular test is conducted
at various temperatures.
By this point it should be clear that analyzing the thermal limits of the various materials
available, starting with the maximum and minimum environmental temperatures under
which a product must operate and adding any thermal increase from hysteresis heat that
develops from flex or vibration and so on will at least tell the designer which materials
cannot be used. The ratings given the designer will also provide some idea of the short-
term stiffness to be expected of various materials at elevated temperatures, as well as
their thermal aging resistance with regard to certain properties. Establishing two param-
eters, ASTM D 648 and UL 746B, for a variety of materials provides the designer with
a reasonable starting point for initially assessing materials for high-temperature appli-
cations. Most high-performance plastics are filled compounds, since fillers and reinforce-
ments (see Fig. 4-15) generally enhance high-temperature strength and stiffness.
with glass
260 0
without glass
with glass
without glass
with glass
without glass
with glass
Ambient
--
Droop Test
---
Sag Test Expansion Test
without glass
Figure 4-14. An example of droop, sag, and expansion tests with a glass-fiber-TS polyester
composite.
500,000
GRAPHITE
400,000
.;;;
a. BORON
X GLASS
..... 300,000
...
C)
Z
'"
.....
V!
~ST'"
200,000
100,000 TITANIUM
~ALUM/NUM
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
TEMPERATURE, of
Figure 4-15. An example of tensile strength versus temperature in high-performance materials.
A general definition for a high-temperature plastic is one having a thermal value in

terms of ASTM D 648 and UL 746B higher than 149°C (300°F). There are numerous
plastics that are both processable and have useful mechanical properties in the 149 to
260°C (300 to 500°F) range. Their costs are usually high, but so is their performance.
High-temperature plastics fall into the usual categories of TSs and TPs. The TSs are
used principally by the aircraft and aerospace markets but also for automotive, industrial,
and electronic products. Epoxies are principally used, with others being polyesters, phe-
nolics, and urethanes. These resins are usually reinforced with the high-strength fibers
seen in Figure 4-15, individually or in combination with S-glass, graphite, aramid, and
others. (About 85 percent by weight of all composites used in conventional-temperature
environments only require E-glass.)
High-temperature TPs are available to compete with TSs, metals, ceramics, and other
nonplastic materials (see Figs 4-16 through 4-18). The heat-resistant TPs include Victrex
polyetherketone and polyethersulfone (ICI-LNP), Torlon polyamideimide (Du Pont), Xy-
dar liquid crystal polymer (Amoco), and others seen in Chapter 6. These TPs have high
inherent heat resistance and offer such other advantages over TSs as toughness and ease
of processing. Some of these plastics are amorphous, with a high Tg , such as PES, but
some like PEEK and the liquid crystal polymers (LCPs) are highly crystalline. Some
high-temperature polymers are commercially available in neat form, with others being
available only in the filled or reinforced form for such high-performance products as PPS
and others. Many of these plastics can be processed on standard or modified TP processing
equipment, which requires melting at higher temperatures than commodity resins, but
others, like the polyimides, generally have to be machined into shape.
The direction of high-temperature TSs appears to be toward more toughness using new
processing techniques for the aviation and aerospace markets. The high-temperature TPs
have been receiving considerable attention as possible replacements for TSs in advanced
composites because of their higher toughness, faster processing, and ease of repair. The
TPs are being promoted in both unreinforced and reinforced forms as molding and
Temperature OF
100 200 30e ~bo
ISO
--- ---
---- ~-~
---
20,000
", ,
.............:
"
... ...
...........
--c:---~
~~
'" ~ .......
.
.......................
" .. ..,
D-
:; 100 IS,OOO
......
_.-'---'---
~:-
- ....... -<00, : --
J:C
c;, "
' ",
~ ......... , ......
PES 4100G - -
U5
.!E ....... ....
........ -....., ',- '
10,000-
....
';;;
c:
PES 4101GL30 - - - ~ ,
'. .
SO
40% glass-fiber reinforced
... .
~
'
poiyphenylene sulphide ----- "
........ 5000-
30% glass·fiber reinforced _ _ _
polysulphone .
polysulphone······ •
0 50 100 150 200
Temperature °C
Figure 4-16. An example of the effect of temperature on tensile strength for some heat-resistant
ICI-LNP TPs.
extrusion materials. Their high continuous-use temperatures, combined with their good
chemical, water, and flame resistance and low smoke generation, are finding new ap-
plications, particularly as their price is reduced through higher volume usage. The growth
of TP-TS hybrids, offering TPs' ready processing combined with TSs' long-term di-
mensional stability, is also positive.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Part of the wide acceptance of plastics is from their relative compatibility to chemicals,
particularly to moisture, as compared to that of other materials_ Because plastics are
largely immune to the electrochemical corrosion to which metals are susceptible, they
can frequently 'be used profitably to contain water and corrosive chemicals that would
attack metals. Plastics are often used in corrosive environments for chemical tanks, water
Temperature OF
100 200 30<
15
.......................
'"
D-
C!> 10
.............
w
"
-'~'~.
:;
-. ~---.---.-- ...
"C
o "'-::"-='::'::.- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
PES 410OG--
:;
"iii
", --- ..............
PES 4101GL30 - - -
=>
x ",
~ 5 '"
40% glass-fiber reinforced ~------~--------~----~cr--------+-------~
poiyphenylene sulphide - - - --
30% glass-fiber reinforced _ _ _
polysulphone
polysulphone······ •
...... .............. ............. ....... -
o 50 100 150 200
Temperature °C
Figure 4-17. An example of the effect of temperature on the flexural modulus for some heat-
resistant ICI-LNP TPs.
400.000-
2.'5-__
--------------~ -:.::::.:::.,- ------ -----

'" 2.0
"- ----- ----------
~
'"
V>
----~~ ""-.. ----2"00":'000-

:::>
:;
'Victrex' PES:
"C
~ t'i:s-------- __
28 MPa (4000 Ibflin') - - ~ '.
-. -....... .........
28 MPaP(~~\~~7i~~) ------ ~ ......... ....... ..........
'"
.
1.0
20 ~C~~(~8~~~~) ....... ~
nylon 66: ___• Data for polysulphone, polycarbonate.
0.5 acetal copolymer and nylon 66 100.000
20 MPa (2900 Ibf/in2) - from Modern Plastics Encyclopaedia.
polycarbonate: - - - 1 week
20.6 MPa (3000 Ibf Iin2) 0 1 Yfar
I
10 10 2 10 3 10 4
Time - hours
Figure 4-18. An example of time dependence for the tensile-creep modulus for some ICI-LNP
TPs.
treatment plants, and piping to handle drainage, sewage, and water supply (see Figs. 4-
19 through 4-23). Structural shapes for use under corrosive conditions often take advantage
of the properties of RPs and composites. However, certain plastics are subject to attack
by aggressive fluids and chemicals, although not all plastics are attacked by the same
media. It is thus most practical to select a plastic to meet a particular condition. For
example, some plastics like HDPE are immune to almost all commonly found solvents.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) in particular is noted principally for its resistance to
practically all chemical substances. It includes what has been generally identified as the
most inert material known worldwide.
It is important to recognize that all materials will have problems in certain environments,
whether they are plastics, metals, aluminum, or something else. For example, the cor-
rosion of metal surfaces has a damaging effect on both the static and dynamic strength
properties of metals because it ultimately creates a reduced cross-section that can lead to
eventual failure. The combined effect of corrosion and stress on strength characteristics
is called stress corrosion. When the load is variable, the combination of corrosion and
the varying stress is called corrosion fatigue. This problem can be controlled in several
ways. One is to select the best material, such as stainless steel, a copper allOY, or titanium.
Another is to use a nonmetallic protective coating of plastic or film. Certain systems like
plating can reduce fatigue strength. Shot peening, then plating, seems to produce much
greater improvement, but shot peening, plating, and then baking can bring the fatigue
limit to a point lower even than that of the base metal. The point is that all materials
have their limitations and must be critically analyzed if no prior experience exists upon
which to draw.
For example, RP and composite underground gasoline storage tanks have this "ex-
perience." A Chicago service station's May 1963 installation was still leaktight and
structurally sound when unearthed in May 1988. The tank was one of sixty developed
by Amoco Chemical Co. It was fabricated in two semicylindrical sections of fiberglass-
woven roving and chopped strand mat impregnated by an unsaturated isophthalic polyester
TS resin selected for its superior resistance to acids, alkalis, aromatics, solvents, and
hydrocarbons. The two sections were bonded to each other and to end caps with composite
lap joints. Today the cylinder would be a single, unified construction as seen in Figure
4-19. The demand for this type of petroleum storage tank has grown rapidly as environ-
mental regulations have become more stringent [114].
Figure 4-19. This CorBan Industries RP water-filtration tank, of glass-fiber-TS polyester,
which is 20 ft. in diameter by 32 ft. high, could be the largest low-pressure molded tank ever
built and shipped in one piece.
266
Figure 4-20. These glass-fiber-TS polyester 4,OOO-gallon tanks installed in a marina permit
boat owners to purchase gasoline at the pier. Before they were installed, gasoline either had to
be carried to the marina or purchased elsewhere, because of corrosive conditions underground
for metal or other tanks.
Today's underground tanks must last thirty or more years without undue maintenance.
To meet these criteria they must be able to maintain their structural integrity and resist
the corrosive effects of soil and gasoline, including gasoline that has been contaminated
with moisture and soil. The tank just mentioned that was removed in 1988 met these
requirements, but two steel tanks unearthed from the same site at that time failed to meet
them. There was no record of how long the steel tanks had been in service, but one was
dusted with white metal oxide and the other showed signs of corrosion at the weld line.
Rust had weakened this joint so much that it could be scraped away with a pocketknife.
Tests and evaluations were conducted on the tank that had been twenty-five years in the
ground and also on similarly constructed tanks unearthed at five and a half and seven
and a half years that showed the RP tanks could more than meet the service requirements.
Table 4-2 provides factual, useful data from these tests.
The chemical resistance of plastics is well known (see Chapter 6). Most materials
suppliers have by now developed long-term data for the commonly used and other chem-
icals as well. Great care must be taken in selecting them, particularly regarding envi-
ronmental conditions. For instance, two materials that do not attack a plastic when used
separately may be troublesome when used in combination or diluted with water. And
additives such as fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, and catalysts can decrease or
Figure 4-21. These animal pens are made from Xycon hybrid resin RPs from the Amoco
Chemical Co. The rods are a TS polyester reinforced with glass fibers.
increase the chemical resistance of unfilled or neat resins. Temperature is also important
in all cases; careful tests must be made under the actual conditions of use in making a
final selection.
Of especial importance to chemical resistance, particularly in the RPs, is the processing
method used. If, for example, a chemical and a mechanical component act simultaneously,
cracking or fiber debonding can occur in the resin, considerably accelerating the diffusion
Figure 4-22. CorBan Industries of Tampa, Florida, mass produced this corrosion-resistant glass-
fiber-TS polyester filament-wound pipe in 6O-ft. lengths with diameters up to 12 ft. The 6O-ft.
lengths of 54-in.-diameter pipe shown here for pulp and paper mill effluent lines were installed
in 1968.
Table 4-2. Data on RP/Composite Underground Gasoline Storage Tanks

Unearthed after Different Periods
Test Results
Age at Testing
Property 5.5 Years 7.5 Years 25.0 Years
Buried-excavated 117/65-8/21170 4/4/64-10/24171 5/15/63-5/11188
Flexural strength: Psi 19,500 24,200 22,400

MPa 134 167 154
Flexural modulus: Psi 725 x 103 795 X 1Q3 635 x 1Q3

MPa 4,992 5,482 4,378
Tensile strength: Psi 10,700 13,600 10,500

MPa 74 94 72
Tensile modulus: Psi 1,160 x 1Q3 1,053 X 103 1,107 X 103

MPa 7,260 8,000 7,630
Tensile elongation: % l.ll 1.25 1.13
Notched Izod
impact strength: ft.-Ib'/in. 9.7 11.0 14.1
J/m 518 587 753
of the aggressive media to the glass fibers. Whereas the diffusion of aggressive media
such as acids and alkalis proceeds slowly in resins, these media advance rapidly along
glass fibers. The serviceability of these types of plastics in corrosive media can be
guaranteed only if proper attention is given to processing variables like voids (see Chapter
7), including the fiber orientation and construction.
Figure 4-23. This 9l-ft.-diameter corrosion-resistant glass-fiber-TS polyester filament-wound

stack and breech for a Texas chemical plant incorporates bell and spigot joints for ease of
installation.
Stress Cracking and Crazing

Environmental stress cracking is the cracking of a plastic part that becomes exposed to
a chemical agent while the part is under stress. This effect may be caused by exposure
to such agents as cleaners or solvents. The susceptibility of affected plastics to stress
cracking by a particular chemical agent varies considerably among plastics, particularly
the TPs. If the stress is below a critical value, the plastic may sustain little or no damage
during exposure.
The resistance of a given plastic to attack may be evaluated by using either constant-
deflection or constant-stress tests in which specimens are usually coated with but can also
be immersed in the chemical agent. After a specified time the degree of chemical attack
is assessed by measuring such properties as those of tensile, flexural, and impact (see
Figs. 4-24 through 4-26). The results are then compared to specimens not yet exposed
to the chemical. In addition to chemical agents, the environment for testing may also
require such other factors as thermal or other energy-intensive conditions.
A classic example illustrating the effects of stress cracking is the case of the PE milk
bottle from the 1950s. A PE polymer and a process to blow mold the bottles were
successfully integrated to the point where the lactic acid in the milk would not cause a
premature split in the highly stressed neck area of the bottle.
As noted, stress cracking is intensified by an increase in temperature. As an example,
the results from testing HOPE pressure-pipe specimens in water at 82°C (180°F) show
results in a life span of just a few hundred hours but when the water temperature is at
23°C (74°F) the life expectancy becomes fifty years. In both tests, water was moving
through the pipes.
It is possible with solvents of a particular composition to determine quantitatively the
level of stress existing in certain TP moldings where molded-in stresses exist. The stresses
need not be applied ones but can be residual (internal) stresses resulting from the molding
or other forming process that was used to shape the plastic part. Solvent mixtures suitable
for this type of test are available for materials such as PSs, PCs, and acrylics through
resin suppliers, who can provide details.
Control. no oil or previosly
applied stress'
t> 0 psi · (0 MPa)
~
,';i
Strain.£
Previously no stress or applied stress IHllng .16 hours
with sample eoated with vegelable 011 prior to testing
lor the short-term stress-strain ballavlor shown.
opsi . (0 MPa) 1000 psi· (6.9 Mpo) 2000 psi· (13.8 MPo) 3000 psi · (20.7 MPa)
<> <>
~I
Strain, £ Strain. E Strain, E:
Figure 4-24. An example of the influence of tensile stress-strain curves subjected to an

environment that influences the ductility of a specific plastic.
•
•
Figure 4·25. Two tensile test bars under the same stress were sprayed with acetone . The top
one cracked quickly, but the other did not fail. Different plastics were used.
Thermoplastic cracking develops under certain conditions of stress and environment,

sometimes on a microscale. Because there are no fibrils to connect surfaces in the fracture
plane (except possibly at the crack tip), cracks do not transmit stress across their plane.
Cracks result from embrittlement, which is promoted by sustained elevated temperatures
and ultraviolet, thermal, and chemical environments existing in the presence of stress or
strain. There appears to be no practical definition that can sufficiently distinguish between
environmental and other stress cracking, although the micromechanics of the two types
of cracking may be quite different.
5_
COW'
.,' f
W
I'" Rtlt9tftl
&bow. Tooof
01S' l""'l _
• 00lO"0025 to
31 .... 1200 ......
P,ffl.
JUI Tvbt
00.'"112111151
Ho" ttcII. 8Iau
SHC'"'C" Hole"
IBI
Figure 4·26. In this test a specimen is bent in a container and subjected to a chemical agent.
This apparatus is per ASTM D 1693.
For the designer it is unimportant whether cracking develops upon exposure to a benign
or an aggressive medium. The important considerations are the embrittlement itself and
the fact that apparently benign environments can cause serious brittle fractures when
imposed on a product that is under sustained stress and strain, which is true of certain
plastics.
Crazing, or stress whiting, is damage that can occur when a TP is stretched near its
yield point. The surface takes on a whitish appearance in regions that are under high
stress. Crazing is usually associated with yielding. For practical purposes stress whiting
is the result of the formation of microcracks or crazes, which is another form of damage.
Crazes are not true fractures, because they contain strings of highly oriented plastic that
connect the two flat faces of the crack. These fibrils are surrounded by air voids. Because
they are filled with highly oriented fibrils, crazes are capable of carrying stress, unlike
true fractures. As a result, a heavily crazed part can still carry significant stress, even
though the part may appear to be fractured.
It is important to note that crazes, microcracking, and stress whiting represent irre-
versible first damage to a material, which could ultimately cause failure. This damage
usually lowers the impact strength and other properties of a material compared to those
of undamaged plastics. One reason is that it exposes the interior of the plastic to attack
and subsequent deterioration by aggressive fluids. In the total design evaluation, the
formation of stress cracking or crazing damage should be a criterion for failure, based
on the stress applied.
Testing
In addition to testing for stress cracking, other useful tests are available for evaluating
the chemical resistance of plastics under different conditions. Typical ASTM standards
for such tests include:
D 1693. "Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance of Ethylene Plastics (ESCRs)."

D 2552. "Environmental Stress Rupture of Type III Polyethylenes Under Constant Tensile
Load."
D 543. "Resistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents-Establishes 50 Standards Re-
agents."
D 570. "Water Absorption of Plastics."
D 581. "Chemical Resistance of Thermoset Resins Used in Glass Fiber Reinforced
Structure."
D 1712. "Resistance of Plastics to Subtile Staining."
D 2299. "Staining Tests."
WEATHER RESISTANCE
Ultraviolet rays and the heat from solar radiation degrade the natural molecular structure
of certain plastics. Acrylics, PCs, PPO (see Fig. 4-27), TFE, silicone, and TS polyester
are plastics that have outstanding durability under UV exposure. The resistance to sunlight
of those that degrade can be significantly improved by using chemical stabilizers and
various fillers that can screen and protect the plastic from radiation. Weather resistant
paints and coatings can also protect plastics from UV damage.
The effects of UV radiation on degradable plastics are usually confined to the exposed
surface layers. The general effect is one of embrittlement. Tensile strength may either
Figure 4-27. These roofing panels by N.ailite International of Miami are featured on GE
Plastics' Living Environments Concept House seen in Chapter 1. The panels are made of GE's
Noryl PPO resin, known for its excellent moisture, UV, wear resistance, and flame resistance.
Nailite first marketed such panels in the Los Angeles area, where a ban on cedar shakes and
shingles was being considered.
increase or decrease, but the elongation upon breaking is always reduced. A loss of impact
strength is the usual measure of UV degradation. The creep rupture strength will also be
reduced dramatically, and the onset of the knee in the stress-strain curve of a PE, for
example, will be accelerated. UV degradation is aggravated by stresses or strains, and
the element may stress crack or craze after deterioration has occurred. The secondary
effect of UV degradation is usually a yellowing or browning of the plastic.
Other elements of weather and outdoor exposure can interact with UV radiation to
accelerate degradation in degradable types of plastics. They include humidity, salt spray ,
wind, industrial pollutants, atmospheric impurities such as ozone, biological agents, and
temperature. The wavelengths that have the most effect on plastics range from 290 to
400 nm (2,900 to 4,000 A).
One of the insidious disadvantages of certain plastics is their tendency to absorb moisture
from ambient air and then change their size and properties (see Table 4-3). There are
protective measures that can be taken with certain plastics in regard to coatings, chemical
treatments, additives, and so on. With it is practical, the best way to circumvent problems
of this type is to select a plastic with the lowest possible absorption rate or design the
product so that such complications do not develop.
The unpredictable scheduling and high dollar costs of all-weather natural testing have
brought much of the environmental testing into laboratories or other testing centers.
Table 4-3. Water Absorption Values for Some Plastics, per ASTM D 570
Water
Plastic Absorption, wt %
PTFE 0.00
PE, high density <0.01
PP <0.01
PVC 0.03
PS 0.05
PC 0.15
PSU 0.22
POM 0.25
Nylon 11 0.25
Polyvinyl butyral 1.0
Nylon 6 1.3
Cellulose acetate 1.7
Artificial conditions are provided there to simulate various environmental phenomena and
thereby aid in evaluating the test item before it goes into service in natural environments.
This environmental simulation and testing requires extensive preparation and planning.
It is generally desirable to obtain generalizations and comparisons from a few basic tests
to avoid prolonged testing and retesting. The type and number of tests to be conducted,
whether natural or simulated, are as usual dependent on such factors as end-item per-
formance requirements, time and cost limitations, past history, performance safety factors,
the shape of specimens, the available testing facilities, and the environment.
UV test data are usually obtained through actual outdoor exposure or in special test
cabinets. Outdoor exposure tests may be as simple as attaching test samples to a surface
at a angle suitable for the latitude where the test is being conducted or as complicated
as having mirrors and sun-tracking equipment to accelerate the effective exposure. Test
cabinets also are available to accelerate testing. Generally, they employ high-intensity
xenon or carbon-arc lamps to generate high levels of UV exposure in a relatively short
time.
STERILIZATION-IRRADIATION
Fundamentally, radiation is the emission of energy in such forms as light and heat or the
transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves. Irradiation basically identifies
the radiant energy per unit of intercepting area. The effect of these energies on degrading
plastics and in changing or improving their properties is measurable (see Table 4-4). Most
nontechnical people consider only that radiation results in degradation, but the irradiation
of plastics is an important science for packaging sterilized medical products, curing
plastics, converting certain TPs to TSs, and so on.
Sterilization is an important process that involves a major market for the use of plastics
in packaging. The most common methods of sterilization are those using heat, steam
(autoclaving), radiation, and gas (EtO-ethylene oxide) (see Tables 4-5 and 4-6). Un-
fortunately, each of these methods has its limitations. There are, however, plastics that
do meet performance requirements based on the various different processes, including
radiation.
Table 4-4. Radiation Damage to Common Insulating and Packaging Materials
Material Dose in Megarads Comments
o 10 10· 102 103 10" lOs

I I I I I I I I II I l I
PTFE - - - - - - - - - - - Loses 40% of its tensile strength, crumbles at higher doses
Nylon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Loses elongation properties rapidly, tensile strength remains
Methylmethacrylate - - - - - - - - Serious deterioration
Butyl and fluorocarbon plastics - - - - Deterioration beginning
Silicone rubber - - - - - - - - - - - - Loses its elasticity
Polyester film - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Threshold mechanical damage: becomes weak and brittle
Phenolic-urea - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Little effect
Cellulose acetate - - - - - - - - - - - - Loses 25% mechanical properties: electrical properties unaffected
Vinyls - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Loses up to half its tensile strength and elongation
Polyethylene - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Loses 75% elongation, 15% tensile strength
Natural rubber - - - - - - - - - - - - - Loses 25% of its properties
Melamine (general purpose) - - - - - - - - - - Loses 25% or more of its strength
Polystyrene - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Resistivity decreases, mechanical properties remain
Unfilled semiflexible epoxy - - - - - - - - - - - Little evidence of change
Filled semiflexible epoxy - - - - - - - - - - - Produces stiffening and some blisters
Rigid epoxy (general purpose) - - - - - - - - - - May crack, become weak and brittle
Silicone glass laminate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Little or no effect
Mineral-filled phenolic - - - - - - - - - - - - - Little effect
Heat-resistant filled epoxy - - - - - - - - - - - - No deterioration
Mica-glass laminate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Virtually unaffected
Inorganics: Mica, ceramics, glass - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Resistivity temporarily changed, but few other effects noted
t.;I
;;:
PERMEABILITY AND BARRIER RESISTANCE

In the past, the usual materials used to contain food, gasoline, chemicals, perfumes,
medication, and many other items and keep them from permeating or being contaminated
were metal and glass. For a century now, however, plastic containers have been entering
the arena of packaging. At first only certain plastics could be used, which were usually
rather thick or heavy compared with what is used today. There have been various plastics
that could provide permeability protection (see Table 4-7). With the growth of plastics
use in containers and packages, requirements to make them more compatible or useful
developed. The two major approaches for providing permeability resistance in plastic
containers involve chemically modifying the plastics' surfaces and, more important from
a marketing standpoint, the use of barrier plastics with nonbarrier types to meet cost-to-
performance requirements. This is achieved through coextrusion, coinjection, and other
such processes [1-15, 62-68, 356-58].
Chemically modifying a plastic's surface during or after fabrication permits controlling
the permeation behavior of such parts as diaphragms, film, and containers. These tech-
niques are becoming increasingly important. There is now a search on for better barrier
materials for packaging applications, in particular to produce blow-molded gasoline con-
tainers. The amount of gasoline permeation through the presently used HDPE tanks, even
though it is low, is still excessive, thus requiring some type of barrier. Such a barrier
can be created by a layer of functionalized PE formed on the inside of the container wall
by a chemical reaction, mostly sulfonation or fluorination [12].
Oxifluorination is a new process in which fluorine gas is thinned with nitrogen to which
several percent of oxygen by volume have been added [357]. Subjecting PE to fluorine
and oxygen at the same time leads to functionalization of the PE, making it impermeable.
This technique permits substantially reducing the required amount of fluorine, resulting
in a cost-to-performance improvement.
Barrier plastics using oxifluorination are widely used for foods. With these, barriers
are needed to protect them against spoilage from oxidation, moisture loss or gain, and
changes or losses in favor, aroma, or color. Most plastics can be considered barrier types
to some degree, but as barrier properties are maximized in one area (as the gases such
as O2 , N2 , or CO 2), such other properties as permeability and moisture resistance diminish
(see Table 4-8 through 4-12).
To design a multilayer package or container that must have barrier properties, the usual
approach could consume time and costly shelf-life testing. One technique that promises
to reduce much of this time and cost is called CABD, for Computer-Aided Barrier Design,
a database developed by the EV AL Company of America (EV ALCA). This method
allows the designer to select only those barrier structures that are most likely to pass the
shelf-life testing. Mathematical models can now predict the performance of constituent
materials through the full range of processing, sealing, storage, and retail sale conditions.
Diffusion/T ransport Properties

The ability of a plastic to protect and preserve products in storage and distribution depends
in part upon the diffusion (i.e., transport) of gases, vapors, and other low-molecular-
weight species through the materials. A substance's tendency to diffuse through the
polymer bulk phase is its diffusivity or diffusion coefficient (D). The rate of diffusion is
related to the resistance, within the polymer wall, to the movement of gases and vapors.
Two important aspects of the transport process are permeability and the migration of
Table 4-5. General Guide for Plastics' Behavior in Sterilization Peformance

Boiling
Plastics Dry Heat Autoclaving Water Radiation Gas
PE-LD + +
PE-HD + + +
ElVR + +
PP + + 0 +
TPX + + + + +
PVC rigid + 0
PVC flexible 0 + + 0
PS 0 + +
SAN 0 + 0
ABS 0 + 0
PMMA cast + 0 +
PMMA granulate 0 +
Polyamide + + + +
Cellulose + +
Polyimide + + + + +
PTFE + + + +
PCfFE + + + + +
FEP + + + + +
PC 0 + + +
PSU + + + + +
PES + + + + +
PPS + + + + +
Phenolic resin + + + + +
Carbamic resin + + + +
Melamine resin + + + +
Epoxy resin 0 0 + +
Silicone + + + + +
PUR 0 + +
Key: + suitable; - unsuitable; 0 restricted suitability.
additives. Possible migrants from plastics can include residual monomers, low molecular-
weight polymers, catalyst residues, plasticizers, antioxidants, antistatic agents, chain
transfer agents, light stabilizers, FR (fire resistant) agents, polymerization inhibitors,
reaction products, decomposition products, lubricants and slip agents, colorants, blowing
agents, residual solvents, and others.
Permeability
The driving force for gases and vapors penetrating or diffusing through, for example,
penneable packages is the concentration difference between environments inside and
Table 4-6. Mechanical Property Data after Various Steam Sterilization Cycles
Using Vernitron model 8020 and 8089 Units
Number of Sterilization Cycles
Mechanical Property of Plastics Initial 20 40 60 80 100
Polycarbonate
Tensile strength (psi) 10,400 9,300 9,500 9,180 9,070 5,290
Tensile impact strength (ft.-lb./in.2) 220 79 78 9 5 3
Poly(ester-carbonate)
Poly(etherimide)
Poly( ether sulfone)
Polysulfone
Tensile impact strength (ft.-lb'/in.2) 153 105 113 91 98 87
Table 4-7. Permeability Resistance of Different Plastics

Oxygen Moisture Grease Heat Cost per
Resin Barrier Barrier Resistance Toughness Sealability Cu. In.
HDPE, LDPE EVA X X X Low

Polystyrene Low
Ionomers X X X X Medium
Polypropylene X X Low
PVC X Low
ABS X Medium
Polyester X X High
PVDC X X High
Nylon X X X X High
Key: X identifies penneability resistance.
Table 4-8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Barrier Plastics

Used in Food Packaging
Material Advantages Disadvantages
High-nitrile Good 02/C02 barrier Moderate moisture barrier

(Barex) Monolithic or coextrusion Nonbeverage FDA approval
Scrap reuse Moderate impact resistance
Not moisture sensitive Limited grade offering
EVOH Excellent 02/C02 barrier Moisture sensitive

Scrap reuse
Extended grade offering
PVDC Excellent 02/C02/H20 barrier Difficulty in scrap reuse

Coextrusion, lamination or No monolithic structures
coatings
Nylon (Selar PA) Moderate 02/C021H20 barrier Moderate 02/C021H20 barrier

Monolithic or coextrusion High-cost O2 barrier
Nylon (MXD6) Excellent 02/C02 barrier Moderate moisture barrier

Potential low-cost O2 barrier No commercial monolithic
containers
278
Table 4-9. EVOH Odor Permeability*

Methyl Ethyl Methyl
Film Ketone Salicylate B-Pinene Toluene Styrene
HDPElEVOHlEVA 0.65 0.0011 0.0013 0.027 0.0610

(1.25 mil)
PP/EVOHlPP <0.01 0.009 0.0036 0.0003 <0.0002
(1.0 mil)
PP/PET/PP 2.40 2.16 0.0088 1.310 0.0018
(1.0 mil)
PVDC-coated oriented 0.44 0.871 0.0320 0.470 0.0046
PP (1.8 mil)
'In g/m 2 x 24 hrs. x 100 ppm @ 73"F, 0% RH (tie layers omitted for clarity).
outside the package. A diffusing substance's transmission rate is expressed by mathe-

matical equations commonly called Fick's First and Second Laws of Diffusion:
dC
F=-D dX (4-1)
dC = Dd2C (4-2)
dt tfX2
where F = flux (the rate of transfer of a diffusing substance per unit area), D = diffusion
coefficient, C = concentration of diffusing substance, t = time, andX = space coordinate
measured normal to the section.
To measure gas and water vapor permeability, a film sample is mounted between two
chambers of a permeability cell. One chamber holds the gas or vapor to be used as the
permeant. The permeant then diffuses through the film into a second chamber, where a
detection method such as infrared spectroscopy, a manometric, gravimetric, or coulo-
metric method; isotopic counting; or gas-liquid chromatography provides a quantitative
measurement. The measurement depends on the specific permeant and the sensitivity
required.
Three general test procedures used to measure the permeability of plastics films are
the absolute pressure method, the isostatic method, and the quasi-isostatic method.
The absolute pressure method (see ASTM D 1434-66, "Gas Transmission Rate of
Plastic Film and Sheeting") is used when no gas other than the permeant in question is
Table 4-10. Permeation Rates of Organic Solvents on Selected Plastics*

Solvent
Thickness
Film (mils) Chloroform Xylene MEK Kerosene
EVAL®EF-E 0.8 0.20 0.09 0.31 <0.003

EVAl®EF-F 0.8 0.13 0.07 0.25 <0.003
EVAL®EF-XL 0.6 0.01 0.03 0.02 <0.003
LOPE 2.0 178.1 20.97 4.77 4.90
Oriented PP 0.8 241.3 22.58 0.77 3.42
Oriented nylon 1.0 0.87 0.06 0.17 0.02
PET 1.0 20.0 0.11 0.10 0.03
'In g/IOO in. 2 x 24 hrs. @ 2O'C, 65% RH (organic solvent @ 2O'C).

Table 4-11. Barrier Properties of Selected Commercially Available Plastics

O2 Transmission Rate Water Vapor Trans. Rate
@ 25°C 65% RH @40°C9O% RH
Polymer cc.milll00 in.2/24 hrs. gm.milll00 in. 2124 hrs.
Ethylene vinyl alcohol 0.05-0.18 1.4-5.4

Nitrile barrier resin 0.80 5.0
High-barrier PVDC 0.15 0.1
Good barrier PVDC 0.90 0.2
Moderate barrier PVDC 5.0 0.2
Oriented PET 2.60 1.2
Oriented nylon 2.10 10.2
Low-density polyethylene 420 1.0-1.5
High-density polyethylene 150 0.3-0.4
Polypropylene 150 0.69
Rigid PVC 5-20 0.9-5.1
Polystyrene 350 7-10
present. Between the two chambers a pressure differential provides the driving force for
permeation. Here the change in pressure on the volume of the low-pressure chamber
measures the permeation rate.
With the isostatic method, the pressure in each chamber is held constant by keeping
both chambers at atmospheric pressure. In the case of gas permeability measurement,
there must again be a difference in permeant partial pressure or a concentration gradient
between the two cell chambers. The gas that has permeated through the film into the
lower-concentration chamber is then conveyed to a gas-specific sensor or detector by a
Table 4-12. General Comparison of Metalized Coextruded Polyolefin (PE) and

Aluminum-Foil Laminate
Metalized Coextruded
Polyolefin Foil Laminate*
Tensile strength MD 18-19 18-19

CD 12-13 11
Mullen strength 19-20 17
Gurley stiffness MD 70-75 117-112
CD 42-47 72-77
WVTR (grn/csll24 Approx .. 05 .0006
hrs.)
Oxygen transmission Approx. 10 Less than .004
(cc/csIl24 hrs.)
Light transmission Slightly less Approx.O%
than 1%
Seal type Fin onlyt Fin or Lap
Seal range 350-500°F 160--350"F
(40 psi, 15
sec.)
Deadfold
(subjective) 4 7
(1-10 Scale)
Flex crack resistance 8 5
(subjective)
(1-10 Scale)
*.0003" gauge foil. wax laminated to 12'12# paper, wax laminated to 8'/2# tissue.
tWhile a lap seal is technically possible, the bond is too weak to be considered commerical.
carrier gas, for quantitation. Commercially available isostatic testing equipment has been
used extensively for measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability of both plastic
films and complete packages.
The quasi-isostatic method is a variation of the isostatic method. In this case at least
one chamber is completely closed, and there is no connection with atmospheric pressure.
However, there must be a difference in penetrant partial pressure or a concentration
gradient between the two cell chambers. The concentration of permeant gas or vapor that
has permeated through into the lower-concentration chamber can be quantified by a
technique such as gas chromatography.
Three related methods based on the quasi-isostatic method are used to measure per-
meability. The most commonly used technique allows the permeant gas or vapor to flow
continuously through one chamber of the permeability cell. The gas or vapor permeates
through the sample and is accumulated in the lower-concentration chamber. At prede-
termined time intervals, aliquots are withdrawn from the lower cell chamber for analysis.
The total quantity of accumulated permeant is then determined and plotted as a function
of time. The slope of the linear portion of the transmission-rate profile is related to the
sample's permeability.
BIOLOGICAL AND MICROBIAL DEGRADATION

Certain plastics such as TP polyesters, polyurethanes, cellulosics, and plasticized PVC
can be degraded by microorganisms. It has been observed that enzymes attack noncrys-
talline regions preferentially. As a result, the resistance of susceptible polymers to mi-
crobial degradation is related directly to the degree of crystallinity of these polymers.
They remain relatively immune to attack as long as their molecular weight remains high.
Most plastics are characteristically durable and inert in the presence of microbes.
This stability is important to plastics' long-term performance. However, for some
applications only short-term performance is desired before the product is discarded, as
in the fast-food and packaging markets. In such cases it is considered advantageous for
discarded plastic to degrade when exposed to microbes. There thus exists a requirement
to develop or modify plastics possessing the properties required for their service life, but
with the capability of degrading in a timely and safe manner, particularly to handle the
worldwide waste situation.
The amount of degradation of plastics under the action of bacteria and fungi is of
interest because of land-shortage problems in solid-waste management and litter accu-
mulation and other environmental problems on land and sea. The agricultural use of
plastics in mulch, films, seeding pots, and binding twines has increased significantly,
making biodegradation a desirable feature in plastics, to minimize disposal and soil-
pollution problems. Many areas worldwide have enacted or are considering legislation
to require that disposable plastics be degradable (Chapter 12). With plastics designed to
include degradability, the designer could have a monumental problem in ensuring that
degradation will occur only after a product's useful life is over.
The deterioration of plastics by biological agents should be distinguished from other
forms of plastics degradation. Many other types of plastics degradation may be classified
clearly as chemical in nature. In them a deteriorative agent causes a chemical degradative
reaction to occur. Chemical bonds are broken or new ones established. Different molecular
species, of a molecular size smaller or larger than the original desirable species, are
formed, and these species no longer have the properties for which the original plastic
was chosen.
This generalization is also true for the degradation caused by heat, electromagnetic
radiation, oxygen and ozone, and high-energy nuclear radiation. It is also true for the
chemical degradation caused by acids, bases, or other strongly reactive chemical agents.
The reaction types include oxidation, ozonization, radical formation, crosslinking, chain
scission, and others. The symptoms are described as hardening, embrittlement, softening,
cracking, crazing, discoloration, or alteration of specialized properties such as dielectric
strength.
The situation with some forms of biological deterioration is somewhat different. Where
the agent is macrobiological, as in the case of rodents, insects, and marine borers, the
attack is physical in nature, such as by gnawing or boring. The attack is not at the atomic
or molecular level. Any breaking of molecular bonds such as in polymer chain shortening
is thus accidental. The attack may be said to be at the material's structural level, not the
polymer molecule level.
An important item to note is that most commercially used plastics are not single-
component pure substances. Practically always, the basic polymer itself, rarely if ever a
single molecular species, is compounded with other components such as plasticizers,
pigments, antioxidants, and other additives. More often than not, then, biological sus-
ceptibility is due to the nonpolymer component.
Plastics' deterioration can be classified as either by a microorganism, a macroorganism,
or a marine organism (both micro and macro). In the case of microbiological agents, as
in fungal and bacterial deterioration, the polymer alterations are caused by chemical
attack. This has been demonstrated for the attack on the natural polymer cellulose by
fungi through the cellulase enzymes, for many esters, and for many hydrocarbons. It is
not yet so clearly proven for the many synthetic polymers, but there is sufficient evidence
that may be ascribed to enzyme action as being probably the chief mechanism. Thus,
although the medium of attack is biological, the destructive agents are chemical.
Fungal and bacterial deterioration are identified as microbiological and have always
caused problems to materials. Fungal attack on plastics has received a great deal of
attention beginning with the early days of World War II, when the tropical theaters served
to focus attention on the overall problem of materials deterioration.
Microbial deterioration of plastics is intimately involved with the moisture problem,
especially with regard to plastics in electronic equipment. For this reason much of the
literature treats the two problems together. Furthermore, there is often confusion between
the deterioration of the electrical properties of plastics, more often than not a moisture
phenomenon, and actual deterioration of the substance of the polymer.
Most investigators agree that in the electronics field moisture accounts for the greater
effect. Often, if the moisture problem is solved the fungal aspect is also overcome,
because of the dependence of organisms on water. Yet not all of this twin problem may
be ascribed to moisture, for there are instances where microorganisms are able to destroy
the substance of a polymer or attack the nonpolymer constituents of a plastic formulation.
Furthermore, as one shifts attention from plastics in electronic equipment to other items
where plastics are used, there are clear-cut cases of destruction by fungi. Examples may
be found in films, fibers, and coatings.
FLAMMABILITY
When plastics are used, their behavior in fire must be considered. Ease of ignition, the
rate of flame spread and of heat release, smoke release, toxicity of products of combustion,
and other factors must be taken into account. Some plastics burn readily, others only
Table 4-13. Heat Values for Different Building Materials*

Potential Heat
Weight Volume
Thickness Density Basis Basis
Material (in.) (mm) (lb./ft.3) (g/cm3) (Btu/lb.) (cal/g) (Btu/ft. 3)
Woods
Douglas fir, untreated 0.75 (19) 38.0 (0.609) 8,400 (4,670) 319 x 103
Douglas fir (retardant 0.75 (19) 37.2 (0.596) 8,290 (4,600) 308.0
treatment "A")
treatment "B")
treatment "C")
Maple, soft, untreated 1.0 (25) 39.5 (0.633) 7,940 (4,410) 314.0
Hardboard, untreated 0.25 (6.3) 59.8 (0.958) 8,530 (4,740) 510.0
Plastics
Polystyrene, wall tile 0.075 (1.9) 65.4 (1.05) 17,420 (9,680) 1,140.0
Rigid, polyvinyl chloride, 0.147 (3.73) 86.0 (1.38) 9,290 (5,160) 799.0
retardant treated
Phenolic laminate 0.063 (1.6) 76.4 (1.22) 7,740 (4,300) 592.0
Polycarbonate resin 0.25 (6.3) 78.7 (1.26) 13,330 (7,406) 1,050.0
Insulation
Glass fiber, semirigid, no 1.0 (25) 3.0 (0.048) 3,040 (1,690) 9.1
vapor barrier
Rock wool batting, paper 3.0 (76) 2.4 (0.038) 1,050 (583) 2.5
enclosure
Roof insulation board 1.0 (25) 10.4 (0.167) 3,380 (1,880) 35.1
Cork (reconstituted cork sheet) 0.25 (6.3) 14.8 (0.238) 11,110 (6,172) 164.0
Cellulose mineral board 2.0 (5.1) 47.8 (0.766) 2,250 (1,250) 108.0
Concrete
Cinder aggregate 93.0 (1.49) 3,080 (1,710) 286.0
Slag aggregate 110.1 (1.764) 80 (44) 8.9
Shale aggregate 80.5 (0.0206) 10 (5.5) 0.5
Calcareous gravel aggregate 133.1 (2.132) -250 (- 77) -33.1
Siliceous gravel aggregate 166.8 (2.672) -40 ( -22) -6.7
Miscellaneous
Paint "E" (dried paint film) 0.05 (1.3) 3,640 (2,020)
Asphalt shingles (fire retardant) 0.25 (0.64) 70.7 (1.13) 8,320 (4,620) 588.0
Building paper (asphalt 0.042 (Ll) 42.8 (0.686) 13,620 (7,567) 583.0
impregnated)
Building paper (rosin sized) 0.018 (0.46) 23.6 (0.378) 7,650 (4,250) 181.0
Linoleum tile 118 (3.2) 86.0 (1.38) 7,760 (4,310) 667.0
Brick, red, face 2.25 (57) 139.1 (2.228) 20 (1Ll) 2.2
Charcoal, coconut 13,870 (7,706)
• All weights and percentages refer to original air-dry weight.
with difficulty, and still others do not support their own combustion (see Table 4-13). A
plastic's behavior in fire depends upon the nature and scale of the fire as well as the
surrounding conditions. Fire is a highly complex, variable phenomenon, and the behavior
of plastics in a fire is equally complex and variable [1, 14, 15,62-68, 361-72).
Early in this century it was thought that the matter of fire hazard was simple enough:
does the material bum, or not? Wood bums; steel does not. Although these statements
are certainly true, they are almost irrelevant to the relative fire risk of the two materials.
Compare fires in two different buildings, one framed of heavy timbers or plastic bonded-
Table 4-14. Ignition Temperatures of Various Plastics

Self Ignition Rash Ignition
Material °C of °C of
Polyethylene 350 662 340 644

Polypropylene 550 1,022 520 968
Polytetrafluoroethylene 580 1,076 560 1,040
Polyvinyl chloride 450 842 390 734
Polyvinyl fluoride 480 896 420 788
Polystyrene 490 914 350 662
SBR (styrene butadiene rubber) 450 842 360 680
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) 480 896 390 734
Polymethyl methacrylate 430 806 300 572
PAN (Polyacrylonitrile) 560 1,040 480 896
Cellulose (paper) 230 446 210 410
Cellulose acetate 470 878 340 644
66 Nylon cast 450 842 420 788
66 Nylon spun and drawn 530 986 490 914
Polyester 480 896 440 824
laminated wood arches and the other of steel framing. The steel frame, particularly if it
is of light steel, will collapse after only a few minutes of exposure to fire, but it may
require a fire of long duration to bring down the timber-framed building. Fire reaches
1,370°C (2,500°F), and steel basically takes only up to about 538°C (I,OOO°F), making
it collapse like a pretzel. Wood, like certain plastics, can take the heat, and it takes a
rather long time to self-destruct, thus giving time for people to leave the scene of the
fire.
Fire tests of plastics, like fire tests generally, are frequently highly specific, with the
results being specific to the tests. The results of one type of test do not in fact often
correlate directly with those of another and may bear little relationship to actual fires.
Some tests are intended mainly for screening purposes during research and development,
whereas others, such as large-scale tests, are designed to more nearly approximate actual
fires. Consequently, such often-used terms as self-extinguishing, nonburning, jfame spread,
Table 4-15. Decomposition Ranges (Td ) for Various Plastics

Temperature
Material °C ~
Polyethylene 340-440 645-825

Polypropylene 320-400 610-750
Polyvinyl acetate 215-315 420--600
Polyvinyl chloride 200-300 390-570
Polyvinyl fluoride 370-470 700-880
Polytetrafluoroethylene 500-550 930-1,020
Polystyrene 300-400 570-750
Polymethyl methacrylate 180-280 355-535
Polyacrylonitrile 250-300 480-570
Cellulose acetate 250-310 480-590
Cellulose 280-380 535-715
6 Nylon 300-350 570-660
66 Nylon 320-400 610-750
Polyester 280-320 535-610
and toxicity must be understood in the context of the specific tests with which they are
used (see Table 4-14 through 4-16).
Some materials may burn quite slowly but may propagate a flame rapidly over their
surfaces. Thin wood paneling will burn readily, yet a heavy timber post will sustain
a fire on its surface until that is charred, then smolder at a remarkably slow rate of burning.
Bituminous materials may spread a fire by softening and running down a wall. Steel of
course does not burn, but is catastrophically weakened by the elevated temperatures of
a fire. PVC does not burn, but it softens at relatively low temperatures and emits irritating
hydrogen chloride fumes. Other plastics may not burn readily but still emit copious
amounts of smoke. And some flammable plastics, such as polyurethane, may be made
flame retardant (FR) by incorporating in them additives such as antimony oxide. Other
plastics basically do not burn, such as silicone and fluorine (see Chapter 6).
The principles of good design for fire safety are as applicable to plastics as to other
materials. The specific design must be carefully considered, the properties of the materials
taken into account, and good engineering judgment applied. When evaluating the fire
risk that exists with plastic products it is always best to perform appropriate tests on the
end items. However, it is often helpful to select plastic materials for specific applications
by first evaluating the flammability of the plastics under consideration in laboratory tests.
These tests, often used for specifying materials, fall into the category either of small-
scale or large-scale tests. Of course, as in evaluating any properties, having prior knowl-
edge or obtaining reliable data applicable to fire or other requirements is the ideal situation.
Small-Scale Burning
In small-scale fire tests, as in many laboratory screening tests, several stages are involved.
At relatively low temperatures, as from 80 to 100°C (175 to 212"F), slow oxidation
occurs. This feature, which is also characteristic of aging, is often enhanced as temper-
atures increase. As the temperature is raised closer to 100°C (212"F), the process is
accelerated. When the temperature becomes high enough, from 200 to 300°C (390 to
570"F), the process becomes exothermic in the presence of air (oxygen), which is to say
Table 4-16. Specific Heats for Various Plastics
·C·
Temperature
Material callg.
Polyethylene 0.55
Polypropylene 0.46
Teflon 0.25
Polyvinyl chloride 0.25
Polyvinyl fluoride 0.30
Polystyrene 0.32
SBR (styrene butadiene rubber) 0.45
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) 0.35
Cellulose acetate 0.40
6 Nylon 0.38
66 Nylon 0.40
Polyester 0.30
Phenol formaldehyde 0.40
Epoxy resins 0.25
Polyimide 0.27
*The specific heat expressed as 811J/1b. "F has the same value.
that heat is evolved, giving off decomposition products and usually volatile flammable
products. Thermoplastics soften or melt, whereas thermosets characteristically maintain
their shape. If more heat is added, autoignition will occur, at about 400°C (7500 P),
resulting in the combustion of many plastics. However, there are plastics that do not
melt, even above 538°C (l,OOOOP) (see Chapter 6).
Large-Scale Burning
Large-scale tests can evaluate the contribution of plastic components to a full-scale fire
external to the application. This type of test is often used to obtain a preliminary indication
of the ways plastics might contribute to a fire. The foregoing description of the successive
stages of decomposition and ignition of plastics pertains to small-scale fires that are
generally conducted in a laboratory. In real fires, as in a room of a building, the same
reactions may take place but the scale and the temperatures involved will be much larger
and more complex, leading to phenomena not found in small-scale, controlled laboratory
burning. The following stages are generally encountered in real fires: ignition, buildup
and spread, flashover, a fully developed fire, and ultimately its propagation.
Smoke
Toxic smoke and fumes have became generally recognized as the major cause of fire
deaths, making the combustion products released by burning plastics and other materials
particularly important. Smoke is recognized by firefighters as being in many ways more
-800 ;--
TEST CONOITIONS
-700
American National Bureau of Standards
Smoke Chamber
600 3.2 mm (0.126 in) samples
r-
Flaming condition
r--
-500
r--
400
300
f-200 r--
r--
nn n
100
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Figure 4-28. An example of smoke emission upon the burning of some plastics compared to
Victrex PES, from ICI-LNP.
dangerous than actual flames because 1) it obscures vision, making it impossible to find
safe means of egress, thus often leading to panic; 2) it makes helping or rescuing victims
difficult if not impossible; and 3) it leads to physiological reactions such as choking and
tearing. Smoke from plastics, wood, and other materials usually contains toxic gases such
as carbon monoxide, which has no odor, often accompanied by noxious gases that may
lead to nausea and other debilitating effects as well as panic.
Whether a plastic gives off light or heavy smoke and toxic or noxious gases depends
on the basic polymer used, its composition of additives and fillers, and the conditions
under which its burning occurs. Some plastics bum with a relatively clean flame, but
some may give off dense smoke while smoldering. Others are inherently smoke producing
(see Fig. 4-28). The composition of the smoke depends upon the composition of the
plastic and the burning conditions, as with other organic materials.
In a particular application, therefore, careful consideration should be given to the
relative importance of smoke and flame, including creating designs favoring the rapid
elimination of smoke by venting, for fending off smoke, and other approaches.
Tests
Different regulations, such as those of the Federal Aviation Administration, Department
of Transportation, and local building codes, mandate that the designs of certain products
comply with specific flammability test requirements. Flame-retardancy requirements gen-
erally include limits on flame spread, burning time, dripping, and smoke emission. A
multitude of flammability tests have been developed, with more than 100 known just in
the United States. The most common ASTM tests are given in Table 4-17.
By far the most stringent and most widely accepted test is UL 94, concerning electrical
devices. This test, which involves burning a specimen in a vertical position, is the one used
for most flame-retardant plastics. In this test the best rating is UL 94 V-O, which identifies
a flame with a duration of 0 to 5 s, an afterglow of 0 to 25 s, and the presence of no flaming
drips to ignite a sample of dry, absorbent cotton located below the specimen. The ratings go
from V-0, V-I, V-2, and V-5 to HB, based on specific specimen thicknesses.
The flame spread and dripping tendencies of test materials are also characterized in
ASTM standard D635. In this a horizontal test specimen provides the results of the
average time of burning (ATB) and average extent of burning (AEB). In both the UL
and ASTM tests, the presence of glass fibers and other reinforcements or fillers improves
flammability ratings and significantly inhibits dripping.
A more quantitative measure of a material's resistance to burning can be determined
from ASTM D 2863. This standard measures the minimum concentration of oxygen in
an oxygen-nitrogen mixture that will support candlelike burning for three minutes or
longer. The results are reported as a Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI). Composites with
LOIs above 28 percent are usually listed as UL 94 V-O. Obviously, the higher the LOI
value (that is, the more oxygen needed), the lower the combustibility. Since air contains
about 21 percent oxygen, any rating below 21 will probably support combustion in a
normal, open environment.
Smoke emission is measured in an air column above a burning specimen in a National
Institute of Standards & Technology (previously the National Bureau of Standards) smoke
chamber (see Fig. 4-28). In the NIST test a specified area of plastic is exposed to heat
under flaming conditions, with smoke measurements being reported as "specific optical
density." This is dimensionless value represents the optical density measured over a unit
of path length within a chamber of unit volume that is produced from a test specimen of
Table 4-17. Common ASTM Flammability Tests

Property Test Type
Ignitability ASTM DI929 Setchkin apparatus

ASTM 0635 Bunsen burner
UL94 Bunsen burner
Hame spread ASTM EI62 Radiant-panel test
ASTM E84 Steiner tunnel test
Smoke ASTM E662 NBS smoke chamber
ASTM D2843 XP-2 smoke chamber
ASTM E84 Steiner tunnel test
Oxygen content ASTM 02863 Glass column
unit surface area. The optical density measurement (Dmax) is based on the amount of
attenuation of a light beam by smoke accumulating within the closed chamber during
flaming combustion. As a reference, the Dmax for red oak is 76.
Smoke generated during combustion consists of suspended soot particles that form
between the pyrolysis zone and the flame's front. These particles are molecules of highly
condensed ring structures that are most readily formed by aromatic polymers such as
SAN, SMA, and polyphenylene ether. The polymers having aliphatic carbon backbones,
such as polypropylene and nylon, tend to generate less smoke, but in the FR compounds
this effect is offset by an increase in smoke caused by halogenated flame-retardant ad-
ditives. Plastics with a higher thermal stability, such as PC, PSF, PES, PEEK, and PPS,
produce the least smoke of the available UL 94 V-O TPs.
There are seemingly endless programs to better understand fire tests and continually
develop more realistic fire tests. Ohio State University has one with specific heat limits.
The NIST has a cone calorimeter for heat release that is more sophisticated than the OSU
one. And the National Institute of Building Science has an evolutionary version of the
NIST smoke and toxicity test [361].
The outcome of fires involving plastics in buildings and transportation vehicles and
the odds of survival for the occupants can be predicted by a personal computer program
called Hazard I, developed by the Center for Fire Research, which is a part of the NIST,
in Gaithersburg, Maryland. Based on a user-constructed scenario, Hazard I draws on its
modules and databases to quantify such key fire variables as flame spread, oxygen de-
pletion, and smoke and toxic-gas generation as fire spreads through imaginary premises.
Any combination of furniture, furnishings, and building products, with their related
plastics and ignition conditions, can be specified. Besides showing the types and amounts
of combustion by-products, this program also figures the amount of time available for
escape and, based on behavior models, predicts the likely number of fatalities among the
occupants and their probable cause of death.
Hazard I has obvious applications for writing fire-code standards and could be useful
for establishing liability in fires involving fatalities. It can also be used by compounders
to predict the performance of developing FR plastics and to compare plastics. This software
package is available from the National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park,
Quincy, Massachusetts, 02269.
THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

From ships to submarines to mining the sea floor, certain plastics can survive sea envi-
ronments, which are considered more hostile than those on earth or in space. For water-
Figure 4-29. Extensive use has been made of both unreinforced and reinforced plastics in boats
such as this U.S. Navy aircraft flattop for structural and nonstructural parts, electrical devices
and wiring, electronic scanners and devices like radomes, optically transparent devices, food
storage and dispensing devices, medical systems, buoyant devices, temperature insulation, and
many more, particularly of plastics that resist damage from saltwater.
surface vehicles many different plastics have been designed and used successfully in both
fresh and the more hostile sea water (see Table 4-18 and Fig. 4-29). Boats have been
designed and built up to at least 37 x 9 m (120 x 30 ft.) in RP. This overview highlights
underwatt;r developments, since the familiarity of plastics in this regard is rather limited.
Plastics have already become vital for operating within the sea, even though compar-
atively little is yet known about the qualities of the sea (see Fig. 4-30). This frontier's
practical opportunities were first developed with submarines, which until the nuclear ones
were limited to depths of only a few hundred feet. Many thousands of feet can now be
navigated. The crushing pressures below the surface, which increase at a rate of about 1
psi per foot of depth, make corrosion a major threat to the operation and durability of
many materials. For example, the life of uncoated magnesium bolts in contact with steel
nuts is less than seventy-two hours, and aluminum buoys will corrode and pit after only
eleven months at just four hundred feet.
Tests on plastics in deep water have been extremely encouraging. Low-carbon steel
corroded at a rate one-third greater than in surface waters. Filament-wound reinforced
plastic cylinders and PVC buoys retained their strength. PVC washers and the silicone
sealing compound used in steel-to-aluminum joints helped prevent corrosion.
Black twisted nylon and polypropylene ropes used to rig and retrieve test platforms
were unaffected. Grappling lines attached to platforms, made of steel wire jacketed with
extruded high-density PE, prevented corrosion of the steel. PE is also used to protect
submerged telephone cables. Plastic primers such as epoxy are used to prevent antifouling
paints from corroding metals. These paints generally use cuprous oxide to prevent the
growth of barnacles, but at the same time can be harmful to metal.
Plastics are used successfully in instruments to determine depth, the velocity of currents,
temperature, and as echo sounders. Parts operating to depths of 4,500 m (15,000 ft.)
include molded polystyrene rotors, neutrally buoyant polyethylene control vanes, PVC
N
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Table 4-18. Examples of Typical Yacht Fittings in Plastics

Type of Fitting Traditional Material Plastics Material Advantages of Plastics over Traditional Materials
Cabin interiors and Wood or metal Polyester/glass Much skilled labor required if these items are in
internal fitments conventional materials. Prefabrication in polyester/glass
quickens and cheapens fitting out, resulting in a more
durable product needing little maintenance
Cockpit canopy Wood with canvas Polyester/glass with PVC Lighter in weight, more durable, and capable of better
coated nylon curtains styling
Compass binnacles Wood Polyester/glass Lighter, more durable, and attractive
Deck covering Painted canvas PVC coated fabric; nylon More expensive, but better looking and more durable
sheathing
Deck fittings Bronze; galvanized mild steel Nylon; acetal No tarnishing or danger of plating peeling off
Fenders Rubber PVC More expensive, but longer lasting under normal
conditions; remain attractive and easier to clean; no
tendency to chalk
Fuel piping Metal Nylon Cheaper to install and noncorrodible
Fuel tanks Copper, steel, or light alloy Polyester/glass Translucent so that contents are visible; no corrosion, and
unaffected by fuels
Helmsman's seat Wood or metal Polyester/glass Lighter, cheaper, and no maintenance needed
Hinges Brass Nylon; occasionally Less expensive and quieter; no polishing required
polypropylene
Navigation lamps Metal casing with glass lens One-piece acrylic molding Cheaper; improved styling possible; no maintenance
needed
Outboard motor shrouds Metal Polyester/glass No drumming, improved sound insulation; better styling
possible
Pulley sheaves Metal Nylon or phenolic Preserves life of ropes; noncorrodible and improved
laminate; acetal appearance
Pumps and bailers Brass or galvanized steel Polyethylene Neither dents nor scars the boat; will float if accidentally
dropped overboard
Ropes for rigging, Natural fibers Polyester fiber, nylon, More durable and attractive; easier on hands and most
anchor warps, etc. polypropylene, etc. fittings
Rowlocks and sockets Bronze or galvanized steel Nylon or acetal Quiet and less harsh on the oars; cheaper than bronze,
but slightly more expensive than galvanized steel
Sails Cotton Polyester or nylon fiber More durable and requires less maintenance
Screens Glass Acrylic; CAB More easily formed to curvature required by modem
design trends
Steering column Wood Polyester/glass Lighter and cheaper; no maintenance required
Steering wheel Teak and metal Molded acrylic Less expensive
Stem bearings Rubber, white metal, or Phenolic/cotton laminate Cheaper and generally superior in performance, though
lignum vitae tending to wear in shallow, sandy water
Upholstery Kapok or foamed rubber Polyurethane foam with More durable and wider color range
covered in leather or canvas PVC covering
Ventilators Bronze or galvanized steel Acrylic Cheaper; no maintenance required
Water piping (cold) Metal Polyethylene Cheaper to install; noncorrodible
Window moldings Rubber PVC More durable; improved color range
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Figure 4-30. In 1965 an extensive test was conducted by the U.S. Navy's Sealab II to assay
man's ability to live and work in ocean depths for long periods of time. For forty-five days three
groups of ten men each lived fifteen-day periods in a 57 ft. x 12 ft. habitat at a depth of 188 m
(205 ft.) one half mile off La Jolla, Calif. Plastic parts as well as other materials were used to
provide a highly successful experiment.
buoy supports, O-ring seals, polyethylene flotation, and watertight electrical connectors
using PVC, polyurethane, and DAP.
The design and the materials used are the keys to the most efficient faired and unfaired
cables for towing, monitoring, and controlling instruments in the deepest water. Tests
show that faired shapes rather than conventional bare wire are required in order to reach
greater depths with a given length of cable, to obtain higher speeds while maintaining a
certain depth, to have the dead-weight instrument remain nearer a point directly below
the stem of the ship, and reduce vibration, prolong cable life, and maintain the orientation
of instruments when a ship rolls and pitches.
As towed instruments at the end of a line are at the mercy of hydrodynamic and
gravitational forces controlling their motion through the water, the towline requires more
attention than the instruments. Reducing cable drag is accomplished by a shape that
usually has a concave curved side facing into the stream. The curvature is greatest next
to the instrument and diminishes rapidly going up the line. This shape permits towed
lines to follow a short, downward-curving arc appended to a straight line.
Plastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyurethane are used to develop
the shapes and provide different combinations of desirable characteristics such as ease
of wrapping around standard winches, resistance to the water environment and abrasion,
good electrical insulation in wire-conducting cables, and ease of fabrication and repair.
The materials studied for deep-submergence hulls are generally limited to steel (Hy
170), aluminum, titanium, reinforced plastics and composites, and glass (see Figs. 4-30
to 4-3~). The submergence materials show the variation of the collapse depth of spherical
hulls with the weight displacement of these materials. All these materials initially would
permit building the hull of a rescue vehicle operating at 1,800 m (6,000 ft.) with a collapse
depth of 2,700 m (9,000 ft.). It would appear that the most practical approach is to use
steel or titanium. However, steel alone was considered, since titanium's susceptibility to
stress-corrosion failure at high stress levels would not make it safe.
For a search vehicle operating at 6,000 m (20,000 ft.) with collapse depth of 9,000 m
(30,000 ft.), the only materials that appear suitable are solid glass and RP. No metals
can be used, because they potentially do not have sufficient strength-to-weight values.
One of the drawbacks to using glass in hulls is its lack of toughness. Another serious
problem is the difficulty in designing penetrations and hatches in a glass hull. A solution
to these problems could be a filament winding around the glass or using a tough plastic
skin. These glass problems show that the RP hull is very attractive on a weight-displace-
5,000
10,000
...
IS,OOO :::
-MEAN z:
DEPTH 20,000 ;;
......
----- ~IW:UM 25,000 ~
ATLANTIC ____ I----t-;;;i;----tt---t---t----+---t---t---t---+- 30,000
MARIANAS 35,000
TRENCH ----- L_~.J......._..J.__.J..__..J__~_~_ __I__....J.._ _.l._
PlCIFIC
o- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
PERCENT Of OCEAN lESS THAN INDICATED DEPTH
Figure 4-31. The depth limitations of various hull materials in near-perfect spheres, super-
imposed on the familiar distribution curve of ocean depths, are here summarized. To place the
materials in their proper perspective, the common factor relating their strength-to-weight
characteristics to a geometric configuration for a specified design depth is the ratio showing the
weight of the pressure hull to the weight of the seawater displaced by the submerged hull, a
factor referred to as the weight displacement (WID) ratio. The portions of the bars above the
depth-distribution curve correspond to hulls having a 0.5 WID ratio, the portion beneath
showing the depth attainable by heavier hulls with a 0.7 WID.
The ratio of 0.5 and 0.7 is not arbitrary, as it may appear, for small vehicles can normally be
designed with WID ratios of 0.5 or less, and vehicle displllCC(ments can become quite large as
their WID ratios approach 0.7. Using these values permits making meaningful comparisons of
the depth potential of various hull materials. An examination of the data reveals that for all the
metallic pressure-hull materials taken into consideration, the best results would permit operation
to a depth of about 18,288 m (20,000 ft.) only at the expense of increased displacement. The
nonmetallic materials of reinforced plastics (those with just glass-fiber-TS polyester) and glass
would permit operation to 20,000 ft. or more with minimum-displacement vehicles.
0
STEEL
....
w 10,000
w
u.
X
l-
ll.
w 20,000
0
w
K?
<l
...J
...J 30,000
8
40,000
02 0 .5
WID
Figure 4-32. Examples of materials for deep-submergence spherical vehicles. Depths are shown
against the WID (weight of vehicle divided by the weight of its seawater displacement).
~ 45
l- VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS '
X PRESSURE HU LL VOLUME 382 CU FT
(!)
/9 FT SPHERE)
w40~---+~~O+~~~~---1-
OPERATING DEPTH 20.000 FT
~ MAXIMUM SPEED 5 KNOTS
ENDURANCE 30 HOURS AT 3 KNOTS
~
HY1 4 0
STEEL
D
'. ' HY 220
HYI05
TITANIUM
D
25~---+----+----1--~~----1 HY· 140
NONMETALUCS
nBER REINFOR CED PLASTICS.
GLASS . CERAMICS
200~2--~0~3~~~0~4--~0~5~--~0~6--~0~7
WID RATIO FOR FLOATATION SYSTEM
Figure 4-33. The effects of a pressure-hull and flotation system on vehicle weight.
294
ment ratio, strength-weight ratio, and for its fabrication capability. A significant advantage
of RP over solid glass is that it is available today and the technology of fabricating large,
thick-wall structures already exists. Also, with an increased modulus of elasticity in new
reinforcements additional gains can be obtained beyond what is presently available in
conventional RPs.
RPs have already been used in different structural applications, to replace conventional
metal in seawater-compressed air surfacing ballast tanks in the Alvin depth vehicle. This
vehicle, a first-generation deep research vehicle, also used RP in its outer hull construction
to enclose the pressure tanks and aluminum frame. In the unmanned acoustical research
vehicle of the Ordnance Research Laboratory called Divar, an RP cylinder with a 16 in.
OD, 3/4 in. wall thickness, 12 112 in. ID with nine ribs, a 60 in. length and weight of
180 pounds went to depths of 950 m (6,500 ft.).
In addition to developing solid RP structures, work has been conducted on composite
sandwich structures such as filament-wound plastic skins with low-density foamed core
or a plastic honeycomb core to develop more efficient strength-to-weight structures.
Sandwich structures using a syntactic core have been successfully tested so that failures
occurred at prescribed high-hydrostatic pressures of 28 MPa (4,000 psi).
The design of a hull is a very complex problem. Under varying submergence depths
there can be significant working of the hull structure, resulting in movement of the attached
piping and foundations. These deflections, however slight, set up high stresses in the
attached members. Hence, the extent of such strain loads must be considered in designing
attached components.
Buoyancy in some form is employed in nearly all categories of underwater and surface
systems to support them above the ocean bottom or to minimize their submerged weight.
The buoyant material can assume many different structural forms utilizing a wide variety
of densities, as shown in Table 4-19. The choice of materials is severely restricted by
operational requirements, since different environmental conditions exist. For example,
lighter, buoyant liquids can be more volatile than heavier liquids. This factor can have
a deleterious effect on a steel structure by accelerating stress corrosion or increasing
permeability in reinforced plastics.
The typical syntactic foam used for buoyancy in many vehicles is made of hollow
glass, ceramic, or plastic microspheres of 30 to 300 micron size, uniformly dispersed in
a resin such as epoxy. The navy, desiring to develop a material to replace the more
conventional gasoline flotation one, produced an excellent syntactic foam. Strict pro-
cessing and quality control in producing the foam can develop a static hydrostatic pressure
of 10,000 psig and fatigue testing of 1,000 cycles.
In the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute's three-man 1,800 m (6,000-foot) depth
vehicles, approximately 5,000 lb. of syntactic foam are used to provide buoyancy. With
a specific gravity of 0.68, it requires three pounds of material to gain one pound of
buoyant effect. However, its main attributes are that of being able to tailor it to fit the
available space and being useful to at least a 5,000 psi load.
Cavitation Erosion
With increasing ship speeds, the development of high-speed hydraulic equipment, and
the variety of modem fluid-flow applications to which metal materials are being subjected,
the problem of cavitation erosion becomes ever more important. Erosion may occur in
either internal-flow systems, such as piping, pumps, and turbines, or in external ones
like ships' propellers.
N
~
Table 4-19. Examples of Buoyant Materials
Density Compressibilities Useful Operating Net Buoyancy

Type glcc (lbS./ft.3) 10-6 atm- 1 (Pa) Depths, ft. (m) Ibs./cu. ft. (kg/m3)
Liquids
Hydrocarbon .65-.85 (41-53) 40-120 (4.0-12) I ,000-38,000 (305-11,600) 10-20 (160-320)
Ammonia .60-.90 (37-56) 44-60 (4.4--6.1) 400-38,000 (120-11 ,6(0) 5-18 (80-290)
Alcohol .80-.90 (50-56) 54-85 (5.5-8.6) I ,000-38,000 (305-11,600) 7-15 (110-240)
Solids
Polypropylene .90-.92 (56-57) 20-80 (2.0-8.1) 0-38,000 (0-11 ,600) 7-8 (110-130)
Lithium .53 (33) 9 (0.91) 2,000-38,000 (610-11 ,600) 17-25 (270-400)
Ice .91-.92 (57-57.4) 7-30 (0.7-3.0) Surface 7-8 (110-130)
Cellular
Wood .20-.70 (12-44) 20-100 (2.0-10.1) 0-700 (0-210) 20-48 (320-770)
Syntactic foam .60-.80 (37-50) 30-120 (3.0-12.2) 500-9,000 (150-2,700) 6-20 (96-320)
Plastic foam .10-.80 (6.2-50) 50-1,500 (5.1-150) 0-2,000 (0-160) 12-40 (190-640)
Rigid shell
Steel .15-.80 (9-50) 0-5,500 (0-1,700) 10-50 (160-800)
Aluminum .15-.80 (9-50) 0-8,000 (0-2,400) 10-55 (160-880)
Titanium .25-.80 (16-50) 5,000-10 ,000 (1500-3,000) 10-45 (160-720)
Reinforced plastic .15-.60 (9-37) 0-25,000 (0-7,600) 20-50 (320-800)
Glass .15-.40 (9-25) 0-25,000 (0-7,600) 20-50 (320-800)
The phenomenon of cavitation was identified as early as 1873, by Osborne Reynolds.

By the tum of the century it had been called by its present name by R. E. Froude, the
director of the British Admiralty Ship Model Testing Laboratories.
Cavitation occurs in a rapidly moving fluid when there is a decrease in pressure in the
fluid below its vapor pressure and the presence of such nucleating sources as minute
foreign particles or definite gas bubbles. As a result, a vapor bubble forms that continues
to grow until it reaches a region of pressure higher than its own vapor pressure, when it
collapses. When these bubbles collapse near a boundary, the high-intensity shock waves
that are produced radiate to the boundary, resulting in mechanical damage to the material.
The force of the shock wave or of the impinging may still be sufficient to cause a plastic
flow or fatigue failure in a material after a number of cycles, depending on the properties
of the material, the existing hydrodynamic conditions, and the foil-design parameters.
The behavior of materials, particularly steel, in cavitating fluids results in an erosion
mechanism, including mechanical erosion and electrochemical corrosion. The straight-
forward way to fight cavitation is to use hardened materials, chromium, chrome-nickel
compounds, or plastics. Other cures are to reduce the vapor pressure with additives,
reduce the turbulence, change the liquid's temperature, or add air to act as a cushion for
the collapsing bubbles.
THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT

The space environment, seen as beginning in the center of the earth, extends to infinity.
In the past few decades outer space has been penetrated. These initial successful steps
depended on a number of factors, one of which was the use of plastics. As in terrestrial
uses, plastics have their place in space.
Plastics will continue to be required in space applications from rockets to vehicles for
landing on other planets. The space structures, reentry vehicles, and equipment such as
antennas, sensors, and an astronaut's personal communication equipment that must operate
outside the confines of a spaceship will encounter bizarre environments (see Table 4-20).
Temperature extremes, thermal stresses, micrometeorites, and solar radiation are sample
conditions that will be encountered.
Perhaps the most striking phenomenon encountered in outer space is the wide variation
in temperature that can be experienced on spacecraft surfaces and externally located
equipment. Temperatures and temperature gradients not ordinarily encountered in the
operation of ground or airborne structures and equipment are ambient conditions for
spacecraft equipment. On such hardware, not suitably protected externally or housed
deep within the space vehicle in a controlled environment, these temperature extremes
can wreak destruction. Designers of earthbound electronics must fight temperatures that
will produce system degradation, but spacecraft electronic designers may be fighting
temperatures that will cause their equipment to melt.
On both ends of the temperature scale, the ground- or airborne-equipment designer has
a simpler environment to contend with. In addition, the space designer has a temperature
paradox to consider. A black box cannot simply be placed in a superinsulated enclosure
anymore than a human being can. All other factors aside, both would rapidly destroy
themselves, because of self-generated heat. The equipment must therefore be exposed to
its environment in some manner, but it also needs a great deal of protection. The problem
is not as simple as putting on or taking off a sweater, depending on whether the temperature
is 21 or 70°F. The problem is to put something on and keep it on, regardless of whether
N
..c
I»
Table 4-20. Typical Environments of Atmospheric Entry Vehicles

1500-mile 5000-mile Earth Orbital
Ballistic Entry Ballistic Entry Ballistic Entry Lifting Orbital Lunar Vehicle Mars Planetary
Entry Vehicles Nose Cone Nose Cone Capsule Entry Glider Earth Entry Entry Probe
Vehicle parameter, WICDA, 800 (5.52) 1,200 (8.27) 75 (0.52) 250 (1.72) 30 (0.21) 100 (0.690)
psf (MPa)
Entry flight velocity, fps (m/s) 16,000 (4,880) 23,000 (7,010) 24,000 (7,310) 24,000 (7,310) 36,000 (10,970) 44,000 (13,410)
Entry angle, degrees -20 -15 -3 -2 -6 -90
Total heating rate, * Btu/ft. 2 8,000 (90.9) 35,000 (398) 14,000 (159) 150,000 (1,704) 140,000 (1,590) 4,000 (45.4)
(MJ/m2)
Maximum heating rate, * 500 (5.67) 2,000 (22.7) 70 (0.79) 120 (1.36) 450 (5.1) 100 (1.13)
Btufft. 2/sec. (MW/m2)
Heating time, sec. 25 30 300 6,000 1,500 45
Maximum dynamic pressure, * 10 (1.01) 40 (4.05) I (0.10) 0.1 (0.01) 1 (0.10) 600 (60.8)
atm (MPa)
·Stagnation point conditions.

the temperature is - 250 or + 250°F. Many factors give rise to the temperature extremes
encountered. However, these extremes must be understood before any consideration can
be given to a means of alleviating them.
Ablation
The most common design approach for handling intense heating and extremely high
temperatures is ablation. In this process surface material is physically removed or a
temperature-sensitive component of a composite is preferentially removed. The injected
vapors alter the chemical composition, transport properties, and temperature profile of
the boundary layer, thus reducing heat transfer to the material's surface. At high ablation
rates the heat transfer to the surface may be only 15 percent of the thermal flux to a
nonablating surface. Tens of thousands of Btu's of heat can be absorbed, dissipated, and
blocked per pound of ablative material through the sensible heat capacity, chemical
reactions, phase changes, surface radiation, and boundary layer cooling of the ablator
(see Fig. 4-34).
Ablative systems are not limited by the heating rate or environmental temperature, but
rather by the total heat load. In spite of this limitation, however, the versatility of ablation
has permitted it to be used on almost every recent hypervelocity atmospheric vehicle.
Moreover, it appears that ablation will continue to be favored as the primary thermal
protection method for future flight vehicles.
No single universally acceptable ablative material has been developed, nor is one likely
to be created. Nevertheless, the interdisciplinary efforts of materials scientists and en-
gineers have resulted in obtaining a wide variety of ablative compositions and construc-
tions. These thermally protective materials have been arbitrarily categorized by their
matrix composition. Typical materials are given in Table 4-21.
ENERGY EXCHANGES
Glass Droplets
Dense Char
Nascent Porous Char
Resin Volatilization
CONVECTION ':'.=....::...!....:-~.o.: 10-'"
RADIATION
GAS-PHASE
COMBUSTION
,
SURFACE }
COMBUSTION
RERADIATION of
TRANSPIRATION f
COOLING
CHEMICAL REACTIONS + f - - -
~= " . .~ .... -o.,.. \,D~~~1'
PHYS ICAl CHANGES ~f---
-~ ::::;t:-~r:~ :~~Ci'o-:-;:..;d•• t-----tl\..
Figure 4-34. The surface-heat balance of an ablating glass-fIber-reinforced phenolic resin
composite.
Table 4-21. Typical Ablative Compositions

Plastic Based Ceramic Based Elastomer Based Metal Based
Polytetrafluoroethylene Porous oxide (silica) Silicone rubber filled Porous refractory

matrix infiltrated with microspheres (tungsten)
with phenolic and reinforced infiltrated with a
resin with a plastic low melting
honeycomb point metal
(silver)
Epoxy-polyamide resin Porous filament- Polybutadiene- Hot-pressed refractory
with a powdered wound acrylonitrile metal containing
oxide filler composite of elastomer an oxide filler
oxide fibers and modified phenolic
an inorganic resin with a
adhesive subliming powder
impregnated
with an organic
resin
Phenolic resin with an Hot pressed oxide,
organic (nylon), carbide, or
inorganic (silica), nitride in a
or refractory metal
(carbon) honeycomb
reinforcement
Precharred epoxy
impregnated with
a noncharring
resin
Plastic-based composites, which employ an organic matrix, are the most widely used
class of ablative heat-protective materials. They respond to a hyperthermal environment
in a variety of ways, such as depolymerization-vaporization (polytetrafluoroethylene),
pyrolysis-vaporization (phenolics, epoxy resins), and decomposition-melting-vapori-
zation (nylon fiber-reinforced plastic). The principal advantages of plastic-based ablators
are their high heat-shielding capability and low thermal conductivity. Their major limi-
tations are high erosion rates during exposure to high gasdynamic shear forces and a
limited capability to accommodate high heat loads.
Rain Erosion
One who walks through a gentle spring rain seldom considers that raindrops can be small
destructive "bullets" when they strike high-speed aircraft. These bulletlike raindrops can
erode paint coatings, plastic parts, and even magnesium or aluminum leading edges to
such an extent that the surfaces may appear to have been sandblasted. Even the structural
integrity of the aircraft may be affected after several hours of flight through rain. This
problem is of special interest to aircraft engaged in all-weather flying. It affects commercial
aircraft, missiles, high-speed vehicles on the ground, spacecraft before and after a flight
when rain is encountered, and even buildings or structures that undergo high-speed
rainstorms. The critical situations exist in flight vehicles, since flight performance can
be affected to the extent that a vehicle can be destroyed. Research and development
concerning rain erosion on aircraft has been extensive.
Erosion by rain of the exterior of high-speed aircraft during flight was observed during
World War II on all-weather fighter airplanes capable then of flying at 400 mph. The
aluminum edges of wings and particularly of the glass-fiber-reinforced TP polyester-nose
radomes (particularly the Eagle Wing on B-29s flying over the Pacific) were particularly
susceptible to this form of degradation. That the problem continues to exist can be seen
in Figure 3-102.
Actual flight tests to determine the severity of this phenomenon of rain erosion carried
out in 1943 established that aluminum and RP leading edges of airfoil shapes exhibited
serious erosion after exposure to rainfall of only moderate intensity. Inasmuch as this
problem originally arose with military aircraft, the U. S. Air Force initiated research
studies at the Wright-Patterson Development Center's Materials Laboratory in Dayton.
It resulted in applying an elastomeric neoprene coating adhesively bonded to RP radomes
similar to the coating seen in Figure 3-102. The usual 5-mil coating of elastomeric material
used literally bounces off raindrops, even from a supersonic airplane traveling through
rain. There is a slight loss of radar transmission (see Figure 3-103) of about 1 percent
per mil of thickness, but this is better than losing the radome.
The next chapter explores how to analyze and design for the loads and other structural
considerations that underlie such external coatings.
Chapter 5
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ANALYSIS
Part design incorporates the factors pertaining to functional and appearance requirements,
the properties of the material, whether it be plastic, steel, wood, or of something else,
and the feasibility of processing in arriving at an acceptable solution in terms of perfor-
mance and cost. As mentioned at the outset of this book, the designer has choices that
sometimes require compromising the product requirements with processing. The choice
made will determine to a large extent the types of problems to be solved regarding not
only the part's configuration but also the mold or die design, which must likewise be
considered in arriving at a useful, economically acceptable part.
In the design or analysis of mechanical components, a systematic approach is desirable.
Frequently, the product will be one in which there are insignificant loads and no limitations
on deflection. In such cases the experience or practical approach of the designer is usually
all that is required. This is especially true with small, load-free plastic parts where the
processing requirements dictate a minimum wall thickness that is more than adequate for
the part's function. Still, even in these designs those new to plastics often neglect the
effects of stresses caused by temperature and other environments as discussed in the last
two chapters, processing, assembling, handling, decorating, and shipping (see Chapters
7 and 8).
In this chapter, simple analysis techniques are presented that will assist the designer
in developing new products to handle the anticipated loading, while keeping stress and
deflection within acceptable limits. These techniques will also be useful in product im-
provement, cost reduction, and the failure analysis of existing parts. The application of
simplified, classic stress and deflection equations to plastic parts are presented here. As
the complexity of a part increases or when particularly accurate results are required, more
exact traditional methods or computerized finite element analysis (PEA) may be required
[1,2, 7-14, 33, 40-45, 62-76, 93, 270, 278, 390-417].
LOAD-BEARING PRODUCTS
A fundamental concept in structural analysis is that the structure as a whole and each of
its elements together are in a state of equilibrium. This means that there are no unbalanced
forces of tension, compression, flex, or shear acting on the structure or a part at any
point. All the forces counteract one another, which results in eqUilibrium. When all the
forces acting on a given element in the same direction are summed up algebraically, the
net effect is zero, with no acceleration. The object does respond to the various forces
303
internally, however. It is pushed or pulled and otherwise deformed, with internal stresses
of varying types and magnitudes accompanying these deformations.
Basically, designing a load-bearing product with any material involves first selecting
a suitable material and then specifying the shape into which it is to be formed or assembled.
One important aspect of shape is its effect on internal stress. As the cross-sectional area
of a part increases for a given load, the stresses are reduced. Design is concerned with
determining the stresses for a given or hypothetical shape and subsequently adjusting the
shape until the stresses are neither high enough to risk fracture nor low enough to suggest
that material is being wasted.
Stress analysis involves using the descriptions of parts' geometry, the applied loads
and displacements, and the materials' properties to obtain closed-form or numerical
expressions for internal stresses as a function of the stress's position within the part and
perhaps as a function of time as well. The term engineering formulas refers primarily to
those equations seen previously and given in engineering handbooks by which this stress
analysis can be accomplished [33, 62-68, 76, 85, 93, 268-70, 278, 399, 402-4].
The Pseudo-Elastic Design Method

Throughout this book as the viscoelastic behavior of plastics has, been described it has
been shown that deformations are dependent on such factors as the time under load and
the temperature. Therefore, when structural components are to be designed using plastics
it must be remembered that the standard equations that are available for designing springs,
beams, plates, and cylinders, and so on have all been derived under the assumptions that
1) the strains are small, 2) the modulus is constant, 3) the strains are independent of the
loading rate or history and are immediately reversible, 4) the material is isotropic, and
5) the material behaves in the same way in tension and compression.
Since these assumptions are not always justifiable when applied to plastics, the classic
equations cannot be used indiscriminately. Each case must be considered on its merits,
with account being taken of such factors as the mode of deformation, the service tem-
perature, the fabrication method, the environment, and others. In particular, it should be
noted that the traditional equations are derived using the relationship that stress equals
modulus times strain, where the modulus is a constant. From the discussion in Chapter
3 it should be clear that the modulus of a plastic is generally not a constant. Several
approaches have been used to allow for this condition, some of which are quite accurate.
The drawback is that these methods can be quite complex, involving numerical techniques
that are not attractive to designers. However, one method has been widely accepted, the
so-called pseudo-elastic design method.
In this method appropriate values of such time-dependent properties as the modulus
are selected and substituted into the standard equations. It has been found that this approach
is sufficiently accurate in most cases if the value chosen for the modulus takes into account
the projected service life of the product and the limiting strain of the plastic, assuming
that the limiting strain for the material is known. Unfortunately, this is not just a straight-
forward value applicable to all plastics or even to one plastic in all its applications. This
value is often arbitrarily chosen, although several methods have been suggested for arriving
at a suitable value. One is to plot a secant modulus that is 0.85 of the initial tangent
modulus and note the strain at which this intersects the stress-strain characteristic. How-
ever, for many plastics, particularly the crystalline TPs, this method is too restrictive,
so in most practical situations the limiting strain is decided in consultation between the
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ANALYSIS 305
LIFTING LOAD
t PRESSURE
IN A PIPE
o
o
000
C=:J
PORTABLE TELEVISION HANDLE
Figure 5-1. Directly applied loads.
designer and the plastic material's manufacturer. Once the limiting strain is known, design
methods based on its creep curves become rather straightforward.
LOADS
In a simplified approach the first step in analyzing any part is to determine the loads to
which it will be subjected. These loads will generally fall into one of two categories,
directly applied loads and strain-induced loads [2].
Directly Applied Loads

Directly applied loads are usually easy to understand. They are defined loads that are
applied to defined areas of the part, whether they are concentrated at a point, line, or
boundary or distributed over an area. The magnitude and direction of these loads are
known or can easily be determined from the service conditions. In larger plastic parts
the weight of the part itself will not present a significant load. Figure 5-1 shows examples
of directly applied loads [2].
Strain-Induced Loads
Frequently, a part becomes loaded when it is subjected to a defined deflection. The actual
load then is a result of the structural reaction of the part to the applied strain. Unlike
directly applied loads, strain-induced loads are dependent on the modulus of elasticity
and, with TPs, will generally decrease in magnitude over time. Many assembly and
thermal stresses are the result of strain-induced loads. Figure 5-2 shows two common
examples [2].
SUPPORT CONDITIONS
When a load is applied to a part, if the part is to remain in eqUilibrium there must be an
equal force acting in the opposite direction. These balancing forces are the reactions at
the supports. For purposes of structural analysis there are several support conditions that
0..--. METAL PIN
. .- - PLASTIC BOSS
PRESS FIT PRODUCES FIXED HOOD STRAIN IN BOSS.
METAL
SCREW
PLASTIC
HOUSING
1
SCREW TOROUE PRODUCES COMPRESSIVE
STRAIN IN HOUSING
Figure 5-2. Strain-induced loads.
have been defined (see Fig. 5-3). The free (unsupported), simply supported, and fixed
supports are the most frequently encountered [2].
Free (Unsupported)
This support condition occurs where the edge of a body is totally free to translate or
rotate in any direction.
Guided
This condition is similar to the free end except that its edge is prevented from rotating.
Simply Supported
In this support condition transverse displacement in one direction is restricted, as illus-
trated.
SIMPLY
SUPPORTED
HELD
(PINNED)
FIXED
Figure 5-3. Support conditions.
307
Held (Pinned)
This situation is similar to the simply supported one except that here only rotations are
allowed.
Fixed (Clamped or Built-in)

This support condition at the end of a beam or plate prevents transverse displacement
and rotation. The condition can be thought of as an end support firmly embedded into a
fixed solid wall. In practice this condition rarely exists in its pure form, especially with
plastic parts, since the mounting points of the parts usually have some give.
SIMPLIFICATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

For purposes of discussion, in this chapter the following simplifications and assumptions
are made regarding simple tension, compression, and flexural and shear performance: 1)
the part under load can be broken down into one or more simple structures, beams, plates,
pressure vessels, and other segments for analysis; 2) the material being analyzed may be
considered to be linearly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic; while this is not necessarily
always true for plastics, this assumption is fundamental to the equations that follow; 3)
the equations assume that the load is a single concentrated or distributed static load that
is gradually applied for a short period and then removed; however, creep, relaxation, or
fatigue loads may be analyzed with the same equations, provided the appropriate modulus
and rupture (strength) conditions are applied, 4) the part being analyzed has no residual
or molded-in stresses, 5) the equations apply to regions that are remote from the point
of application of the load and from any shoulder, hole, or other sudden change in dimension
of the structure; and 6) the equations may be used at shoulders, holes, or other sudden
changes in dimensions, as long as appropriate stress concentration factors are used.
MULT1AXIAL STRESSES AND MOHR'S CIRCLE

Sophisticated design engineers unfamiliar with plastics' behavior will be able to apply
the information contained in this and other chapters to applicable sophisticated equations
that involve such analysis as mUltiple and complex stress concentrations. The various
machine-design texts and mechanical engineering handbooks previously discussed and
listed in the References section at the end of this book provide detailed analysis of these
stress-concentration factors and other load-bearing parameters.
Many structural parts are stressed in a manner that is more complex than simple tension,
compression, flex, and shear. Because yielding will also occur under complex stress
conditions, a yield criterion must be specified that will apply in all stress states. Any
complex stress state can be resolved into three normal components acting along three
mutually perpendicular axes and into three shear components along the three planes of
those axes. Then, by making a proper choice it is possible to find a set of three axes
along which the shear stresses will be zero. These are the principal axes, with the normal
stresses along them being called the principal stresses. Determining these principal stresses
in a complexly loaded member is the responsibility of the designer, a task normally
performed by using Mohr's circle and its associated relationships [42, 404].
SAFETY FACTORS
In order to take uncertainties into account in a product's design, engineers have introduced
what is familiarly called the safety factory (SF) or sometimes the "factor of ignorance."
Many designers have already used or calculated a safety factor on material, perhaps
without recognizing it. For example, dividing yield-point stress by calculated stress results
in a safety factor. This process appears to be simple and straightforward, but unfortunately
things are never quite this simple. The designer must be fully aware of what one means
when one calculates such a factor or bases a design on it. Improper use of a presumed
safety factor may in some cases result in a needless waste of material or in other cases
even physical or operational failure. Thus, one must define what is meant when using a
safety factor.
Designers unfamiliar with plastic products can use the suggested safety factor guidelines
in Table 5-1. Any product designed with these guidelines in mind should conduct tests
on the products themselves to relate the guidelines to actual performance. With more
experience, more-appropriate values will be developed. It is important to remember that
the process of materials selection can be only as good as the information on which the
selection is based.
There are no hard-and-fast rules to follow in setting safety factors for any given material
unless experience is gained in it. The most important consideration is of course the
probable consequences of failure. For example, a little extra deflection in an outside wall
or a hairline crack in one of six internal screw bosses might not cause concern, but the
failure of a pressure vessel or aircraft wing might have serious safety or product-liability
implications.
Before putting any product onto the market, tests should be run on its actual parts at
their most extreme operating conditions. For instance, the maximum working load should
be applied at the maximum temperature and in the presence of any chemicals that might
be encountered in the end use. Furthermore, the loads, temperatures, and chemicals to
which a product will be exposed prior to reaching its end use must not be overlooked.
Impact loading should be applied at the lowest temperature expected, including that which
occurs during shipping and assembly. The effects of variations in resin lots and molding
conditions must also be considered. The results should be to provide more logical safety
factors pertinent to the product and the materials used in it.
Many situations discovered during the testing of preproduction parts can be corrected
Table 5-1. Safety Factors: Preliminary Design Guidelines for Materials,

Based on Design Requirementsa
Type of Load Factor-
Static short-tenn loads 2-4

Static long-tenn loads 4-10
Variable of changing loads 4-10
Repeated loads 5-15
Fatigue or load reversal 5-15
Impact loads 10--20
"The material strength detennined is Ibe minimum required, not !he average or maximum. which is what is normally provided on manufacturers'
published data sheets.
"Low-range values represent situations where failure is not critical; !he higher values are for where failure is critical.
Note: These values are intended for preliminary design analysis only and are not to be used in place of Ihorough product design.
with a selective use of increased thickness in walls, ribs, and gussets or by eliminating
stress concentrations. Changing a material to another grade of the same resin or to a
different plastic with a suitable mechanical property profile might also be the solution.
Uncertainties
In addition to potential basic graphic design uncertainties, a designer has to consider
additional uncertainties that may exist with any material, some of which follow:
Material property variations. Material variation is an important factor often overlooked

by a designer or analyst when evaluating a particular mechanical component. Because
no two plastics are exactly alike and some materials, particularly the RPs, may have
inclusions and so on, the short- and long-term strength properties given in materials
tables are usually, or even maximum, average values.
Effect of size in stating material strength properties. Unless otherwise stated, property
tables list strength values based upon a specified size, such as 3.75 cm (! in.). Yet
larger components generally fail at lower stress than a similar smaller component
made of the same material.
Type of loading. A simple static load is relatively easy to recognize, but some cases fall
between impact loads and suddenly applied loads or infrequently applied fatigue
loading mixed with shock loads, as for example cams, links, or feeding devices.
Processing variations. Production operations may, and in fact usually do, introduce stress
concentrations and residual stresses (see Chapter 7).
Overall concern for human safety. All designs must consider the safety of the user who
may be near or in contact with the product. Unexpected sudden overloads should
not cause breakage or bodily harm.
Composites
It can generally be claimed that fiber based composite materials offer good potential for
achieving high structural efficiency coupled with a weight saving in products, fuel effi-
ciency in manufacturing, and cost effectiveness during service life. Conversely, special
problems can arise from the use of composites, due to the extreme anisotropy of some
of them, the fact that the strength of their constituent fibers is intrinsically variable, and
because the test methods for measuring composites' performance need special consid-
eration if they are to provide meaningful values.
Some of the advantages, in terms of high strength-to-weight ratios and high stiffness-
to-weight ratios, can be seen in Figure 5-4, which shows that some composites can
outperform steel and aluminum in their ordinary forms. However, it should be remembered
that these values do not include acceptable safety factors, which may require a value
of three. If bonding to the matrix is good, then fibers augment mechanical strength
by accepting strain transferred from the matrix, which otherwise would break. This occurs
until catastrophic debonding occurs. Particularly effective here are combinations of fibers
with polymer matrices, which often complement one another's properties, yielding prod-
ucts with acceptable toughness, reduced thermal expansion, low ductility, and a high
modulus.
Apart from these combinations, most composites are expected to combine the good
properties of two or more materials more cheaply than could be achieved with any single
material. Composites offer the option of achieving maximum strength in predetermined
Stress
Epoxy resin with

30% glass
~ _ _- - Epoxy resin
Strain
Figure 5-4. Examples of the tensile properties of some composites: epoxy with different
reinforcing fibers, steel, and aluminum.
axes by aligning the fibers or by using two-dimensional woven cloth reinforcement. On

the other hand, particulate solid fillers in polymeric matrices tend to yield isotropic
properties in composites, which is useful, because filler particles act as crack propagation
stoppers, thus increasing strength under adverse environments. However, at the high rates
of strain that occur upon impact, solid fillers in general do not increase strength, although
the rubbery particles incorporated on a molecular scale in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
polymers do not have this useful property.
As a further advantage, composites make effective use of some materials that are
otherwise unable to stand alone, such as mineral fibers or wood flour. When incorporated
into polymers-in particular those such as unsaturated polyesters or phenolics-particles
can reduce manufacturing shrinkage and yield a more usable product. In service, zero
thermal expansion coefficients can be achieved by a suitable choice of starting materials.
Design Allowables
In analyzing design allowables mathematically, a statistical analysis can be produced that
is based on advanced composite design analysis [405]. Such an analysis identifies four
kinds of design allowables, called A basis, B basis, S basis, and Typical basis. Of these,
the A and B basis design allow abies are used the most frequently. They are associated
with statistical assurance and based on normal distribution represented as
Design allowable =X x Ks
where X = average values of n tests/observations, K = a constant depending upon the

number of specimens, and s = standard deviation [11].
For a basis, K = 3 for 34 specimens; for B basis, K = 3 for six specimens. See
Figure 5-5 for the A basis and B basis curves.
For the design allowables to be maximal the average value of X should be the maximum
one and should use the standard deviation of s; hence, the coefficient of variation should
be the minimum (CV = siX X 1(0).
To obtain the maximum value of K, various design, materials, processing, tooling,
and quality control parameters have to be optimized. To obtain the minimum coefficient
of variation, either the part or the testing process must be reproducible, with minimal
deviation and scatter. Note that obtaining a low CV does not automatically mean that the
average value X is maximal or optimal.
Low values of a CV can be obtained even though a given testing or part-manufacturing
technique may not be optimal. It is not uncommon to obtain a low CV while obtaining
low to mediocre test values or analyzing medium-quality parts.
The design allowables should also consider service-life degradation in properties, in-
cluding such environmental ones as temperature/humidity cycling as well as fatigue and
so on, as shown in Figures 5-6 and 5-7.
It should be evident by this point that the selection of an appropriate factor for a product
is rather empirical and greatly dependent upon an individual's or industry's accumulated
experience. Where a product or device has a long history of use, the factors based on
this history are reliable. In fact, one may still depend upon such data even though
modifications have been made in design and materials. In some cases the selection of
the safety factor will be stipulated by code or contract requirements.
Statistical methods have also been employed to establish safety factors. Here account
is taken of the variance in the dimensions and strength of a mechanical component as
well as the various uncertainties described above. This approach results in having a safety
factor that is in general smaller than that which is based purely on judgment. However,
the statistical method also requires estimating possible load and strength variations, thereby
making the method somewhat less than rational. Nevertheless, the statistical approach
should be of more than just passing interest to modem designers, particularly in those
areas where experiential data for components have accumulated. Moreover, this method
permits using a relatively low safety factor, if a small percentage of failure is acceptable.
BEAM BENDING STRESSES

As indicated in Chapter 3, in simple beam-bending theory a number of assumptions must
be made, namely that 1) the beam is initially straight, unstressed, and symmetrical; 2)
its proportional limit is not exceeded; 3) Young's modulus for the material is the same
in both tension and compression; and 4) all deflections are small, so that planar cross-
sections remain planar before and after bending. The maximum stress occurs at the surface
of the beam farthest from the neutral surface, as given by the following equation (see
Fig. 5-8) [2].
Me M
a=-=-
1 Z
where M = the bending moment in in.llbs., e = the distance from the neutral axis to
the outer surface where the maximum stress occurs in in., 1 = the moment of inertia in
in.4, and Z = lie, the section modulus, in in. 3 Observe that this is a geometric property,
not to be confused with the modulus of the material, which is a material property.
I, e, Z, and the cross-sectional areas of some common cross-sections are given in
Figure 5-8, and the mechanical engineering handbooks provide many more. The maximum
1000
8
r 'N BASIS J.
6 I 99% PROBABILITY
4 O~ SURVlVA(-:-=
95% CONFIDENCE
2
(1)100 \ \
!ii8 \
~ 6
15 4 \ \
ffiell 2 \ \.
r\. ~
~
~ 10
8
6 .....- .........
4 ...:::::'7B' BASIS
---
f---90% PROBABILITY
OF SURVIVAL
2 t---9j% CONFIYNCE
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

K
Figure 5-5. One-side tolerance factors for the nonnal distribution K.
ACCEPTANCE LEVEL
PART
REQUIREMENT
FOR SERVICE
LIFE
TIME, SERVICE LIFE, PROCESSING CONDITIONS

Figure 5-6. Defect propagation in composites during service life.
INITIAL STRENGTH, 'A' BASIS (34 SPECIMENS)

SMALL SCATTER OR
/ 'B' BASIS (6 SPECIMENS)
TIME, SERVICE LIFE, PROCESSING CONDITIONS

Figure 5-7. Degradation in the composite strength property during service life.
stress and defection equations for some common beam-loading and support geometries
are given in Figure 5-9 [2]. Note that for these T- and U-shaped sections in Figure 5-8
the distance from the neutral surface is not the same for the top and bottom of the beam.
It may occasionally be desirable to determine the maximum stress on the other, nonneutral,
surface, particularly if it is in tension. For this reason, Z is provided for these two sections.
TIE
RECTANGULAR
II-!r
I-BEAM
A=bd A=bd-h(b-I)
c=~ c=d
2
2
~ c I=~ ~ c -s
I = bcJ3 - h3(b - I)
12
I-b-j ~b-lT 12
z=~ bcJ3 - h3(b - I)

6 z=
6d
H-BEAM
CIRCULAR
A=bd-h(b-I)
A=~
4 c=!!..
2
c=d
2 I = 2sb"+ht"
12
I=~
64 z= 2sb"+ht"
6b
z=~
32
C-BEAM
A=bd.h(b-I)
TUBE
A - n(do' - d!,) c=~
4 2
c=~ I = bcJ3 - h3(b - I)

2 12
I = n(do4 - d(4) z= bcJ3 - h"(b - I)

64 6d
z= n(do4 - d(4)
32do
Tor RIB U-BEAM
T:f[naT
~~b----l -j~f.-h A=bd- h(b - I)
c = d _ d 21+S2(b - I)
2(bs+hl)
;;-.-
nal _
, T
b
c=b 2b s + hl
2A
2 2
f I z=~
t l I = 2sb" 3+ hi" -A(b - c)2
t
h c
Lj
-ll~
z'= I
d·c
~d~ z=~
c
I = Ie" + b(d • c)3 • (b . IXd· c • s)3 Z,=_I_
3 b·c
Figure 5-8. The properties of some common cross-sections, based on a mechanical engineering
analysis (00 = neutral axis),
314
SIMPL Y SUPPORTED BEAM CANTILEVERED BEAM (ONE END FIXED)
CONCENTRA TED LOAD AT CENTER CONCENTRA TED LOAD AT FREE END
(at support) a =~
(at load) a=~ Z
4Z
(at load) Y =~
(at load) Y=~ 3EI
48EI
SIMPL Y SUPPORTED BEAM CANTILEVERED BEAM (ONE END FIXED)

UNIFORML Y DISTRIBUTED LOAD UNiFORML Y DISTRIBUTED LOAD
'5 T=
F (total load) I
G!"'''
r-- ----1 r- -1T
I
L
Y
L
(at center) a = FL
8Z (at support) a = FL
2Z
(at center) Y = 5FL'
384EI (at support) Y=~
8EI
BOTH ENDS FIXED BOTH ENDS FIXED

CONCENTRA TED LOAD AT CENTER UNIFORML Y DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Y Y
(at supports) a=~ (at supports) a=~

8Z 12Z
(at load) Y=~ (at center) Y= FL'

192EI 384EI
Figure 5-9. Maximum stress and deflection equations for selected beams.
315
Moment Increase Increase Ratio

Of In In _1_
Case Shape Change Inertia I Weight Wt.
Base
1 +---1- .0026
2" x V4"
Double
2 f---}- Height
.0208 700% 100% 7
3 £tj3- Add 1Ja"wx

%"HRib
.0048 85% 6.25% 14
tt?-
AddW'wx
4 .0064 146% 12.5% 12
%"HRib
5
T Add 1Ja"wx
W'HRib
,0118 354% 12.5% 28
6 lj3- Add%"wx
W'HRib
.0194 646% 25% 26
Figure 5·10. Examples of ways of using ribs to increase rigidity and reduce weight.
Ribs
The moment of inertia, /, can be changed substantially by adding ribs or gussets or some
combination of them. As shown in Table 5-2 and Figures 5-1 and 5-11, there is a better
way to achieve this result and still keep weight at a minimum by using ribbing, if space
exists for it [1, 10-12). The views include sections of equal stiffness. Adding ribs to a
part maintains its thin walls and thus allows fast fabricating cycles. It is possible to reduce
the cross-sectional area of a part and consequently reduce the amount of material used
in it, with a corresponding weight reduction.
Table 5-2. Design Examples to Obtain the Same Part Rigidity

for a Section 1 ft. x 2 ft.
Solid Structural Ribbed
Property Steel Plastic Foam Solido
Thickness (in.) 0.040 0.182 0.196 0.125

E (psi) 3 x 107 3.2 X lOS 2.56 x lOS 3.2 x lOS
I (in.4) 0.000064 0.006 0.0075 0.006
E x I (rigidity) 1,920 1,920 1,920 1,920
Weight (lbs.) 3.24 1.98 1.78 1.60
"Rib height = 0.270 in., thickness = 0.065 in., rib spacing = 2.0 in.
Aluminum Zinc Valox 420 plastic
E = 10.3 X 106 E = 2.0 X 106 E = 1.2 X 106
I = 0.0049 I = 0.0254 I = 0.0424
EI = 5.08 x 104 EI = 5.08 x 104 EI = 5.08 x 104
Area = 0.283 in. Area = 0.489 Area = 0.170
WVin. = 0.446 oz. Wtlin. = 2.01 oz. Wtlin. = 0.149 oz.
Figure 5-11. Different cross-sectional profiles with equivalent stiffnesses in bending, including
GE's Valox 420, a TP polyester plastic.
Folded Plates
The methods of analysis and design presented for beams and plates may apply also to
more-complex products such as folded plate structures, which range from bottles to roofing
to outer-space structures. They are basically assemblies of rectangular, triangular, spher-
ical, or other shapes that behave much like beams, portal frames, arches, or shells. The
stresses in some folded structures can be determined with acceptable accuracy by applying
elementary beam theory to the overall cross-sections of the plate assemblies. When
assemblies are plates whose lengths are large relative to their cross-sectional dimensions
(i.e., thin-wall beam sections, ribbed panels, and so on) and are in large plates whose
fold lines deflect identically, such as the interior bays of roofs, they can be analyzed as
beams.
More-elaborate procedures must be used to determine the transverse bending stresses
in assemblies of large plates and longitudinal stresses in structures with "pinned" con-
nections along folded lines that do not deflect identically.
There are also bellows-style collapsible plastic containers such as bottles that are
foldable [12, 406]. As shown in Figures 5-12 and 5-13, the technology of foldable
containers in contrast to that of the usual "passive" bottles provides advantages and
conveniences such as reduced storage, transportation, and disposal space; prolonged
b.
l\I(I\'ill~ Port in" ...
=..:..::....:.: • h"'H ' Il,pnllg 1\"111
I. 01
d. II
Figure 5-12. The theory and operation of the patented collapsible bottle. a) An uncollapsed
bottle; b) a collapsed bottle; c) top view of the bottle; and d) definitions.
product freshness by reducing oxidation and loss of carbon dioxide, and provides con-
tinuous surface access to foods like mayonnaise and jams.
The bellows of collapsible containers overlap and fold to retain their folded condition
without external assistance, thus providing a self-latching feature. This latching is the
result of bringing together under pressure two adjacent conical sections of unequal
proportions and different angulations to the bottle axis. On a more technical analytical
level the latching is created by the swing action of one conical section around a fixed
pivot point, from an outer to an inner, resting position. The two symmetrically opposed
pivot points and rotating segments keep a near-constant diameter as they travel along the
bottle axis. This action explains the bowing action of the smaller, conical section as it
approaches the overcentering point (see Figures 5-12 and 5-13).
The initial collapsing of such a bottle should occur no later than three to ten hours
after manufacture-the sooner the better. Additional pressure is needed for this first-time
collapse in order to create permanent fold rings. The subsequent collapsing and expansion
of such bottles before filling them can be performed at the recommended ambient tem-
perature of 20°C (68°F) or higher. In most disposable applications these bottles would
undergo three changes of volume: 1) an initial collapsing of the container before shipment
and storage; 2) expansion of the container at its destination, before or during filling; and
3) finally collapsing the bottle for disposal.
The fold rings designed on the bellows for such containers have proven to be durable
and sturdy. Prototype bottles made of PETG and 75 durometer PVC were able to withstand
dozens of collapses and still pass their stress tests. As shown in Figure 5-13, the two
adjacent conical sectors providing the latching should not exceed an angle of 110° to
make a sharp fold ring. The size of rotating conical section B should not exceed 80
percent of conical section A, to prevent confusion and wobbling as the bottle is being
collapsed.
Product labeling can be accomplished by attaching a floating sleeve to the neck or
shoulder section of the bottle. This cylindrical sleeve then accommodates the bellows as
they fold from the bottom up and contains them within the sleeve as the jar is collapsed.
The maximum length of the sleeve is limited by the collapsed dimension of the jar. An
extended cap can also be used to hold the label to the side of the bottle.
Shape and Stiffness

In most cases, plastic parts can take advantage of a basic beam structure in their design.
Much of the conventional designing with other materials is based on single rectangular
shapes or box beams, because in timber and steel these are commonly produced as standard
shapes. However, their use in plastic components is often accompanied by a wasteful
use of material, as in large steel sections.
Hollow-channel, 1-, and T-shapes designed with generous radii (and other basic plastic
flow considerations) rather than sharp comers are more efficient on a weight basis in
plastics because they use less material, thus providing a high moment of inertia. The
moments of inertia of such simple sections, and hence their stresses and deflections, can
be fairly easily calculated, using simple theories.
Such nonrectangular sections are common in many thermoplastics articles. Channels,
T-sections, and hollow comer pillars are found in many parts, such as crates and stacking
containers, and inverted U-sections and cantilevers are common in items such as streetlamp
housings and aircraft.
To process any plastics, unreinforced or reinforced, into curved panels is relatively
easy and inexpensive. Such panels conform to recognized structural theories that curved
shapes can be stiffer in bending than flat shapes of the same weight. Putting it differently,
a square-section component built to withstand external pressure will usually be heavier
than one of circular section and the same volume. Both single- and double-curvature
designs are widely used to make more-effective use of plastics materials.
....hl
=
a
Figure 5-13. Design ideas for the collapsible bottle. a) A continuous latch bottle; b) a skip-latch bottle; and c) a section through a bellows
showing the collapsing and latching mechanism of a collapsible bottle.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ANALYStS 321
BEAM BENDING AND SPRING STRESSES

To illustrate how traditional materials such as metals limit the design process, consider
a spring. The manufacturing process in metals limits the options available in producing
a variety of shapes in this material. As as result, steel springs are produced in only three
basic shapes: the torsion bar, the helical coil, and the flat-shaped leaf spring. By com-
parison, TPs and TSs can be easily fabricated into a variety of shapes. Switching from
metal to plastic thus lets the designer overcome configuration barriers to new spring
designs. Figure 5-14 is an example of a TP spring action with a different shape [407].
Composite leaf springs constructed of unidirectional fiber-reinforced plastics have come
to be recognized as viable replacements for steel springs in truck and automotive sus-
pension applications and have been used in aircraft landing systems since the early 194Os.
Because of the material's high specific strain energy storage capability as compared to
steel, a direct replacement of multileaf steel springs by monoleaf composite springs can
be justified on a weight-saving basis. Such springs have in fact been in use since the
1960s. Further advantages of composite springs accrue from the ability with them to
design and fabricate spring leaves having continuously variable widths and thicknesses
along their lengths.
Such design features will no doubt lead to new suspension arrangements in which
composite leaf springs will serve multiple functions, thereby providing a consolidation
of parts and simplification of suspension systems. One distinction between steel and
plastic is that complete knowledge of shear stresses is not important in a steel part
undergoing flexure, whereas with RP design shear stresses, rather than normal stress
components, usually control the design. Procedures have thus been developed for eval-
uating design stresses because of simple flexure as well as secondary loads like axle
windup [1].
Figure 5-14. An injection-molded Du Pont Delrin acetal plastic stapler illustrating a type of
spring design with the body and curved spring section molded in a single part. This complex
shape could not have been achieved in a single operation in steel. The designer has taken
advantage of molding'S versatility to reinforce the curved, frequently stressed back section.
When the stapler is depressed, the outer curved shape is in tension and the ribbed center section
is put into compression. When the pressure is released, the tension and compression forces are
in tum released and the molded part returns to its original position. With this type of plastic
having these inherently desirable properties, this repeated spring action has a virtually unlimited
life span.
~
T y
\\
Figure 5·15. A zigzag configured multiple-cantilever beam spring.
Recent developments with RP leaf springs have highlighted the need to reassess stan-
dards for testing and evaluating them. Because of the anisotropic properties of composites,
the standards previously developed for steel components in the laboratory and on the
proving ground can give misleading test results in plastics. The concept of spring design
has been well documented in various SAE and STP design manuals from the 1970s on.
These also give the equations for evaluating design parameters, which are simply derived
from geometric and material considerations. Further information enables the calculation
of windup (that is, accelerating and braking) and roll stiffnesses for springs as a check
against the design requirements. (See, for instance, SAE J788A, Oct. 1970, and STP
376, Jan. 1973.)
However, none of this currently available literature is directly relevant to the problem
of design and design evaluation regarding composite structures. The design of any com-
posite part is difficult, and unique, because the stress conditions within a given structure
depend on its manufacturing methods, not just its shape. Programs have therefore been
developed on the basis of the strain balance within the spring to enable suitable design
criteria to be met. Stress levels were then calculated, after which the design and manu-
facture of RP springs became feasible [1].
The cantilever spring can be employed to provide a simple format from a design
standpoint. Cantilever springs, which absorb energy by bending, may be treated as beams,
with their deflections and stresses being calculated as short-term beam-bending stresses.
The calculations arrived at for multiple-cantilever springs (that is, two or more beams
joined in a zigzag configuration, as in Figure 5-15) are similar to, but may not be as
accurate as, those for a single-beam spring [408].
A zigzag configuration may be seen as a number of separate beams each with one end
fixed. The top beam is loaded (F) either along its entire length or at a fixed point. This
load gives rise to deflection y at its free end and moment M at the fixed end. The second
beam is then loaded by moment M (upward) and load F (the effective portion of load F.
as detennined by the various angles) at its free end. This moment results in deflection
Yz at the free end and moment Mz at the fixed end (that is, the free end of the next beam).
The third beam is then loaded by Mz (downward) and force Fz (the effective portion of
F 1), and so on.
The total deflection, y, is the sum of the deflections of the individual beams. The
bending stress, deflection, and moment at each point can be calculated by using standard
equations. To reduce stress concentration, all comers should be fully radiused. This type
of spring is often favored because of its greater design flexibility over the single-beam
spring. The relative lengths, angles, and cross-sectional areas can be varied to give the
desired spring rate!:' in the available space. Thus, the total energy stored in a cantilever
spring is equal to Y
where F = total load in lbs., y = deflection in in., and Ec = energy absorbed by the
cantilever spring, in in.-Ibs.
SHEAR STRESS AND TORSION

A torsional beam spring absorbs energy by twisting through an angle (} (see Fig. 5-16)
and may thus be treated as a shaft in torsion [2]. A shaft subject to torque is generally
considered to have failed when the strength of the material in shear is exceeded. For a
torsional load the shear strength used in design should be the published value or one half
the tensile strength, whichever is less. The maximum shear stress on a shaft in torsion
is given by the following equation [2]:
Tc
T =-
J
where T = applied torque in in.-Ibs., c = the distance from the center of the shaft to
the location on the outer surface of shaft where the maximum shear stress occurs, in in.
(see Fig. 5-17), and J = the polar moment of inertia, in in. 4 (see Fig. 5-17).
The angular rotation of the shaft is caused by torque is given by
TL
(} = -
GJ
where
L = the length of the shaft in in.

G = shear modulus, in psi,
E
2(1 + v)
E = Young's modulus (tensile modulus), in psi
v = Poisson's ratio
Figure 5-16. A shaft with diameter d and length L under torque T undergoing angular
deformation {).
POLAR MOMENT LOGA TION OF MAX.

OF INERTIA SHEAR STRESS
CROSS·SECTION J c
~
rrc14 d
32 2
~
rr(do 4-d,4) do
32 2
~do~
10
rrb 3h
32
-b
2
10rrl b 3h
9
b
2
hID~
h4
9
h
2
Figure 5-17. Polar moments of inertia for common cross-sections.
The energy absorbed by a torsional spring deflected through angle 6 equals
where Me = the torque required for deflection 6 at the free end of the spring, in in.-Ihs.
SPRING CLIP ASSEMBLY BY

ASSEMBLY STAKING
SPRING CLIP
?ZZliZlr;..
BEFORE STAKING
PARTS
//jill! ?1li77~ TO BE AFTER STAKING
ASSEMBLED
F'"
SPRING CLIP
IN PLACE
F'"
7ffffIi»fm F
•
SHEAR SHEAR AREA
LOAD
A = ncJ2
4
Figure 5·18. Examples of direct shear.
SHEAR STRESS AND DIRECT SHEAR

There are many situations in which direct shear will be applied to a plastic part. Figures
5-18 through 5-20 illustrate assembly by staking and by using a spring clip in which a
load might be applied in direct shear. Other examples might include spot welds and
pinned structures such as hinges and conveyor links. For direct shear, as in Figure 5-18,
the shear stress is simply the load applied divided by the shear area [2]:
F
T=-
A
Direct-shear situations such as those illustrated are the only times when it is appropriate
to use the shear-strength data generally reported on marketing data sheets, as previously
examined. However, since in these cases the load is not only transferred by shear but
also contains a considerable bending or compressing component, all of which are highly
geometry dependent, the actual strength of a part under direct shear can be highly variable.
Therefore, safety factors should be significantly increased in direct-shear situations.
PRESSURE VESSELS
The most common pressure-vessel application of plastics is as a tube with internal pressure.
In selecting the wall thickness of the tube, it is convenient to use the thin-wall-tube hoop-
326 DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES: A HANDBOOK.
UNIFORM INTERNAL PRESSURE, P
do
o=P~
1-R
WHERE
R=(:}
This equation is for the maximum hoop stress
which occurs on the surface of the inside wall
of the tube.
Figure 5-19. A cylindrical pressure vessel of thin-walled tube.
UNIFORM INTERNAL PRESSURE, P
HOOP STRESS
0= Pd
2t
This equation is reasonably accurate for

t < d/1 O. As the wall thickness increases the
error becomes quite large.
Figure 5-20. A cylindrical pressure vessel of thick-walled tube.
stress equation (see Fig. 5-19). It is useful in determining an approximate wall thickness,
even when condition (t < d/lO) is not met. After the thin-wall stress equation is applied,
the thick-wall stress equation given in Figure 5-20 can be used to verify the design.
EXTERNALLY LOADED RP PIPE

The use and acceptance of buried large-diameter glass fiber, plastic reinforced, filament-
wound pipe has increased steadily since the 1950s. Such RP was selected for its superior
corrosion-resistance characteristics and installation-cost savings. ASTM standards use the
term Reinforced Thermoset Resin Pipe (RTRP). Filament-wound pipe with a double helical
angle of continuous-glass reinforcement (discussed later) is but one of several types of
RTR pipe constructions.
Attempts have been made to utilize perfonnance standards based upon internal pressures
and pipes' stiffness, but other factors must be carefully considered in designing buried
piping systems, especially the longitudinal effects of internal pressure, temperature gra-
dients, and pipe bridging. Failing to recognize these factors incurs the risk of underde-
signing a system. Because of its resin-glass construction, the physical characteristics of
RTR pipe and therefore the design techniques needed for it differ considerably from those
of older, traditional pipe materials.
It is true that RTR pipe design does to a degree parallel the design philosophy for steel
pipe, but there is a point where the steel and RTR pipe-design approaches part company,
even though steel and RTR pipe are by definition both flexible conduit. In other words,
both kinds of pipe can bend and deflect after burial, within certain limitations, without
suffering structural or functional failure. In this regard they both differ from concrete
pipe, which is a rigid conduit that cannot tolerate bending or deflection to the same extent
as RTR and steel pipe. Since an appreciation of the differences between flexible and rigid
conduit is essential to a better understanding of RTR pipe design, let us look at these
differences.
The diagrams in Figure 5-21 illustrate the results of actual load testing on both types
of conduit by the Roadway Committee of the American Railway Engineering Association
at an installation near Farina, Illinois. Both the flexible and the rigid pipes were buried
under thirty-five feet of identical fill material. Obviously, specific pressures vary from
installation to installation, but the relationship in the way the two kinds of pipe react to
the same burial condition generally remains constant.
Let us start by examining a rigid pipe. Because of its rigid, inflexible characteristics,
surface load intensifies at the crown of a rigid pipe and is transmitted through the pipe
directly to the bed of the trench in which the pipe rests. This is not true with flexible
conduit. Because a flexible conduit deflects under covering load of earth, this deflection
transfers portions of the load to the surrounding envelope of soil. This is true of both
Concrete
Flexible Pipe Rigid Pipe
26 pM Computed 26 pM Computed
~
26
= 54.7", ~
Z6
• 1"'"
~ 14 psi
!1!1_~_1!1!!
17"'~
~
41 pol
Figure 5-21. A load-testing profile of flexible and rigid underground pipes.

steel and RTR pipe. The result is that the support of the surrounding earth actually
increases the strength of the flexible conduit. Therefore, analyzing the type and consol-
idation of backfill materials must be considered an integral part of the design process.
Two additional observations can be made. First, because a rigid pipe transmits almost
all the load of the earth cover to the trench bed, someone will occasionally be heard to
say that rigid pipe, such as concrete pipe, does not require side support. This is not true.
Second, because of the difference in the ways rigid and flexible conduit distribute the
load of their earth cover, flexible piping materials are often said to require less bedding
bearing strength, because they impose less of a load on the trench bed. This is indeed
true. In fact, it is one of several factors that help to reduce the installed cost of RTR
large-diameter pipe.
Given these differences between rigid and flexible conduit, let us look at the differences
between steel and RTR pipe, both of which are, of course, flexible conduits. First, steel
pipe is by definition constructed from a material, steel, that for our purposes is a ho-
mogeneous isotropic substance. Therefore, steel pipe can be considered to have the same
material properties in all directions; that is, it is equally strong in both the hoop and
longitudinal directions (see Fig. 5-22).
RTR filament-wound pipe is, however, an isotropic material. That is, its material
properties, such as its modulus of elasticity and ultimate strength, are different in each
of the principal directions of hoop and longitude. It is here where the design approaches
for steel and RTR pipe part company (see Fig. 5-23). This behavior is a result of the
construction of filament-wound RTR pipe (see Chapter 7). Its manufacturing is done by
winding continuous strands of resin-impregnated glass fiber around a steel mandrel at a
precisely controlled helix angle, under controlled tension. A cross-sectional view of an
RP layup is shown in Figure 5-24. As seen, the structural wall of the pipe is made up
of continuous strands of fiberglass embedded in a resin matrix, plus an internal corrosion
barrier of liner. The liner can be constructed from a number of different resins and
reinforcement materials, depending on what will eventually be put through the pipe.
Incidentally, the thickness of the liner is not considered during design analysis, except
for calculating buckling and pipe deflection.
Broadly speaking, three factors control the physical properties of RTR pipe. These are
the amount of continuous-glass filament used to construct the pipe wall, the prescribed
Figure 5-22. The material properties of relatively homogeneous isotropic steel pipe.
dual-helix angle at which the glass is wound around the mandrel, and the type and amount
of resin matrix used to bind the glass filaments together. Controlling the strength of the
pipe in the hoop and longitudinal directions is done by selecting the wind angle and ratio
of glass to resin content. The wind angle for the structural wall is usually from 55 to 65
degrees to the horizontal, and the glass-fiber content is not less than 45 percent by weight.
The final material composition of the pipe is determined by calculating the longitudinal
and hoop strengths needed to meet installation requirements demanded by the project.
By now it should be apparent that, while both steel and RTR pipe are by definition
flexible conduit, they are also quite different and therefore require different design ap-
proaches, even though initially at least their design considerations are identical. As with
steel pipe, the RTR pipe designer must concern oneself with both pipe deflection and
buckling analysis. Unlike the steel pipe designer, however, the RTR pipe designer must
also examine a third area of concern.
This third factor is a combined strain analysis in both the hoop and longitudinal
directions. This analysis demands a thorough examination of such important considera-
tions as diametrical bending, internal pressure, temperature gradients, and the ability of
Figure 5-23. The material properties of anisotropic RTR pipe.
SCnK1 ...1 SCreItt1I11 Hoop

PI~ Wan -....--"",-
IlIlema' U.~r---'"
Figure 5-24. A cross-sectional view of RTR pipe.

the pipe to bridge voids in bedding. In such a design system the pipe is seen as part of
a buried pipe system in the ground.
In simplest terms the design goal is to select the correct RTR pipe configuration for a
specific application. In other words, we want to design a pipe wall structure of sufficient
stiffness and strength to meet the comb'ined loads that the pipe will experience over the
long term. There are two primary ways to achieve correct pipe stiffness. One is to design
a straight-wall pipe in which the wall thickness controls the stiffness of the pipe (see Fig.
5-25). Another way is to design a rib-wall pipe on which reinforcement ribs of a specific
shape and dimension are wound around the circumference of the pipe at precisely cal-
culated intervals. The advantage of rib-wall pipe is that the nominal wall thickness of
the pipe can be reduced while maintaining or even increasing its overall strength-to-
weight ratio. Generally, a rib-wall pipe design is selected for applications where burial
conditions are extreme or for difficult underwater installations. The ability to increase or
maintain pipe stiffness by means of reinforcement ribs also provides the engineer with
the ability to design an RTR pipe system to fit the economic as well as mechanical
parameters of a project.
The next step in design is to determine the pipe deflection requirements, based on the
equation shown in Figure 5-26. The accepted maximum allowable pipe deflection should
be no more than 5 percent. This value is the basic standard that AWWA M-ll specifies
for steel conduit and pipe, as do the ASTM and ASME. As is obvious, there are a number
of factors that contribute to pipe deflection. These are the external loads that will be
imposed on the pipe, both the dead load of the overburden as well as the live loads of
such things as wheel and rail traffic. The factors affecting RTR pipe deflection are as
follows:
1. Design pipe deflection 4. Modulus of soil reaction (E')

(dX) Native soils
2. Dead load (Wd) Type of backfill
Trench shape Differential soil stress
Overburden weight and consolidation
Depth of cover 5. Deflection lag factor (Dd
3. Live load (Wd 6. Bedding shape (k)
Wheel load and spacing 7. Pipe stiffness (EI)
Surcharge 8. Pipe radius (R)
In terms of dead loads, the shape of the trench in which the pipe will be buried is also
a factor. Generally speaking, a narrow trench with vertical side walls will impose less
of a load on the pipe than will a wider trench with sloping side walls. It is necessary
also to know the modulus of soil reaction (E'), which is dependent on the type or
classification of the native soil, the backfill material that is contemplated, and the desired
consolidation of the backfill material. Soil consolidation is important, because it con-
tributes to the strength of a flexible conduit in a buried pipe system.
If the designer is to do the job properly, it is important to have accurate data on which
to base calculations. That is why test borings and proper laboratory analysis to determine
the E' value of the soil sample are essential. An arbitrary textbook selection of a soil
modulus should always be avoided. However, if a pipe is to be buried deeper than the
sampling zone that underwent laboratory testing to determine E' and if the test bore
shows the deeper material to be equal or better, then the engineer may increase the E'
value proportionally to the square root of the differential soil stress.
RTR Pipe Wall Structures
j"..i _,..,7
Straight WaU
Rib WaU
Figure 5-25. Examples of RTR pipe wall structures.
",---- ............" ,
I
,, ,
,
/ \
~-d1--.,
1.--- d2 ---.4
Maximum 5% Deflection
(AX max S5%)
by A.... A M.ll, ASTM, and ASME.
Figure 5-26. How to calculate maximum allowable pipe deflection, per A WWA M = 11, the
ASTM, and the ASME.
Assuming that all the necessary data are available, determining the necessary pipe
stiffness for the maximum allowable pipe deflection is relatively simple. The Spangler-
Iowa equation below provides a useful, reasonable determination of what wall structure
will be needed. (See soil-engineering Bulletin 153, "Structural Design of Flexible Cul-
verts," by M. G. Spangler, Iowa Engineering Experimentation Station, 1971.) The de-
flection equation is as follows:
M% = J.. [[DLWd + Wd kR3 ]

2R EI + O.061E'R3
Pipe stiffness teL ~il stiffness term

This equation can be rearranged to determine the terms needed to solve for the minimum
pipe stiffness (El)d required to meet the deflection-design criterion:
(EI)d = R3 [k[DL W~+ WLl - 0.061 E' ]
(El)d = 0.0365 (10)6 Ibs.-in. 2j(lineal inch); approx. 0.50 in. wall
Assume for the purposes of this project that the calculations indicate that this pipe
stiffness of 0.0365(10)6 Ibs.-in.2j(lineal inch) is in fact required to meet this deflection-
design criterion of no more than 5 percent deflection. Theoretically, we could choose a
pipe-wall structure to meet this required stiffness-either a straight-wall pipe with
a thickness of approximately 1.3 cm (0.50 in.), or a rib-wall pipe that would provide the
same stiffness.
But would the wall structure selected be of sufficient stiffness to resist the buckling
pressures of burial, or superimposed longitudinal loads? At this point we do not really
know. To find out, we must know a few more things, one of being the amount of resistance
to buckling that is wanted in the pipe. The ASME Section III Standard of a four-to-one
safety factor on critical buckling, based on many years of field experience, should be
used. To calculate the stiffness or wall thickness capable of meeting that design criterion
one must know what anticipated external loads will occur (see Fig. 5-27). This time, in
addition to the dead loads one must also consider the effects of possible flooding on both
an empty and full pipe, as well as the vacuum load it is expected to carry.
The analysis should include the modulus of soil reaction, because in a buried RTR
piping system the elastic medium surrounding the pipe helps increase the pipe's resistance
to buckling. The formula into which all these factors can be inserted to determine the
critical buckling pressure of the pipe is called the Luscher & Hoeg formula. (This is
based on work presented to the Highway Research Board by C. V. Chelapati and J. R.
Allgood in Feb. 1970 entitled "Buckling of Cylinders in a Confined Media," and on
Allgood's paper "Structures in Soil Under High Loads," Journal of Soil Mechanics and
Foundations, Proceedings, ASCE, Mar. 1971.) The L & G buckling equation is:
Flood Water -I 1 I I I I I I I I , I , I I , I . Ground

Level
Earth Load
- Confined Soil
Vacuum Load Media
Figure 5·27. Buckling analysis.

It has been determined that, with burial depths greater than two thirds the radius of
the pipe, this equation provides a means of determining the required pipe stiffness for
critical buckling. To make the equation easier to use, it can be rewritten by substituting
certain values and solving for the required stiffness for buckling (EI)b as follows:
0.248 p~R3
(E/)b = BE'
where
B = 1 - (RIRoi
1.3 + 0.52(RIR o)2
R = Pipe radius
Ro=R+H
H = Depth of cover (H > i R)
Suppose that this Luscher & Hoeg equation says we will require a pipe stiffness of
0.123(10)6 Ibs.-in. 2/(lineal in.) to meet a four-to-one critical buckling pressure safety
factor. This is a straight-wall thickness of approximately 1.9 cm (0.75 in.). But remember
that we earlier calculated that a 0.50-in.-thick wall would be sufficient to withstand the
anticipated deflection pressure. Which of these two wall thicknesses is correct?
Quite logically, it is the larger one of the 0.75 in. thickness, or a rib-wall pipe of
equivalent stiffness. To put it another way, after carefully completing both a deflection
and a buckling analysis, always select the pipe stiffness that is greater. Now if we were
designing in steel pipe, the work would be about over. But since the design is a large-
diameter RTR buried piping system, we are not. From experience it has been learned
that the final choice of an RTR pipe configuration cannot be made until the effects of
strains in the longitudinal and hoop directions have been carefully investigated.
The reason is obvious, the material, continuous glass-reinforced thermosetting resin,
is anisotropic. Unlike a homogeneous isotropic material, such as steel, the strength of
RTR pipe in its longitudinal and hoop directions is not equal. The effects of this unequal
strength in the two directions must therefore be seriously considered during design if an
RTR piping system is to meet the long-term operating requirements of the system being
designed.
Therefore, before a final wall structure can be selected, it is necessary to conduct a
combined strain analysis in both the longitudinal and hoop directions. This analysis will
consider thermal contraction strains, the internal pressure, and the pipe's ability to bridge
soft spots in the trench's bedding. In order to do this we must know more about the
inherent properties of the material we are dealing with-a laminate made up of successive
layers of continuous filament-wound fiberglass strands embedded within a resin matrix.
We must know the modulus of the material in the longitudinal direction and the hoop
direction, plus the material's allowable strain.
These values are determinable through standard ASTM-type tests, including those for
hydrostatic testing, parallel plate loading, coupon tests, and accelerated aging tests (see
Fig. 5-28). The next step is to examine Figure 5-29, which shows the tensile stress-
strain curve for typical steel-pipe materials. In the steel pipe business, designing is based
on the curve's yield point. As noted previously, the yield point on a stress-strain curve
beyond which steel pipe will enter into the range of plastic deformation that could lead
to a total collapse of the pipe. Generally, steel-pipe designers select an allowable design
strain of approximately two thirds of the yield point.
RTR pipe designers also use a stress-strain curve similar to that used by steel pipe
designers. However, instead of a yield point, they use what is called an empirical weep
point, or the point of first crack (see Fig. 5-30). It is determined by either coupon or
hydrostatic tests. The weep point is the point at which the matrix becomes excessively
strained so that minute fractures begin to appear in the structural wall. At this point it is
probable that in time even a more elastic liner will be damaged and allow water or
whatever else the pipe is carrying to ooze or weep through the wall. As is the case with
the yield point of steep pipe, reaching the weep point is not necessarily cataclysmic. The
pipe can still continue to withstand quite a bit of additional load before it reaches the
point of ultimate strain and failure.
The weep point or strain-to-first-crack in a wall for filament-wound pipe constructed
using isophthalic resin is currently found to be not less than 0.009 in.!in. This has been
repeatedly demonstrated by careful coupon testing and burst testing of pipes with strain-
gauge instrumentation attached.
Thus, design values are based on the strain-to-first-crack or the empirical weep point.
For normal design conditions a strain of 0.0018 in.!in. is used, which provides a five-
to-one safety factor. For transient design conditions a strain of 0.0030 in.!in. is used, for
a safety factor of approximately three to one. To those familiar with the design safety
factors of other pipe manufacturers following NBS Voluntary Product Standard PS 15-
69, these safety factors may seem modest. However, PS 15-69 is based on the ultimate
tensile strength of the material.
The next step is to proceed with a strain or stress analysis in the longitudinal and hoop
r:===-
Hydl'08tatic Teeting ParaDel Plate Teeting
"I
t Flexural
-;
t
:[~
Coupon Teetinlll
. . . . J:
Ten.ile
..
Figure 5-28. Examples of tests using strain gauges to develop stress-strain curves.
directions. When conducting this analysis the designer has the option to work in terms
of either stress or strain. Strain is generally used, since it can be accurately measured,
using reliable strain gauges, whereas stresses have to be calculated. From a practical
standpoint both the longitudinal and the hoop analysis determine the minimum structural
wall thickness of the pipe. However, since the longitudinal strength of RTR pipe is less
than it is in the hoop direction, it is wise to approach longitudinal analysis first.
In doing so there are three major factors to consider: the effects of internal pressure,
the expected temperature gradients, and the ability of the pipe to bridge voids in the
bedding. Analyzing these factors requires that several equations be superimposed, one
120
100
90
80
70
Stress 80
Ox10' PSI
50
40
30 - Design Value at 2/3rd Yield
20
10 30(10)' PSI
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 8000 8000 10,000
Strain
&x(10rl.j n./ in .
Figure 5-29. An example of a tensile stress-strain curve for mild steel pipe material.
100
80
80
70
Stress eo Strain to 1,t Cnlck or

Ox10' PSI 50 empirical Weep Point
«)
(0.009 In./ln.)
30
20
10
Nonnal 10,000 15,000 20,000

Design Strain
Tnlnalent Strain
.Deslgn Stnlin &x(10rl. in. Ii n.
Figure 5-30. An example of a tensile stress-strain curve for reinforced thermoset resin (RTR)
pipe material.
on another. Even though from a practical standpoint all these longitudinal design con-
ditions are solved simultaneously, it is interesting to examine each individually.
Some engineers tend to disregard the effects of internal pressure in the longitudinal
direction on buried pipe because they theorize that the longitudinal load is cancelled out
by the earth surrounding the pipe. Or they may assume that in a gasketed joined pipeline
the gasket joints will allow the pipe to move freely, so that no longitudinal load will
exist. However, this situation is not necessarily true. Poisson's effect, or Poisson's ratio,
which was previously described, can have an influence. This effect occurs when an open-
ended cylinder is subjected to internal pressure. As the cylinder expands diametrically,
it also attempts to shorten longitudinally. These movements will not be visible to the
naked eye in all cases but can be easily measured with strain gauges. Or the movements
can be observed in the shortening of pressurized pipe where a test fixture absorbs the
pressure thrust. Since in a buried pipe movement is resisted by the surrounding soil, a
tensile load is produced within the pipe. The internal longitudinal pressure load in the
pipe is independent of the length of the pipe. Thus, Poisson's effect must be considered
when designing any length of pipe, whether long or short, that is part of a buried pipe
system. Buried pipes are influenced by friction with their surrounding media.
Several equations can be used to calculate the result of Poisson's effect on pipe in the
longitudinal direction in terms of stress or strain. The following equation provides a
solution for a straight run of pipe in terms of strain. Thus, the longitudinal strain in pipe
due to internal pressure is
where EL = pressure.
However, where there is a change in direction and thrust blocks are eliminated through
the use of harness-welded joints, a different analysis is necessary. This is so because,
compared to in straight runs of pipe, the longitudinal load imposed on either side of an
elbow is greater. This increased load is the result of internal pressure, a temperature
gradient, or a change in momentum of the fluid. Because of this increased load, the pipe
joint and elbow thickness may have to be increased to avoid overstraining.
There is a special equation, shown in Figure 5-31, to calculate the longitudinal strain
in pipe at harnessed elbows. For the sake of simplicity the effects of internal pressure,
temperature gradient, and change in momentum of the fluid have been combined into
one equation.
After examining the effects of internal pressure in the longitudinal direction, the next
step is to investigate the longitudinal tensile loads generated by a temperature gradient
in the piping system. The goal is to determine the extent of the tensile forces imposed
on the pipe because of cooling. When an open-ended cylinder cools, it attempts to shorten
longitudinally. A tensile load is then imposed by the resistance of the surrounding soil.
As a matter of fact, any temperature change in the surrounding soil or medium that the
pipe may be carrying can produce tensile load. The effects of temperature gradient on
pipe can be written in terms of strain. Thus, the longitudinal tensile strain generated by
a temperature gradient is
EL(temperature) = fl:roc
E- Fd1-Cose)
L- ElA
Where: F, = Total thrust
F, = Pressure +Temperature +
Change in momentum
nd 2 P V
F: =-4- +auA+QPg
A :: ndt,
a" c ~flTElOC
Figure 5-31. An example of longitudinal tensile strain in pipe with hamessed elbows.
where
flT is the greater of flTa or flT;
T(max) T(min)
flTa = ~--~--~--~
2
flT; = T(installation) - T(min)
cr = Coefficient of thermal expansion
In this analysis the designer must consider two conditions and base the pipe design on
the one that is worse. One condition is where the temperature differential is one half the
difference between the maximum temperature and minimum temperature. The second
condition considers the temperature differential between the maximum pipeline temper-
ature at installation and the minimum design temperature.
The next step in longitudinal analysis is to examine the bridging. Bridging can occur,
and if so must be considered, wherever the bedding grade's elevation or the trench bed's
bearing strength varies, when a pipe projects from a headwall, or, of course, in all
subaqueous installations. It is a good engineering practice to design the pipe to be strong
enough to support the weight of its contents, itself, and its overburden while spanning a
void of two pipe diameters (see Fig. 5-32).
]i
Earth
Figure 5-32. An example of the longitudinal tensile load on a pipe bridging a void of two pipe
diameters.
The effects of longitudinal tensile bridging can be calculated using the following strain
equation:
6 L(bridging)
where
Wt = Pipe contents + pipe weight + overburden
For simplicity, the condition considers the conservative case where the pipe acts simply
as support. The normal practice is to solve all these equations simultaneously, then
determine the minimum wall thickness that has strains equal to or less than the allowable
design strain. Thus, the minimum structural wall thickness dictated as longitudinal tensile
strain is:
6L(allowable ~ L [6L(pressure) + 6L(temperature) + 6L(bridging)]

design
strain)
The importance of combining longitudinal strain analyses is that it often provides the
designer with a minimum wall thickness on which to base the ultimate choice of pipe
configuration. For instance, assume that the combined longitudinal analysis indicates a
minimum of 0.625, or 5/8 in. of wall thickness. However, deflection analysis calls for
a 0.50, or I!2-in., wall, and the buckling analysis says we need a 0.75, or 3/4-in., wall.
We had already decided that the most likely candidate was the 3/4-in. wall. Now lon-
gitudinal analysis says that a 5/8-in. wall is enough to handle the longitudinal strains
likely to be encountered. Which wall thickness, or what pipe configuration-straight wall
or ribbed wall--do we now settle on? Economic considerations would have to be weighed,
but the experienced designer would most likely choose the 3/4-in. straight-wall pipe. This
is, of course, if the design analysis is complete, but it is not, since there still remains
strain analysis in the hoop direction. The target is to determine if the combined loads of
internal pressure and diametrical bending deflection will exceed the allowable design
strain (see Fig. 5-33). This entails investigating the effects of rerounding or decreasing
the diametrical deflection that occurs because of internal pressure (see Fig. 5-34).
There is a method the engineer can use for this analysis, but it is extremely complex
and can be most conveniently checked by the pipe supplier, using a computer. In general,
equations are generated to determine the moment and thrust created in the invert area of
the deflected pipe, where a pressure term is superimposed. This analysis must examine
the strains in the outer- and innermost fibers of the pipe to verify that its wall structure
is adequate and not overstrained (see Fig. 5-24). During this analysis the pipe must be
examined under conditions of no pressure, minimum pressure, and maximum pressure.
Although this analysis should be conducted for both straight-walled and rib-walled
pipe, it is particularly important in the case of rib walled (see (Fig. 5-25). That is, because
the rib is often thicker than the structural wall of the pipe, by several times the wall's
'" ,:
I,;;:: 11
Figure 5-33. An example of strain analysis Figure 5-34. An example of strain analysis
in the hoop direction, with an external load in the hoop direction, with an external load
only-there is no internal pressure plus internal pressure rerounding.
rerounding.
thickness, strains along the ribs may be higher than along the straight-walled sections,
particularly at the top of the rip. For the sake of this discussion, assume that strain analysis
in the hoop direction has confirmed that a structural wall thickness of 1.9 cm (0.75 in.)
is satisfactory. Does that mean the pipe design has been completed? Not yet. There's
more to a piping system than just the pipe walls. We must still design the joints to connect
the straight lengths of pipe together.
The designing of joints is perhaps one of the most overlooked areas in piping-system
design. Since the performance of the whole piping system is directly related to the
performance of the joints, this subject deserves serious attention. For example, use a
bell-and-spigot joint with an elastomeric seal (see Fig. 5-35). This type of joint permits
rapid assembly of a piping system and thus offers an economic advantage in terms of
installed cost. It should be used as much as possible for connecting straight runs of pipe,
especially at points where the pipe projects from a rigid structure. In terms of flexibility,
the joint should be able to rotate at least two degrees without a loss of integrity. Thus,
the threat of failure from unanticipated pipe subsidence is substantially reduced, and
changes in the grade line during installation can be the more easily accommodated. The
joint must also be designed with corresponding bell and spigot stiffnesses. And the spigot
should have a special control ridge to ensure proper gasket seal, even when the pipes on
either side of the joint are not uniformly supported.
The next type of joint is weld overlays, which are often utilized to eliminate the need
for costly thrust blocks (see Fig. 5-36). In designing the pipe we conducted an analysis
to ensure that it possessed sufficient longitudinal strength. It makes sense, then, to make
the weld joints be at least as strong as the longitudinal strength of the pipe rather than
just as an internal pressure-seal pipe. This can be done by noting the pipe's structural
wall thickness and the strength relationship between the pipe and the overlay weld.
These equations show one way of relating the structural wall thickness of a pipe to its
longitudinal design's allowable values first in regard to the longitudinal strength of the
pipe and its overlay laminate, to determine the proper thickness of the joint, and second
to the longitudinal pipe strength and the weld overlay's bond strength. The equation to
\
Gaskets
in~le GIIMk I Double Ga8ket

Figure 5·35. An example of RTR pipe using elastomeric bell-and-spigot seals.
Bell FIberglass & RIISIIl o..-y Shear l.ength

- - &.. - ..
External Harnt"M- elded Joint Internal Hameu-Welded Joint

Figure 5·36. An example of RTR pipe joints with a weld overlay. Reinforced glass-fiber-TS
polyester on either the outside or inside of the overlap joint provides extra strength.
ensure joint strength is equal to the one for longitudinal strength of the pipe thickness
design. Thus, the thickness design can be calculated as
longitudinal pipe strength )

(I
t(overlay) ;;:: t(structural pipe wall)
ongl·tUd·Inal overIay strength
Likewise, the shear length can be figured as
longitudinal overlay strength )

(
L(overlay) ;;:: t(structural overlay) longitudinal overlay bond strength
When weld joints are used to fabricate special items such as mitered fittings, tees,
laterals, and so forth, the engineer should always consider using additional weld overlay
thicknesses applied to both the internal and the external surfaces, using RP. In this way
a safe design can be developed to resist the forces that attempt to distort the special and
"peel" loose a weld overlay or rupture the special piece.
MOLDED-IN INSERTS
Plastics perform satisfactorily with metal-molded inserts (see Fig. 5-37) and expansion-
type inserts (see Fig. 5·38) [2]. To minimize the stresses created at the metal-plastic
interface by the differences in thermal expansion rates for molded-in inserts, observe the
following safeguards: 1) the design permitting, use plain, smooth inserts; 2) use simple
pull-out and torque-retention grooves when high torque and pull-out retention are required;
3) if a knurled insert is used, keep the size of the knurls to a minimum, remove all sharp
comers, and round the hidden end of the insert and keep the knurled section away from
parts' edges, 4) keep the inserts clean, removing chemicals such as oil from them; 5)
use high mold temperatures to reduce thermal stresses, such as for commodity plastics
KNURL
A C
INTERNAL
THREADS
1B D E
I F
'1
G
t~ l ~i~~~~~AL JB
SEALING
SHOULDER
I
I
H
I
TT
l
Figure 5-37. Molded-in insert design.
at 82 to 105°C (180 to 220°F); and 6) provide sufficient material around the insert. Use
the following guidelines for material thicknesses around inserts: with aluminum use 0.8
times the outer radius of the insert, with brass use 0.9 times it, and in steel use a thickness
equal to the outer radius. To ensure a proper interface, prototyping is recommended.
When metal inserts require hermetic sealing, consider coating them with a flexible
elastomer such as an RTV rubber, or a urethane or epoxy system. A second method is
to design an annular space or reservoir at one end of the insert from which to dispense
the flexible elastomers to effectively create a hermetic seal. Flexible sealants are also
used to compensate for differences in the thermal coefficient of expansion between metal
and plastic.
V 8 - '·"·'
'. [O,.A, , •• [AD$
PLAS TIC PART
CO~( 5PP[AO
IN5(IU
="=~-- SCRflN nPA OS

~'I<":':~="-"I:~~ HE INSE RT
Figure S-38. Example of metal expan ion·

type lOlled and nons lotted inserts.
PRESS FITS
Press fits, which depend on having a mechanical interface, provide a fast, clean, eco-
nomical assembly. A common usage is to have a plastic hub or boss that accepts either
a plastic or metal shaft or pin. The press-fit procedure tends to expand the hub, creating
tensile or hoop stress. If the interference is too great, a high strain and stress will develop.
The plastic part will do one of several things. It may fail immediately, by developing a
crack parallel to the axis of the hub to relieve the stress, which is a typical hoop-stress
failure. It could survive the assembly process, but fail prematurely in use, for a variety
of reasons related to its high induced-stress levels. Or it might undergo stress relaxation
sufficient to reduce the stress to a lower level that can be maintained.
Hoop-stress equations for two typical press-fit situations are shown in Figure 5-39.
The allowable design stress will depend upon the particular plastic, the temperature, and
other environmental considerations. A simpler, though less accurate, method of evaluating
press fits is to assume that the shaft will not deform when pressed into the hub. This is
reasonably accurate when a metal shaft is used in a plastic hub. The hoop strain developed
in the hub is then given by
Ep = MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF PLASTIC

Em = MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF METAL
vp = POISSON'S RATIO OF PLASTIC
0. = ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESS FOR
PLASTIC
i = d s • d, = DIAMETRAL INTERFERENCE
....- - d i
i. = ALLOWABLE INTERFERENCE
CASE A
SHAFT AND HUB ARE BOTH THE SAME OR
ESSENTIALL Y SIMILAR MA TERIALS
HOOP STRESS GIVEN "i" IS
o=~Ep_r_
ds r+1
OR, THE ALLOWABLE INTERFERENCE IS
r+1
r
GEOMETRY FACTOR
CASE B
SHAFT IS METAL, HUB IS PLASTIC
HOOP STRESS GIVEN "i" IS
0=_'_" Ep r
ds r +Vp
r = _'_+_(--:-:::....<),-2_
(::y
OR, THE ALLOWABLE INTERFERENCE IS
1 - i. = ds ~ r +Vp
Ep r
Figure 5-39. Press-fit conditions for two typical situations.
The hoop stress can then be obtained by multiplying the appropriate modulus. For high
strains, the secand modulus will give the initial stress; the apparent or creep modulus
should be used for longer-term stresses. The main point is that the maximum strain or
stress must be below the value that will produce creep rupture in the material. There is
usually a weld line in the hub that can significantly affect the creep-rupture strength of
most plastics.
An additional frequent complication with press fits is that a round hub or boss is often
difficult to mold, if strict processing controls are not used to eliminate potential problems.
There is a tendency for a round hub to be slightly elliptical in cross-section, increasing
the stresses on the part. For critical part performance and in view of what could occur,
life testing should be conducted under actual conditions.
The consequences of stress occurring will depend upon many factors, such as the
temperature during and after the assembly of the press fit, the modulus of the mating
material, the type of stress, the usage environment and-probably the most important-
the type of material being used. Some substances will creep or stress relax, but others
will fracture or craze if the strain is too high. Except for light press fits, this type of
assembly design can be risky enough for the novice, because the boss might already be
weakened by a knit line. Figure 5-40 presents alternative methods for using press fits
that present a lower risk of failure [2].
0. . .- METAL
PIN
D STRAIGHT (INTERFERENCE)
PRESS FIT CAN PRODUCE
HIGH STRAINS
?r-Z""'V"""ZT"'l7////? STRAIN~ '~:~~::~;:

ALTERNATIVE PRESS FIT
DESIGNS FOR LOWER STRESS.
ADD METAL
"HOOP" RING
PREVENTING
EXPANSION
OF PLASTIC
BOSS.
o
USE BARBS OR SPLINES
ON THE METAL
PIN TO CREATE
INTERFERENCE
FIT AND
RETENTION
CREATE
INTERFERENCE
PRESS FIT BY
ADDING "CRUSH RIBS"
TO THE INSIDE
DIAMETER OF
THE BOSS
Figure 5·40. Alternate press-fit designs for metal pins in a plastic hub.
344
SNAP FITS
Snap fits are widely used for both temporary and permanent assemblies, principally in
injection- and blow-molded parts. Besides being simple and inexpensive, snap fits have
been superior qualities (see Figs. 5-41). Snap fits can be applied to any combination of
materials, such as metal and plastics, glass and plastics, and others. All types of plastics
can be used.
The strength of a snap fit comes from its mechanical interlocking, as well as from
friction. The pull-out strength in a snap fit can be made hundreds of times larger than its
snap-in force. In the assembly process, a snap fit undergoes an energy exchange, with a
clicking sound. Once assembled, the components in a snap fit are not under load, unlike
the press fit, where the component is constantly under the stress resulting from the
assembly process. Therefore, stress relaxation and creep over a long period may cause
a press fit to fail, but the strength of a snap fit will not decrease with time.
When used as demountable assemblies, snap fits can compete very well with screw
joints. The loss of friction under vibration can loosen bolts and screws. A snap fit is
vibration proof, however, because its assembled parts are in a low state of potential
energy. There are also fewer parts in a snap fit, which means a savings in component
and inventory costs.
Successfully designing snap fits depends on observing a set of rules governing the
shape, dimensions, materials, and interaction of the mating parts. The interference in a
snap fit is the total deflection in the two mating members during the assembly process.
Too much interference will create difficulty in assembly, but too little will cause low
pull-out strength. A snap fit can also fail from permanent deformation or the breakage
Figure 5-41. This snap assembly, used in a patio table, combines the convenience of snap
assembly with the durability of a mechanical fastening.
of its spring components. A drastic change in the amount of friction, created by abrasion
or oil contamination, may ruin the snap.
A snap can be characterized by the geometry of its spring component. The most common
snaps are the cantilever type, the hollow-cylinder type (as in the lids of pill bottles) and
the distortion type. These snaps include those in any shape that is deformed or deflected
to pass over an interference. The shapes of the mating parts in a hollow-cylinder snap
are the same, but the shapes of the mating parts in a distortion snap are different, by
definition. This three-part classification is rather nominal, because the cantilever category
is used loosely to include any leaf-spring components, and the cylinder type is used also
to include noncircular section tubes.
Design Approach to Snap Fits

For high-volume production, snap-fit designs provide economic, rapid assembly. In many
products, such as inexpensive housewares or hand-held appliances, they are designed for
one assembly only, with no nondestructive means for disassembling them. Where serv-
icing them is anticipated, provision is made for the release of the assembly with a tool.
Other designs, such as those used in the battery compartment covers for calculators and
radios, are designed for easy release and reassembly many hundreds of times.
There is always some part of a snap fit that must flex like a spring, usually past a
designed-in interference, and quickly return, or at least nearly return, to its unflexed
Figure 5-42. Using a combination of snap fit, living hinge, and mechanical fastener capabilities
in molded polypropylene makes possible the storing and shipping of a large chassis grid in a flat
form. For assembly it converts to a cagelike inner housing that holds separate units, for cost
savings.
PROPORTIONALITY CONSTANT, K.
FOR TAPERED BEAM
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
K
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
TAPERED BEAM
STRAIGHT BEAM
L
r-LJl_~ ~
1 '"-----.--....
Tho
Y (MAX DEFLECTION)
rho
T Y (MAX DEFLECTION) hL
DYNAMIC STRAIN DYNAMIC STRAIN

• = 3yho • = 3yh o
2L2 2L2K
Figure 5-43. A basic snap-fit design for a cantilevered beam with a rectangular cross-section.
position, to create the assembly of two or more parts (see Fig. 5-42). The key to success-
ful design is to provide sufficient holding power, without exceeding the elastic limits of
the plastic. Figure 5-43 shows a typical design [2]. Using the beam equations, calculate
the maximum stress during assembly. If it stays below the yield point of the plastic, the
flexing finger will return to its original position. However, for certain designs there will
not be enough holding power, because of the low forces or small deflections.
It has been found that with many plastics the calculated flexing stress can far exceed
the yield point stress, if the assembly occurs too rapidly. In other words, the flexing
finger will just momentarily pass through its condition of maximum deflection or strain,
and the material will not respond as if the yield stress had been greatly exceeded. A
common way to evaluate snap fits is to calculate their strain rather than their stress. Then
compare this value with the allowable dynamic strain limit for the particular plastic. In
designing the finger it is important to avoid having sharp comers or structural discontin-
uities that can cause stress risers. A tapered finger provides a more uniform stress dis-
tribution, which makes it advisable where possible.
Snap fits usually require undercuts, so a mold with a side action is usually used, as
shown in Figure 5-44 [2, 11]. Another approach when an opening at the base of the
flexing finger is permitted is shown in Figure 5-45 [2, 11]. There are times when all that
has to be done is just pop it off the mold, taking advantage of the plastic's flexibility.
Another type of system is the snap-on or snap-in kind, used primarily in round parts (see
Fig. 5-46) [2].
SIDE CORE MOVES DOWN TO

MOLD UNCERCUT, AND IS
ACTIVATED UP TO ALLOW MOLD
TO OPEN
Figure 5-44. Molding a snap-fit flexing finger with a mold, using a side-core action.
PROJECTION FROM CAVITY. THROUGH PART,

AND MATING WITH CORE FORMS UNDERCUT
WITHOUT NEED FOR SIDE CORE. IT DOES,
HOWEVER, LEAVE SMALL "WINDOW" OR OPENING
IN MOLDED PART.
Figure 5-45. Molding a snap-fit flexing finger without side-core action.
SNAP·ONFIT
,
FULL PERIMETER SNAp·IN
Y,I/l
PRONGED SNAP·IN
BALL OR CYLINDER SNAP·IN
PRONGS
~ WlZ&
Figure 5-46. Examples of different snap-fit designs.
A snap fit can be rectangular or of a geometrically more complex cross-section, as

shown in Figure 5-47 and Table 5-3 [11,409]. The design approach for the finger is that
either its thickness, h, or width, b, tapers from the root to the hook. Thus, the load-
bearing cross-section at any location relates more to the local load. The result is that the
maximum strain on the plastic can be reduced and less material will be needed. With
this design approach, the vulnerable cross-section is always at the root [409].
The deflection force analysis applicable to cantilevered snap fittings is made using
Mobay engineering TPs whose values for permissible strains are given in Table 5-4 [409].
Using the equations in Figures 5-48 and 5-49 [409], the permissible deflection y can be
determined easily, even for cross-sections in complex shapes. For example, using Design
2 in Table 5-3, with the thickness of the arm decreasing it is linearly half its initial value.
Thus, it increases the permissible deflection by more than 60 percent, as compared to a
snap-fitting arm with a constant cross-section, as shown in Design 1 [409].
The deflection force P required to bend the finger can be calculated by using the
equations in the bottom row of Figure 5-47 for cross-sections in various shapes. The
values for the secant modulus for various Mobay engineering TPs can be determined
from Figure 5-50, but more complete and up-to-date data should be obtained directly
from Mobay. The strain value used should always be the one on which the actual
dimensioning was based [409].
HINGES
Although integral hinges are feasible with a number of thermoplastics (e.g., the poly-
olefins, acetal, nylon, styrene-butadiene, etc.), the concept is generally associated with
polypropylene. This section discusses the integral hinge as it is generally applicable to
polypropylene.
There are three techniques used to fabricate integral hinges: molded-in (by injection
or blow molding), cold worked, extruded, and coining.
"""" Shape or cross seclion
= A B h C---.t o
_C2
~ I c, ~C2
c, r2 6 ...-
r, ~C'
Type or design Rectangle Trapezoid Ring segment Irregular cross section
Permissible denection
I P
, h a+b",
y= _ _ o_EOI' y = K(2) EOI' I EOI'
~ y=0.67 oEOp y =o _0-
. Y h 2a+b h r, 3 C(~I
Cross section constant over

the length
h
2 Dl 27':) t
T: y=1.09 0EOp y = 1.64 a+h", EOI' y = l.64 o K", EOI' y=0.55 0Eop
2a+h h 0
h r, CLH
All dimensions in direction
Yo for example o h or /lro
decrease to one-half
~
3~tz y = 1.28 a+h",o EOI' )'=0.43 0Eo /'
y=0086 oEop y = 1.28'K", EOI'
h 2a+b h r, (cJ)
All dimensions in direction
0
Zo for example band a o
decrease to one-fourth
Denection force z z
--.
0
p = hh' E,E p =~ 0 a'+411h",+h' E,E 0
P = Z'41 E,E 0 P 0
= Z'4' E,E
6 I 12 2a+b / /
",E
Figure 5-47. The equations for designing geometrically complex cross-sections of snap fits 0
Table 5-3. Equations for Dimensioning Cantilevers in Fig. 5-47

Symbols Notes
y (permissible) deflection (l) These formulae apply when the tensile stress is in the small
( = undercut) surface area b. If it occurs in the larger surface area a, however,
E = (permissible) strain in the a and b must be interchanged.
outer fiber at the root; in
(2) If the tensile stress occurs in the convex surface, use C 2 in Fig.
formalae: E as absolute
5-48; if it occurs in the concave surface, use C 1 accordingly.
value = percentagel 100
I length of arm (3) c is the distance between the outer fiber and the center of gravity
h thickness at root (neutral axis) in the surface subject to tensile stress.
b width at root
(4) The section modulus should be determined for the surface
c = distance between outer
subject to tensile stress. Section moduli for cross section type C
fiber and neutral fiber
are given in Fig. 5-49. Section moduli for other basic
(center of gravity)
geometrical shapes are to be found in mechanical engineering
Z section modulus Z = [Ie,
manuals.
where I = axial moment
of inertia
Es secant modulus (see Fig.
3-14)
P (permissible) deflection
force
Molded In Hinges
An integral hinge can be injected molded by conventional techniques, provided certain
factors are kept in mind.
The desirable molecular orientation runs transverse to the hinge axis. This can best be
achieved by a fast flow through the hinge section, using high melt temperatures. Since
these requirements are also consistent with good molding practice, optimum production
rates can be maintained.
The main concern in integral-hinge molding is to avoid conditions that can lead to
delaminating in the hinge section. These include filling the mold too slowly, having too
low a melt temperature, having a nonuniform flow front through the hinge section,
suffering material contamination as from pigment agglomerates, and running excessively
high mold temperatures near the hinge area.
An integral hinge can also be produced by postmold flexing. In this process the hinge
section is molded, then subjected to stresses beyond the yield point immediately after
molding, by closing the hinge. This creates a necking down effect. Stretching the oriented
polymer molecules on the outer surface of the hinge radius provides the remarkable flex
strength of the thinned-down hinge section.
Flexing the molded hinge must be done while it is still hot, through an angle sufficient
to stress its outer surface. This postmolding step provides a maximum and uniform
orientation in the hinge area but a minimum of applied stresses. The thinness of the hinge
area requires that pigments be well dispersed so that agglomerates will not provide focal
points of weakness in the hinge structure.
Cold Worked Hinges

Where parts are heavy or complex, it may be impractical to force the necessary quantity
of resin through the hinge sections. In such cases integral hinges can be obtained by cold
""""hl
c, C2
__ 10 . . . . . . . . .
108 1 30
I 711,,0 -
61 */1
45
41 I A / boo' I :111111 I~:: 75
60 . . . __ _ _ _. _ 90
2.67
75
90 120
.- :;..--~-- -~
IIII!!!!!!!!i!! -~ 1( 15
10 ~ 1; !O 10 165
8 1315 8 100
1: ;0
6 1! i5 6+1--~--+-~--~--4---~-+~~--+-~
18'10
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 .0875 0.9 1.0
'1/ r2 ,,/r2
Figure 5·48. Mobay diagrams for determining C) and C2 for cross-sectional shape C in Table 5-4 where C) is the concave side under
tensile load and C2 the convex side under tensile load, using Mobay engineering TPs.
Zl - f 23 . Z/r23 z, ~ '23 . ZI'2 3
'2 '2 1
Z/r2 3 ZI'2 3
2~ 2
2 2
.; In· ..; rno
1'"-0- 4 ::t: I""'-
:1- 10 ' 10-'
4 ,....
6 ....... .... .:" 6 " 6 ...... .........
8~ t::--
,....
-- ....... 8 ' 6 ~ I--.. ........ :"' ~
6 .... ~ ~ 180
10 " 4 r-
- ...... 165
, .........
8 ...... ',8
10
-
t:::: S t=: ::::r- - ~~ ~ 150
135
r ,
10
2 ~~~
-- ;:
:::::: ;:t:-
...;::::
~ ~ 160
165
120
,, ...... ......... 150
,oj 10 2 , 10-2 ....
r- :::::: ~ ::::: ~ ~ ......... r--. ~ ~~~ ~~
, 135'
40 105 40
..... .... ...... ...... ~ 20 I"'- I' 120.
6 "1 , ,6
60 ......... "
...... :...... 90 60 , "~
.... I"'-. r--.: "r-.. 1'0... 105
4 """- ....... 4'
80 80 r-;:
-- ;:
100 ~
"j
40 ~ 2
~ ~ C"\ ~ 75 100
40 2
........ ........ ~ N'" ~ 90
...... 75
200 60 2001 60
""",- .;:~l\:
60 ~ 10- 3 ~ '\ 10 3
60.
80 I'\. 80 I~ '\.
6
400 j 45 400 j 100
100 \ 1\ 4 ~ 1\'
600 4S
600
800 800 I i\\
:I 2 i\' 30 2
1000 1000 30
10-.1 \ 15 Example " 8.75 10- 4 • • •

tj c.J.S.
050 060 070 080 090 1 00 '2 10 050 060070 080 090 1.00
<f - 75
0875
rl/ r2 r, '2
Figure 5-49. Nomograms for determining the section modulus for cross-sectional shape C in Table 5-4 where ZI is the concave side
under tensile stress and Z2 the convex side under tensile stress, using Mobay engineering TPs.
I.o.l
In
I.o.l
12,000
11,000
~
10,000
- 14
9,000
- 12
8,000
g~
~
7,000 - 10
Z Petlon 3530, 4530
iJ
iii ~
"
:::I
6,000 t-"3
'U
0
....X
~ Petlon 7530 - 8 <;
E
5,000 ra
tJ
Q)
en
4,000 ~
- 6
3,000
2,000
'"~ Typical of Bayblend Resins
...............
-4
1,000 Merion-
M-Grades
-2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain, f, %
Figure 5-50. The secant modulus at room temperature for Mobay engineering TPs.
working the molded parts. With this process, since the molecules are properly oriented
during forming, the direction of the polymer flow during molding is not critical.
A press, a home-made toggle job, or a hot-stamping machine can be used to perform
the cold-working operation. The male forming die should be about 132 to 138°e (270
to 2800 P). Pressure should be maintained for about 10 seconds. This time can be reduced
if the part still retains residual molding heat or is preheated. The recommended preheating
temperature is from 80 to 1l ooe (175 to 2300 P).
The die backings may be either hard or flexible. With a hard backing, such as steel,
the softened polypropylene is die formed into the desired hinge contour. Thinner hinges
Table 5-4. Mobay Guide Data for Permissible Short-Term Strain in Snap Joints
(Single Joining Operation)*
Material Percentage
Merion polycarbonate 4
(M-Grades)
Bayblend resin 2.5
MH6500
MC2500
MJ2500
MD6500
Petlon polyester 1.5
3530
4530
7530
*For frequent separation and rejoining, use about 60 percent of these values.
are usually made by using a flexible backing like stiff rubber. The deformation of this
type of backing produces the hinge contour by stretching the softened plastic and generally
results in thinner cross-sections.
Extruded Hinges
Forming the hinge cross-section by using an extruder die results in a hinge with poor
flex life. Because hinges are formed in the direction of the polymer flow, they cannot be
sufficiently oriented when flexed. However, if an extruded hinge is formed by the take-
off mechanism while the polypropylene still retains internal heat, the hinge will have
properties approaching those of cold working.
Cold-Forming or Coining Hinges

More recently it has become possible to create hinges in some of the tougher engineering
thermoplastics by coining techniques. In this technique a molded or extruded part is
placed in a fixture between two coining bars. Pressure is then applied to the bars and the
part is compressed to the desired thickness, elongating the plastic. Coining is effective
only when the material is elongated beyond its tensile yield point. The process is usually
used for such materials as acetal and nylon, which cannot normally be molded in a
sufficiently thin section for a strong, durable hinge.
THREAD STRENGTH
Threads can be molded or tapped into a plastic (see Fig. 5-51) [2]. Molded internal
threads usually require some type of unscrewing or collapsing mechanism [11]. Exter-
nal threads can be molded either by splitting the mold halves or parting the line across
the thread (see Fig. 5-51), if parting the line on the threads is permitted. With a split
mold it is basically easier to design the mold and remove the threaded part from the mold
during processing. The design of the threads requires control, to prevent excessive shear,
resulting in stripping the threads when torqued, and also to limit hoop stresses, which
can result in tensile failure. Although the mechanics of stress analysis for screw threads
are readily available, the equations for them can be rather complicated. A simplified
approximate equation is presented here [2].
EXTERNAL THREAD
INTERNAL THREAD
___1_ SPLIT CAVITY AT

PARTING LINE.
THREADED CORE PIN IN

TOOL MUST UNSCREW
BEFORE MOLD OPENS.
~
Figure 5-51. Examples of internal and external threads.
T TIGHTENING TORQUE
EFFECTIVE
THREAD
ENGAGEMENT
LENGTH
NOMINAL THREAD OD
PITCH DIA. OF THREAD
Figure 5-52. The torque-force relationships of screw threads.
As in Figure 5-52, the relationship between the torque on a screw and the axial force
generated there is approximately
where Jl. = the dynamic coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces [2].
The shear of threads A is approximately half that of the thread-engagement cylinder,
or
Therefore, the thread-stripping shear stress is
F 2F
7=-=-
A 7rdL
For standard 6O-degree unified threads there is a radial component of force that is about
60 percent of F. This force is spread over the thread-engagement cylinder, producing
internal pressure in the boss. Therefore, the internal pressure in the boss is approximately
0.6F
p=--
7rdL
This pressure can then be used in the simple thin-walled hoop-stress equation (1
P(d + 2t) to 0 b'

---'--2-t--'- . the boss.
tam the hoop stress 10
A major problem with thread torque-force equations is that the coefficient of friction
varies significantly with the material and the surface finish. In addition, most published
data for the coefficient of friction are produced at high speed and at the loads involved
in the thread engagement. Based on these situations, the approximate equations are
probably adequate. Furthermore, for initial design purposes it is probably worthwhile to
pick an average value such as 0.15. Using this value, the previous equations can be
further simplified as follows:
The torque-force relationship becomes T = 0.2 d For F = 5dT .
The thread-stripping, shear-stress equation is then
2F 10 T
7=--=--
7rdL 7r d 2L
The pressure generated on the inside of the boss is calculated as
O.2F T
P=--=-
dL d 2L
The hoop stress generated in the boss is thus
0.2F T
(1=--=--
Ltd L t
if it is assumed that d + 2 t = 2d.

In regard to screw threads, it is important that the following observations be clearly
understood.
First, the torque values are based on the coefficients of friction of the mating parts and
can thus vary significantly. The use of any compatible lubricant that reduces friction will
increase the shear and hoop stresses if the torque remains the same. Therefore, with
lubricants, reduce the amount of allowable torque.
Second, having high assembly torque to prevent vibrational loosening is frequently
ineffective, since creep in the plastic will reduce the effective assembly torque even if
the fastener does not rotate. Using vibrationproof screws, lockwashers, locknuts, and
thread-locking adhesives is usually a better alternative when loosening is considered a
problem.
Finally, self-tapping screws require additional torque to cut or form their threads. This
torque can usually be added to the allowable safe-assembly torque, but for the first
assembly only. The appropriate hole design for self-tapping screws is quite dependent
on the material and screw design.
PIPE THREADS
Properly designed plastic pipe threads usually require only a hand-tight assembling to
effect a good seal, especially if a compatible sealant tape or compound is used. Many
split bosses are the result of improper field installation, not faulty design. Some alternatives
to pipe-thread designs are shown in Figure 5-53 [2]. An approximate equation for the
hoop stress produced in a plastic boss having internal pipe threads is as follows:
3T
(J" = --
t dL
As with the screw-thread equations in the previous section, assumptions need to be

made regarding geometrics, so a 0.15 coefficient of friction is used. Once again, a torque
reduction should be made if compatible thread lubricants are used during assembly. As
usual, it is important to conduct tests on a final assembly, to ensure reliability and to
relate the test results with the mathematical analysis. The final result is developing
experience.
The following recommendations should be incorporated when possible: 1) with metal-
to-plastic fittings, make the male thread of plastic so that it will be in compression; 2)
use fluoroplastic tape and hand-tight fittings with female pipe threads; 3) when torque
cannot be controlled in the field, consider employing an external or molded-in hoop ring
(see Figure 5-53); and 4) do not encourage overtorquing by putting flats on the female
part to provide a tightening area to grip; a textured surface should be sufficient if one is
required.
For complete, up-to-date information on thread strength and pipe threads, consult such
qualified groups as the HCEPD Design/Technical Service of Hoechst Celanese for design
recommendations [2].
POOR DESIGN
PRESSED-ON
BETTER DESIGNS OR MOLDED-IN METAL
HOOP RING
grll~ METAL FITTING
PLASTIC
_MALE
PIPE
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ THREAD ""--..<::c...L....L...-L.J.._...L....."-L:...L..L-
Figure 5·53. Examples of different designs for pipe threads.

GEARS
Gear design is one of the more complicated areas for designing with plastics, because
the bending, shear, rolling, and sliding stresses all act upon a mechanism whose purpose
is to transmit uniform motion and power. In this age of light weight and quieter operation,
plastic gears have become increasingly important as a means of cutting cost, weight, and
noise without significantly reducing performance. Because plastics are not as strong as
steel, they must often perform far closer to their design limits than do metal gears.
Although many plastic gear designs are derived from metal-gear technology, plastics
demand special consideration, for instance to deal with heat buildup from hysteresis.
The basic difference between metal and plastic in gear design is that designs for metal
are based on the strength of a single tooth, whereas plastic shares the load among the
various gear teeth to spread it out. Thus, in plastics the allowable stress for a specific
number of cycles to failure increases as the tooth size decreases, to a pitch of about 48.
Very little increase is seen above a 48 pitch, because of the effects of size and other
considerations. The following guidelines for good gear design with TPs should be ob-
served: I) determine the gears' conditions of service, such as temperature, load, velocity,
space, and environment; 2) establish the short-term plastic properties as against the initial
performance requirements; 3) compare the long-term property retention factor as opposed
to the life of the gear; 4) using physical property data, calculate the stress levels caused
by the various loads and speeds; and 5) then compare these calculated values with the
allowable stress levels and redesign as needed to provide an adequate safety factor.
Plastic gears fail for many of the same reasons as metal gears, including wear, scoring,
plastic flow, pitting, fracture, creep, and fatigue. The causes of these failures are essen-
tially the same. If a gear is lubricated, bending stress will be the most important parameter.
Because nonlubricated gears may wear out before a tooth fails, contact stress is the prime
factor in their design. Plastic gears usually have a full fillet radius at the tooth root, so
they are not as prone to stress concentrations as are metal gears. The bending stress in
engineering TPs is based on fatigue tests run at specific pitch-line velocities. A velocity
factor should be used if the operating pitch-line velocity exceeds the test speed. Continuous
lubrication can increase the allowable bending stress by a factor of at least 1.5.
As with bending stresses, calculating surface-contact stress requires using a number
of correction factors. For example, a velocity factor is used when the pitch-line velocity
exceeds the test velocity. A correction factor is also used to account for changes in
operating temperature, gear materials, and the pressure angle. Stall torque, another im-
portant factor, could be considerably more than the normal loading torque. At high speeds,
plastic gears are also subject to hysteresis heating, which may be severe enough that they
actually melt. Avoid this failure by designing the gear drive so that there is a favorable
thermal balance between the heat that is generated and that which is removed by the
inherent cooling processes.
Reducing the rate of heat generation or increasing the rate of heat transfer will stabilize
the gears' temperature so that they will run indefinitely until stopped by genuine fatigue
failure. In such cases the wear resistance and durability of plastic gears makes them quite
useful. Using unfilled engineering plastics usually gives them a fatigue life on an order
of magnitude higher than metal gears. Hysteresis heating in plastics can be reduced by
several methods, the usual one being to reduce the peak stress by increasing the tooth
root area available for torque transmission. Another way to reduce stress on the teeth is
by increasing the gear's diameter. Peak stress can also be reduced by geometrically
repositioning it using various conventional gear theories.
Using stiffer plastics to reduce hysteresis provides other improvements. For example,
the higher-crystalline TPs like acetal and nylon can be further increased by processing
techniques that can reinforce their stiffness by 25 to 50 percent. The most effective way
to improve stiffness is through the use of fillers and reinforcements, particularly the high-
stiffness fibers seen in Chapter 6. Fillers and reinforcements are available that will also
significantly increase heat transfer. The surrounding fluid, whether liquid or air, can have
substantial cooling effects. A fluid like oil is at least ten times better at cooling than air.
Agitating these mediums increases their cooling rates, particularly when employing a
cooling heat exchanger.
GASKETS AND SEALS

Different plastics are used to fabricate gaskets and seals. With many applications, usually
the chemical or heat resistance will suggest the choice of the plastic, but often it can be
below the optimum in stress relaxation. Polytetrafluoroethylene is used for being virtually
inert and having outstanding high-temperature performance. PTFE is extremely vulnerable
to creep and stress relaxation, but the many different filled grades let it be extensively
used in severe environments. There is a great range of plastics and elastomers to meet
widely varying service requirements and all the types of geometric shapes and stress
relaxation characteristics.
Different tests have been set up to develop industry standards and test evaluations that
should be directly useful in their applications. For example, a gasket reI axometer applies
a compressive stress to a flat annular specimen, similar to the way many gaskets are
stressed in service (see ASTM F 38). This device is simple to operate, inexpensive, and
capable of measuring the effects of such pertinent variables as stress relaxation in regard
to time and environment.
The ability of a gasket to seal against leakage resulting from the pressure of a confined
fluid is d~ly related to retained stress. High initial stresses often are required to be
able to handle high pressures. In this example, however, high stresses serve to increase
the tendency of a gasket to creep, thus requiring stronger and more expensive construction.
The usefulness of stress relaxation data to the designer is that they provide a guide in
arriving at the usually required suitable design compromise, without overdesigning. These
data show that the thinner the gasket, the less stress relaxation occurs. In some material
evaluations, stress relaxation can be correlated with geometric variables by means of a
shape factor, as follows:
Annular area r
Shape factor = Total lateral area = 4t
where r = OD - ID and t = thickness.

The trend of this factor is generally consistent with plastics' characteristics. However,
this type of stress-relaxation information has to be interrelated with the individual behavior
of the plastics, as derived from the relaxation-test data reviewed in Chapters 2 and 3.
GROMMETS AND NOISE

To quiet a noise-generating mechanism, the first impulse is often to enclose it. Sometimes
an enclosure is in fact the best solution, but not always. If it can be determined what is
Figure 5-54. In addition to reducing noise, the injection-molded polyurethane (PUR) grommet
(right) replaces five individual parts and saves time in assembling the lever linkage. During
assembly it is snapped into a hole in the steel lever, then a grooved rod is inserted into the
grommet. Intended to isolate vibration as well as connect metal parts, such a PUR grommet
eliminates the hardening and cracking that used to shorten the life of the old assembly. This
design might appear to be mechanically weaker than the cotter pin assembly, but it is at least as
strong. The Hn. OD grommets can withstand a 2oo-lb. pull on the rod without undergoing pull-
out. In addition, the assembly can withstand a loo-lb. cyclic load (about 5,000 cycles at 60
cycles/min.) applied at 60 degrees off the rod axis at 300°F.
causing the noise, appropriate action can be taken to be more specific and provide a cost-
effective fix (see Fig. 5-54). In some cases the problem is caused by a component such
as a stepper motor or gear set that does not produce objectionable noise by itself. The
trouble typically develops because a small noise is transmitted to a metal frame or cabinet
that then serves to amplify the sound.
A cabinet that resonates can be quieted by damping its large flat areas so that they do
not act like loudspeakers. Different approaches can be used, such as applying plastic-
foam sound insulator or plastic panels, which have low damping characteristics. Various
plastics have helped alleviate problems in all types of noise makers, including rotating
systems and hammer actions. One popular approach is to use grommets when applicable
(see Fig. 5-54).
As one example, residential trash compacters that were objectionably noisy have been
reduced to acceptable noise levels by redesigning them. Sound-absorbing grommets were
used on the motors' bolt attachments and employed with better gears. Testing and all
other types of equipment can take advantage of grommets or be redesigned to use plastic,
or more of it, in the equipment. Grommets provide their greatest noise reduction through
damping in the octave frequency bands above 500 Hz where the ear is most sensitive
and sound most annoying [412].
IMPACT LOADS
As seen in Chapter 3, loads are often applied abruptly, resulting in significant stress and
strain increases. However, the elasticity of most TPs lets recovery usually be complete.
Therefore, the steady-state stress and deflection of plastic parts can be considered identical
to that of a part that is loaded gradually. However, when impact becomes severe, failure
can result from it. Figure 5-55 shows the drop-weight test that can be used to estimate
impact stress and impact deflection. This accepted method of testing has its own ster-
Static Stress
0,
Static Deflection
y,
y,
C
Impact Stress ,--_-:-:-_
0, = 0, + V 1 + ~ )
H
y, = y,
y,
)
NOTES:
- This is only an estimate, actual testing
is essential.
- Calculated impact stress will often ex-
ceed ultimate stress listed in data sheets
Calculate static stress and DROP HEIGHT for high impact materials.
deflection from placing
weight on part.
Figure 5-55. A standard method for estimating impact stress and deflection by dropping a
weight on to a test specimen or part.
eotypical situation where when the drop height is zero the stress and deflection double
[2].
Many high-impact plastics can survive large deflections or strains during impact without
suffering the permanent deformation or failure one might expect from the stress-strain
curves of the plastics as measured at the standard loading rates reviewed in Chapter 3.
Therefore, the calculated impact stress of successful parts will often appear to be unrea-
sonably high. Recall that stress-strain behaviors are very different under rapid loading
as compared to slow, steady loading conditions. Many plastics tend to have an exceptional
capability of dissipating large amounts of mechanical energy when subject to impact.
THERMAL STRESSES
When materials with different coefficients of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) are bolted,
riveted, bonded, crimped, pressed, welded, or fastened together by any method that
prevents relative movement between the parts, there is the potential for thermal stress.
Most plastics, such as the unfilled commodity TPs, may have ten times the expansion
rates of many nonplastic materials (see Fig. 5-56). Figure 5-57 examines the equations
for thermal expansion that apply in various situations [2]. The basic relationship for the
CLTE of a part is M.. = oLaT
where
M.. the change in length

u the coefficient of linear thermal expansion
L the linear dimension under consideration (including hole diameters)
aT = the temperature change
PLASTIC
CAST IRON
PARTS ARE TIGHTLY BOLTED OR BONDED TO METAL
PLASTIC
ASSEMBLY
GLASS WINDOW BONDED

TO PLASTIC
ADHESIVE
STEEL -~~:t-'
BOLT
PLASTIC ----1..-:;
FRAME
Figure 5-56. Typical assemblies of plastics to different materials in which thermal stresses can
become a problem when proper design is not applied.
If a part is confined so that it cannot expand or contract, the strain induced by the
temperature change is figured as
M-
ET = - = culT
L
Calculating stress is done by multiplying the strain by the tensile modulus of the material
at its operating temperature. With a plastic-to-metal attachment, a temperature change
causes both to expand. A plastic will usually apply an insignificant load to a metal, but
considerable stress will occur in the plastic. (Remember that there are plastics with a
CLTE equal to or less than that of steel and aluminum and other such materials.) In this
particular metal-to-plastic attachment example, the approximate thermal stress, CIT, in the
plastic is CIT = (am - ap)EpaT
where
am = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the metal
ap = coefficient of thermal expansion of the plastic
Ep = the tensile modulus of the plastic at the temperature in question
As the temperature increases, many plastics expand more than metals, but their modulus
drops. This change produces a compressive load in the plastic part, which then often
FREE EXPANSION
L---I.~; ==i.... r---

L = LENGTH OF BEAM CHANGE IN ANY
LINEAR DIMENSION
AL=aLAT
Ad=adAT
d = DIAMETER OF HOLE
RESTRICTED EXPANSION
*==-L-~~
STRAIN
A( aAT
STRESS
Or = EEr
ASSEMBL Y WITH METAL
STRESS IN PLASTIC
Or = (am - a,) EpA T
RELA TlVE MOTION

SHOULDER SCREW
RELA TlVE MOTION BETWEEN

METAL PARTS A T SHOULDER
SCREW
A rei = (a p - "m) LAT
Figure 5·57. Equations for thermal expansion in various situations.
364
results in buckling. Conversely, as the temperature drops, plastics shrink more than metals
and have an increase in their tensile modulus. The result could be a tensile rupture of
the plastic product.
In many assemblies the clearances around fasteners, the degrees of failure or yield in
adhesives, and warpage or creep will tend to relieve the thermal stress. As with metal-
to-metal attachments having different CLTEs, proper design allows for such temperature
changes, especially with large parts that might be subject to wide temperature variations
(see Fig. 5-57). The relative motion, I:J. reI, between two attachment points of joined
plastic-to-metal parts in which motion is allowed results in
STRUCTURAL FOAMS
A density reduction of up to 40 percent can be obtained in SF parts [12]. The actual
density reduction obtained will depend on the parts' thickness, the design's shape, and
the flow distance during processing (see Chapter 7). Low-pressure SF parts can have
characteristic surface splay patterns; however, the utilization of increased mold temper-
atures, increased injection rates, or grained mold surfaces will serve to minimize or hide
this surface streaking. Finishing systems like sanding, filling, and painting for structural
foam area readily available and have proved to be capable of completely eliminating
surface splay. Figure 5-58 is an example of an SF part with a good cell structure and
finish .
High-pressure structural foam parts have generally been found to require little or no
Figure 5-58. Lightweight, durable covers for pickup truck beds are made of structural foam
moldings of Prevex resin with a foam concentrate called Spectratech FM1776L, from Quantum
Chemical Corp. This chemically activated blowing agent does not attack the injection-molding
barrel and screw or the mold's surfaces. Furthermore, since there is very little postblow with the
blowing agent, the parts can be painted within four hours of being molded.
postfinishing. Although high-pressure foam parts may exhibit visual splay, their surface
smoothness is maintained and no sanding or filling is required.
For structural foam, mold pressures of approximately 4.1 MPa (600 psi) are required,
compared to typical pressures of 34.5 MPa (5,000 psi) and greater in injection molding.
As a result, large, complicated parts of 22.7 kg (50 lb.) and up can be produced using
multinozzle equipment, or up to 15.9 kg (35 lb.) with single-nozzle equipment and hot
runner systems. Part size is, in fact, limited only by the size of existing equipment, and
part complexity is limited only by tool design and a material's properties. Part cost can
be kept in line through such advantages as part consolidation, function integration, and
assembly labor savings.
When an engineering plastic resin is used with the structural foam process, the material
produced exhibits behavior that is predictable over a large range of temperatures. Its
stress-strain curve shows a significantly linearly elastic region like other Hookean ma-
terials, up to its proportional limit.
However, since thermoplastics are viscoelastic in nature, their properties are dependent
on time, temperature, and the strain rate. The ratio of stress and strain is linear at low
strain levels of 1 to 2 percent, and standard elastic design principles can thus be applied
up to the elastic transition point.
Large, complicated parts will usually require more critical structural evaluation to allow
better prediction of their load-bearing capabilities under both static and dynamic condi-
tions. Thus, predictions require careful analysis of the structural foam's cross-section.
The composite cross-section of a structural foam part contains an ideal distribution of
material, with a solid skin and a foamed core. The manufacturing process distributes a
thick, almost impervious solid skin that is in the range of 25 percent of the overall wall
thickness at the extreme locations from the neutral axis (see Fig. 5-59a). These are the
regions where the maximum compressive and tensile stresses occur in bending.
The simply supported beam has a load applied centrally. The upper skin goes into
compression while the lower one goes into tension, and a uniform bending curve will
develop (see Fig. 5-59b). However, this happens only if the shear rigidity or shear modulus
of the cellular core is sufficiently high. If this is not the case, both skins will deflect as
independent members, thus eliminating the load-bearing capability of the composite
structure (see Fig. 5-59c).
The fact that the cellular core provides resistance against shear and buckling stresses
implies an ideal density for a given foam wall thickness. This optimum thickness is
critically important in designing complex stressed parts.
As a 6.4-mm (i-in.) wall, for example, both modified polyphenylene oxide and polycar-
bonate resin exhibit the best processing, properties, and cost-in the range of a 25 percent
(bl (e)
(0)
Figure 5-59. A composite cross-section of a structural foam part.

Figure 5-60. A cross-section of a solid material.
~-------b,--------~
Figure 5-61. A cross-section of a sandwich structure.
weight reduction. Laboratory tests show that with thinner walls about 4.0 rom (0.157
in.), this ideal weight reduction decreases to 15 percent. When the wall thickness reaches
approximately ~.9 mm (0.350 in.), the weight can be reduced by 30 percent.
However the structural foam cross-section is analyzed, its composite nature still results
in a twofold increase in rigidity, compared to an equivalent amount of solid plastic, since
rigidity is a cubic function of wall thickness. This increased rigidity allows large structural
parts to be designed with only minimal distortion and deflection when stressed within
the recommended values for a particular foamable resin. Depending on the required
analysis, the moment of inertia can be evaluated three ways.
In the first approach, the cross-section is considered to be solid material (see Fig. 5-
60). The moment of inertia, Ix, is then equal to Ix = bh3/12 where b = the width and
h = the height. This commonly used approach provides acceptable accuracy when the
load-bearing requirements are minimal-for example, in the case of simple stresses-
and when time and cost constraints prevent more exact analysis.
The second approach ignores the strength contribution of the core and assumes that
the two outer skins provide all the rigidity (Fig. 5-61). The equivalent moment of inertia
is then equal to Ix = b(h3 - hI)/12. This formula results in conservative accuracy, since
the core does contribute to the stress-absorbing function. It also adds a built-in safety
factor to a loaded beam or plate element when safety is a concern.
A third method is to convert the structural foam cross-section to an equivalent I-beam
section of solid resin material (see Fig. 5-62). The moment of inertia is then formulated
as
Figure 5-62. A cross-section of an '-beam.
where b l = b(Ec)/(Es), Ec = the modulus of the core, E. = the modulus of the skin,
ts = the thickness of the skin, and hI = the height of the equivalent web (core). This
approach may be necessary where operating conditions require stringent load-bearing
capabilities without resorting to overdesign and thus unnecessary costs. Such an analysis
produces maximum accuracy and would thus be suitable for finite-element analysis on
complex parts. However, the one difficulty with this method is that the core modulus
and the as-molded variations in skin thicknesses cannot be accurately measured.
STRUCTURAL SANDWICHES
In the usual construction practice a structural sandwich is a special case of a laminate,
whether flat, curved, or otherwise, in which two thin facings of relatively stiff, hard,
dense, strong material are bonded to a thick core of foam, honeycomb construction, or
the like of a relatively lightweight material that is considerably less dense, stiff, and
strong than the facings. Structural sandwiches can be all plastics, all metals, or some
combination of plastic and metal. An example of a reinforced plastic with a foam core
was shown in Figure 1-12.
With this geometry and relationship of mechanical properties, facings are subjected to
almost all the stresses in transverse bending or axial loading. The geometry of the
arrangement provides for high stiffness combined with lightness, because the stiff facings
are at a maximum distance from the neutral axis, similar to the flanges of an I-beam.
The continuous core takes the place of the web of an I-beam or box beam, absorbs most
of the shear, and stabilizes the thin facings against buckling or wrinkling under com-
pressive stresses. The bond between the core and its facings must resist shear and any
transverse tensile stresses set up as the facings tend to wrinkle or pull away from the
core [14].
Stiffness
For an isotropic material with a modulus of elasticity E, the bending stiffness factor, EI,
of a rectangular beam b wide and h deep is
In a rectangular structural sandwich with the same dimensions just given whose facings
and core have moduli of elasticity Ef and Eco respectively, and a core thickness C, the
bending stiffness factor EI is
This equation is exact if the facings are of equal thickness, and approximate if they are
not, but the approximation is close if the facings are thin relative to the core.
If, as is usually the case, Ec is much smaller than Ef , the last tenn in the equation can
be ignored.
For asymmetrical sandwiches with different materials or different thicknesses in their
facings or both, the more general equation for I.EI may be used.
In many isotropic materials the shear modulus G is high compared to the elastic modulus
E, and the shear distortion of a transversely loaded beam is so small that it can be
neglected in calculating deflection. In a structural sandwich the core shear modulus Gc
is usually so much smaller than Ef of the facings that the shear distortion of the core
may be large and therefore contribute significantly to the deflection of a transversely
loaded beam. The total deflection of a beam is thus composed of two factors: the deflection
caused by the bending moment alone, and the deflection caused by shear, that is, 8 =
8m + 8s where 8 = total deflection, 8m = moment deflection, and 8s = shear deflection.
Under transverse loading, bending moment deflection is proportional to the load and
the cube of the span and inversely proportional to the stiffness factor, EI. Shear deflection
is proportional to the load and span and inversely proportional to shear stiffness factor
N, whose value for symmetrical sandwiches is
N = (h + c)bG
2 c
where Gc = the core shear modulus.

The total deflection may therefore be written
The values of Km and Ks depend on the type of load. The values for several typical
loading conditions are given as shown in Table 5-5.
Stresses in Sandwich Beams

The familiar equation for stresses in an isotropic beam subjected to bending,
M
(}'=-1::
y I
must be modified for sandwiches to the fonn
= MEyY
(}' y EI
where y = the distance from the neutral axis to the fiber at y, E y = the elastic modulus
of the fiber at y, and EI = the stiffness factor.
For a symmetrical sandwich the stress in the outennost facing fiber is found by setting
y = hl2
Ey = Ef
and the stress in the outennost core fiber by setting
y = C/2
Ey = Ee
The mean stress in the facings of a symmetrical sandwich can be found from
2M
0' = ----
bt(h + c)
where t = the facing thickness.

Similarly, the general equation for the shear stresses in a laminate (see the preceding
section),
VQ
T=-
bEl
can be used for any sandwich. For a symmetrical sandwich the value of T can be closely
approximated by
2V
T = ----
b(h + c)
Table 5-5. Typical Loading Conditions

Loading Beam Ends Deflections at Km K.
Uniformly distributed Both simply supported Midspan 5/384 118

Uniformly distributed Both clamped Midspan 1/384 118
Concentrated at midspan Both simply supported Midspan 1148 114
Concentrated at midspan Both clamped Midspan 11192 114
Concentrated at outer Both simply supported Midspan lln68 1/8
quarter points
Concentrated at outer Both simply supported Load point 1196 118
quarter points
Uniformly distributed Cantilever, 1 free, Free end 118 1/2
1 clamped
Concentrated at free end Cantilever, 1 free, Free end 113
1 clamped
Axially Loaded Sandwich

Edge-loaded sandwiches such as columns and walls are subject to failure by overstressing
the facings or core, or by the buckling of the member as a whole. Direct stresses in the
facings and core can be calculated by assuming that their strains are equal, so that
where
p = the total load

(J'f = the facing stress
(J'c = the core stress
Af = the cross-sectional area of facings
Ac = the cross-sectional area of core
Usually the elastic modulus, En of the core is so small that the core carries little of the
total load, in which case the equation can be simplified by ignoring its last term, so that
for a sandwich b wide with facings t thick, P = 2(J'tht. The column-buckling load of a
sandwich L long simply supported at the ends is given by
This variation on the Euler equation takes into account the low shear stiffness of the core.
For wall panels held in line along their vertical edges, an approximate buckling formula
is
provided the length, L, of the panel is at least as great as its width, b, and that the second
term in the bracket of the denominator is not greater than unity [14].
ENERGY AND MOTION CONTROL

Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) components (see Chapter 6) are frequently subject to
dynamic loads where energy and motion controls are required (see Fig. 5-63). The products
involved range from sporting goods to home appliances to automobiles to buildings to
bridges to boats to aircraft to spacecraft [413-17]. The use of bonded elastomers for
energy and motion control in construction is discussed in Chapter 6 to give a technical
Cover Elastomer
Steel Reinforcing Plates

Internal Elastomers Layers
Figure 5-63. A section through a high-load elastomeric building isolator showing the elastomer
layers to ensure horizontal flexibility. Steel reinforcing plates give rigidity for vertical loads.
This isolator resists wind loads elastically without perceptible movement, yields under
earthquake loads, and deforms plasticly dampening side-to-side vibrations.
examination of how to analyze and evaluate it, based on work by J. H. Bucksbee, the
Manager of Product Design at the Industrial Products Division of the Lord Corporation
[413].
Anyone in a building, on the highway, on a rapid transit vehicle, or on a ship has a
bonded elastomer working for them. In a building, it controls vibration and noise from
motors and engines that is generated to the building itself. For rapid transit it supports
the rail and the vehicle, thus reducing noise and vibration to adjacent buildings. For
ships, bonded elastomers absorb their berthing energies, with single units being as large
as 3 m (9.9 ft.) high and weighing 19 tons. For all these applications, elastomers are
used either in shear, compression, tension, torsion, buckling, or a combination of two
or more uses, depending on the needs of the specific application.
Elastomers are used in the construction industry to control noise and shock and vibration
and are used in many applications strictly to accommodate motion. In any application of
elastomeric materials, the method of applying the elastomer can either help or hinder the
desired end result. Basically, elastomers are used in situations of shear, compression,
buckling, and bulk. The particular application will dictate which would be best.
Consider, for example, a berthing vessel, a structure that has to be designed to withstand
the energy developed by the vessel. The more rigid the system, the higher the reactive
forces must be to absorb the vessel's kinetic energy. The area under the structure's load
as against its deflection response curve (that is, of the energy absorbed) is typical to that
shown in Figure 5-64 [413].
For economic reasons, designers typically reduce the mass of a structure, but doing
so reduces the lateral reaction forces that the structure can withstand. This happens as
the structure is allowed to deflect more or an energy-absorbing device is applied. An
elastomer is ideal in such an environment because it will not corrode. Metal components
can thus be totally encapsulated in an elastomer and then bonded to all-metal surfaces.
The elastomer can be used in conditions of shear, compression, or buckling. In examining
the load-deflection characteristics of these three systems, note that the one that results in
the lowest reaction force generally also produces the lowest-cost structure. Figures 5-65,
5-66, and 5-67 show six results that could be obtained, compared to an ideal hydraulic
system with 100 percent energy efficiency.
Figure 5-65 is of a typical shear curve. The energy capacity is approximately 50 percent
efficient, requiring 100 percent more deflection or load, if the deflection or load of a 100-
percent-efficient curve is required.
Figure 5-66 is of a typical compression curve. It shows an energy capacity approxi-
mately 35 percent efficient, requiring 300 percent higher deflection or a 350 percent higher
load if the deflection or load of a 100-percent-efficient curve is required.
Figure 5-67 shows a typical buckling-volume curve. Here the energy capacity is ap-
proximately 75 percent efficient, requiring a 25 percent higher deflection or a 20 percent
higher load if the deflection or load of a loo-percent-efficient curve is required.
The buckling column was selected because it produces the lowest reaction load and
the lowest deflection (deflection controls the projection of the berthing system out from
the structure). A typical design is shown in Figure 5-68. The energy capacities and weight
vary here from 1,900 to 657,000 joules and from 11.3 to 17,690 kg (24.8 to 38,918 lb.).
When designing to support structures and allow the horizontal input of an earthquake or
to allow the structural movement needed on a structure such as a bridge pier, the vertical
and horizontal stiffnesses must be calculated, then a system can be designed. Take, for
example, a rectangular elastomeric section with a length of 762 cm, a width of 508 cm,
and a thickness of 508 cm (305 x 203 x 203 in.).
Table 5-6 lists the formulas used to calculate the respective compression and shear
stiffnesses for these data. For the elastomeric section of the example use the following
formula:
(kc)(762 x 508)(EJ K = (ks)(762 x 508)(Gs)

Kc = 508 s 508
= 762kcEc = 762ksGs
The calculations for kc and ks adjust for such design parameters as strain, bulk compres-
sion, and bending by the elastomer section, as developed over many years of sample
testing. A way to forego the pain of getting there is to let ks = .98 and kc = 1.0, using
a .69 MPa shear-modulus elastomer as follows:
Ks = 747G s
For compression, the shape factor (SF), which is the projected load area of the product
divided by the elastomer area that is free to move (known in the industry as the bulge
area, or BA), is the major design parameter. For this example the shape factor is calculated
thus:
Load area (762)(508)

= = 0.3
Bulge area (762 + 508)(2)(508)
Using Figure 5-69 at a SF = .3 and a Gs = .69 MPa, an Ec = 2.42 MPa is obtained.

Therefore, Kc = 1.8 MN/m and Ks = .5 MN/m.
F
Maximum Lateral
Reaction Force
- - - Lateral Deflection
- t - - - - Energy Absorbed
L.....:---~-6
Figure 5·64. Typical load deflection that is characteristic of a marine structure.
F
F
c
o
Force ;;
u
CD
;:
CD
C
CD
Energy Same E
as
Energy en
~------------~~6
100% Higher Force
F
------------------
Same Force
Same
Energy
100% Higher Deflection

Figure 5·65. Elastomeric shear energy capacity as compared to a 100 percent efficient curve.
374
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
F ci
0
:::1
~I
:;:::1
Force ~I
cpl
cl
0
EI
:::1 ~I
Energy (,)1 1
:!I I
~I I
c3 c3
350% Higher Load
F
-----------------------
Same Force
300% Higher Deflection

Figure 5·66. Elastomeric compression energy capacity as compared to a 100 percent efficient
curve.
Applying a 20 percent maximum compression strain to the product results in a maximum

compression deflection of 102 cm (41 in.). This allows a maximum compression load of
only 19 kg (42 lb.), hardly sufficient to support a building or a bridge.
Given that shear stiffness Ks cannot change, the sole remaining option is to change
the compression stiffness, by adjusting the shape factor. Designing the product as two
units each 762 x 508 x 254 cm (305 x 203 x 102 in.) thick will not change the shear
characteristic, but it does change the shape factor to .060. According to Figure 5-69, Ee
= 3.03 MPa and Ke becomes 4.6 MN/m per section. With two sections in series the
spring rate is 2.3 MN/m, which now allows for 24.3 kg of compression load. Dividing
each of these sections into a total of four sections each 762 x 508 x 127 cm (305 x
203 x 51 in.) thick yields a shape factor of 1.2 and an Ee equal to 151.7 MPa. An
F F
c::
Force l.g
I~
I~
Ie
Energy Same I ell
Energy IE
I~
I
~------------~~-6
20% Higher Force
F
Same Force
Same Energy
25% High Deflection

Figure 5-67. Elastomeric buckling energy capacity as compared to a lOO-percent-efficient
curve.
Figure 5-68. A buckling column fendering system.
376
! 3 4 6 8 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 2~ ~........ ~ -
, .,
1000 ~ ~ I""" ~ ~
/ 1/ ""
.".;. ",..
800
Shape factor S ~
600 ' L ,,~ ~ ' /~
I Ij "J' /. i(Lr/
Ih "
400
,
I
300
I
J If
~ ,,- ",
, r/
200
1 I J '~/~
100
I compression
modulus
E<
/ ILI/l ''fI
,
MN/m'
,
80 L I I I L
,
I I
60 LJ ~
I I
i/ ~
1 J. 1(1 /
", ,
40 /
3~
~ 'I IfIfJ'
/ / J J
~ 'f 'f ,
20 r- nominal
hardness
~~ 1/ / I. If ~~ ~ --
- -IRHO C0~ «:...; 5
"J'/
II""'"
_~ 75 -
,,~
,,'f ~~ ~~ ,A~~
10 I I
~RCt F~£~ 8
,
~
L L I
I
>-- ;;iii 65 ~ ~
'f
I
,
'-
6 I <'
~ // I 1I I
4 55 ,..-1
.".. ~ :/ shape factor =
loaded area
~~
I.ttt' ~~ force free area

3 ~ I LB
-r ."",
45 -'" I
Ie S =
II""'"
~ I
2t (L + BJ
."",
35 ~ 10)( shear modulus G
~ I I
Figure 5-69. A compression modulus (EA ) versus a shape factor (S) for five different elastomer
stiffnesses.
individual section Kc will be 46 MN/m, with a series of four being 115 MN/m, allowing
a compression load of approximately 120 kg. It always maintains a shear spring rate of
approximately .5 MN/m .
This is the basic design philosophy for obtaining high-compression loads while main-
taining the soft shear stiffnesses needed for seismic considerations or for thermal expansion
and contraction. Continued thinning of the individual elastomer sections will drive the
compression load-carrying capacity upward.
Table 5-6. Data Required for Formulas

Direction Compression (Kc) Shear (Ks)
Formula (kc)(L.A.)(G s)
t
Variable k Factor of geometry Factor of geometry
Variable L.A. Load area Load area
Variable Ec Compression modulus
Variable Gs Shear modulus
Variable t Elastomer thickness Elastomer thickness
In the rapid transit industry, wherever there is an elevated structure or subway tunnel,
noise and vibration caused by the vehicles can generate unrest among those living along
the route. There are three areas that can be adjusted to reduce annoying frequencies: the
vehicles' suspension system; the trackbed, including the tie-to-rail interface and the
floating slab; and various acoustic barriers.
For the vehicle suspension system and trackbed techniques, good elastomeric product
design and application are generally sufficient. The product design requires including the
design considerations mentioned previously of the compression and shear curve and shape
factor, but also introduces new combinations of compression and shear. These occur
either by shear and compression in planes 90 degrees to each other or shear with compres-
sion, as in seismic and thermo designs, only installed at angles to the horizontal.
Figure 5-70 shows a typical installation of a suspension system for a rapid-transit
vehicle. The angle of installation (6) is normally 75 to 800 and the chevron angle (0:) is
normally 100 to 1200 , depending on the desired vertical to fore-aft to lateral characteristics.
Figure 5-71 depicts a floating-slab concept with elastomeric support below it and direct-
fixation elastomeric rail fasteners between the slab and the running rail.
Figure 5-72 schematically displays the elastic iterations of a rapid-transit line, not an
easy system to analyze dynamically.
Figure 5-70. A typical rapid-transit suspension system using a chevron configuration.

~ .'~' .. '»
Floating Slab
Resilient Perimeter Isolation Resilient Support Pads
Figure 5-71. A typical rapid-transit cross-section showing the elastomeric rail fasteners and
floatings-slab supports.
Car Body & Bolster
Secondary Suspension
- Truck Frame
~----~------r-~
Wheel/ Rail
Interface
t"'1J...........- , - - - - - y - - - - ' Rai I
Rail Fastener
Floating Slab
Slab Suspension
Figure 5-72. A schematic interface showing the elastic components of a rapid-transit system.
379
During acoustic testing at a major transit authority's elevated structure it came out that
the softer the compression and shear stiffnesses of the direct-fixation elastomeric rail
fastener, the better the acoustic performance. Figure 5-73 shows the noise-level reduction
available from using soft elastomeric rail fasteners instead of stiff ones. The soft fastener
has approximately 50 percent of the stiff fastener's spring rate. This figure shows the
average wayside noise levels at 30 m (100ft.) from an elevated structure for train operation
on soft fasteners compared to stiff ones.
For vibration, Figure 5-74 shows the average vibration of the bottom plate of a steel
box girder for train operation on soft fasteners as opposed to stiff ones.
For each figure the data are plotted for two different car manufacturers. The performance
difference is the influence of the cars' suspension systems' parameters on the different
elastomeric rail fasteners' stiffnesses. Figure 5-75 shows clearly that there are definitely
two populations, two different car manufacturers. Therefore, a system that performs well
for one authority may not offer the same performance to another one.
We have now looked at the more common types of single-axis load-deflection char-
acteristics possible with elastomeric products, as well as various methods to change the
stiffness in one direction while maintaining an initial stiffness in a plane that is 90 degrees
from the reference plane. The angular considerations in different directions can now yield
an unlimited number of design-configuration options.
The next six typical concepts will allow motion through an elastomer in three or more
directions. First, Figure 5-76 would be a typical design for seismic concerns and bridge-
bearing pads. It is capable of supporting high compressive loads while allowing for soft
lateral (shear) and torsional characteristics. Although the part shown is a circular unit,
square and rectangular products are more common in the construction industry.
Figure 5-77 shows another high shape factor design, which in this case takes the
elastomer in compression (that is, radially), with the shear modes being axial and torsional.
m ~ ::
"0
+10 f: ::
F ::
::
f:
'ii
>
Q)
=-
::- y~
,'" \
-:
-
... ~~- !E--x",*,;
?"...
....
-
~ ~:.
'VX
...J 0
Q) ::
::
I<:f "5
~.
........ ~
... "X)a-I
""li:r
::
::
~
=-
::l
I/) -:
I/)
:: ::
Q)
c...
~
-10 -
::
-
:
"0 :: ::
C
::l =-
:: o R Trains
-:
:
0
(f)
-20 - 0
>+-----l< B Trains
-
Q)
>
:: :
F :.
I, , ,::-=
:0=
as ~
'ii
a::
F
I-
, I I I l 11 I I , I I , I I I
16 31. 5 63 125 250 sao 1K 2K 4K
Octave Band Center Frequency - Hz

Figure 5-73. Average wayside noise levels at 100 ft. from an elevated structure for train
operations on relatively soft rather than stiff fasteners.
+10
r:D
'tI
I
Qj 0
>
CI)
..J
C
0
:0: -10
co
a..
.Q
:>
CI) Ie iJ R Trains
> -20
:0:
co
Qj
a:
8 16 31. 5 63 125 250 500 1K

Figure 5-74. Average vibration of the bottom plate of a steel box girder for train operations on
soft fasteners as against stiff ones.
100
co
~
:::l
0
N
W 90
a:
r:D
'tI
80
Qj
>
CI)
..J
CI)
a.. 70
:::l
en
en
CI)
a..
~
'tI 60
c
:::l
0
en
'tI
c 50 0 0 Soft Fasteners - R Trains
co )( )( Soft Fasteners - B Trains
r:D
-
CI)
> e----,;] Stiff Fasteners - R Trains
co
40 &---.....t!.. Stiff Fasteners - B Trains
-
U
0
M
16 31. 5 63 125 250 500 lK 2K 4K

Figure 5-75. Noise-level readings indicating the results of systems from two different car
manufacturers.
381
FAxial
8
Horizontal
Figure 5·76. Axial compression with two shear modes.
.0
Radial
8 Axial
¢ Torsional
Figure 5·77. Radial compression with two shear modes.
382
-~
-- & Axial
Figure 5·78. Radial compression with three shear modes.
Figure 5·78 is similar to Figure 5-77 except that its metal components have a spherical
contour, allowing for torsion about the center line and radial axis. For each of these
directions the radial-load deflection characteristic is quite stiff. The axial characteristic
is indeed stiffer than the shear in the previous configuration. The torsion about the axial
axis is also similar, but the torsion about the radial axial axis is soft.
Figure 5·79 shows a product similar to one used in the rapid-transit and railroad industry
that is, however, of a conical configuration as opposed to the previously seen chevron
configuration from Figure 5-70. This product exhibits high axial and radial characteristics
while maintaining soft torsional characteristics.
Figure 5-80 shows another variation of Figure 5-79, which produces high radial and
axialload·deflection characteristics but maintains a soft torsional nature. This design is
basically a combination of the flat, high shape-factor part described in Figure 5·76, and
the circular part described in Figure 5·77.
Figure 5·81 shows a spherical bearing, a configuration that allows for high compressive
loads in the axial direction while maintaining soft torsion about the axial axis and torsion
perpendicular to that axis. This configuration is a combination of Figures 5·78 and 5·79.
For auxiliary generators and compressors any of these configurations would be viable.
However, each individual application has its own design requirements. Figure 5·82 shows
four different applications of a mounting system on an auxiliary engine, any of which
would be acceptable, depending upon the design analysis.
FAxial
Radial
Torsional
Figure 5-79. Radial and axial compression with one shear mode.
F
Axial
Figure 5-80. Radial and axial compression with one shear mode and high deflection.
384
F
~
-- ------
~
Axial
¢ Pitch
Figure 5-81. Axial compression with three shear modes.
One of the parameters to consider when applying an elastic suspension system to an

energy-producing device is the degree of motion that will be acceptable to the installation.
Figure 5-83 illustrates what can happen when the elastic center (that is, the theoretical
point which all the elastic mounting characteristics concentrate) is below the center of
gravity. The methods used to stabilize such a system are the focalized concept, as seen
in Figures 5-82b and 5-83b. For this particular system the elastic center is now projected
up through the angle of inclination of the mounts and the center of gravity, decoupling
the motion and resulting in translational motion only.
Another method is to mount the system so that its mountings are vertical and its elastic
center coincides somewhat with the center of gravity but is still above the center of
gravity, as in Figure 5-83c. One alternative to Figure 5-83a that would result in high
resistance to rotational motion would be to support the system as shown in Figure 5-83d,
by installing stabilizer mountings above the center of gravity to reduce lateral motion.
The performance of elastomers is of major interest and concern to the design engineer.
The readily available data concern the tensile--elongation factor, the compression set,
results from durometer tests, and information on oil resistance, heat aging, and the static
modulus.
In designing for a given environment, certain information makes the designer's job
easier and the actual results closer to that predicted:
Dynamic modulus at various strains, frequencies, and temperatures.

Ozone resistance at different concentration levels.
Loss factor at various strains, frequencies, and temperatures.
Fatigue of various shape factors and cyclic strains and temperatures.
Effects of different ingredients such as carbon black.
Drift and set characteristics at various initial strains and temperatures.
Electrical resistance.
b
(,1,11"\
r r-U(
t'
I
I
\...!
c d
Figure 5-82. Four different applications of a mounting system on an auxiliary engine.
a
Cenler 01
b
+-1-+
- ....
Cente, of
G,avltyand
SUlpenllon
G"vlty Elaatle Cente,
Coincide
MounUngl
Located at
B...
Mountlngl
SUlpenllon
+
Elalt c Cenler
c d
Center of
Cente,ol
G,.vlty
Gravitvand
SUlpen. on
EtuUc Center
Coincide
MounUngs
Located In
Plane Thru
Cente, of
G,avlty SUlpenlon
EluUc Center
Figure 5-83. An elastic center used to stabilize rocking motion.
386
These types of data are normally generated at the designer's facility with in-house-
developed test equipment and procedures.
FAILURE ANALYSIS
The process of analyzing designs includes the modes of failure analysis that were discussed
in Chapters 2, 4, and earlier [1, 2, 10-12]. At an early stage the designer should try to
anticipate how and where a design is most likely to fail. The most common conditions
of possible failure are elastic deflection, inelastic deformation, and fracture. During elastic
deflection a part fails because the loads applied produce too large a deflection. In defor-
mation, if it is too great it may cause other parts of an assembly to become misaligned
or overstressed. Dynamic deflection can produce unacceptable vibration and noise. When
a stable structure is required, the amount of deflection can set the limit for buckling loads.
Because many plastics are relatively flexible, analysis should consider how much
deflection might result from the loadings and elevated temperatures any given part might
see in service. The equations for predicting such deflections should use the modulus of
the material; its tensile strength is not pertinent. Usually, the most effective way to reduce
deflection is to stiffen a part's wall by changing its cross-section.
Inelastic deformation causes part failure arising out of a massive realignment of the
molecular structure. A part undergoing inelastic deformation does not return to its original
state when its load is removed. It should be remembered that there are plastics that are
sensitive to this situation and others that are not.
The existence of an elevated temperature, with or without long-term or continuous
loading, would suggest the possibility that a material might exceed its elastic limits. As
explained earlier concerning momentary loading, the properties to consider are the pro-
portionallimit and the maximum shear stress.
The presence of fracture reflects a load that exceeds the strength of the design. The
load may occur suddenly, such as upon impact, or at a low temperature, which will
reduce the elongation of the material. A failure may develop slowly, from a steady, high
load applied over a long time (creep rupture) or from the gradual growth of a crack from
fatigue. If fracture is the expected mode of failure, analysis should examine the greatest
principal stresses involved.
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
The specific dimensions that can be obtained on a finished, processed plastic product
basically depend on the performance and control of the plastic material, the fabrication
process and, in many cases, upon properly integrating the materials with the process. In
tum, a number of variable characteristics exist with the material itself, as described in
Chapters 2 through 6, and the process (Chapters 7 and 8). Unfortunately, many designers
tend to consider dimensional tolerances on plastic products to be complex, unpredictable,
and not susceptible to control. This is simply not true, though they can be complex.
Plastics are no different in this respect than other materials. If steel, aluminum, and
ceramics were to be made into complex shapes but no prior history on their behavior
during processing existed, a period of trial and error would be required to ensure their
meeting the required measurements. If relevant processing information or experience did
exist, it would be possible for these metallic products to meet the requirements with the
first part produced. This same situation exists with plastics. To be successful with this
material requires experience with their melt behavior, melt-flow behavior during pro-
cessing, and the process controls needed to ensure meeting the dimensions that can be
achieved in a complete processing operation. Based on the plastic to be used and the
equipment available for processing, certain combinations will make it possible to meet
extremely tight tolerances, but others will perform with no tight tolerances or any degree
of repeatability [1-14, 40-42, 50-72].
Fortunately, there are many different types of plastics that can provide all kinds of
properties, including specific dimensional tolerances. It can thus be said that the real
problem is not with the different plastics or processes but rather with the designer, who
requires knowledge and experience to create products to meet the desired requirements.
The designer with no knowledge or experience has to become familiar with the plastic-
design concepts expressed throughout this book and work with capable people such as
the suppliers of plastic materials.
Some plastics, such as the TSs and in particular the TS-RP composites, can produce
parts with exceptionally tight tolerances. In the compression molding of relatively thin
to thick and complex shapes, tolerances can be held to less than 0.001 in. or to even
zero, as can also be done using hand layup fabricating techniques. At the other extreme
are the unfilled, unreinforced extruded TPs. Generally, unless a very thin uniform wall
is to be extruded, it is impossible to hold to such tight tolerances as just given. The
thicker and more complex an extruded shape is, the more difficult it becomes to meet
tight tolerances. (This situation is also true with most other nonplastic materials.) What
is important is to determine the tolerances that can be met and then design around them.
PLASTICS
To maximize control in setting tolerances there is usually a minimum and a maximum
limit on thickness, based on the process to be used (see Tables 5-7, 5-8, and 5-9). Each
resin has its own range that depends on its chemical structure and melt-processing char-
acteristics. Outside these ranges, melts are usually uncontrollable. Any dimensions and
tolerances are theoretically possible, but they could result in requiring special processing
equipment, which usually becomes expensive. There are of course products that require
and use special equipment.
One factor in tolerances is shrinkage. Generally, shrinkage is the difference between
the dimensions of a fabricated part at room temperature and the cooled part, checked
usually twelve to twenty-four hours after fabrication. Having an elapsed time is necessary
for many plastics, particularly the commodity TPs, to allow parts to complete their inherent
shrinkage behavior. The extent of this postshrinkage can be near zero for certain plastics
or may vary considerably. Shrinkage can also be dependent on such climatic conditions
as temperature and humidity, under which the part will exist in service, as well as its
conditions of storage.
Plastics suppliers can provide the initial information on shrinkage that has to be added
to the design shape and will influence its processing. The shrinkage and postshrinkage
will depend on the types of plastics and fillers. Compared to the TPs, the TSs generally
have less filler. The type and amount of filler, such as its reinforcement, can significantly
reduce shrinkage and tolerances (see Figs. 5-84 and 5-85).
Another influence on dimensions and tolerances involves the coefficient of linear ther-
mal expansion or contraction. This CLTE value usually has to be determined at the part's
operating temperature. (See the CLTE information in Chapter 2 for additional details.)
So it is important to include in the design specifications the operating temperature con-
ditions, to specify a plastic that will do the job. Plastics can provide all the extremes in
3.0 Unr" nfo rced IIrad es
! 1.5
Q ~~----~----~--
2 4 6
WIUth,ckness. mm o L.--+____ ~---_...--
Unt"nforced 2 4 6
nvion 6 (3% mOlstur. 1 Wall thlckn ..... mm
1"7'1 Glau r"nforced
Unrllnlorced PB T ~ nvlon 6 13% mOIIN", '
30% glass
Unr" n lorced
",nforced paT
POlvcarbOnatl
30% glau reInforced
polvcarbonate
Figure S-84. How wall thickness affects shrinkage.

200
""
160
E
E 120
~'\ "'-PBT I
""
:::I.
""~
,.;
...
co
= 80
~
1:
IJJ
NYIOn616~
.0
~'-
pc----, '----
~ '-- -
--- - I--
-
r--
o
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 .0
Glass, %
Figure S-8S. How glass reinforcement affects mold shrinkage.
CLTEs, including graphite-filled compounds that could work in reverse. Upon heating,
they contract rather than expand, and vice-versa.
To assist the designer a Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) bulletin is available that
specifies the limits for certain dimensions. Each material supplier converts these data to
suit their specific plastics. Figure 5-86 shows this information. This type of information
is intended to give the designer a guide for tolerances that are to be shown on the drawings;
these tolerances include variations in part manufacture and some degree of variation in
the tooling for TPs and TSs.
Figure 5-86 should not be considered a hard-and-fast set of rules for all conditions but
STANDARDS AND PRACTICES OF Engineering and

Technical Standards
PLASTICS CUSTOM MOLDERS
PO L Y C AR80NATE
NOTE ~ omnlC'ft:l,,1 " .. Jun ,ho .. n htlnw fcptnrnl comnuWl pwduc:(~.n Iuk:t I'k.t1o II ,he mml cconom .t kvcl
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Draw,n. DImC'nJionl Plu, or M,nu. In Thou.. nd. at on Inch

Code (hochn) I 1 ) 6 1 • 9 10 II 12 I) I' IS 16 17 111910 21 111) 2< 2S 2611 21
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1- i- r-
(..e N e'l)
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r
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1.0.
005
- ---
]A
)
wID rtsulc in uta 'YC p.n damacc
6 - 11',ue ... Ioc. hould bC' Increased ... henuer com·
C," Ole 14)
Fille ... RIb$.
-- -- f-
pohblc ..ilh
ltthnique.
de....d cI<·PI .nd aood moIdll1,
Cornc .. OIS 015 7 - Cu lon>er·MoIckr undcrs..ndm, n«<u.I'}' prior 10

Cscc Ole 16) loolln,
Surl... Fan,'" r CIH Ole 17)
Color Sllbthly C_ NOlen)
Figure 5·86. A standard tolerance chart for a specific polycarbonate.
should serve as the basis for establishing standards for molded products between the
designer and customer and molder. Users will find that two separate sets of values are
here represented. Commercial values represent common production tolerances that can
be achieved at the most economical level. Fine values represent closer tolerances that
can be held, but at a greater cost. The selection of one or the other will depend on the
application under consideration and the economics involved.
By referring to the hypothetical molded article and its cross-section, illustrated in the
table, then using the applicable code number (e.g., A represents the diameter) in the first
column of the table and the exact dimensions indicated in the second column, one can
find the recommended tolerances either in the chart at the top of the table or in the two
columns underneath. (Note that the typical article shown in cross-section in the table may
be round or rectangular or some other shape. Thus, dimensions A and B may be either
diameters or lengths.)
Table 5-7. Guidelines for Wall Thicknesses of TP Molding Materials

Minimum Average Maximum
Thickness Thickness Thickness
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Alkyd-glass filled .040 (1.0) .125 (3.2) .500 (13)

Alkyd-mineral filled .040 (1.0) .187 (4.7) .375 (9.5)
Diallyl phthalate .040 (1.0) .187 (4.7) .375 (9.5)
Epoxy-glass filled .030 (0.76) .125 (3.2) 1.000 (25.4)
Melamine-<:ellulose filled .035 (0.89) .100 (2.5) .187 (4.7)
Urea-<:ellulose filled .035 (0.89) .100 (2.5) .187 (4.7)
Phenolic-general purpose .050 (1.3) .125 (3.2) 1.000 (25.4)
Phenolic-flock filled .050 (1.3) .125 (3.2) 1.000 (25.4)
Phenolic-glass filled .030 (0.76) .093 (2.4) .750 (19)
Phenolic-fabric filled .062 (1.6) .187 (4.7) .375 (9.5)
Phenolic-mineral filled .125 (3.2) .187 (4.7) 1.000 (25.4)
Silicone glass .050 (1.3) .125 (3.2) .250 (6.4)
Polyester premix .040 (1.0) .070 (1.8) 1.000 (25.4)
PROCESSING AND TOLERANCES

Processing is extremely important in regard to tolerance control; in certain cases it is the
most influential factor. The dimensional accuracy of the finished part relates to the process,
the accuracy of mold or die production, and the process controls, as well as the shrinkage
behavior of the plastic. A change to a mold or of a die's dimensions can result in wear
arising during production and should thus be considered.
The mold or die should also be recognized as one of the most important pieces of
production equipment in the plant. This controllable, complex device must be an efficient
heat exchanger and provide the part's shape. The mold or die designer thus has to have
Table 5-8. Guidelines for Wall Thicknesses of TP Molding Materials

in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Acetal .015 (0.38) .062 (1.6) .125 (3.2)

ABS .030 (0.76) .090 (2.3) .125 (3.2)
Acrylic .025 (0.63) .093 (2.4) .250 (6.4)
Cellulosics .025 (0.63) .075 (1.9) .187 (4.7)
FEP fluoroplastic .010 (0.25) .035 (0.89) .500
Nylon .015 (0.38) .062 (1.6) .125 (3.2)
Polycarbonate .040 (1.0) .093 (2.4) .375 (9.5)
Polyester T.P. .025 (0.63) .062 (1.6) .500 (12.7)
Polyethylene (L.D.) .020 (5.1) .062 (1.6) .250 (6.4)
Polyethylene (H.D.) .035 (0.89) .062 (1.6) .250 (6.4)
Ethylene vinyl acetate .020 (0.51) .062 (1.6) .125 (3.2)
Polypropylene .025 (0.63) .080 (2.0) .300
Polysulfone .040 (1.0) .100 (2.5) .375 (9.5)
Noryl (modified PPO) .030 (0.76) .080 (2.0) .375 (9.5)
Polystyrene .030 (0.76) .062 (1.6) .250 (7.6)
SAN .030 (0.76) .062 (1.6) .250 (7.6)
PVC-Rigid .040 (1.0) .093 (2.4) .375 (9.5)
Polyurethane .025 (0.63) .500 (12.7) 1.500 (38.1)
SUrlyn (ionomer) .025 (0.63) .062 (1.6) .750 (19.1)
Table 5-9. Guide to Tolerances of TP Extrusion Profiles

pvc
PC,
HIPS ABS pp Rigid Rex. LOPE
Wall thickness (%, =) 8 8 8 8 10 10

Angles (Deg., = ) 2 3 3 2 5 5
Profile dimensions (in., ±)
To 0.125 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.007 0.010 0.012

0.125 to .500 0.012 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.Ql5 0.025
.500 to 1 0.017 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.020 0.030
1 to 1.5 0.025 0.027 0.027 0.020 0.030 0.035
1.5 to 2 0.030 0.035 0.035 0.025 0.035 0.040
2 to 3 0.035 0.037 0.037 0.030 0.040 0.045
3 to 4 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.045 0.065 0.065
4 to 5 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.060 0.093 0.093
5 to 7 0.093 0.093 0.093 0.075 0.125 0.125
7 to 10 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.093 0.150 0.150
the experience or training and knowledge of how to produce the tooling needed for the
part and to meet required tolerances [8-13, 32, 45].
Adequate process control and its associated instrumentation are essential to have product
quality control. In some cases the goal is precise adherence to a control point. In others
it is simply to maintain the temperature within a comparatively narrow range.
A knowledge of processing methods can be useful to the designer, to help determine
what tolerances can be obtained (see Chapter 7). With such high-pressure methods as
injection and compression molding that use 13.8 to 206.9 MPa (2,000 to 30,000 psi) it
is possible to develop tighter tolerances, but there is also a tendency to develop undesirable
stresses (that is, orientations) in different directions. The low-pressure processes, including
contact and casting with no pressure, usually do not permit meeting tight tolerances.
There are exceptions, such as certain RPs that are processed at quite low pressures.
Regardless of the process used, exercising the required and proper control over it will
maximize the obtaining and repeating of tolerances that are achievable.
For example, certain injection-molded parts can be molded to extremely close tolerances
of less than a thousandth of an inch, or down to 0.0 percent, particularly when TPs are
filled with additives or TS compounds are used. To practically eliminate shrinkage and
provide a smooth surface, one should use a small amount of a chemical blowing agent
«0.5 percent by weight) and a regular packing procedure. For conventional molding,
tolerances can be met of ± 5 percent for a part 0.020 in. thick, ± 1 percent for 0.050
in., ±0.5 percent for 1.000 in., ±0.25 percent for 5.000 in., and so on. Thermosets
generally are more suitable than TPs for meeting the tightest tolerances.
Economical production requires that tolerances not be specified tighter than necessary.
However, after a production target is met, one should mold "tighter" if possible, for
greater profit by using less material. Table 5-10 reviews factors affecting tolerances.
Many plastics change dimensions after molding, principally because their molecular
orientations or molecules are not relaxed (see Chapter 2). To ease or eliminate the problem,
one can change the processing cycle so that the plastic is "stress relieved," even though
that may extend the cycle time, or heat-treat according to the resin supplier's suggestions.
An easy method for estimating shrink allowance for injection molding is as follows:
Table 5-10. Parameters that Influence Part Tolerance

PART DESIGN: Part configuration (size/shape). Relate shape to flow of melt in mold to meet
performance requirements that should at least include tolerances.
MATERIAL: Chemical structure, molecular weight, amount and type of fillers/additives,
heat history, storage, handling.
MOLD DESIGN: Number of cavities, layout and size of cavities/runners/gates/cooling lines/side
actionslknockout pins/etc. Relate layout to maximize proper performance
of melt and cooling flow patterns to meet part performance requirements;
preengineer design to minimize wear and deformation of mold (use
proper steels); layout cooling lines to meet temperature to time cooling
rate of plastics (particularly crystalline types).
MACHINE CAPABILITY: Accuracy and repeatability of temperatureltime/velocity/pressure controls of
injection unit, accuracy and repeatability of clamping force, flatness and
parallelism of platens, even distribution of clamping on all tie rods,
repeatability of controlling pressure and temperature of oil, oil
temperature variation minimized, no oil contamination (by the time you
see oil contamination damage to the hydraulic system could have already
occurred), machine properly leveled.
MOLDING CYCLE: Set up the complete molding cycle to repeatedly meet performance
requirements at the lowest cost by interrelating material/machine/mold
controls.
SD = FL (1 + SR), where SD = the mold dimension, SR = the plastic's shrinkage

(in in.lin. or mm1mm), and FL = the part dimension.
If the parts are small and have thin walls, this estimate is the best guide. If they are
large (>25 cm, or 10 in.) or use rather high-shrink plastics, consider using the following
method of analysis [418]. The two formulas to use are
Current equation listed above: SD 1 = FL (1 + SR)

Correct equation: SD 2 = FL «(1 - SR)
where SD 1 = the mold dimension as determined by the current system and SD 2 = the
mold dimension as determined by the correct equation.
The error, ER, would simply be the difference between the SD 1 and SD 2 equations.
To be more accurate for calculating mold dimensions where the part size and shrink rate
increase, this error value should be considered or Table 5-11 be used. This table shows,
as one example, that in the low shrink (0.008 millin. or less) materials, the parts must
be larger than 15 in. before an error of 0.001 in. will be realized. The allowable error
will depend upon each part's particular application. In some cases it will be important
to ensure proper mold-size calculations. In others, changing the calculation method will
be purely academic.
Experience is still a basic requirement for mold design with regard to determining
cavity dimensions. The costs for changing mold cavities are high, even when similar
moldings are to be produced.
Until now, theoretical efforts to forecast linear shrinkage have been limited because
of the number of existing variables. One way to solve this problem is to simplify the
mathematical relationship, leading to an estimated but still acceptable assessment. This
means, however, that the number of necessary processing changes will also be reduced
[12].
As a first approximation, a superposition method can be used to predict mold shrinkage
(see Fig. 5-87). However, problems arise in measuring the influencing variables, because
r..>
~
.. Table 5-11. Error in Mold Size as a Result of Using Incorrect Shrinkage Equation*
Part Plastic Shrink Rate (inches/inch)
Size
Inches 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500
1.0 -0.02 -0.06 -0.1 -0.3 -0.4 -0.9 -1.7 -3 -4 -5 -7 -9 -11 -50 -129 -267 -500
3.0 -0.05 -0.19 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -2.8 -5.0 -8 -11 -16 -21 -27 -33 -150 -386 -800 -1500
5.0 -0.08 -0.32 -0.7 -1.3 -2.0 -4.6 -8.3 -13 -19 -26 -35 -45 -56 -250 -643 -1333 -2500
7.0 -0.11 -0.45 -1.0 -1.8 -2.9 -6.5 -11.7 -18 -27 -37 -49 -62 -78 -350 -900 -1867 -3500
9.0 -0.14 -0.58 -1.3 -2.3 -3.7 -8.4 -15.0 -24 -34 -47 -63 -80 -100 -450 -1157 -2400 -4500
11.0 -0.18 -0.71 -1.6 -2.9 -4.5 -10.2 -18.3 -29 -42 -58 -77 -98 -122 -550 -1414 -2933 -5500
13.0 -0.21 -0.84 -1.9 -3.4 -5.3 -12.1 -21.7 -34 -50 -68 -90 -116 -144 -650 -1671 -3467 -6500
15.0 -0.24 -0.97 -2.2 -3.9 -6.1 -13.9 -25.0 -39 -57 -79 -100 -134 -167 -750 -1929 -4000 -7500
17.0 -0.27 -1.10 -2.5 -4.4 -6.9 -15.8 -28.3 -45 -65 -90 -118 -151 -189 -850 -2186 -4533 -8500
19.0 -0.31 -1.23 -2.8 -4.9 -7.8 -17.6 -31.7 -50 -73 -100 -132 -169 -211 -950 -2443 -5067 -9500
21.0 -0.34 -1.35 -3.1 -5.5 -8.6 -19.5 -35.0 -55 -80 -Ill -146 -187 -233 -1050 -2700 -5600 -10500
23.0 -0.37 -1.48 -3.4 -6..0 -9.4 -21.3 -38.3 -61 -88 -121 -160 -205 -256 -1150 -2957 -6133 -11500
25.0 -0.40 -1.61 -3.6 -6.5 -10.2 -23.2 -41.7 -66 -96 -132 -174 -223 -278 -1250 -3214 -6667 -12500
27.0 -0.43 -1.74 -3.9 -7.0 -11.0 -25.1 -45.0 -71 -103 -142 -188 -240 -300 -1350 -3471 -7200 -13500
29.0 -0.47 -1.87 -4.2 -7.5 -11.8 -26.9 -48.3 -76 -Ill -153 -202 -258 -322 -1450 -3729 -7733 -14500
31.0 -0.50 -2.00 -4.5 -8.1 -12.7 -28.8 -51.7 -82 -119 -163 -216 -276 -344 -1550 -3986 -8267 -15500
33.0 -0.53 -2.13 -4.8 -8.6 -13.5 -30.6 -55.0 -87 -126 -174 -230 -294 -367 -1650 -4243 -8800 -16500
35.0 -0.56 -2.26 -5.1 -9.1 -14.3 -32.5 -58.3 -92 -134 -184 -243 -312 -389 -1750 -4500 -9333 -17500
37.0 -0.59 -2.39 -5.4 -9.6 -15.1 -34.3 -61.7 -97 -142 -195 -257 -329 -411 -1850 -4757 -9867 -18500
39.0 -0.63 -2.52 -5.7 -10.1 -15.9 -36.2 -65.0 -103 -149 -205 -271 -347 -433 -1950 -5014 -10400 -19500
41.0 -0.66 -2.65 -6.0 -10.7 -16.7 -38.0 -68.3 -108 -157 -216 -285 -365 -456 -2050 -5271 -10933 -20500
43.0 -0.69 -2.77 -6.3 -11.2 -17.6 -39.9 -71.7 -113 -165 -227 -299 -383 -478 -2150 -5529 -11467 -21500
45.0 -0.72 -2.90 -6.6 -11.7 -18.4 -41.8 -75.0 -118 -172 -237 -313 -401 -500 -2250 -5786 -12000 -22500
47.0 -0.76 -3.03 -6.9 -12.2 -19.2 -43.6 -78.3 -124 -180 -248 -327 -418 -522 -2350 -6043 -12533 -23500
49.0 -0.79 -3.16 -7.1 -12.7 -20.0 -45.5 -81.7 -129 -188 -258 -341 -436 -544 -2450 -6300 -13067 -24500
'Error values in table are in mil (0.001 incb); thus, for shrink rale of 0.050 inlin and part size of 11 in, the error is 29 mil (0.029 in).
they are often interrelated, such as variations in the pressure course in a mold with a
varying wall thickness.
The parameters of the injection process must be provided. They can either be estimated
or, to be more exact, taken from the thermal and rheological layout. The position of a
length with respect to flow direction is in practice an important influence. This is so
primarily for glass-filled material but also for unfilled thermoplastics, as is shown in
Figure 5-88. The difference between a length parallel to (0°) and perpendicular to (9()D)
the flow direction depends on the processing parameters. Measurements with unfilled PP
and ABS have shown that a linear relationship exists between these points.
Regarding this relationship, when designing the mold it is necessary to know the flow
direction. To obtain this information, a simple flow pattern construction can be used (see
Fig. 5-89). However, the flow direction is not constant. In some cases the flow direction
in the filling phase differs from that in the holding phase. Here the question arises of
whether this must be considered using superposition.
In order to get the flow direction at the end of the filling phase and the beginning of
the holding phase (representing the onset of shrinkage), an analogous model was developed
that provides the flow direction at the end of the filling phase.
For a flow with a Reynolds number less than 10, which is valid regarding the processing
of thermoplastics, the following equation can be used: .:1<1> = O. For a two-dimensional
geometry with quasistationary conditions, this equation is valid:
Instead of the potential <1>, it is possible to introduce the flow-stream function tis for a
two-dimensional flow. The stream lines (tis = constant) and the equipotential lines are
perpendicular to each other. To express this, the following Cauchy-Rieman differential
equations can be used:
a<l> = atls a<l> = _ atls
ax i.Iy i.Iy ax
!lS, I
Holding-pressure Mold -temperature
ASIIII
------
S Sn
Molding -thickness
"'0
'"
Flow-angle
S, = SIO + AS, + AS" + AS",

Figure 5-87. Superposition to determine shrinkage.
2.5
%
Material: PP
2.4 ,'}w = 30°C
'\ \.0 ,'}M = 240°C

S = 1.5 mm
tJf 2.3
\. "'
VF = 140 mm
5
2.2
2.1
~o '\ 0
"
Q)
0>
'"
...
-"
c: 2.0 "-
\~ = 160 bar
~
L. f-PN
CJ)
1.9
PN = 190b~r~
0\ I' "
1.8
1.7
'\
1.6
\0 \..
0\ '\c
a
1.5
10 30 50 70 grd 90
Flow-angle
Figure 5-88. The influence of the flow angle on processing shrinkage.
_"'--_....J S = 3 mm
Figure 5-89. Flow patterns.

396
A differential (two dimensionaVquasi) equation has the same form as is used for a
stationary electrical potential field,
as it can be realized with an unmantled molding out of resistance paper and a suitable
voltage.
To control the theoretically determined flow with respect to the orientation direction,
a color study was made. The comparison between flow pattern, color study, and analogous
model is shown in Figures 5-90 and 5-91.
For a simple geometry the flow pattern method describes the flow direction in the
filling phase as well as the holding phase (see Fig. 5-90).
This description changes when a core is added and the flow is disturbed (see Fig. 5-
91). In this case the flow at the beginning of the holding phase differs from the flow
Figure 5-90. A comparison between an Figure 5-91. A comparison between an

analogous model, a flow pattern, and color analogous model, a flow pattern, and color
studies. studies, with a core added.
pattern as it is shown in the color study as well as in the analogous model. Even the
welding lines are broken in the holding phase so that at this place another flow direction
than that in the filling phase is found. With further measurements this influence has to
be tested by using more-complex moldings.
More information concerning the influence of injection molding on tolerances is con-
tained in Chapter 7. That chapter also describes and provides information that pertains
to factors affecting tolerances during extrusion, blow molding, and other processes.
PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
Tolerances on dimensions should be specified only where absolutely necessary. Too many
drawings show limits on sizes when other means of attaining the desired results would
be more constructive. For example, if the outside dimensions of certain drill-housing
halves were to have a tolerance of ± 0.008 cm (0.003 in.), this would be a tight limit.
Yet if half of the housing were to be on the minimum side and the other on the maximum
side, there would be a resulting step that would be uncomfortable to the feel of the hand
while gripping the drill. A realistic specification would call for matching of halves so as
to provide a smooth joint between them, with the highest step not exceeding 0.002 in.
The point is that limits should be specified in such a way that those responsible for the
manufacture of a product will understand the goal that is to be attained. Thus we may
indicate "dimensions for gear centers," "holes as bearing openings for shafts," "guides
for cams," and so on. This type of designation would alert a mold maker as well as the
molder to the significance of the tolerances in some areas and the need for matching parts
in other places and the clearance needed for assembly in still other locations.
Most of the engineering plastics faithfully reproduce the mold configuration, and when
the processing parameters are appropriately controlled they will repeat with excellent
accuracy.
We see plastic gears and other precision parts made of acetal, nylon, polycarbonate,
and Noryl whose tooth contour and other precision areas are made with a limit of 0.0002
in. and the spacing of the teeth is uniform to meet the most exacting requirements.
The problem with any precise part is to recognize what steps are needed to reach the
objective and to follow through every phase of the process in a thorough manner, to
safeguard the end product. Throughout this book, shrinkage is discussed based on the
material's given characteristics. Different factors can cause variation in shrinkage; indeed,
the way processing parameters can influence dimensional variation is very important.
Some materials perform better than others in that respect.
Generally, if we approach tolerances according to their purposes' a) functional re-
quirements, such as running fit, sliding fit, gear tooth contour, etc.; b) assembly require-
ments-that is, to accommodate parts with their own tolerances; and c) matching parts
for appearance or utility, we should come up with feasible tolerances that will be rea-
sonable and useful. This will be more productive than trying to apply tolerances strictly
on a dimensional basis.
Tolerances should be indicated only where they are needed, carefully analyzed for their
magnitude, and of proven usefulness. It is important to determine if the tolerances shown
are realistic for the specified plastic and process. The designer should recognize that
extreme accuracy of dimensions is expensive and, in some cases, impossible to hold in
processing.
Adaptation of metal tolerances to plastics is not advisable. The reaction of plastics to
moisture and heat, for example, is drastically different from that of metals, so that pilot
testing under extreme use conditions is almost mandatory for establishing adequate tol-
erance requirements.
COMBINING VARIABLES
There are many different factors that could influence the repeatability of meeting toler-
ances, as well as affecting the production of a product to meet all the other performance
requirements. Some products may require only the compliance of one or two processing
factors, but others will require many. Computer programs have been developed to provide
the capability of integrating all the applicable factors, thus replacing traditional trial-and-
error methods [10-12]. Most computer-integrated systems have been developed for in-
jection molding, since a much bigger market exists with it. Other computer systems are
available for the other processes (see Appendix 4, Computerized Software and Data-
bases").
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The opportunity for creative design by viewing many imaginative variations would be
blunted if each variation introduced a new set of doubts as to its ability to withstand
whatever stress might be applied. From this point of view the development of computer
graphics has to be accompanied by an analysis technique capable of determining stress
levels, regardless of the shape of the part. This need is met by finite element analysis
[1,2, 10-12,62-68, 72, 381-84, 419-41].
Finite element analysis (PEA) is a computer-based technique for determining the stresses
and deflections in a structure. Essentially, this method divides a structure into small
elements with defined stress and deflection characteristics. The method is based on ma-
nipulating arrays of large matrix equations that can be realistically solved only by com-
puter. Most often, PEA is performed with commercial programs. In many cases these
programs require that the user know only how to properly prepare the program input.
PEA is applicable in several types of analyses. The most common one is static analysis
to solve for deflections, strains, and stresses in a structure that is under a constant set of
applied loads. In PEA a material is generally assumed to be linear elastic, but nonlinear
behavior such as plastic deformation, creep, and large deflections also are analyzed. The
designer must be aware that as the degree of anisotropy increases the number of constants
or moduli required to describe the material increases.
Uncertainty about a material's properties, along with a questionable applicability of
the simple analysis techniques generally used, provides justification for extensive end-
use testing of plastic parts before approving them in a particular application. However,
it should be noted that as the use of more PEA methods becomes common in plastic
design, the ability of PEAs to handle anisotropic materials will demand greater under-
standing of the anisotropic nature of plastics.
PEA does not replace testing; rather, the two are complementary in nature. Testing
supplies only one basic answer about a design-either pass or fail. It does not quantify
results, because it is not possible to know from testing alone how close to the point of
passing or failing a design actually exists. PEA does, however, provide information with
which to quantify performance.
Bolt Preload
Let us consider an example in which FEA is used to design a way to maintain bolt
preloading in plastic assemblies [72]. (The preload is the tensile load on a threaded
fastener as a result of assembly torque.) It highlights the problems associated with plastic-
part design when the designer is restricted to using an existing nut-and-bolt fastening
system originally designed for a metal part that has since been replaced. The problem
concerns the loss of the bolt preload in a clamped metal-to-plastic assembly. An actual
case history like this is the replacement of aluminum in a die-cast cover using Du Pont's
MinIon 22C engineering TP. This mineral-glass reinforced composition of nylon 66 had
been specified for the cover because of its excellent stiffness and strength at high tem-
peratures, as well as its ability to be molded into a relatively warpfree part.
The cover is bolted to an aluminum housing, with an aluminum carrier gasket interposed
between the two (see Fig. 5-92). The fasteners used 6 mm (! in.) bolts with washers
torqued to a recommended range of 7.5 to 9.5 N-m (5.5 to 7.0 lb.-ft.). For this example,
assume that the cover is exposed to vibration, external loads, and a temperature range
of - 40 to 120°C ( - 40 to 248°F).
A failure of the bolted joints will most likely occur because of excessive loads under
the bolt and washer. The high loads on the cover will eventually cause the molded MinIon
to creep under the bolt and make it lose its initial bolt preload. At this point vibration
and external loading will cause further loosening of the bolt and a loss of compression
between parts. The proper preload on the fastener is required to prevent loosening of the
bolt, provide a frictional force between parts to resist bolt shear, and improve the fatigue
resistance of the bolt connection.
The original fastener in this example performed in the traditional way, a spring. In
such a design, as the bolts are tightened the fastener goes into tension. This force causes
deflection in the clamped members and bolts. In effect, the force and deflection is the
spring rate of the bolted connection. It is commonly accepted that the preload of a bolted
fastener during assembly should be 75 to 90 percent of its yield strength, with the lower
75 percent value offering a higher safety factor against the bolt's yielding. The preload
is determined by the classical normal tension-compression stress formula (seen in Chapter
3) and uses 75 percent of the bolt's yield strength:
FJ
<TPL =- <TPL ~ <Ty
A
Where: FJ = Preload tensile load, N (lb.)
A = Bolt stressed area, m2 (in. 2 )
<Ty = Yield strength stress of bolt, MPa (psi)
Given that the yield strength of a Class 8.8 bolt is 646 MPa (93.7 kpsi), the stressed area
of the bolt is 20.1 mm2 (0.031 in. 2)
Preload FJ = <TPL x 0.75 x A

= 646 MPa x 0.75 x 2.01 x 10-5 m2
= 9740 N (2190 lb.)
FEM
M6x 1 OOBOit
M6Washer
COlIer ,n Minion" 22C I

AlumInum Carrier Gaske
Alum,num Housong J
)
I
I
\ I
Figure 5-92. The assembly of a bolted connection where a finite element analysis stress-contour
plot maintained the bolt preload in a plastic assembly.
The following empirical equation can be used to determine the proper torque value for
this fastener:
T = kDFJ
Where: T = Torque, N'm (lb. ·ft.)
D = Normal diameter of bolt, mm (in.)
k = Torsional coefficient
The results of this equation vary depending on the torsional coefficient value used.
Testing has verified that an unplated, nonlubricated bolt has a torsional coefficient (k) of
0.20. For plated, lightly oiled bolts, k = 0.15. When other lubricants like greases, oils,
and waxes are used, k = 0.12. For analysis, our interest is in the maximum preload
value generated during assembly, because of the problem of creep. The maximum preload
will occur with a lower k value. The value k = 0.15 will be used, because it is almost
impossible to exclude having a light oil lubricant on these parts in a manufacturing
environment. The torque value then correlates well with the manufacturer's suggested
torque range:
Torque T = 0.15 x 6 mm x 9740 N

= 8.77 N'm (6.47 lb. ·ft.)
Finite element analysis was then performed on the bolted connection, using a calculated
preload of 9,740 N. The analysis showed that the highest principal compressive stress
under the washer is 269 MPa (39 kpsi). According to the creep curves for MinIon, in
order for the cover not to creep and allow a loss of preload, the stress level would have
to be less than 13.8 MPa (2,000 psi) during operation at peak temperatures. The PEA
curves show the principal stress distribution in cross-sections for the bolted connection.
One solution to this problem is to insert some form of compression-limiting device
into the plastic. After molding, a steel collar can be used to carry the preload force. A
2 mm- (0.08 in.) thick steel collar was added to the PEA model and the load case run
again. The stress in the MinIon cover now dropped to an acceptable 12 MPa (1,700 psi).
In this design arrangement almost all the load is now carried by the steel collar. This
also means that the load now transfers directly into the aluminum gasket carrier and
housing.
Increasing the surface area of the collar where it contacts the aluminum parts permits
lowering the stress levels to a safe point below the yield strength of the aluminum. The
top shape of the collar thus resulted in having lower stresses, as shown by the FEA stress-
contour plots for the clamped assemblies [72]. The initial calculations by hand suggested
that a collar with a larger surface was needed at the aluminum interface. In this situation,
FEA was helpful in fine tuning the design. However, only end-use testing will actually
verify results and account for such changing variables as frictional coefficients or the
output torque from the bolt driver.
There is an easier way to maintain the necessary preload in a plastic part. Large-
diameter washers will help some, but it would take a diameter greater than 40 mm (1.57
in.) to get low enough stress levels. Using Belleville spring- and lockwashers will only
prolong the inevitable if sufficient surface area is not provided. Locknuts, interference
threads, and using the prevailing torque nylon patches on bolts and nuts will help only
to maintain the relative positions of the nuts to the bolts. None of these features will
prevent plastic from creeping.
An easier way to maintain a preload is to determine first how much, if any, is needed.
In this example there was no option to change the fastening system, but in less-demanding
applications, where little force is required to obtain continuity, such alternatives as down-
sized bolts, Belleville washers, and locking treaded fasteners may be the best way.
CANTILEVERED SNAP FITS

The design target for a cantilevered snap fit is to develop a latch geometry for a specific
plastic being used that can withstand and recover from the strain developed during
deflection. This strain is usually calculated from the standard cantilevered beam equation
for a rectangular or tapered cross-section (see Fig. 5-47 and Table 5-3). An important
requirement is to prevent the latch from taking a permanent set, or retaining residual
deflection, after bending. The amount of residual deflection produced is affected by the
ratio of the latch length, L, to its cross-section thickness, t. The smaller the L:t ratio, the
greater the strain the latch can withstand without taking a permanent set. The amount of
stress that can be tolerated prior to its reaching its yield point depends on the characteristics
of the resin and the type and amount of additives that may be present in the plastic
compound.
As expected, finite element analysis shows that deflection stresses tend to concentrate
at the root of a latch where it joins the wall or supporting structure and can produce
cracks at that location from repeated use of the latch (see Fig. 5-93). Providing generous
root fillets can help, but the better approach is to taper the thickness of the latch-support
beam. Its gradual thinning redistributes the stress along its length and can reduce the
peak stress level by 25 percent or more. More information on the shapes of beam cross-
sections is shown in Figures 5-47 through 5-50.
LAWS AND REGULATIONS

The consuming public must assume that the producer of a product has shown reasonable
consideration for the safety, correct quantity, proper labeling, and other social aspects
of the product. Since the 1960s these types of important concerns have expanded and
been reinforced by a recognition of the consumer's right to know as well as by concerns
Straight (Joss-section
Tapered cross-section
Figure 5-93. Computer-generated graphics for straight and tapered cross-sections of cantilevered
snap-fits showing how tapering removes stress from the root area.
for conservation, ecology, antilittering, and the like. Numerous safety-related and socially
responsible laws have been enacted and more are on the way.
A designer's failure to be aware of and comply with existing regulations can lead to
legal entanglements, fines, restrictions, and even jail sentences. In addition, there are
also the penalties of costly, damaging publicity, lawsuits, and the loss of consumer
goodwill. In the meantime, as for all other industries, the goal of reliable companies and
associations is to produce products that eliminate potential problems. Unfortunately,
nothing is perfect, so problems can develop, which is simply a fact of life. And there is
always more to be done, as in the disposal issue, the subject of Chapter 12.
There are many examples of action to eliminate or reduce problems. On the subject
of appliance safety the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) have published more than four
hundred safety standards to assess the hazards associated with manufacturing appliances.
These standards represent basic engineering requirements for various categories of prod-
ucts covered by the organization. For example, under UL's Component Plastics Program
a material is tested under standardized, uniform conditions to provide preliminary infor-
mation as to a material's strong and potentially weak characteristics.
The UL plastics program is divided into two phases. The first develops information
on a material's long- and short-term properties. The second phase uses these data to
screen out and indicate a material's strong and weak characteristics. For example, man-
ufacturers and safety engineers can analyze the possible hazardous effects of potentially
weak characteristics, using UL standard 746C.
Parts manufactured using concepts in UL Standard 746D provide quick verification of
material identification, along with the assurance that acceptable blending or simple com-
pounding operations are used that would not increase the risk of fire, electrical shock,
or personal injury.
The Standard for Tests for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and
Appliances (UL 94) has methods for determining whether a material will extinguish, or
bum and propagate flame.
The UL Standard for Polymeric Materials-Short Term Property Evaluations is a series

of small-scale tests used as a basis for comparing the mechanical, electrical, thermal,
and resistance-to-ignition characteristics of materials.
Most of these tests were extracted from procedures developed by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the International Electrotechnical Commission
(1EC), because they are time tested, generally accepted methods to evaluate a given
property. Where there was no universally accepted methods the UL developed its own.
Despite a significant decrease in reported U.S. fire deaths, the hazards of burning
materials remain a major issue for both the country and the plastics industry. The results
of two programs being conducted by the National Fire Protection Research Foundation
(NFPRF) and the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) should provide new
evaluation systems that will be a great advance in consumer safety and product evaluations
[432]. The NIBS advisory committee for developing the test protocol are the following:
American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)

American Furniture Manufacturers Association (AFMA)
American Hotel and Motel Association (AHMA)
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Carpet and Rug Institute (CRI)
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
Fire Marshals Association of North America (FMANA)
Fire Retardant Chemicals Association (FRCA)
General Services Administration (GSA)
International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC)
Man-Made Fiber Producers Association (MMFPA)
National Association of Home Builders (NAHB)
National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST)
National Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards (NCSBCS)
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
U.S. Fire Administration (USFA)
It is the general consensus within the worldwide "fire community" that the only proper
way to evaluate the fire safety of products is to conduct full-scale tests or complete fire-
risk assessments.
Chapter 6
THE PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
This chapter provides specific infonnation on the range of properties in the many different
plastics available to meet different design requirements (see Fig. 6-1). (One example of
property ranges was summarized in Fig. 1-4.) The "neat" type represents those made
only of a polymer (that is, a plastic) with no filler (reinforcement or other additive). The
many filled types are added to plastics, usually in the fonn of small particles, powders,
liquids, and fibers to modify its processing, perfonnance, or the cost of the product [433-
510].
Clearly, the combinations of resins and fillers and the resulting property variations are
endless (see Fig. 6-2). The point is that each combination is in fact a new material with
its own trade-offs. Some properties will be improved, others unchanged, and still others
diminished from those of the basic unfilled plastic. In this chapter there is no relationship,
direct or implied, between any plastic in tenns of the space given it and its perfonnance
or the size of its market. The largest consumption of these plastics is low-density poly-
ethylene (LDPE) fonnulations, at about 25 percent weightwise, followed by high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), then polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene. These
together total about two-thirds of all plastic consumption.
All data presented in this chapter, as throughout this book, are per ASTM Standards
unless otherwise specified. Also, each plastic discussed here can include only a few
advantages and disadvantages; for detailed infonnation see the References section, com-
puterized databases, and, most importantly, the plastic-material suppliers.
TRADE NAMES
If the perfonnance requirements for a design provide wide enough limits, materials from
different companies can be used in the product. This is so because the manufacturing
methods of different companies for producing the same basic polymers, as well as pre-
paring the same basic polymer alloys, blends, and compounds, can produce different
perfonnance in properties and processing. The different companies involved can thus
produce materials with varying property limits.
However, a plastic with specific perfonnance characteristics and limits may be available
only from a single company, as is the case with such other materials as steel, aluminum,
zinc, ceramic, and glass. Thus, trade names for specific plastics become important. Note
405
Electrical Strength
Composition Thermal Ductility Size
Structure Magnetic Toughness Shape
Microtopography
Gravimetric Ri9iry
I
I Service Life I
Figure 6-1. An example of plastics' properties.
that certain plastics can be fabricated by practically any process, but some require only
a certain process. Here and throughout this book trade names are used where applicable
to highlight specific or special properties. Some examples are shown in Tables 6-1 and
6-2.
ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE-STYRENE (ABS)
The ABSs are a family of thermoplastics that contain three basic polymers-acrylonitrile,
butadiene, and styrene-in different proportions, resulting in different properties. Ac-
rylonitrile (AN) contributes strength, with heat and chemical resistance; butadiene (B)
lends impact strength, toughness, and low-temperature property retention and styrene (S)
contributes gloss, processability, and rigidity. The properties are varied principally by
adjusting the proportions in which the materials are combined and by altering the molecular
weight of the styrene acrylonitrile. With their excellent strength, stiffness, and toughness
ABSs can be called engineering plastics. They compare favorably with nylon and acetal
in certain applications but are generally less expensive.
Parts in ABSs are almost completely unaffected by water, salts, and most inorganic
acids, food acids, and alkalis, but much depends on the time, temperature, and especially
the stress level. The FDA's acceptance of ABSs depends to some extent on the pigmen-
tation system used in them. Their properties can be further modified by using a fourth
copolymer like alphamethyl styrene or blending them with such other polymers as PVC,
PC, or the vinyl chlorides and sulfones. Then property trade-offs do occur, as for instance
blends with a high modulus usually having low impact strength. In order to increase
various mechanical properties significantly, reinforcing grades containing fibers like glass
of at least 40 percent by weight are available.
Most natural ABSs run from translucent to opaque, but they are also produced as
transparent. They can be pigmented to almost any color, with grades available for all
fabricating processes. Some grades are designed specifically for electroplating. The gen-
eral grades may be adequate for some outdoor applications, but prolonged exposure to
sunlight will cause color changes and reduce surface gloss, impact strength, and ductility.
Tensile strength, hardness, and the elastic modulus are less affected. Pigmenting the ABS
black, laminating with an opaque acrylic sheet, and applying certain coating systems will
THE PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS 407
Figure 6·2. Reinforced plastics as composites provide many different combinations of plastics
such as this Ford Econoline glass-fiber-TS polyester resin filament-wound driveshaft.
provide weather resistance. For maximum color and gloss retention a compatible coating
of opaque, weather-resistant polyurethane can be used on fabricated parts. For weatherable
sheet applications, ABSs can be coextruded with a compatible weather-resistant polymer
on their outside surfaces.
The impact properties of ABS are exceptionally good at room temperature and, with
special grades, at temperatures to as low as - 40°C ( - 40°F). Because of its plastic yield
at high strain rates, impact failures in ABS are ductile rather than brittle. Also, the skin
effect that in most other thermoplastics accounts for a lower impact resistance in thick
sections than in thin ones is not pronounced in ABS. A long-term tensile-design stress
of 6,900 to 10,340 kPa (1,000 to 1,500 psi) at 23°C (73°F) is recommended for most
grades.
i
Table 6-1. Trade Names of Sample Unreinforced Thermoplastics

Trade Major Property
Resin Name Manufacturer HDTl °F2 Advantages Applications
Polyphenylene Ryton Phillips 66 500 (260°C) 425 (218°C) Heat resistance, good Automotive, electrical,
sulfide Supec General Electric 464 (240) electrical properties, industrial ,
(PPS) Fortron Hoechst Celanese chemical resistance consumer
Polyamideimide AT-110 Amoco 525 (274) 450 (232) Superior mechanical Aerospace motor parts,
(PAl) Torlon Amoco properties, wide industrial seals,
temperature range bearings
(requires postmold
treatments)
Polyetherether- Victrex 430 (221) Outstanding thermals, Wire and cable
ketone (PEEK) Stabar ICI 600 (316) nonflammable, good insulation,
chemical resistance, automotive, PCBs
radiation resistance
Polytherimide Ultem General Electric 345 (174) 350 (177) High strength and rigidity Electrical, industrial,
(PEl) Upac American at elevated appliances
Cyanamid temperatures
Polyarylsulfone Radel Amoco 340 (171) 350 (177) Low melt processing Electrical, electronics,
(PAS) temperatures, automotive,
hydrolytically stable transportation
Polyethersulfone Victrex ICI 430 (221) 356 (180) Transparent, creep Electrical appliances,
(PES) Ultrason E BASF resistant at room industrial
temperature, high applications
temperature
resistance in air and
water, low cost
Polyarylate Arylon Du Pont 310-345 250 (121) Thennal expansion close Automotive,
(PA) Bexloy M Ou Pont (154-174) to metal, excellent appliances,
Ardel Amoco dimensional industrial,
Ourel Hoechst Celanese stability, flame electrical,
resistance, warp electronics
resistance, low
water absorption
Polyetherketone Victrex ICI 400 (204) 500 (260) Good !hennal properties, Advanced composites,
(PEK) Ultrapek BASF easy processing, seals, bearings,
excellent dielectrics PCBs, chemical
components
Aromatic Xydar Amoco 445 (229) 390 (199) High temperature Electrical, electronics,
copolyesters Vectra Hoechst Celanese resistance, high automotive
(based on Grantur Granmont 590 (310) 464 (240) mechanical underhood parts,
hydroxybenzoic Victrex ICI properties, very fiber-optic devices,
acid) SRP good processability, aerospace,
excellent chemical Tupperware
resistance, extremely
low coefficient of
expansion
Polyimides (PI) Kapton Ou Pont 680 (360) 550 (288) Heat resistance, radiation High-temperature films,
Vespel Ou Pont resistance, good electrical
Kinel Rhone Poulenc dielectrics, low insulation and
Kermid Rhone Poulenc coefficient of parts, mechanical
Matrimid Ciba-Geigy !hennal expansion parts, seals,
Upilex Ciba-Geigy bearings, aircraft,
aerospace
IHeat dislortion temperature al 820 kPa (264 psi) per ASTM.

2continuous-use temperature per ASTM.
~
Table 6-2. Design Properties Profile of ICI-LNP Thermocomp® Glass-Reinforced
Thermo~lastics and Fluoromelt®
Melt-Processi Ie Fluoropolymer Composites
Physical
Maxi-
ICI-LNP mum
Thermocomp® Glass Water
Product Code Fiber Absorp-
(30 wt.% Avail- Specific tion,24 Mold Tensile Flexural
Glass Fiber) Property able Gravity hrs. Shrinkage Strength Modulus
wt.
Units Percent % in.fin. psi 10' psi
Base Resin ASTM D 792 D 570 D 955 D638 D790
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene- AF-lOO6 40 1.28 0.14 0.001 14,500 1,100

Styrene (ABS)
Styrene-Acrylonitrile BF-lOO6 40 1.31 0.10 0.005-0.001 17,400 1,500
(SAN)
Polystyrene CF-lOO6 40 1.28 0.05 0.005-0.001 13,500 1,300
Styrenic Copolymer NF-l006 40 1.31 0.07 0.001 15,000 1,300
Modified Polyphenylene ZF-lOO6 40 1.28 0.06 0.001-0.002 18,500 1,150
Oxide
Polyethylene (HOPE) FF-lOO6 40 1.17 0.Dl5 0.0030 10,000 900

Polypropylene MF-lOO6 40 1.13 0.03 0.004 9,800 800
Polypropylene MFX-l006' 40 1.13 0.02 0.0035 13,500 800
Nylon-Type 6 PF-lOO6 60 1.37 1.1 0.0035 23,000 1,200

Nylon-Type 6/12 IF-lOO6 60 1.30 0.20 0.0035 22,000 1,100
Nylon-Type 6/10 QF-lOO6 60 1.30 0.20 0.0035 21,000 1,100
Nylon-Type 6/6 RF-lOO6 60 1.37 0.9 0.004 26,000 1,300
Amorphous Nylon XF-l006 40 1.35 0.19 0.003 21,500 1,150
Super-Tough Nylon YF-lOO6 40 1.30 0.60 0.004 17,000 900
Acetal KFX-l006' 40 1.63 0.30 0.003 19,500 1,400

Thermoplastic Polyester WF-l006 40 1.52 0.06 0.003 20,000 1,200
(PBT)
Polyphenylene Sulfide OF-lOO6 40 1.56 0.04 0.002 20,000 1,600
Polyetheretherketone Victrex* 40 1.49 0.11 0.003 22,800 1,500
PEEK 45OGL30
Polycarbonate OF-lOO6 40 1.43 0.07 0.002 18,500 1,200

Polysulfone GF-lOO6 40 1.45 0.20 0.002-0.003 18,000 1,200
Polyethersulfone Victrex* 40 1.60 0.34 0.002 20,300 1,218
PES 4 \0 I GL30
Thermoplastic TF-IOO6 40 1.46 0.25 0.004 8,200 190

Polyurethane
Polyester Elastomer YF-lOO6 40 1.42 0.17 0.004 10,000 320
FEP FP-FF-IOO4' 20 2.21 0.01 0.002-0.004 6,000 800

PFA FP-PF-10034 15 2.20 0.005 0.012 5,500 430
ETFE FP-EF-lOO6 30 1.89 0.02 0.004-0.006 14,000 1,050
·Chemically coupled
2Definition---Air temperature that could cause the 30% glass reinforced resin to lose 50% of its mechanical properties at 100,000 hours.
320% glass fiber reinforced
415% glass fiber reinforced
Victrex is a registered trademark of leI.
"'UL recognized flame retardant versions available.
"''''Values on heat stabilized (H.S.) composites.
tUL recognized.
:j:Shore D hardness.
For additional aid in material comparisons, these resins have been grouped as follows: Styrenics. Olefins, Nylons, Crystallincs. Arylates. and Miscellaneous.
For ad(lItlOnal glass-reinforcement levels and other lubricants such as PTFE, MoS; see specific product data sheets, ICI-LNP.
410
Mechanical Thennal Electrical
Heat
Izod Deflection Long Coefficient
Impact Temper- Term2 of
Strength ature @ Service Linear Dielectric Dissipation
Notched! Rockwell 264 Temper- Thennal Dielectric Constant 60 Factor 60 Hz-
Unnotched Hardness psi ature Expansion Flammability Strength (ST) Hz-IO' Hz 10' Hz
of of 10-5 in'/in./°F UL Subj. 94 volts/mil.

ft.-Ibs.lin.
D 256 D 785 D 648 D 696 D 149 D 150 D 150
1.4/6-7 M99.R124 220 155 1.6 HB*
1.0/3-4 M94.R123 215 140 1.8 HBt*
1.0/2-3 M92 215 120 1.9 HB 550 2.81-2.81 0.0007-0.0008

l.l/4-5 M96 250 1.8 HB
M93 310 195 1.4 HBt* 550 2.90-2.90 0.0010-0.0015
1.118-9 R85 260 185 2.7 HB

1.6/5-6 M57.Rlll 295 220 2.0 HBt* 475 2.30-2.20 0.001-0.003
1.9/10-12 M57.Rlll 310 220 2.1 HB
2.3120 M92.RI21 420 215** I.7 HBt* 450 4.20-3.60 0.009-0.018
2.4/20 M93.R120 415 210** 1.5 HB 440 4.20-3.50 0.013-0.015
2.4120 M93.R120 420 1.5 HBt* 440 4.20-3.50 0.013-0.015
2.0/17 M96.R121 490 240** 1.8 HBt* 440 4.20-3.50 0.009-0.0180
1.2/6--8 R1l9 285 185 1.8 HB
4.0/20-22 RI20 415 1.9 HBt 500
1.8/8-10 M86 300 220 2.2 HB 525 3.95-3.95 0.0035-0.0065

2.6116--18 M84.R1l9 430 280 1.2 HBt* 510 3.60-2.00 0.002-0.020
1.4/8-9 RI21 500 355 I.3 vot 510 3.88-3.78 0.003-0.007

1.8/15-16 600 482 1.2 vot 500 3.71-3.61 0.0019-0.0043
3.7117-18 M95.R1l8 300 260 I.3 vtt* 480 3.50-3.43 0.0010-0.0075

1.8/14 M92.LI08 365 300 1.4 vot* 480 3.55-3.49 0.0019-0.0049
1.6/10 M98 420 374 I.3 vo* 460 3.80-3.76 0,0030-0,004
9.5/28-29 D65:j: 340 140 2.5 HB
5.0120 D70:j: 340 150 2.5 HB

8.0/17 D63:j: 350 390 2.4 VO 475 2.55-2.52 0.0020-0.0002
5.8/17-18 463 500 5.5 VO 580 2.35-2.45 0.002
7.5/17-18 R74 460 350 VO 410 3.5-3.4 0.0006-0.005
411
An ABS part can usually be bent beyond its elastic limit without its breaking, although
it will stress whiten. Although they are not generally considered flexible, ABS parts have
enough spring to accommodate the snap-fit assembly requirements of lugs, rings, and
buttons. They can use such mechanical fastening methods as holes for rivets and bosses
for self-taping screws and can be solvent welded, adhesive bonded, and ultrasonic welded.
Molded ABS parts are used in both decorative and protective applications: in com-
munications equipment like telephones (see Fig. 6-3), and for appliances, business-
machine housings, safety helmets, camper tops, pipe fittings, shoe heels, and so on.
Chrome-plated ABS has replaced die-cast metals in plumbing hardware and auto grills,
wheel covers, and mirror housings. Some typical products vacuum-formed from extruded
ABS sheet are refrigerator liners, luggage shells, tote trays, mower shrouds, boat hulls,
and recreational vehicle parts. The possible extruded shapes include weather seals, con-
duit, pipe for drain-waste-vent (DWV) systems, and the like.
Styrene-Acrylonitrile
Related to ABS, styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) is hard, rigid, and transparent. It has no
butadiene. It is characterized by excellent chemical resistance, good dimensional stability,
and ease of processing. All fabricating processes can be used with SAN, but because it
is not toughened, thermoformed shapes may crack during conventional trimming.
Special grades of SAN are available that have improved UV stability, vapor-barrier
characteristics, and weatherability. The barrier resins, which were designed for the blown-
a
Figure 6-3. One way to inject mold an ABS telephone part: a) The complete molded part
(bottom), a cross-section (middle), and the two-part metal insert used to shape the interior,
which after molding is shaken out; b) the bottom half of the mold including the two-part metal
inserts placed on each mold cavity; and c) the molded part containing the two-part metal inserts
that are here being removed and shaken to dislodge the metal inserts (other molding methods do
not include such removable metal inserts).
bottle market, are also tougher and have greater solvent resistance. A few of the typical
applications for general-purpose SANs include lenses, vacuum cleaner and humidifier
parts, medical syringes, battery cases, food-mixer bowls, and dishwasher-safe houseware
products. Because of their compatibility with many higher-priced resins SANs are also
used as color-concentrate carriers for some engineering resins.
ACETAL
The superior properties of acetal in terms of its strength, stiffness, and toughness make
it an important engineering thermoplastic. It is more dense than nylon, but in many
respects their properties are similar and they can be used for the same types of light
engineering applications. In some cases a factor that may favor acetal is its relatively
low water absorption. The acetal polymer (homopolymer) and copolymer grades offer
the designer features that have made them prime contenders for applications based on
metal, primarily the die-case metals. Its properties include good fatigue life; exceptional
dimensional stability, resiliency, and toughness; good tensile strength and creep resistance
under a wide range of temperature and humidity conditions; high solvent resistance and
excellent electrical properties, among others. Its abrasion resistance is also generally
superior to that of most thermoplastics. Acetal's coefficient of friction on steel is quite
low. Its low dissipation factor and dielectric constant are maintained over a wide range
of frequencies and up to temperatures of 121°C (250°F), and it is available in colors.
Acetal homopolymers when modified can deliver up to seven times greater toughness
than when left unmodified in Izod impact tests, and up to thirty times greater toughness
as measured by Gardner impact tests. The general-purpose types can be used over a wide
range of environmental conditions. For instance, special UV-stabilized grades are used
when long-term exposure to weathering is required. Their prolonged exposure to strong
acids and bases outside the range of pH 4 to 9 is not recommended. The homopolymers
have the highest fatigue endurance of any unfilled commercial thermoplastics. Under
completely reversed tensile and compressive stresses, and with 100 percent relative hu-
midity at 23°C (73°F) , their fatigue-endurance limit is 31,000 kPa (4,500 psi) at 106
cycles. They have excellent resistance to creep. Moisture, lubricants, and solvents-
including gasoline and gasohol-have little effect on this property, which is important
in parts incorporating self-threading screws and interface fits.
The melting points of the homopolymers are higher and they are harder, with more
resistance to fatigue, than the copolymers. They are also more rigid and have higher
tensile and flexural strength, with a generally lower rate of elongation. Some high-
molecular-weight homopolymers are extremely tough and have higher elongation than
the copolymers. Homopolymer grades are available that have been modified for improved
hydrolysis resistance to 82°C (180°F), similar to the copolymers.
Acetal copolymers have an excellent balance of between properties and processing
characteristics. Their melt temperature can range from 182 to 232°C (360 to 450°F) with
little effect on a part's strength. Acetals are available in translucent-natural white and a
wide range of colors and various dimensionally stable, low-warpage grades. They have
high tensile and flexural strength, fatigue resistance, and hardness. Among the most creep
resistant of the crystalline TPs, they retain much of their toughness through a broad
temperature range. Copolymers' strength is only slightly reduced after aging for one year
in air at 116°C (240°F). Their impact strength holds constant for the first six months,
then falls off by about one-third during the next six months. Aging in air at 82°C (180°F)
for two years has little or no effect on their properties, and their immersion in water for
one year at that temperature leaves most properties virtually unchanged. Samples tested
in boiling water retained nearly their original tensile strength after nine months.
Their good electrical and high mechanical properties, notably their UL electrical rating
for 100°C (212°F), qualify these plastics for electrical parts requiring long-time stability.
Copolymers have excellent resistance to chemicals and solvents. For example, samples
immersed for twelve months at room temperature in various inorganic solutions were
unaffected except by the strong mineral acids: sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric. Most
organic reagents tested have no effect on them, nor do mineral oil, motor oil, or brake
fluids. Their resistance to strong alkalis is exceptionally good.
The copolymers remain stable in long-term, high-temperature service and offer ex-
ceptional resistance to the effects of immersion in water at high temperatures. Neither
type resists strong acids, and copolymers are virtually unaffected by strong bases. Both
types are available in a wide range of melt-flow grades, unreinforced and reinforced
grades, and PTFE or silicone-filled grades. Several grades of the homopolymer and
copolymer types comply with FDA requirements for repeated contact with food at tem-
peratures to 121°C (250°F).
ACRYLICS
Acrylic thermoplastics (polymethylmethacrylate, or PMMA) are known for their crystal
clarity and outstanding weatherability. They are available as cast sheets, rods, and tubes;
in extruded sheet and film form, and as compounds for the various fabricating processes.
Injection molding and extrusion compounds are available in both standard and high-
molecular-weight grades. The property differences between the two formulations are
principally in their flow and heat resistance. The higher MWs have lower melt-flow rates
and greater strength while hot during processing. The lower MWs are designed for making
complex parts in hard-to-fill molds. Also available are high-impact grades that provide
the same transparency and weatherability as conventional PMMAs.
Clear acrylic is as transparent as the finest optical glass. It has a light transmission
capacity of 92percent, an exceptionally low haze level of about 1 percent, and an index
of refraction of 1.49, high enough for use in lenses and other optical parts. Colorants
can be used to produce a full spectrum of transparent, translucent, or opaque colors.
Most colors can be formulated in acrylics for long-term outdoor durability. Acrylics are
normally formulated to filter ultraviolet energy in the 360 nm and lower band, but some
are opaque to UV light or provide reduced UV transmission.
Acrylics' mechanical properties are high for short-term loading, but for long-term
service the tensile strength must be limited to 31,000 kPa (1,500 psi) to avoid crazing
or surface cracking. Although acrylics are among the most scratch resistant of the TPs,
normal maintenance and cleaning operations can scratch and abrade them. A special
abrasion-resistant sheet is available that has the same optical and impact properties, even
under extreme cold, as standard grades. Acrylics' toughness, as measured by their re-
sistance to crack propagation, can be improved severalfold by including a particular
molecular orientation during forming (see Chapter 2). Jet-aircraft cabin windows, for
example, which must be rated to last for decades, are made from oriented sheet.
Acrylics' transparency, gloss, and dimensional stability are virtually unaffected by as
many as thirty to fifty years of exposure to the elements, salt spray, or corrosion atmo-
spheres. They withstand exposure to fluorescent lamps without darkening or deteriorating.
They will ultimately discolor, however, when exposed to high-intensity UV light below
265 nm. Special formulations are able to resist UV emissions from such light sources as
mercury-vapor and sodium-vapor lamps.
ALKYDS
Alkyd thermoset compounds are based on unsaturated polyester resins, which are com-
bined with cross-linking monomers, catalysts, reinforcements, lubricants, and fillers. They
are similar to TS polyesters, but have lower levels of monomers. They are part of the
group that includes the bulk-molding compounds (BMCs) and sheet-molding compounds
(SMCs). Their fast molding cycles at low pressure make them easier to process than
other TSs by vacuum, compression, transfer, or injection molding.
Alkyd compounds are furnished in granular form, extruded rope and logs, as a BMC,
and in puttylike grades. Except for the latter, which can be used for encapsulation, these
compounds contain fibrous reinforcement. Because the fillers are opaque and the resins
amber, translucent colors in alkyds are not possible. However, opaque light shades can
be produced in most colors.
Low moisture absorption and excellent dimensional stability and electrical properties
are the outstanding characteristics of most alkyd compounds. In the electrical grades,
moisture absorption can be as low as 0.5 percent. Alkyds are relatively low-loss materials,
especially the mineral- or glass-filled grades. Those with cellulose may have higher loss
but will drift with temperature and humidity changes. The glass grades as a whole have
better heat resistance than the cellulose types. Depending on the type, alkyds can be used
continuously up to 177°C (350°F) and for short periods up to 232°C (450°F).
Alkyds' dimensional stability in regard to their mechanical and electrical properties
are retained over wide temperature ranges. Alkyd parts will resist weak acids, organic
solvents, and hydrocarbons such as alcohol and the fatty acids, but they are attacked by
alkalis.
Halogen- or phosphorus-bearing alkyds with antimony trioxide added will provide
improved flame resistance, and other flame-resistant compounds are available that do not
contain halogenated additives. Many grades are UL rated at 94V-O in sections under
1116 in. Their flammability ratings, which depend on their specific formulations, can vary
from 94HB to V-O, and may vary in section thickness.
High-impact alkyds with a high glass content are used in switchgear demanding high
performance, electrical terminal strips, and relay and transformer housings and bases.
The mineral-filled grades, which can be modified with cellulose to reduce their specific
gravity and cost, are used in automobile ignitions, ratio and TV parts, switchgear, and
for small-appliance housings. Alkyds with all-mineral fillers have high moisture resistance
and are particularly suited for use in electronic components. Certain grades are available
that can withstand the temperatures of vapor-phase soldering.
AMI NOS
There are two basic types of aminos: urea formaldehydes (UF) and melamine formal-
dehydes (MF). These thermosets are hard, rigid plastics with good abrasion resistance.
Their mechanical properties are sufficiently good for continuous use at moderate tem-
peratures, up to 100°C (212°F). UF is relatively inexpensive, but its propensity for
moisture absorption can result in poor dimensional stability. It is generally used for bottle
caps, electrical switches, plugs, utensil handles, and trays. MF has lower water absorption
and improved temperature and chemical resistance. It is used for tableware, laminated
worktops, and electrical fittings. See the melamine and urea sections that follow in this
chapter for more details.
CELLULOSICS
Cellulosic is a family name that applies to a wide group of thermoplastics. They are not
synthetic plastics but rather are made from a naturally occurring polymer, cellulose, which
is obtained from wood pulp and cotton linters. Cellulose can be made into a film as
cellophane or a fiber, rayon, but it must be chemically modified to produce TPs. Because
it can be compounded with many different plasticizers in widely varying concentrations,
its property range is broad. These plastics are normally specified by their flow, according
to ASTM D 569, which is controlled by the plasticizer content. Cellulosics are all
processed by conventional TP methods. They include the following types.
Acetates
Cellulose acetate (CA), commonly called simply acetate, is noted for its attractive ap-
pearance, toughness, and high impact strength. It is used in quality toys, appliance
handles, eye-glass frames, pen barrels, caps, and electrical parts. Acetate extruded and
cast film and sheet are thermoformed for packaging. Extruded acetate rods have found
great popularity as tool handles.
Butyrates
Cellulose acetate butyrates (CAB) are tough, transparent, and water resistant. Some typical
uses include molded steering-wheel covers, data keyboards and cash register keys, trans-
parent dial covers, tool handles, and street globes. Butyrate sheet is thermoformed for
signs and displays, blister packaging, transparent food packaging, and building panels.
Propionates
Cellulose acetate propionates (CAP) are abrasion resistant and are used in automobile
parts, toothbrush handles, cosmetic containers, face shields, fuel filters, safety goggles,
and similar items.
Ethyl Cellulosics
Ethyl cellulose (EC) is characterized by toughness over a wide temperature range, di-
mensional stability, and freedom from odor. Its uses include helmets, gears, slides,
flashlight housings, and tool handles.
Nitrates
Cellulose nitrate was the first of the plastics to be developed commercially, in 1868,
originally to make billiard balls. Because of its flammability its use today is relatively
little. It is available in sheet, film, rod, and tube forms that can be fabricated into personal
accessories or toilet articles. It is also available as a solution for coatings.
CHLORINATED POL YETHERS

Chlorinated polyethers are corrosion- and chemical-resistant thermoplastics whose prime
use has been to manufacture products and equipment for the chemical and processing
industries. It has also found use in molding components for pumps and water meters,
pump gears, bearing surfaces, and the like. This plastic resists both organic and inorganic
agents, except fuming nitric acid and fuming sulfuric acid, at temperatures up to 121°C
(2500 P) or higher. Its heat-insulating characteristics, dimensional stability, and outdoor
exposure resistance are also excellent.
CHLORINATED POLYETHYLENE
Thermoplastic CPEs are amorphous and crystalline, thus providing a wide range of
properties from soft and elastomeric to hard. These materials have an inherent oxygen
and ozone resistance, have improved resistance (compared to polyethylenes) to chemical
extraction, resist plasticizer volatility and weathering, and have exceptionally high tear
strength, heat and aging characteristics, and excellent oil and chemical resistance.
Products made from CPEs do not fog at higher use temperatures, as do PVCs, and
can be made completely flame retardant. However, they exhibit a chemical instability
that is similar to PVC's. They may be used as primary compounding materials or be
blended with a PVC, high- or low-density polyethylenes, and other resins to add their
benefits. Extruded sheet, supported by foams, is used in certain automobile dashboards
and upholstery and door liners.
CROSS-LINKED POLYETHYLENE (XLPE)

See the discussion under "Polyethylene."
DIALL YL PHTHLATE
Diallyl phthlates (DAP) and diallyl isophthlates (DAIP) are the principal thermosets in
the allyl family, with DAP used predominantly. They are used for glass-preimpregnated
cloth and paper that must undergo a heat, time, and pressure cycle to produce parts.
Molding compounds are reinforced with fibers to improve their mechanical and physical
properties. Glass fibers impart mechanical performance, acrylic fibers provide improved
electrical performance, polyester fibers enhance impact resistance, and other fibers and
fillers can impart different performance traits.
In some applications DAPs are competitive with TS polyester compounds. They can,
for instance, offer longer shelflife (as the BMCs), less shrinkage during curing, somewhat
better chemical or electrical properties, and higher heat resistance. In general, the allyls
are more expensive and therefore, find few uses in consumer products. They can, however,
be molded at lower pressures and in faster molding cycles. With a triallyl cyanurate
formulation, products will withstand temperatures ranging as high as 260°C (5000 P) (used,
for example, in high-speed radomes). One major advantage of all allyls over the TS
polyesters is their freedom from styrene odor, low toxicity, low evaporation losses during
fabricating evacuation cycles, no subsequent oozing or bleed out, and their long-term
retention of their electrical-insulating performance.
The major use of DAPs is in electrical connectors in communications, computer, and
aerospace systems. Their high thermal resistance permits their use in vapor-phase sol-
dering. Their other uses are for arc-track-resistant switchgear and television components,
circuitboards, and the like.
EPOXIES
The family of epoxy thermoset resins (EPs) includes epichlorohydrin with bisphenol-A.
These most widely used epoxies range from low-viscosity liquids to high-molecular-
weight solids. The novolacs are another important class that offer higher thermal properties
and improved chemical resistance. The cycloaliphatic types also are important, for ap-
plications requiring high resistance to arc tracking and weathering.
Epoxies are more expensive than other equivalent plastics, such as the TS polyesters,
but they outperform these materials because of their improved performance. Their general
properties include toughness, having less shrinkage during curing, good weatherability,
low moisture absorption, curing without the evolution of by-products, good wetting and
adhesion to a wide variety of surfaces, good mechanical properties and thermal capabil-
ities, excellent fatigue resistance, outstanding electrical properties from low to high
temperatures, exceptional water resistance, practically complete resistance to fungus,
general corrosion resistance, and other such characteristics.
The variety of combinations available in epoxies and reinforcements provides wide
latitude in the properties of fabricated parts. Some fiber-reinforced and composite materials
can withstand service temperatures even above 260°C (500°F) for brief periods. Their
excellent electrical and mechanical performance qualifies them for use in many electro-
structural parts.
The EPs are used in all the methods of processing plastics. Filled and liquid systems
are used for potting and encapsulating electronic and other components, producing ex-
cellent adhesion. The casting cycle can be significantly accelerated by using liquid or
reaction-injection molding. Another important use for epoxies is in coatings, both as
liquids and powders. Such finishes have excellent flexibility, impact and abrasion resis-
tance, are decorative and corrosion resistant, and so on. They adhere to most substrates
of plastic, steel, aluminum, and other materials. And they are exceptional adhesives to
bond similar or different materials of plastic, steel, aluminum, wood, or glass.
ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATES
Ethylene-vinyl acetates (EVA) copolymers are in the polyolefin family of thermoplastics.
They are used in all processes, particularly for extrusion, injection molding, and blow
molding. They are used either alone or are coextruded or coinjected and used in compounds
to provide unique properties. They approach elastomeric materials in their softness and
flexibility.
EVA parts have good clarity and gloss, stress-crack resistance, barrier properties, low-
temperature toughness, adhesion, resistance to UV radiation, little or no odor, and retain
their flexibility at low temperatures. Their main limitation is their comparatively low
resistance to heat and solvents. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, straight-chain paraffinic sol-
vents, and benzene all attack EVAs' resins. However, alcohols, glycols, and weak organic
acids do no damage. EVAs are used principally in specialty parts, competing with PVC
and rubber. FDA approval exists for their use in direct contact with food. Some EVA
products include medical tubing, tubing for beverage vending, milk-packaging and beer-
dispensing equipment, appliance bumpers, blow-molded bellows for seals, gaskets, and
toys, and in hot-melt adhesives.
FLUOROPLASTICS
Auoroplastics (FP) are a class of thennoplastic waxy perfonnance plastics in which all
or some of the hydrogen atoms that would typically be bonded to carbon atoms in
hydrocarbon plastics (which is to say most plastics) have been replaced by fluorine atoms.
Another halogen, chlorine, can also be part of the structure. They are distinguished by
a combination of properties (Table 6-3) that includes outstanding resistance to virtually
all chemicals in a wide temperature range, superb antisticking characteristics because of
their extremely low coefficient of friction, excellent dielectric and nonaging properties,
and inherent flame retardancy. Although their mechanical properties are low for engi-
neering plastics, these can be boosted sharply by reinforcements like glass, carbon, and
bronze, as well as molybdenum disulfide and other modifiers.
These properties have made FPs almost indispensable in the manufacture of products
including high-perfonnance sliding mechanisms, corrosion-resistant chemical-process lin-
ings, wire and cable core insulation, medical and industrial tubing, and self-lubricating
bearings. Not surprisingly, its major area of application is in bearings, particularly if the
environment is an aggressive one. FPs are also used widely in areas such as insulating
tapes, gaskets, pumps, diaphragms, and popular nonstick coatings on cooking utensils.
Despite the impressive perfonnance credentials of the original FP, called polyte-
trafluoroethylene (PTFE), which was developed in the 1930s and used ever since, its
applications were limited by a high melt viscosity that still makes it unsuitable for
conventional processing. PTFE in fact never really melts; it just becomes a self-supporting
gel above 327°C (620°F). It is processable, but only by using very specific timet
temperature/pressure techniques of compression-sintering, ram extrusion, and isostatic
molding.
Since the 1960s, copolymerization techniques for FPs have produced different FPs
with different degrees of ease of processing. In tum, perfonnance trade-offs had to be
made, but the significant properties were nevertheless retained, in differing degrees.
Table 6-3. General Properties of Fluoroplastics (arrows show increasing values

of the property) and Designations
Properties Designations
~oefficient of Friction- PTFE or TFE Poly tetrafluoroethylene

~Adhesive Character- FEP Copolymer of
~ -Thermal Stability-> .... hexafluoropropylene
....
~
-Mechanical Strength at High Temp.-> Z and tetrafluoroethylene
Z
0 -Softening Temperature-> ~ or fluorinated ethylene
u Z
-Antistick-> 0 propylene
~ U
Z ~ohesive Forces-- CTFE or PTFCE Polychlorotrifluoroethylene
~
C2 -Creep-> PVF Polyvinylftuoride
0
:=> ~Dielectric Constant-
~
0 PVF2 or PVDF Polyvinylidenefluoride
...J :=>
~ -Chemical ResistanCe-> ETFE Copolymer of ethylene and
~ -Solvent ResistanCe-> ti tetrafluoroethylene
0 ::z::
...J ~Mechanical Strength at Ambient Temp.- ECTFE Copolymer of ethylene and
-Permeability-> ~ chlorotrifluoroethylene
~Processing Ease-- PFA Polyperftuoroalkoxyethylene
-Oxidative Stability->
Standard injection and extrusion equipment is used with the lower-viscosity polymers
fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) , ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), polyvinyli-
denefluoride (PVDF), polyperfluoroalkoxyethylene (PFA), ethylene chlorotrifluoroethyl-
ene (ECTFE), and others. This substitution, or copolymerization, where fluorine atoms
have substitutes, results in property and processing changes.
FURAN
Furan resin is a generic term for a thermoset resinous product that contains a heterocyclic
unsaturated furan ring in its molecular structures. Pentosans from com cobs and rice hulls
are the main sources for the key ingredient, furfural. Commercially, the furfural alcohol
polymer is the most important. All furan resins are dark in color and have a reddish-
black appearance; when catalyzed to cure they become black.
Their biggest use in the corrosion-resistance field is in the manufacture of chemical-
resistant cements and equipment. For instance, furan cements have been used for years
to bond acid proof brick. The surfaces of the brick may be saturated with alkaline sub-
stances and mineral or organic acids as well as many solvents, alone or in combination.
Cements can be used in areas where it would be impossible to use other construction
materials. They offer corrosion protection to concrete and steel structures, which lengthens
their life. As pump base cements, furans can be used in chemical-processing plants,
metal-finishing plants, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants, and pulp and paper mills.
The floors and walls of such structures as processing tanks, continuous-strip pickle lines,
processing towers, collecting sumps, neutralizing tanks, pits, manholes, and tank cappings
can be protected with furan cements. Furans have also found wide use in the manufacture
of grinding wheels and foundry molds. A typical furan-based composite possesses good
heat and chemical resistance, excellent surface hardness, and is inherently nonflammable.
However, their use in the form of fiber-reinforced composites is still comparatively
uncommon.
IONOMERS
Ionomers are in the polyolefin family. Their interchain ionic bonding distinguishes them
from the other polymers. These ionic cross-links occur randomly between long-chain
molecules to produce properties usually associated with high-molecular-weight materials.
At normal processing temperatures, however, the ionic bonding of these thermoplastics
diminishes, allowing them to be processed in conventional extruders and injection-molding
machines.
Ionomers are extremely tough, with tensile impact strengths as high as 320 J/cm (600
ft.-Ib'/in.) and tensile strengths as high as 35,000 kPa (5,000 psi), with elongation in the
range of 300 to 500 percent. In addition, they have excellent abrasion resistance, with
an NBS index as high as 640, and optical clarity, a haze rating as low as 40 percent.
Compounded ionomers are also available that are stiffer and have better heat resistance
than standard grades yet retain their excellent impact resistance. This product, intended
for semirigid parts, resists many chemicals, solvents, greases, and oils.
The clarity, strength, and good adhesion of ionomer films to metal surfaces are the
important properties that have led to its widespread use in food packaging, often as a
heat-seal layer in thermoplastic composite structures. Its high impact strength and cut
resistance have led to its use in bowling pin and golf ball covers and bumper guards. Its
automotive uses are based on its impact toughness, light weight, and paintability. Foam
injection-molded parts have now replaced heavy rubber and metal bumper guards and
license-plate holders.
Foams are also used in ski-lift pads, boat bumpers, marine navigation buoys, and
wrestling mats. Foamed sheet is used for thermal insulation on pipes and in covers for
hot-water storage tanks.
Ionomers' footwear uses include box toes, heel counters, and injection-molded athletic
soles to which metal cleats can be insert molded or spin welded. In ski boots and ice
skates, ionomers provide lightweight, durable shells.
KETONES
This broad family of crystalline thermoplastics includes polyetherketone (PEK) and poly-
etheretherketone (PEEK). See the sections that follow on PEK and PEEK.
LIQUID CRYSTAL POLYMERS

Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs), sometimes called super polymers, which were com-
mercially introduced in 1984, are called self-reinforcing plastics because of their densely
packed fibrous polymer chains. LCPs are creating new design opportunities for plastics
with their exceptional range of properties. They have outstanding strength at extreme
temperatures, excellent mechanical-property retention after exposure to weathering and
radiation, good dielectric strength as well as arc resistance and dimensional stability, a
low coefficient of thermal expansion, excellent flame resistance, and easy processability.
Their UL continuous-use rating for electrical properties is as high as 240°C (464°F), and
for mechanical properties it is 220°C (428°F). LCPs' high heat deflection value permits
LCP molded parts to be exposed to intermittent temperatures as high as 315°C (60(tF)
without affecting their properties. Their resistance to high-temperature flexural creep is
excellent, as are their fracture-toughness characteristics.
LCPs' ease of processing gives them the ability to fill long, narrow molds, which
makes them eminently suitable for such high-performance parts as electronic connectors.
They may have 138,000 kPas (20,000 psi) or more in tensile strength, with flexural
modulus values up to 5 X 106 psi. They are available in grades with heat deflection
temperatures (HDT) of about 357°C (675°F) at 1,820 kPas (264 psi). This family of
different LCPs resists most chemicals and weathers oxidation and flame, making them
excellent replacements for metals, ceramics, and other plastics.
LPCs are available in both amorphous and crystalline grades. The amorphous types,
with their high strength-to-weight ratios, are particularly useful for weight-sensitive items
in aerospace and military parts. Most LCPs can be injection molded, extruded, ther-
moformed, and blow molded. The crystalline grades, with glass and other fibers, meet
the dimensional requirements and stability at high temperatures required of products for
the electrical and electronics markets.
The LCPs are all exceptionally inert and resist stress cracking in the presence of most
chemicals at elevated temperatures, including the aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons
as well as strong acids, bases, ketones, and other aggressive industrial products. Their
hydrolytic stability in boiling water is excellent, but high-temperature steam, concentrated
sulfuric acid, and boiling caustic materials will deteriorate LCPs.
In regard to flammability, LCPs have an oxygen index ranging from 35 to 50 percent.
When exposed to open flame they form an intumescent char that prevents dripping and
results in an extremely low level of generation of smoke, which contains no toxic by-
products. Its resins have UL 94 V-O and 5V flammability ratings at 1116 in. and an NBS
smoke-chamber rating (NBS-Ds-4) of 3 to 5. Its compounds are unaffected by high
doses of ionizing or cobalt-60 radiation (up to 10 billion rads), can withstand high levels
of ultraviolet radiation, and are transparent to microwaves and other radiation at similar
wavelengths.
LPCs' molecular structure is attributed to their ease of processing. However, molded
LCP parts are highly anisotropic, and weld lines in them tend to be much weaker than
would normally be expected. Their properties are not affected by minor variations in
processing conditions, and no postcuring is required to obtain their outstanding properties.
The major applications of LCPs are in metal and ceramic replacements that require
resistance to high temperatures, chemicals, mechanical stress, creep resistance, and so
forth. LCP parts include electronic and electrical connectors, sockets and pin-grid arrays
exposed to high-temperature manufacturing or service conditions, automotive and aero-
space parts that require the ability to withstand high temperatures and flame retardance,
and chemical-processing components that exist in aggressive environments.
MELAMINES
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) is one of two major thermoset resins in the amino family,
the other being ureaformaldehyde. Various kinds of fillers are used to make MF com-
pounds to meet different requirements. MF is rigid and possesses a hard surface capable
of withstanding continuous handling and wear with negligible effect. Moreover, its surface
is unaffected by common organic solvents, greases, and oils, as well as many weak acids
and alkalis. When properly molded into food containers and dishes, an MF does not
impart odor or taste to solid or liquid foods. There are MF compounds that are insensitive
to heat and are highly flame resistant, depending on the fill used. They are recommended
for maximum temperatures ranging from 99 to 121°C (210 to 250°F). Low temperatures
produce no observable effects on MFs.
MFs are satisfactory for the large majority of electrical applications and are particularly
useful where arc resistance is desired. Mineral-filled MFs have one of the highest arc
resistances of any plastic plus high dielectric strength and dimensional stability but low
moisture absorption. With chopped cotton rags added, an MF has high flexural strength,
will absorb considerable shock, and will not support combustion.
An alpha-cellulose-filled MF is inherently colorless, light fast, and translucent. By
properly choosing pigments and dyes, an unlimited range of stable, unfading colors can
be obtained, as well as a wide range of translucencies. MF moldings have good dimen-
sional stability, high dielectric properties, and are little influenced by high humidity and
water. Its strength and shock resistance are also good.
A major use of MFs with alpha cellulose is in heavy-duty dishware. Decorative din-
nerware with printed inlays (that is, designs located below the surface) cannot be washed
off, abraded, or damaged in any manner. Surface glazing can be used to eliminate staining
or scratching. Properly designed, they are practically unbreakable (see also "Urea,"
below).
NYLON (POLYAMIDES)
Nylon was the first of the so-called thermoplastic engineering plastics in the 1930s. They
were originally developed as high-strength textile fibers for stockings. These crystalline
resins-the new developments include amorphous types-are available for processing by

different methods. There are different nylons, but as a family their characteristics of
strength, stiffness, and toughness have earned them an important place for the designer
when compared to such other materials as the die-casting alloys (see Table 6-4).
Nylon 6/6 is the most widely used, followed by nylon 6, with similar properties except
that it absorbs moisture more rapidly and its melting point is 21°C (70°F) lower. Also,
its lower processing temperature and less-crystalline structure result in lower mold shrink-
age. Nylons 11 and 12 have better dimensional stability and electrical properties than the
others, because they absorb less moisture. These more expensive types also are com-
pounded with plasticizers, to increase their flexibility and ductility. With nylon toughening
the technology advancements, supertough nylons have become available. Their notched
Izod impact values are over 10 J/m (20 ft.-Ib.!in.), and they fail in a ductile manner.
Other important types of nylons include the castable types, liquid monomers (not the
usual solid) that polymerize and become solid at atmospheric pressure. From them complex
parts several inches thick and weighing hundreds of pounds can be cast. Another castable
liquid monomer is a moldable transparent material. This amorphous type offers better
chemical resistance than other thermoplastics that the transparent.
Property comparisons among the commercial grades of different nylons vary widely,
because so many formulations are available. In general, they all have excellent fatigue
resistance, a low coefficient of friction, good toughness (depending on their degree of
crystallinity), and resist a wide spectrum of fuels, oils, and chemicals.
Nylon 6/6 has the lowest permeability by gasoline and mineral oil of all the nylons.
The 6/10 and 6/12 types are used where lower moisture absorption and better dimensional
stability are needed. All nylons are inert to biological attack and have electrical properties
adequate for most voltages and frequencies. The crystalline structure of nylons, which
can be controlled to some degree by processing, affects their stiffness, strength, and heat
resistance. Low crystallinity imparts greater toughness, elongation, and impact resis-
tance-but at the sacrifice of tensile strength and stiffness.
All nylons absorb moisture, if it is present in the application's environment. An increase
in moisture content decreases a material's strength and stiffness and increases its elongation
and impact resistance. Type 6/6 nylon usually reaches equilibrium at about 2.5 percent
moisture when the relative humidity reaches 50 percent. The eqUilibrium moisture at 50
percent RH in nylon 6 is slightly higher. In general, nylon's dimensions increase by about
0.2 to 0.3 percent for each 1 percent of moisture absorbed. However, dimensional changes
caused by moisture absorption can be compensated for by performing moisture condi-
tioning prior to putting parts into service. Such formulations as 6/12, 11, and 12 are
considerably less sensitive to moisture than others.
When UV stabilizers are compounded in the nylon, they become insensitive to UV
light. Carbon black is the most effective stabilizer. UV stabilizers also increase tensile
strength and hardness and decrease ductility and toughness slightly.
Nylons have good resistance to creep and cold flow, as compared to many of the less
rigid thermoplastics. Usually, creep can be accurately calculated, using apparent modulus
values, as seen in Chapter 3. They also have outstanding resistance to repeated impact.
Nylons can withstand a major portion of a breaking load almost indefinitely.
Nylons are used in many different markets, the largest being the automotive. Their
performance capabilities make them suitable for different mechanical and electrical hard-
ware, particularly for such under-hood parts as timing sprockets, speedometer gears,
cooling fans, wire connectors, windshield-wiper parts, door latches, fender extensions,
steering-column-lock housings, brake-fluid reservoirs, and other uses. Their low friction,
Table 6-4. Typical Nylon Performance as Compared to Die-cast Alloys

Points for Comparison Die-casting Alloys Nylon
Cost of raw materiallton Low High

Cost of mold High Can be lower-no higher
Speed of component Slower than injection molding Lower component production
production of nylon costs
Accuracy of component Good Good
Postmolding operations Finishing-painting Finishing-not required;
Paint chips off easily painting-not required.
Compounded color
retention permanent.
Surface hardness Low-scratches easily Much higher. Scratch resistant.
Rigidity Good to brittleness Glass-reinforced grades as
good or better
Elongation Low GR grades comparable; unfilled
grades excellent
Toughness (flexibility) Low GR grades comparable; unfilled
grades excellent
Impact Low All grades good
Notch sensitivity Low Low
Young's modulus (E) Consistent Varies with load
General mechanical properties Similar to GR grades of 6/6 Higher compressive strength
nylon
Heat conductivity High Low
Electrical insulation Low High
Weight High Low
Component assembly Snap fits difficult Very good
good abrasion resistance, and ability to operate without lubricants qualify nylons for use
in many bearing applications, business machines, and appliances. For extra protection,
occasional lubrication can be applied.
Extruded nylon tubing and hoses are used in hydraulic and other fluid systems, because
of their resistance to different fluids. The applications for castings are mostly in industrial
equipment: large rollers, bearings, gears, cams, sheaves, guide blocks, wear plates, and
the like. Nylon powder, which can be applied either electrostatically or by a fluid bed,
provides tough, wear-resistant coatings.
PARYLENES
The melting point of these film and coating resins ranges from 290° to 400°C (554 to
752°F), and their glass-transition temperatures range from 60 to 100°C (140 to 212°F).
Parylenes' cryogenic properties are excellent. Their physical properties are unaffected by
thermal cycles from 2°K to room temperature. Their thermal endurance in air is as follows:
the short-term (1,000 hr.) exposure is 93 to 129°C (200 to 265°F), the long term (ten
years) 60 to 100°C (140 to 212°F). In inert atmospheres or in the absence of air, their
properties are maintained up to 216 to 279°C (420 to 535°F).
These thermoplastics are generally insoluble up to 150°C (302~. At 270°C (518°F)
they will dissolve in chlorinated biphenyls, but the solution gels upon cooling below
160°C (320°F). Their weather resistance is poor. Embrittlement is the primary consequence
of their exposure to UV radiation.
The first significant commercial application of parylenes was as a dielectric film in

high-performance precision electrical capacitors, followed with use in circuitboards and
electronic module coatings. These coatings are to protect units from airborne contami-
nants, moisture, salt spray, and corrosive vapors while maintaining excellent insulator
protection. The coatings are also extensively used in the protection of hybrid circuits.
Such coatings do not affect parts' dimensions, shapes, or magnetic properties.
Free-standing films can be produced of parylene. These ultrathin (250A-3 microns)
films, called pellicles, are used as beam splitters in optical instruments, windows for
nuclear radiation measuring devices, dielectric supports for planar capacitors, and for
extremely fast-responding, low-mass thermistors and thermocouples.
Applying parylene requires special, though not complex or bulky, equipment: essen-
tially a vaporizer, a pyrolysis unit, and a deposition chamber. The objects to be coated
are placed in the deposition chamber, where the vapor coats them with a polymer. A
condensation coating like this does not run off or sag as in conventional coating methods.
Neither is it "line of sight," as in vacuum metalizing. In condensation coating the vapor
evenly coats edges, points, and internal areas. Although the vapor is all-pervasive, holes
can still be coated without bridging. Masking can easily prevent certain areas from being
coated, as desired. The objects to be coated can also remain at or near room temperature,
thus preventing possible thermal damage. Because of the quantitative nature of this
reaction, a coating's thickness can be accurately and simply controlled by manipulating
the polymer composition's charge to the vaporizer.
PHENOLICS
Since 1909, phenol-formaldehyde has continued to be a low-cost general-purpose ther-
moset compound to meet a multitude of applications. There are a wide range of fillers
for it, each intended to fulfill the needs of particular end-product service environments.
Typical among them is wood flour, for general use in electrical wall plates, industrial
switchgears, circuit breakers, handles and knobs for small appliances, and such purposes.
For slightly better impact strength, cotton flock is used. Mica, glass, and other minerals
provide better electrical properties, heat resistance and dimensional stability, as in au-
tomotive power brakes, industrial electrical terminal strips, and so on.
Compounds are formulated with a one- or two-stage phenolic curing system. In general,
one-stage resins are slightly more critical to process. Although phenolics have properties
that are somewhat inferior to those of the more expensive TSs, they are usually more
easily molded. They can be processed by compression, transfer, and injection molding
and to a limited degree by extrusion. The colors of these compounds are limited to black
or brown. As is typical of many TSs, they are postcured to obtain maximum performance.
Phenolic molding compounds are generally characterized as being low in cost and
having superior heat resistance, a high heat-deflection temperature, good electrical prop-
erties and flame resistance, excellent moldability and dimensional stability, and good
water and chemical resistance. Specialty compounds can provide high-performance heat
resistance, impact strength, electrical properties, and creep resistance. The heat-resistant
types are used in motor housings for appliances, handles for pots and pans, and other
such products (see Fig. 6-4). In general, they can withstand short-term exposure to 204°C
(400°F), and some grades can even be subjected to 260°C (500°F). Their long-term
exposure ratings range from 149 to 171°C (300 to 340°F). Glass-fiber-reinforced impact
grades are used in welding-rod holders, thermostat housings, commutators, and similar
parts (see the section below on urea).
Figure 6-4. This commercial automotive engine whose major components are made from
phenolic composite is a joint R&D venture between Polimotor Research, Inc., and the Rogers
Corp., which supplies the phenolic compound. Polimotor has proven the concept of using
composites in more than seventy-five racing engines. Moldable phenolic composites enable an
engine designer to address the vital concerns of weight, efficiency, noise, and cost. Cast iron
offers respectable properties but has a severe weight disadvantage. Aluminum provides that
advantage but unfortunately has such high thermal conductivity that efficiency can be reduced by
20 percent. Phenolic composites provide optimal results to meet performance requirements, can
be molded into intricate shapes, and are lower in cost to manufacture. For instance, a 2.3-liter
four-cylinder, in-line double-overhead-cam engine can produce 175 hp yet weigh only 80 kg
(175 lb.). Its 12.7-kg (28-lb.) composite engine block can be molded in just twelve minutes,
which may be reducible to four minutes under production conditions.
PHENOXY RESINS
Phenoxy resins are an outgrowth of epoxy resin technology. They have moderately good
impact resistance, relatively high strength, and good elongation and creep resistance.
They are thermoplastics, but they can also be thermosets, through cross-linking chemical
reactions.
As with most of the aromatic polymers, phenoxy resins' color retention, UV resistance,
and weatherability are generally poor. They have limited thermal exposure with a rec-
ommended operating temperature range from - 60 to BO°C (-76 to 176°F). Phenoxy
resins are resistant to acids and alkalis, have poor solvent resistance (especially in ketones)
but good resistance to aliphatic hydrocarbons, and resist staining from common household
agents rather well. Their permeability, particularly to oxygen and other gases, is the
lowest of any melt-processable plastic. Their oxygen permeability is one-twentieth that
of HDPE and their moisture-vapor transmission is about the same as that of rigid PVC-
higher than PE but much lower than the styrenes.
The major use of phenoxies is as a vehicle for coating formulations. They are excep-
tionally useful in primer applications where drying speed, compatibility with various
kinds of top coats, and high adhesive strength are required. Phenoxies are used in au-
tomotive and marine primers as well as in heavy-duty maintenance primers.
Phenoxy molding compounds are limited to applications requiring service temperatures
not in excess of about 80°C (176°P). Its combination of good impact strength, clarity,
and impermeability makes this resin attractive for molding, including blow molding, of
cosmetic, foodstuff, and household-chemical bottles.
POL YALLOMERS
Special polymerization can produce ethylene-propylene block copolymers that exhibit
crystallinity similar to that seen in the homopolymers. This thermoplastic, which is
insoluble in hexane and heptane, has many of the properties of HDPE and PP, along
with an annealed density of 0.91, a brittleness temperature as low as -40°C (-400 P),
and an Izod impact strength (notched) of 640 Jim (12 ft.-Ib.lin.) with less notch sensitivity.
Polyallomers mold as easily as PPs, yet they have better dynamic flexural fatigue
resistance, as in living hinges, particularly at low temperatures. Their flow and moldability
is better than that of linear PE and has a superior softening point as well as greater
hardness, stress-crack resistance, and mold shrinkage. Polyallomers are superior to rubber-
modified PPs in color, clarity, moldability, electrical properties, and blush resistance
when bent or stretched.
This thermoplastic is used for blow-molding bottles, wire coating, extruding film,
sheet, and pipe, and thermoforming various packaging applications.
POLYAMIDES
See the section above on nylon.
POL YAMI DE-IMI DE

Polyamide-imides (PAIs) are engineering thermoplastics characterized by excellent di-
mensional stability, high strength at high temperatures, and good impact resistance.
Molded parts in this material can maintain their structural integrity in continuous use at
temperatures of 260°C (5000 P). Different grades are available, such as general purpose,
injection moldable, PTFE/graphite wear-resistant compounds, 30 percent graphite-fiber-
reinforced compounds, 30 percent glass-fiber-reinforced compounds, and so on.
The room-temperature tensile strength of an unfilled PAl is about 192 MPa (28,000
psi), its compressive strength about 220 MPa (32,000 psi). At 232°C (4500 P) its tensile
strength is about 65 MPa (9,500 psi), or as strong as many engineered plastics at room
temperature. Continued exposure at 260°C (500°F) for up to 8,000 hours produces no
significant decline in its tensile properties.
PAl's flexural modulus of 5,000 MPa (730,000 psi) in an unfilled grade can be increased
with graphite fiber reinforcement, to 2.9 x 106 psi. The degree of retention of its modulus
at temperatures to 260°C (500°F) is on the order of 80 percent. Its creep resistance, even
at high temperatures and under load, is among the best of the thermoplastics, and its
dimensional stability is extremely good.
The unfilled grade of PAl is rated UL 94V-O at thicknesses as low as 0.008 in. and
has an oxygen index of 45 percent. PAIs are extremely resistant to flame and have quite
low smoke generation. Some reinforced grades have surpassed the FAA requirements for
flammability, smoke density, and toxic gas emission.
PAIs' radiation resistance is good, with a tensile strength that drops only about 5
percent after exposure, to 109 rads of gamma radiation. Its chemical resistance is very
good, virtually unaffected by the aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons as well as halo-
genated solvents and most acid and base solutions. PAl is attacked, however, by some
acids at high temperatures, by steam at high pressure and temperatures, and by strong
bases. PAl moldings absorb moisture in humid environments or when immersed in water,
but the rate is low and the process reversible. For example, at 50 percent relative humidity
and 23°C (73°F) PAIs absorb about 1 percent by weight in 1,000 hours. Parts can be
restored to their original dimensions by drying.
One important area for the use of PAIs is in structural parts requiring high strength at
high temperatures: aerospace products, business equipment, industrial chemical plants,
heavy-duty trucks, underground environments, and other such markets. Some of the
specific parts for which it is used include electrical connectors, switches, relays, gears,
ball bearings, marine winches (see Fig. 6-5), high-load thrust bearings, and so on.
Automotive parts using PAl include power and valve trains, piston skirts, tappets, piston
rings, valve stems, and timing gears.
Figure 6-5. A high-performance, lightweight racing sailboat winch using a Torlon polyamide-
imide resin from Amoco Performance Products for both its roller and ball bearings.
POL YARYLATES
The polyarylate (PAR) resins are a family of TP polyesters with properties that put them
within the spectrum of the relatively high-performance polymers. Their cost-performance
rating is somewhat between PCs and the high-heat materials. In their mechanical properties
PARs resemble the less expensive PCs, but they offer 10 to 23°C (50 to 70°F) higher
heat resistance, somewhat better chemical resistance, and nearly comparable optical
properties. They also have good toughness and strength retention in long outdoor exposure,
good electrical properties, and an inherent flame resistance. PARs can be processed to
enforce their various properties (see Chapter 7).
Like the more familiar TP polyesters PET and PBT, the PARs are polycondensation
products. However, both components are aromatic (ring type) molecules. By using various
ratios, different properties become available. Even without glass-tiber-reinforcement,
PAR's heat-deflection temperature at 1,820 kPa (264 psi) is about 171°C (340°F). They
also have good impact strength over a wide temperature range (down to - 40°C [ - 40°FD,
low notch sensitivity, and excellent flammability performance. Most PARs have a UL
v-a flame-spread rating of 0.062 or 0.125 in. thickness without the use of flame-retardant
additives, have oxygen indexes of about 30 or higher, and generate little smoke.
Other useful properties of the PARs include good electrical characteristics as well as
high UV and weather resistance without the use of stabilizers. They have at least an 85
percent light-transmission value and a rating as low as 2 percent for surface haze, and
remain unaffected by long outdoor exposure. PARs do not have the water-clear trans-
parency of the PCs. Their tint varies from a light straw color to a medium tan, depending
on the manufacturing process. Some can be pigmented, and all grades can be supplied
opaque. Automotive lighting has recently become a prime market as designers seek
unreinforced transparent plastics that can handle the heat load from the higher-intensity
bulbs operating in smaller spaces, and other markets also exist.
POL YARYLETH ERS

These thermoplastic polymers are generally characterized by their toughness in respect
to resistance to heat and UV exposure. Of importance also are their transparency, warp
resistance, excellent flexural recovery, high elastic limits, and good electrical and me-
chanical properties, including outstanding creep resistance. They have as well excellent
radiation and oxidation resistance. Their thermal expansion rate is close to that of metal.
This amorphous material is subject to environmental stress cracking, however, particularly
in the presence of aromatic or aliphatic hydrocarbons.
Polyarylether's key properties include a heat-distortion temperature of up to 180°C
(355°F), tensile strengths from 69 to 165 MPa (10,000 to 24,000 psi), and flexural modulus
ratings from 2,067 to 9,646 MPa (300,000 to 1,400,000 psi).
POL YARYLETHERKETONE
Compared with the temperature-stable thermoset plastics and fluoropolymers, clear eco-
nomic and processing advantages have appeared, particularly for new materials that can
be highly stressed thermally and mechanically. Polyaryletherketone (PAEK) is a leading
material among the high-temperature stable thermoplastics. This family of plastics allows
continuous operating temperature of 250°C (480°F) and-4lepending on the type of short-
term peak load-up to 350°C (660°F). The glass transition and melting temperatures are
thermodynamic quantities that depend on the ratio of the ketone to the ether groups.
Various complicated configurations can be obtained, such as polyetherketoneetherketone-
ketone (PEKEKK).
The properties of this family of plastics include a tensile strength at break of 85 MPa
(12,300 psi), an elongation at break of 56 percent, a tensile modulus of elasticity of 0.6
X 106 psi, a tensile stress at yield at 23°C (74°F) of 104 MPa (15,100 psi) and at 160°C
(320°F) of 37 MPa (5,400 psi), an elongation at yield of 6 percent at 23°C (74°F) and
of 2 percent at 160°C (320°F), and no break using an unnotched Izod impact test.
The processing flow behavior of PAEK does not differ fundamentally from that of
other partially crystalline TPs. The shear rate is similar to Nylon 6 and PBT at 25°C
(77°F) above the melting point. Besides having good mechanical and rheological properties
(see Chapter 2), PAEK is characterized by its favorable behavior in fire. Without additives
it has a UL 94V-O rating down to a test-specimen thickness of 0.030 in. The density of
PAEK fumes in a fire is the lowest of the TPs, and it has exceptionally low corro-
sive and toxic fumes. The quantity of heat released upon the outbreak of a fire is quite
low, and it meets aviation regulations for interior use. PAEK has high hydrolysis resistance
and good resistance to many different chemicals.
POLYARYLSULFONE
Polyarylsulfone (PAS) thermoplastics have relatively low melt-processing temperatures,
considering their high mechanical properties. For one thing, they are hydrolytically stable.
They have a heat-distortion temperature at least 204°C (400°F) at 1,820 kPa (264 psi),
tensile strengths to 124 MPa (18,000 psi) or better, and a flexural modulus up to 1.17
X 106 psi. Under stress they are highly resistant to mineral acids and alkali and salt
solutions. Their applications are in electrical and electronic items, frozen-food packaging,
and aircraft interiors.
POL YBENZIMIDAZOLE
PBI has no known melting point and a glass-transition temperature of 427°C (800°F). It
has an ultrahigh heat-distortion temperature of 435°C (815°F), retards flame, and will not
bum in air. The material can withstand steady temperatures up to 427°C (800°F) and
short bursts up to 760°C (I ,400°F). This material is reported to resist steam at 343°C
(650°F) and 15 MPa (2,200 psi) pressure. When exposed to saturated steam, PBI absorbs
only 0.4 percent moisture. It resists a wide range of chemicals, including harsh ones.
This plastic has high mechanical and physical strength properties including a high
compression strength. PBI can bear loads for short periods at temperatures up to 650°C
(I,200°F). When reinforced with silicon-carbide fibers, it can thwart an attack even from
laser weapons. It has a low coefficient both of friction and of thermal expansion (0.000013
in'/in./°F).
This wholly aromatic heterocyclic polymer is fabricated by sintering under high pres-
sure. The low-molecular-weight PBI flows better than its high-molecular-weight coun-
terpart. However, HMW PBI outgases less during processing, making it more suitable
to mold large parts.
PBI has been targeted to replace metals, ceramics, carbon, and other materials where
an industry needs materials that are highly resistant to heat and corrosion, as in the
chemicals and oil processing, aerospace, and transportation. PBI's main commercial
applications include use as valve seats, seals, electrical connections, thrust washers,
bearings, and other mechanical components. PBI, the clothing pick of the best-dressed
astronauts and firefighters, may become the material of choice for parts that need to resist
temperatures up to 400°C (750°F) or more.
POLYBUTYLENES
The polybutylenes (BPs) are crystalline thermoplastics in the polyolefin family. Compared
to other polyolefins, they have superior resistance to creep and stress cracking. PB films
have high tear resistance, toughness, and flexibility. Their chemical and electrical prop-
erties are similar to those of the PEs, and PPs, but their degree of crystallinity is much
lower. This structure results in a rubberlike, elastomeric material with low molded-in
stress.
The main applications of PBs are in pipe, packaging, hot-melt adhesives, and sealants.
Piping for cold-water use out of PBs has a higher burst strength than pipe made from
any other polyolefin. Large-diameter pipe has been successfully used in mining and power-
generation systems to convey abrasive materials. PBs can be alloyed with other polyolefins
to provide its inherent advantages. Film made into industrial trash bags gives improved
resistance to bursting, puncturing, and tearing.
POL YBUTYLENE TEREPHTHALATE

See "Thermoplastics" under "Polyesters," below.
POL YCARBONATES
Among the engineering thermoplastics, the amorphous PCs are one of the most exceptional
materials, distinguished by their highly versatile combination of properties. Most PCs
can exist individually in various other materials, but generally not in their entirety.
Different grades of pes provide specific properties and processing characteristics. These
include the flame retardant and reinforced grades, resistance to weather and UV radiation;
EMI and RFI shielding, FDA-approved grades for use in food-contact and medical ap-
plications, and grades for different processes such as injection, structural foam and blow
molding, the extrusion of film and sheet, and others.
PCs are characterized by toughness, heat and flame resistance, and dimensional sta-
bility. Thick unreinforced PC resists breakage at temperatures down to - 54°C ( - 65°F).
Grades are available to provide high impact strength, based on different thicknesses at
room temperature and a notched Izod impact strength of 6.4 to 8.5 J/cm (12 to 16 ft.-
lb.lin. Even in thick sections, a properly designed PC part has more impact strength at
-54°C (-65°F) than most plastics generally do at RT. Many plastics are not tough at
18°C (65°F), but there are plastics that are tough even at much lower temperatures (see
Chapter 4). Creep resistance, which is already excellent throughout a broad temperature
range, can be further improved by a factor of two to three when PC is reinforced with
glass fibers.
Polycarbonates' insulating and other electrical properties are excellent and remain
almost unchanged by temperature and humidity conditions. One exception is arc resis-
tance, which in PCs is lower than in many other plastics. They are generally unaffected
by greases, oils, and acids. Water at RT has no effect on PCs, but continuous exposure
in 65°C (150°F) water causes gradual embrittlement. They are soluble in chlorinated
hydrocarbons and attacked by most aromatic solvents, esters, and ketones, which cause
crazing and cracking in stressed parts. Grades with improved chemical resistance are
available, and special coating systems can be applied to provide additional chemical
protection.
PCs are major additions to the group of polymer blends. Their mechanical and thermal
properties make them the natural mainstays of the blends. For instance, some PC grades
have notched Izod impacts of up to 960 Jim (18 ft.-Ib'/in.), heat-deflection temperatures
of 138°C (280°F), and flexural moduli in the 2,067 MPa (300,000 psi) range. Two families
of blends dominate: the thermoplastic polyesters PBT and PET (see Fig. 6-6) and ABS.
Many other blends exist .to provide specific desirable characteristics. Blending can elim-
inate one or more shortcomings by the type of blend and the mixture ratio. Trade-offs
exist, as might be expected, but with certain blends there are overall net gains and even
synergistic gains (see Chapter 2). The gains include providing for an easier melt flow
during processing. In the blending process, the natural water-clearness and transparency
of PCs can be reduced or lost.
The applications of PCs are extensive, emanating into all types of markets. A sarnple
would include electronic connectors, switches, terminal blocks, computer disc packs,
storage modules and housings, appliance power-tool housings, vacuum cleaner impellers,
fan and air-conditioner grills, automotive instrument panels, indoor and outdoor lighting
diffusers, medical kidney dialysers and blood oxygenators, and a host of others.
POLYESTERS
There are both thermoplastic and thermoset polyesters, with many of each type each
having their own special qualities.
Thermoplastics
The two major TPs are polybutylene terephthalates (PBT) and polyethlene terephthalates
(PET). These crystalline, high-molecular-weight polymers h~ve an excellent balance of
properties and processing characteristics. Unreinforced and glass-fiber-reinforced grades
4.0 3.86
Unrelnlorced 20% Glass filled
Figure 6-6. A PC-PET blend that provides an easier processing flow than does a straight PC.
are available with UL flammability ratings of 94HB and 5V. They have excellent resistance
to a broad range of chemicals at room temperature, including aliphatic hydrocarbons,
gasoline, carbon tetrachloride, oils, fats, alcohols, glycols, and esters as well as diluted
acids and bases (they are attacked by strong acids and bases).
Some examples of applications for PBTs include automotive distributor caps and painted
exterior body components, electronic terminal blocks, coil forms, integrated circuit car-
riers, and other electromechanical parts to replace thermosets. The high-stiffness resins,
including the foam injection-molded grades, are well suited for such structural applications
as automobile parts.
PETs are extensively used in such products as bottles and films. Stretched-injection
blow-molded bottles are used for nearly all two-liter carbonated beverage containers. PET
is also used for packaging foods, cosmetics, and household chemicals (see Figs. 6-7 and
6-8). With changes in formulation, surface treatment, and processing-from unoriented
to bioriented-PET films can produce variations in optical, mechanical, physical, and
surface properties. They are used in liquid-crystal displays, metalized photocopier belts,
motor and wire insulation, for holographic reproduction, in magnetic tapes and discs,
and other uses. Aluminized PET film with nylon fabric set the world's record for altitude
in a manned hot-air balloon at 59,500 m (65,000 ft.), in 1988.
Figure 6-7. Different-shaped PET stretched-injection, blow-molded bottles.

Figure 6-8. A l.7S-liter (l.8S-quart)

whiskey bottle made of a Goodyear PET
resin reduces filling-line noise and breakage
and is lightweight and shatterproof during
shipping and handling.
Thermosets
Thermoset polyesters, as the thermoset alkyds, are compounds that are usually based on
unsaturated polyester resin systems. The term alkyd refers to thermosets using lower
amounts of monomers. When the monomer level is higher, the compound is called a
polyester. At room temperature these solutions (the mixtures of the resin and the liquid
monomer, which is usually a styrene) are stable. Any of a variety of peroxide catalysts
can initiate cross-linking (see curing in Chapter 2) at room temperature or higher.
Unlike most other plastics, which are basically constructed around a single ingredient,
polyester formulations usually contain substantial amounts of several materials like fillers,
reinforcements, additives, and other resins. Special advantages and limitations apply to
each compound and their various processing methods. One example of such a trade-off
and combination is shown in Table 6-5 and Figure 6-9. A major characteristic of TS
polyester and the reason it was developed, in 1942-1944, is that it does not produce by-
products such as moisture or gases during fabrication. Most TSs have by-products that
require pressure and bumping to be used during the chemical curing reaction phase. Thus,
TS polyesters can be cured at no pressure. However, pressure is applied when compounds
have extensive fiber reinforcement and complicated shapes, to ensure the release of trapped
air, provide an improved surface, and obtain maximum performance.
Fabricating thermoset parts, usually with glass fiber reinforcements, is more varied
than with other types of plastic. There are many different methods of processing reinforced
TS polyesters, from no pressure to high pressure, employing hand lay-up and spray-up
for small to moderate quantities of large parts, using compression molding from bulk-
molding compounds, sheet-molding compounds, or glass-fiber preforms for the high-
volume production of moderate-sized complex parts, and using pultrusion for basically
Table 6-5. The Range of Properties Available Using Different Reinforced

Thermoset Polyester Resins
Thermoset Polyester
Compounds Characteristic Typical Uses
General Purpose Rigid moldings Trays, boats, tanks, boxes,

luggage, seating
Flexible resins and Tough, good impact resistance, high Vibration damping: machine covers
semirigid resins flexural strength, low flexural and guards, safety helmets,
modulus electronic part encapsulation,
gel coats, patching
compounds, auto bodies,
boats
Light, stable, and weather Resistant to weather and ultraviolet Structural panels, skylighting,
resistant degradation glazing
Chemical resistant Highest chemical resistance of Corrosion resistant applications
polyester group, excellent acid such as pipe, tanks, ducts,
resistance, fair in alkalis fume stacks
Flame resistant Self-extinguishing, rigid Building panels (interior),
electrical components, fuel
tanks
High heat distortion Service up to 500°F (260°C), rigid Aircraft parts
Hot strength Fast rate of cure (hot), moldings Containers, trays, housings
easily removed from die
Low exotherm Void-free thick laminates, low heat Encapsulating electronic
generated during cure components, electrical premix
parts-switchgear
Extended pot life Void-free and uniform, long flow Large complex moldings
time in mold before gel
Air dry Cures tack-free at room temperature Pools, boats, tanks
Thixotropic Resists flow or drainage when Boats, pools, tank linings
applied to vertical surfaces
constant-section shapes, as well as injection molding (see Fig. 6-10), resin transfer
molding, casting, and other techniques (see Chapter 7). The typical strength ranges
obtainable in parts fabricated from various forms of compounds and processed by different
methods are given in the last section of this chapter.
Applications for materials such as these are in boat hulls, architectural panels and
structures, vehicle components, swimming pools and filter parts, athletic equipment,
housings for products like computers, office-, business-, medical-, testing-, and display
equipment, and storage tanks. Further uses include agricultural fertilizer and feed hoppers,
pig and other animal stalls, furniture, bathroom components like shower stalls and modular
tub-wall segments, aircraft primary and secondary structures, toys, and many products
that must exist in all types of corrosive environments. Pultruded parts include electrical
insulators, boom arms for aerial-lift trucks, luggage racks, channels, beams, solid rods,
and L beams.
POL YETHERKETONE
Polyetherketone (PEK) is a partially crystalline high-performance aromatic ketone-based
thermoplastic that is heat stable and readily processed. As a member of the ketone family
it shares with PEEK such properties as good chemical resistance; exceptional toughness,
Figure 6-9. A Xycon TS polyester-polyurethane hybrid resin from Amoco Chemical Co. was
used for the body panels in this futuristic GM XT2 EL Camino. When compared to unsaturated
TS polyesters, this Xycon resin with Amoco's Thomel carbon filter offers greater inherent
strength, is less brittle, and requires a lower curing temperature and no postcuring.
Figure 6-10. An experimental Chrysler Cordoba front panel injection molded from PPG
Industries' fiberglass-reinforced TS polyester compound. This composite structure provides a 30
to 50 percent weight savings over the comparable metal part, in addition to more corrosion
resistance.
437
Figure 6-11. This popular practically all-glass-fiber-TS polyester RP leisure boat was injection
molded and had hand lay-up of its parts. This battery-powered Sun Cat is easy maneuverable by
plastic propellers located within recesses on each RP floating pontoons.
strength, rigidity, and load-bearing capabilities; good radiation resistance; the best fire-
safety characteristics of any thermoplastic, and the ability to be easily melt processed.
Super PEKs designed for advanced composites have a continuous-service temperature
rating of 260°C (5000 P), a glass-transition temperature (Tg) of 200°C (400 0 P), and a slow
crystallization rate that suits them for processes with slow rates of cooling from the melt.
POL YETHERETHERKETONE
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is a high-temperature crystalline thermoplastic resin suitable
for high-performance unreinforced or reinforced parts. This member of the ketone family
offers an excellent combination of thermal and combustion characteristics. Its wholly
aromatic structure contributes to its high temperature performance, and its crystalline
character makes it resistant to organic solvents and dynamic fatigue, and helps it retain
ductility in short-term heat aging. PEEK molded compounds absorb much less water than
any other thermoplastic. They have good resistance to aqueous reagents, with long-term
proven performance at 220°C (430 0 P). Their resistance to attack is over a wide pH range
from 60 percent sulfuric acid to 40 percent sodium hydroxide at elevated temperatures.
However, PEEK is attacked by some concentrated acids. No solvent attack has yet been
observed on molded parts, although some solvents cause the crazing of highly stressed
coated wire. This problem can be eliminated by orienting PEEK below its melting point.
PEEK compounds are molded or extruded in conventional TP equipment at 350 to
400°C (660 to 7500 P). Their mold shrinkage is about 1 percent for the unreinforced and
0.1 to 1.4 percent for the reinforced grades, depending on their fiber orientation. PEEK
is widely used in carbon-fiber composites because of their excellent adhesion to carbon
fibers. PEEK's heat-distortion temperature is above 315°C (6000 P) at 1,820 kPa (264
psi), its tensile strengths are up to 215 MPa (31,000 psi), and its flexural modulus is up
to 21 X 106 psi.
At room temperature PEEK is tough, strong, and rigid, with excellent load-bearing
properties over long periods and outstanding resistance to abrasion. On a short-term basis
this material is suitable for service temperatures in excess of 300°C (575°P). It also has
excellent thermal stability for continuous operation. A lifetime of 50,000 hours can be
expected at 260°C (5000 P). With its lack of flame-retardant additives or halogens, PEEK
has a limiting oxygen index of 35 percent, meets UL 94V-O requirements, and has an
extremely low rate of smoke emission.
Tests to date show that PEEK has good resistance to radiation. PEEK moldings do
degrade by UV during outdoor weathering, however. When it is natural or pigmented,
the effect on PEEK is minimal over a twelve-month period. Paint or other applicable
coatings are recommended for use in prolonged or extreme weather conditions.
PEEK film can be laminated to itself or to other substrates. Its bond strength depends
on the surface preparation and the type of adhesive used. Pilm is available in both a
transparent, thermoformable grade and a higher heat-temperature, heat-stabilized version
that is more crystalline and less transparent as well as thermoformable.
Applications for PEEK range from commercial or industrial to uses in nuclear plants,
underground or underwater applications, oil wells, commercial aircraft to military equip-
ment, and for underground or surface-railway equipment. Some typical PEEK products
include pump impellers, electrical connectors, valve seals, wires and cable, fire-safety
components, and others.
POL YETHERIMIDE
Polyetherimide (PEl) is an amorphous engineering TP characterized by high heat resis-
tance, high strength and a high modulus, excellent electrical properties that remain stable
over a wide range of temperatures and frequencies, and very good processability. Neat
(unmodified) PEl is transparent, with inherent flame resistance and low smoke evolution.
Its UL continuous-use listing is 170°C (338°P) and its heat-deflection temperature is 200°C
(392°P) at 1,820 kPa (264 psi). It has a Tg of 215°C (419°P), a UL rating of 94V-O at
a thickness of 0.016 in. and of 5V at 0.075 in. without additives. PEl has a limited
oxygen index of 47 percent (one of the highest among the engineering TPs), its smoke
evolution as measured in an NBS chamber test per ASTM E 662 is low, and its dielectric
constant remains virtually unchanged between frequencies of 60 to 109 Hz and temper-
atures of 28 to 82°C (73 to 1800 P). It has a high-volume resistivity of 6.7 x 10 17 ohm-
cm and a dielectric strength from 830 V/mil at 1116 in. in air to greater than 6,500 VI
mil in submil film thicknesses. Its arc resistance exceeds 120 s, meeting one of the UL
electrical requirements for the sole support of "live" parts.
A key feature of PEl is its ability to maintain properties at elevated temperatures. Por
example, at 180°C (356°P) its tensile strength and flexural modulus are 41 and 2,067
MPa (6,000 and 300,000 psi), respectively. The strength and modulus of the glass-
reinforced grades are higher. The modulus at 1.3 x 106 psi with 30 percent weight of
glass to over 80 percent is retained at 180°C (356°P). PEl also has good creep resistance,
as indicated by its apparent modulus of 24,115 MPa (350,000 psi) after 1,000 hours at
82°C (1800 P) under an initial load of 35 MPa (5,000 psi).
This resin resists a broad range of chemicals under varied conditions of stress and tem-
perature. PEl's resistance to mineral acids, for example, is outstanding. It is, however, at-
tacked by such partially halogenated solvents as methylene chloride, trichloroethane, and
strong acids. Its resistance to UV radiation is good with a change in tensile strength after 1,000
hours of xenon-arc exposure that is negligible. PEl's resistance to gamma-ray radiation is also
good, there being a strength loss of less than 6 percent after 500 megarads' exposure to co-
balt 60 at the rate of one Mrad/hr. Hydrolytic stability tests show that more than 85 percent
of PEl's tensile strength is retained after 10,000 hours of immersion in boiling water. This
material is suitable for short-term or repeated steam exposure.
POL YETHERSULFONE
This material is a high-temperature engineering TP in the polysulfone family. PES is
recommended for load-bearing applications up to 182°C (3600 P). Even without flame
retardants it offers low flammability, and it has little change in its dimensions of electrical
properties in the temperature range from 0 to 200°C (32 to 3900 P). At room temperature
it behaves like a traditional engineering TP, being rough, rigid, and strong, with out-
standing long-term load-bearing properties. Of far greater importance are the high-tem-
perature properties that PES has.
PES can be used for tens of thousands of hours at 200°C (3900 P) without a significant
loss of strength. The UL temperature index is 200°C (3900 P) for a PES compound that
is 30 percent glass fiber. Its dimensional changes at 200°C (3900 P) are negligible, although
small variations occur in its electrical performance from 0 to 200°C (32 to 3900 P).
Compared with most TPs, PES has low flammability without flame-retardant additives
and carries a UL 94V-O rating at a thickness of 0.017 in. with glass reinforcement. Its
limiting oxygen index is in the range of 34 to 41. Its smoke and gas emission are very
low.
PES possesses good resistance to X rays, beta rays, and gamma rays. Even though
neat it does not have good resistance to outdoor weathering, with a carbon-black filler it
is acceptable. Chemical resistance in PES is dependent on the external and molded-in
stress levels and the temperature. Its chemical resistance can be improved by annealing
it at 200°C (390°F). It has good resistance to aqueous acids, bases, and most inorganic
solutions. Most of the common sterilizing solutions and anesthetics can be used with PES
safely (many cleaning and degreasing solvents are based on chlorinated and fluorinated
hydrocarbons). Unless PES is heavily stressed, it can be cleaned by most of these solvents.
POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylenes (PEs) are in the polyolefin family of semicrystalline TPs. The largest-
volume plastics used worldwide, PEs are available in many varieties with an equally
wide range of properties. Some are flexible, others rigid; some have low impact strength,
whereas others are nearly unbreakable; some have good clarity, others are opaque, and
so on. The service temperatures for PEs range from -40 to 93°C (-40 to 2000 P). In
general they are characterized by toughness, excellent chemical resistance and electrical
properties, a low coefficient of friction, near-zero moisture absorption, and good ease of
processing. They are basically classified according to their density (see Tables 6-6 through
6-9 and Figs. 6-12 through 6-15).
In addition to those PEs listed in the tables, there are others designed to meet different
requirements, such as cross-linked PE (XLPE), which by chemical or irradiation treatment
becomes essentially a TS with outstanding heat resistance and strength. There is an extra
high-gloss HDPE (Fortiflex, by the Soltex Polymer Corp.), another that retains its tough-
ness at very low temperatures and performs at levels between the commodity and engi-
neering resins (Zemid, by Du Pont), and various others.
Three basic characteristics of PEs determine their processing and end-use properties:
their density, melt index, and molecular weight distribution (see Chapter 2). Their range
in density, from 0.890 to above 0.96 g/cm3, is a result of their crystalline structure. This
difference accounts for their property variations seen in Chapter 2. As one example,
reducing PE's crystallinity increases its impact resistance, cold flow, tackiness, tear
4300
TENSILE
STRENGTH
STRESS
CRACK
1400 RESISTANCE' i
I
0.915
DENSITY
0.960
L-L-~~
o 5 10 15 20
MELT INDEX
* Arbitrary values for 0.950 density.
150.000
STIFFNESS
IMPACT
STRENGTH
19.000
0.915 0.960
DENSITY o 5 10 15 20
MELT INDEX
~ _ _ _...,90
HEAT GLOSS
DISTORTION
10
o 5 10 15 20
0.915 0.960
DENSITY MELT INDEX
Figure 6-12. An example of how density Figure 6-13. An example of how the melt
affects PEs. index affects PEs.
strength, environmental stress-crack resistance, and heat-seal range. As its crystallinity

is reduced, decreases occur in stiffness, shrinkage, brittleness temperature, and chemical
resistance.
Low-Density Polyethylene
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), the first of the PEs, has good toughness, flexibility,
low temperature resistance, clarity in film, and relatively low heat resistance, as well as
good resistance to chemical attack. At room temperature LDPE is insoluble in most
organic solvents but attacked by strong oxidizing acids. At high temperatures it becomes
increasingly susceptible to attack by aromatic, chlorinated, and aliphatic hydrocarbons.
The LDPEs are susceptible to environmental and some chemical stress cracking. For
example, wetting agents such as detergents accelerate stress cracking. Some copolymers
of LDPE are available with an improved stress-cracking resistance.
100r---------------------------~~----------------~
-0.96
80 BRITTLE WAXES
?fI.
~. 60
z
..J
..J
<(
~ 40
>-
Il:
U
CONVENTIONAL TYPES
20
O~
LIQUIDS
__________ ~ __________ ~ __________ ~ __________ ~
100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Figure 6-14. The relationships between crystallinity, molecular weight, and the properties of a
PE, based on different polymerization reactions.
Linear Low-Density Polyethylene

This material is used mainly in film applications but other products using all'types of
processes as well. Its properties are different from LDPE and HDPE in that its impact,
tear, heat-seal strength, and environmental stress-crack resistance are significantly higher.
Its major uses at present are for grocery bags, industrial trash bags, liners, and heavy-
duty shipping bags.
Table 6-6. Polyethylene Densities

Type Density, g/cm (lbs.lft.3)
LDPE 0.910 to 0.925 (56.8-57.7)

MDPE 0.926 to 0.940 (57.8-58.7)
HDPE 0.941 to 0.959 (58.7-59.9)
HMWPE 0.960 and above (59.9)
Table 6-7. Polyethylene Properties

LDPE HDPE
Density, g/cmt (lbs.lft. 3) 0.910 to 0.925 (56.8-57.7) 0.941 to 0.965 (58.7-60.2)
Crystal melt temperature, 95 to 130 (203-266) 120 to 140 (248-284)

°C (OF)
Tensile strength, MPa (psi) 4.1 to 15.9 (590-2,300) 21.4 to 37.9 (3,100-5,490)
Tensile modulus, MPa (psi) 96.5 to 262 (14,000-38,000) 414 to 1250 (60,000-181,200)
Elongation to break, % 90.0 to 800.0 20 to 1300
Hardness, Shore D 41 to 50 50 to 70
Table 6-8. The Effects on PEs of Increases in Density,
Melt Index, and Molecular Weight
PE Property Density Melt Index Molecular Weight
Tensile strength (at yield) Increases Decreases

Stiffness Increases Decreases slightly Decreases slightly
Impact strength Decreases Decreases Decreases
Low-temperature brittleness Increases Increases Decreases
Abrasion resistance Increases Decreases
Hardness Increases Decreases slightly
Softening point Increases Increases
Stress-crack resistance Decreases Decreases
Permeability Decreases Increases slightly
Chemical resistance Increases Decreases
Melt strength Decreases Increases
Gloss Increases Increases Decreases
Haze Decreases Decreases
Shrinkage Decreases Decreases Increases
Table 6-9. How Intrinsic Properties Affect PEs

If Density If Melt Index IfMWD
Physical Properties Increases Increases Broadens
Melt viscosity Higher Lower

Vicat softening point Much higher Lower Lower
Surface hardness Higher Slightly lower Lower
Tensile strength
Yield Much higher Slightly lower Lower
Break Slightly higher Lower Lower
Elongation Lower Lower Higher
Creep resistance Higher Slightly lower Higher
Flexural stiffness Much higher Slightly lower
Flexibility Lower
Toughness Lower Lower Lower
Low-temperature brittleness Lower Lower Higher

Stress crack resistance Lower Lower Higher
Optical properties
Transparency Higher* Higher
Freedom from haze Higher* Higher
Gloss Higher* Higher
Barrier properties
MVT rate Lower
Gas and liquid
Transmission Much lower
Greaseproofness Much higher Slightly lower
Electrical properties Slightly higher No effect
*Not true in the high-density range.
443
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000 1900 Ultrahigh molecular
weight polymer M.w.
range
3,000,000
t
I}I
2,000,000
HOPE 1900
-
High M.w. Ultrahigh
range molecular
I - weight
polymer
:a 1,000,000 I LV. range
~
"0
I
E
HOPE I
8,
e! High M.W. I
~
.:.
500,000 LV. range
I
~ 400,000 I I
~ I 1 I
300,000 I
II •Variations due to molecular
Normal I
branching and configuration permit
HOPE LV. only approximations of M.W.
!
range I This plot of M.w. versus I. V. is based on
I
an accepted theoretical relationship of
I MW = 5.3 X 104 (LV.) 1.37
I I
1OO,OOOL-__~__L-~~~~~__~__~~~~
5 10 15 20 25 30
LV.
(I ntrinsic viscosity)
Figure 6-15. The relationship between intrinsic viscosity and molecular weight in an
UHMWPE.
High-Density Polyethylene
The rigidity and tensile strength of HOPE are considerably higher than in LOPE and
medium OPE (MOPE). HOPE's impact strength is slightly lower, as is to be expected
in a stiffer material, but its overall values are high, especially at low temperatures,
compared to the other TPs.
High-Molecular Weight HOPE

This plastic offers outstanding toughness and durability, particularly at low temperatures.
In blow-molding applications HMWHOPE allows drum manufacturers to meet OOT and
OSHA specifications. In pipe production it meets the highest strength rating for PE pipe.
Many other products are made of it, using rather conventional processing methods.
Ultrahigh Molecular Weight PE

The properties of this high-performance plastic are entirely different and much improved,
including outstanding abrasion resistance and a low coefficient of friction. The impact
strength of UHMWPE is high and its chemical resistance excellent.
As with most high-performance polymers, the processing of UHMWPE is not easy.
Because of its high melt viscosity-it does not register on a melt-flow index-conventional
molding and extrusion would break the long molecular chains that give this plastic its
excellent properties. The processing methods used for UHMWPE are basically compres-
sion molding, ram extrusion, and warm forming of extruded slugs. The techniques for
using screw melting (that is, injection and extrusion processing) are under development
to permit maintaining its UHMW structure.
POL YETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE

See the earlier section on polyesters.
POLYIMIDES
Polyimides (PIs) were the first so-called high-heat-resistant plastics. They in fact retain
a significant portion of their room-temperature mechanical properties from - 240 to 315°C
(-400 to +600°F) in air. PIs, which are available in both TPs and TSs, are a family
of some of the most heat- and fire-resistant polymers known. As discussed in connection
with some of the other polymers, there are others that have heat resistance in the 260°C
(500°F) range.
Moldings and laminates are generally based on TSs, though some are made from TPs.
PIs are available as laminates and in various shapes, as molded parts, stock shapes, and
resins (in powders and solutions). PI parts are fabricated by techniques ranging from
powder-metallurgy methods to conventional injection, transfer, and compression molding,
and extrusion methods. Porous PI parts are also available. Generally, the compounds that
are the most difficult to fabricate are also the ones that have the highest heat resistance.
The service temperature for the intermittent exposure of PIs can range from cryogenic
to as high as 480°C (900°F). Glass-fiber-reinforced PIs retain 70 percent of their flexural
strength and modulus at 250°C (480°F). Creep in PIs is almost nonexistent, even at high
temperatures. Their deformation under a 28 MPa (4,000 psi) load is less than 0.05 percent
at room temperature for twenty-four hours.
These materials have good wear resistance and a low coefficient of friction, both of
which are factors that can be further improved by including additives like PTFE and
MoS 2 . Self-lubricating PI parts containing graphite powders have flexural strengths above
69 MPa ( 10,000 psi). Their electrical properties are also outstanding over wide temperature
and humidity ranges. They are unaffected by exposure to dilute acids, aromatic and
aliphatic hydrocarbons, esters, alcohols, hydraulic fluids, JP-4 fuel, and kerosene. They
are, however, attacked by dilute alkalis and concentrated inorganic acids.
PI film has useful mechanical properties, even at cryogenic temperatures. At - 269°C
( - 453°F) this film can be bent around a t in. mandrel without breaking. At 500°C (932°F)
its tensile strength is 30 MPa (4,500 psi).
An important class of high temperature matrices is the imide compounds. The early
compounds met needs for high temperatures but were brittle and difficult to process.
Researchers have since overcome these difficulties.
POL YMETHYL METHACRYLATE

See the discussion above on acrylics.
POL YMETHYlPENTENE
The major advantages of PMP over other polyolefins are its transparency in thick sections,
its short-time heat resistance up to 200°C (400°F), and its lower specific gravity. Unlike
the other polyolefins, however, it is transparent, because its crystalline and amorphous
phases have the same index of refraction. Almost clear optically, PMP has a light trans-
mission value of 90 percent, which is just slightly less than that of the acrylics. It retains
most of its physical properties under brief exposure to heat at 200°C (400°F), but it is
not stable at temperatures for an extended time over 150°C (300°F) without an antioxidant.
In a clear form it is not recommended where it will have to undergo long-term exposure
to UV environments.
The chemical resistance and electrical properties of PMP are similar to those of the
other polyolefins, except that it retains these properties at higher temperatures than do
either PE or PP. In this respect PMP tends to compare well with PTFE up to 150°C
(300°F). Molded parts made of this resin are hard and shiny, yet their impact strength is
high at temperatures down to - 29°C (- 20°F). Their specific gravity of 0.83 is the lowest
of any commercial solid plastic.
POL YOlEFINS
The family of polyolefins includes polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate,
ionomers, polybutylene, polyisobutylene, and polymethylpentene. Because the chemical
and electrical properties of the various polyolefins are basically similar, they often compete
for the same applications. However, since the different strength and modulus properties
vary greatly with the type and degree of crystallinity, as seen in the preceding tables and
figures, the tensile, flexural, and impact strength of each polyolefin may be quite different.
Their stress-crack resistance and useful temperature ranges may also vary with their
crystalline structure.
POL YPHENYlENE ETHER

Alloys, or blends of polyphenylene ether and PSs in various proportions, are available
under the tradenames Noryl and Prevex from GE (Noryl is a polyphenylene oxide). They
can be processed by conventional equipment that produces either solid or foam products.
PPE compounds are characterized by outstanding dimensional stability, low water ab-
sorption in the engineering TPs, broad temperature ranges, excellent mechanical and
thermal properties from -46 to 121°C (-50 to 250°F), and excellent dielectric char-
acteristics over a wide range of frequencies and temperatures. They are also reasonably
easy to process. Several injection molded and extrusion grades are rated UL 94V-I or
v-a, including the glass-reinforced compounds. Foamable grades have service-temper-
ature ratings of up to 96°C (205°F) in i-in. sections.
Because of their hydrolytic stability, both at room and elevated temperatures, blended
parts in PPE can be repeatedly steam sterilized with no significant change in their prop-
erties. When exposed to aqueous environments their dimensional changes are low and
predictable. PPE's resistance to acid, bases, and detergents is excellent. However, it is
attacked by many halogenated or aromatic hydrocarbons.
POL YPHENYLENE SULFIDE

This crystalline, high-performance engineering TP is characterized by outstanding high-
temperature stability, inherent flame resistance, and a broad range of chemical resistance.
PPS resins and compounds provide various combinations of high mechanical strength,
impact resistance, and electrical insulation, with its high arc resistance and low arc
tracking. The pigmented PPS compounds include several grades that are suitable to support
current-carrying parts in electrical components. They are essentially transparent to mi-
crowave radiation.
Unreinforced PPS resins are also available for use in slurry coating and electrostatic
spraying. Resin coatings are suitable for food-contact applications as well as chemical
processing equipment.
PPS is also available with long-fiber glass, carbon, or other reinforced forms. The
stampable sheet type contains fiber-mat reinforcement and can be processed by compres-
sion molding. Other forms can contain predesigned reinforcement patterns for different
processes, such as laminating and thermoforming. These cross-linked types of resins are
more crystalline than any of the sulfones, which are generally classified as being more
amorphous. They are quite stiff, with a flexural modulus ranging from 1.7 X 106 to 2.5
X 106 psi. Their tensile strengths range from 69 to 172 MPa (10,000 to 25,000 psi).
Their HDTs are up to 275°C (525°F) at 1,820 kPa (264 psi).
PPS has excellent resistance to a broad range of chemicals, even at high temperatures.
In fact, below 200°C (400°F) the resin has no known solvent. PPSs are flame retardant
without additives, being rated at UL 94V-O-V5. The oxygen index of the neat resin is
44, with the indexes of the compounds ranging from 47 to 53. Because flame retardance
is inherent in it, a regrind will be as flame resistant as a production in the virgin material.
More recently developed linear PPSs have a far lower proportion of inorganic impurities
than the conventional cross-linked material. They are also characterized by higher ultimate
strength and an elongation at break of 4 as compared to I percent, as well as higher
flexural strength and notched impact strength. However, the cross-linked product is
somewhat more rigid. Linear PPS is partially crystalline, with pronounced thermal-
transition ranges similar to those of PET that run from 85 to 100°C (185 to 212°F) for
the Tg • Its melting point, Tm , is 280 to 285°C (535 to 545°F).
POL YPROPYLENE
Polypropylenes (PPs) are in the polyolefin family of plastics. They are semitranslucent
and milky white in color, with excellent colorability. They are produced by a stereo-
selective catalyst that puts order in their molecular configuration so that the basic resin
has a predominantly regular, uniform structure. This means that the molecules crystallize
into compact bundles, which makes them stronger than other members of the polyolefin
family. PPs are an extremely versatile plastic available in many grades as well as co-
polymers like ethylene propylene. Neat PP has a low density of 0.90, which, combined
with its good balance of moderate cost, strength, and stiffness as well as excellent fatigue,
chemical resistance, and thermal and electrical properties, makes PP extremely attractive
for many indoor and outdoor applications.
The strength, rigidity, heat resistance, and dimensional-stability properties of PP can
be increased significantly with glass-fiber reinforcement. Increased toughness is provided
in special, high-molecular-weight rubber-modified grades (see Fig. 6-16). The electrical
Figure 6-16. Himont's easily molded HiGlass materials enhance the durability of automobile
fender liners. This complex liner mode for GM was injection molded in a two-cavity mold using
this glass-fiber-TP polypropylene resin composite that provides excellent structural integrity with
good impact resistance to stones and similar objects.
properties of PP moldings are affected to varying degrees by their service temperatures.

Its dielectric constant is essentially unchanged, but its dielectric strength increases and
its volume resistivity decreases as temperature increases. PPs have limited heat resistance,
but heat-stabilized grades are available for applications requiring prolonged use at elevated
temperatures. The useful life for parts molded from such grades may be as long as five
years at 120°C (250°F), ten years at 130°C (230°F), and twenty years at 99°C (210°F).
Specially stabilized grades are UL rated at 120°C (248°F) for continuous service. Basically,
PP is classed as a slow-burning material, but it can also be supplied in flame-retardant
grades.
PPs are unstable in the presence of oxidation conditions and UV radiation. Although
all its grades are stabilized to some extent, specific stabilization systems are often used
to suit a formulation to a particular environment, such as where it must undergo outdoor
weathering. PPs resist chemical attack and staining and are unaffected by aqueous solutions
of inorganic salts or mineral acids and bases, even at high temperatures. They are not
attacked by most organic chemicals, and there is no solvent for this resin at room
temperature. The resins are attacked, however, by halogens, fuming nitric acid and other
active oxidizing agents, as well as by aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons at high
temperatures.
Although PPs retain their strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures, their perfor-
mance at low temperatures leaves much to be desired. However, copolymers of PP that
are available offer as much as two to three times the impact strength of general-purpose
PP, even at temperatures as low as - 29°C ( - 20°F).
PP is widely known for its application in the integral "living hinges" that are used in
all types of applications (see Chapter 11). PP's excellent fatigue resistance is utilized in
molding these integral hinges.
POL YSTYRENE
Polystyrene (PS) is noted for its sparkling clarity, hardness, extreme ease of processing
(at least in the case of general purpose PS, or GPPS), excellent colorability, dimensional
stability, and relatively low cost. This amorphous TP often competes favorably with
higher-priced resins. It is available in a wide range of grades for all types of processes.
Modifications available to the basic GPPS include grades for high heat and for various
degrees of impact resistance. Clarity and gloss are reduced, however, in the impact grades.
Some examples of members in the PS family are compounds of ABS, SAN, and SMA
(styrene maleic anhydride). The structural characteristics of these copolymers are similar,
but the SMA one has the highest heat resistance.
Expandable polystyrene (EPS) is a specialized form of plastics, which usually includes
a pentane blowing agent, used to make low densities of 0.75 to 10 lb.lft. 3 of foam shapes
and blocks. Different-sized pellets provide changes in density. These materials are well
suited for thermal insulation and energy absorption. Various different formulations exist
such as ones with improved heat tolerance, solvent resistance, and cushioning abilities.
Processing EPS involves two stages. Pirst the pellets are expanded to the density
required in the finished part but remain as discrete pellets for a specified time, such as
twenty-four hours. The next stage puts the pellets into a well-vented mold cavity in the
shape of the final part. The venting consists of having many small holes through the mold
cavity through which steam is forced. The steam heats the EPS by direct contact, causing
the pellets to expand and fuse together to form void-free, dry foam parts. The pressures
used are usually below 50 psi, allowing the use of relatively low-cost aluminum tooling
[10].
Solid PS processed parts have low heat resistance, as compared to most TPs. Their
maximum recommended continuous service temperature is below 93°C (200 0 P). Their
electrical properties, which are good at room temperature, are affected only slightly by
higher temperatures and varying humidity (see Pig. 6-17).
PS is soluble in most aromatic and chlorinated solvents but insoluble in such alcohols
as methanol, ethanol, normal heptane, and acetone. Most fluids in households, as well
as drinks and foods, have no effect, but PS is attacked by the oil in citrus-fruit rinds,
gasoline, turpentine, and lacquer thinner. PSs are available in FDA-approved grades.
POL YSULFONES
Polysulfones (PSUs) are amorphous engineering TPs noted for their high heat-deflection
temperatures, outstanding dimensional stability and electrical properties, excellent chem-
ical resistance, and for being biologically inert, rigid, strong, and easily processed by
different methods (see Pig. 6-18 and 6-19). It is stable and self-extinguishing in its
completely natural, unmodified neat form; in most plastics these qualities must be obtained
by using chemical modifiers. PSUs are also heat resistant and maintain their properties
in a range from -100°C ( -1500 P) to over 150°C (3000 P). These strong, rigid plastics
are the only type that will remain transparent at service temperatures as high as 200°C
(4000 P). The name polysulfone has been assigned to polymers with S02 groups in their
backbone. The basic types are the standard PSUs, polyaryl, polyether, and polyphenyl.
PSUs are available in opaque colors and in mineral-filled and glass- and other reinforced
compounds to provide higher strength, stiffness, and thermal stability. Por example,
reinforced carbon-fiber PSU is used in human hip joints.
The tensile strengths of PSUs go up to 110 MPa (16,000 psi), its flexural modulus to
Figure 6-17. Coaxial electrical cable's PS insulation "buttons" are here being injection molded,
using a cold runner system, but it could also use a hot runner one. In this continuous production
process, the injection-molding machine (IMM) is on a platform that moves in a rectangular
pattern to permit the platens to open and move away from the buttons, as well as to move at the
speed of the six-cable copper wire line when the mold is closed and the IMM is injecting the
PS. Copper wires are started out with large diameters and are pulled through reduction squeeze
rolls to their final thin diameter prior to entering the IMM. The wire-reduction line is to the left
of the IMM, with the wire pullers to its left. Automatic devices remove the runn\!rs on-line just
after they leave the IMM and the additional cooling station that is shown in this view.
more than 1.0 x 106 psi, and its HDTs to up to 200°C (400°F). A high percentage of
its physical, mechanical, and electrical properties is maintained at elevated temperatures.
For example, its flexural modulus remains above 0.3 x 106 psi at service temperatures
as high as 160°C (320°F). Even after prolonged exposure to such temperatures, its resins
do not discolor or degrade. Its thermal stability and oxidation resistance are also excellent
at service temperatures well above 150°C (300°F). Heat aging a PSU increases its tensile
strength, HDT, and modulus appreciably. However prolonged heat aging for about a year
or so decreases its toughness, tensile strength, and elongation.
PSU's creep, compared with that of other TPs, is exceptionally low at elevated tem-
peratures and under continuous loads. For example, its creep at 99°C (210°F) is less than
that of acetal or heat-resistant ABS at room temperature.
The hydrolytic stability of these materials makes them resistant to water absorption in
aqueous acidic and alkaline environments. Their combination of hydrolytic stability and
heat resistance results in their having exceptional resistance to boiling water and steam,
even under autoclave pressures and cyclic exposure to hot-to-cold and wet-to-dry repe-
titions. The PSUs also share the common drawback of absorbing UV rays, which gives
them poor weather resistance. Thus, they are not recommended for outdoor service unless
they are protected with paint or are plated or UV stabilized.
Figure 6-18. Bumdy's "surfmate" surface-mounted backplane connector has one of the highest
pin densities of any commercial interconnecting device, with its 318 contracts arranged in four
rows in a 12.95 cm- (5. I-inch) long connector. It is molded from Amoco's Mindel B-322 resin
as standard PSU, to provide a unique combination of the best properties of the crystalline and
the amorphous TPs. It permits the precision molding of these devices with less than a .013 cm
(0.005 in.) total variation in flatness.
Figure 6-19. Amoco's Udel polysulfone, another standard PSU, molded by the Nalge Co. for a
line of reusable filterware, provides user benefits that glass cannot offer. This TP can be
injection molded with an undercut for ease in alignment and a positive fit when the top and
bottom sections are clamped together. With its lighter weight and break resistance, PSU has
FDA, NSF, and 4-A recognition and will withstand repeated autoclave cycles. It is also
nontoxic and easy to clean. A comparable glass filter funnel would be priced almost two times
that of PSU. A heavier, opaque stainless-steel filter would be the highest cost, about $300.
451
POLYURETHANE
The polyurethanes (PURs) produced by the reaction of polyisocyantes with polyester- or
polyether-based resins can be either TPs or TSs. Extremely wide variations in form and
physical or mechanical properties are available in PUR, which exhibit an extraordinary
range of toughness, flexibility, and abrasion resistance (see Fig. 6-20). Its grades can
range in density from !lb.lft. 3 in its cellular form to 70 lb.lft. 3 in a solid form. PUR's
hardness runs from rigid, solid forms at 85 Shore D to soft elastomers.
PUR materials are available in three forms: rigid foam, flexible foam, and as an
elastomer. They are characterized by high strength and good chemical and abrasion
resistance, with superior resistance to ozone, oil, gasoline, and many solvents. The rigid
foam type is widely used as an insulation material in buildings, appliances, and such
applications (see Fig. 6-21). The flexible foam is an excellent cushioning material for
furniture, and the elastomeric type is used in solid tires, shock absorbers, and so on. It
has outstanding flex life, cut resistance, and abrasion resistance. Some formulations are
as much as twenty times more resistant to abrasion than are metals.
The Tg of the flexible foams is well below room temperature, and for rigid foams the
Tg is actually higher than room temperature. The cells of a rigid foam are about the same
size and uniformity as those of a flexible foam, but rigid foams usually consist 90 percent
of closed cells. For this reason their water absorption is low. Compressing the foam
beyond its elastic limit will damage its cellular structure. Rigid foams are blown with
either carbon dioxide or fluorocarbons, although the fluoros are now being replaced by
a nondamaging ozone-blowing agent. Their thermal conductivity is influenced by the
blowing agent used and its density.
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
The PVCs comprise a major volume of the plastics consumed worldwide and are the
most commercially significant of the different vinyl polymers and copolymers. Although
the vinyls differ in having literally thousands of varying compositions and properties,
there are certain general characteristics that are common to nearly all these plastics. For
one thing, most materials based on vinyls are inherently TP and heat sealable. The
exceptions are the products that have been purposely compounded with TSs or cross-
linking agents. For example, PVC can be chlorinated (CPVC) and be alloyed with other
polymers like ABS, acrylics, polyurethane, and nitrile rubber to improve its impact
resistance, heat deflection, and processability.
In general, vinyls can be plasticized to give them a wide range of hardness ranging
from thin, flexible, free films to rigid molded pieces. Most vinyls are naturally clear,
with an unlimited color range for most forms of the materials. They generally have in
common excellent water and chemical resistance, strength, abrasion resistance, and self-
extinguishability. In their elastomeric form vinyls usually exhibit properties superior to
those of natural rubber in their flex life, resistance to acids, alcohols, sunlight, and wear
and aging. They are nontoxic, tasteless, odorless, and suitable for use as packaging
materials that will come in contact with foods and drugs, as well as for decorative
packaging requiring ordinary protection. The vinyl resins can be used in printing inks
and be effectively used in coating paper, leather, wood, and, in some cases, plastics. In
most forms vinyl can be printed.
Rigid PVC, sometimes called the poor man's engineering plastic, has a wide range of
properties for use in different products. In addition to the noteworthy properties mentioned,
Figure 6-20. A dock box made of a TS Figure 6-21. This 47.2-m- (I55-ft.) tall
polyester-urethane hybrid glass-fiber- rocket-motor external fuel tank weighs 720
reinforced material to meet demands for metric tons (1.6 million lbs .) at launch and
durability and toughness. must withstand the strain of liftoff. The
thermal protective system on the tank is
composed of a I-in. layer of a closed-cell
polyurethane foam and a plastic charring
ablator.
it has high resistance to ignition, good corrosion, and stain resistance, and weatherability.
However, it is attacked by aromatic solvents, ketones, aldehydes, naphthalenes, and some
chloride, acetate, and acrylate esters. In general, the normal impact grades of PVCs have
better chemical resistance than the high-impact grades. Most PVCs are not recommended
for continuous use above 60°C (140°F). Chlorination to form CPVC increases its heat
resistance, flame retardancy, and density, depending on the amount of chlorination in-
troduced. In regard to flammability, note that the vinyls release hydrochloric acid.
A popular form of flexible PVC is as a plastisol or organisol. The plastisols are much
more popular, since they use plasticizers rather than the solvents used with the organisols,
which release organic solvents during processing. There is no solvent problem, thus
keeping the air clean, with plastisols. Basically, the PVC plastisols are medium- to high-
viscosity dispersions of a PVC in liquid plasticizers. Since only the application of heat
is required to change such liquids to a solid, they are simple to use in casting parts or
in the related processing operations of dip coating, rotational molding, slush molding,
spread coating, and pouring. In each of these processes, the liquid in the mold or spread
onto a fabric is heated to the fusion temperature, at which point the dispersion gels and
then after a short time solidifies.
The fusion temperature ofPVCs ranges from 135°C (275°F) to as high as 175°C (350°F).
An example of how organisols are processed is the popular dip coating technique in
which a metal male tool, such as a glove form or rain boot, is heated to 200 to 230°C
(400 to 450°F), then dipped into a cold liquid plastisol. The resin immediately fuses
around the form, with the material on the surface of the tool fusing the most completely
and the resin on the outside being only partially gelled. The form is then withdrawn and
placed in an oven or, if it is on a conveyor belt, is run through a heating tunnel, where
the PVC will completely gel. The form is then cooled and the part stripped from the
tool. This process can be highly automated to produce gloves, rain boots, drain-pipe
seals, corrugated boots for shock absorbers, and many other items requiring the flexible,
elastomeric properties of the vinyl plastisols.
Polyvinyl Acetate
The PYAs copolymers are odorless, tasteless, nontoxic, slow burning, lightweight, and
colorless, with reasonable low water absorption. They are soluble in organic ketones,
esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and alcohols, but insoluble in
water, aliphatic hydrocarbons, fats, and waxes. Water emulsions have extended the use
of this resin. Used perhaps most extensively as adhesives, they are also employed as
coatings for paper, sizing for textiles, and finishes for leathers, as well as bases for inks
and lacquers, for heat-sealing films, and for flashbulb linings.
Polyvinyl Alcohol
The major applications of the PYAs are in elastomeric products, adhesives, films, and
finishes. Extruded PV A hoses and tubing are excellent for use subjected to contact with
oils and other chemicals. PV A is used as a sizing in the manufacture of nylon.
Polyvinyl Butyral
The PVBs are soluble in esters, ketones, alcohols, and chlorinated hydrocarbons but
insoluble in the aliphatic hydrocarbons. They are stable in dilute alkalis but slowly
decompose in dilute acids. PVBs are widely used as safety-glass interlayers and between
sheets of acrylic to protect the enclosures of pressurized cabins in aircraft against shat-
tering. Since 1938, PVB film in interlayers from 10 to 40 mils has been an important
resource for the glass, automotive, and architectural industries. PVBs are also used as
coatings for textiles and paper and as adhesives.
Polyvinylidene Chloride
Molded parts in polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) have high strength, abrasion resistance,
strong welds, dimensional stability, toughness, and durability. This material is especially
suited for injection molding at high speed parts that have heavy cross-sections. Molded
PVDC fittings and parts are particularly valuable in industries involving the use of chem-
icals. For example, pipes of this material are superior to iron pipes to dispose of waste
acids. Films produced from PVDC exhibit an extremely low water-vapor transmission
rate, as well as flexibility over a wide range of temperatures and heat sealability. They
are particularly suitable for various types of packaging, as for medicinal products, metal
parts, and food. Food "packaging" for the home refrigerator uses the highly popular Saran
wrap from Dow Chemical.
POL YVINYLIDENE FLUORIDE

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVF) is a fluorine-containing TP. It is unlike other plastics,
being a crystalline, high-molecular-weight polymer of vinylidene fluoride (CH2 = CF2 ).
Compounds are available that contain 59 percent fluorine. This nonflammable plastic is
mechanically strong and tough, thermally stable, resistant to almost all chemicals and
solvents, and is stable to UV and extreme weather conditions. It has a higher strength
and abrasion resistance than PTFE.
Where unfavorable combinations of chemical, mechanical, and physical environments
may preclude the use of other materials, PVF has been successfully used, as for valve
and pump parts, heavy wall pipe fittings, gears, cams, bearings, coatings, and electrical
insulation. Its limitations include lower service temperatures than the highly fluorinated
fluoropolymers, not having antistick qualities, and the fact that it produces toxic products
upon thermal decomposition.
SILICONES
The silicones (SIs) have service temperatures to about 260°C (500°F), good chemical
resistance, low water absorption, good electrical properties, and are available in flame-
retardant grades. They differ from most other plastics in containing only silicon and
oxygen (a siloxane bond) and having no carbon in their main polymer chain. This structure
gives the SIs a wider temperature capability, with better moisture and oxidation resistance,
than most of the carbon-chain polymers. A wide range of flexibility is obtainable in SIs
with variations in their side groups and cross-linking, but their tensile strengths are
generally inferior to those of the carbon polymers. Different fillers and reinforcements
are used to improve SIs, mechanical properties, with the unwanted potential of reducing
some of their inherent excellent characteristics.
These high-cost molding compounds resulting from using fillers and reinforcements
have found widespread use in applications where the retention of physical, electrical, and
dimensional properties after long-term high-temperature exposure is important and good
corrosion resistance is required. Generally, the SIs are molded by compression and transfer
methods.
Silicones go into many different products (see Figs. 6-22 and 6-23). The so-called
room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) system is an example of a specialty silicone com-
pound that is very popular. All kinds of products are made in SI, such as complex molds
in artistically designed shapes. The RTVs come in one- and two-component systems and
AOHESIVES---- , ....._ ....
COMPOUNOS FOIl
~OtNG----- ...OWOICAI. """""
- .
_ -:~.: / - QAI;Ql'
~:- . / ___ EXTRUOING ==::;::::::=== n--.
~ - WIItII NCI CA&I I!CIU..AnDfij
ELASTOMERS
Figure 6-22. An example of certain silicone products.
do not require external heating to cure them. The one-component system gives off acetic
acid or methyl alcohol during curing and requires having air-borne moisture to cure. Its
by-products can cause shrinkage, offensive odors, and the corrosion of contacting metals.
The more popular two-component systems require adding a curing agent. Depending
on the compositions of the two components, the pot-life and curing times can be either
fast or quite long. Such processing factors as length of time upon mixing (the pot life)
determine whether an RTV can be fitted into a mold or form. Depending on the size or,
more specifically, the thickness of the part, the thicker ones usually require a slower
curing time to ensure a proper curing rate.
A complete series of silicone compounds is theoretically possible ranging from linear
polymers that are relatively soft and low melting to excessively hard, high-melting types.
The properties of these materials can extend from true liquids through the TP stage to a
rubbery stage and finally to a complex TS three-dimensional structure characterized by
extreme heat resistance, inertness, and hardness.
UREA FORMALDEHYDES
Urea formaldehyde TS molding compounds are in the amino family of plastics. The UFs
are available in a wide range of colors, from translucent colorless and white through all
the colors to a lustrous black. Unlike the colored phenolic compounds, the molded UPs
can be made with a considerable degree of translucency, giving them a brightness and
depth of color somewhat similar to, although better than, opal glass. Although the UFs'
appearance can be duplicated in some TPs, the fact that they are not affected by heat
within their range of operating temperatures makes their use necessary in many cases.
Figure 6-23. The General Electric Living Environment Concept House has the building's
exterior stone surface coating with a water-repellent silicone penetrant (GE's TWR 255) that
helps prolong the service life of this stuccolike surface by preventing water and salt intrusion
and inhibiting algal growth. It is clear, nonglossy, nonyellowing, and moisture-vapor permeable
so that substrates do not crack or spall.
These noninflammable (self-extinguishing), odorless, and tasteless materials char at about

200°C (395°F). Temperatures from -21°C (-70°F) to 80°C (175°F) have no effect on
them, but higher temperatures over prolonged periods will cause fading and eventual
blistering.
When used within their temperature limitations, UFs have good electrical properties.
They have high dielectric strength, high arc resistance, no tendency to track after arcing,
and a low order-power factor. Their electric~ properties are not greatly influenced by
high humidity, and they resist static electricity buildup.
Under dry conditions, UF moldings are remarkably resistant to corrosive fumes and
have no effect on organic solvents in terms of absorption, swelling, or changes in ap-
pearance. However, their water absorption is relatively high. For this reason they are not
recommended for applications involving continuous or intermittent exposure to water,
although occasional exposure will have little effect if the material has been well cured.
The UP intermediate water-soluble products are starting materials for the production of
adhesives, surface coatings, paper conditioners, and other such special items that require
heat and catalysts for their final curing. They are used to bond laminated sheets, sometimes
only on the surface, for color effects.
The applications ofUFs include sanitary wares such as toilet seats, and knobs, closures,
buttons, electrical accessories like housings and switches, laminates, and so on. Com-
pounds of UFs use different additives, fillers, and reinforcements to provide different
characteristics and permit processing in different equipment, principally by compression,
transfer, and injection molding. Like many other TSs, such as the phenolics and mela-
mines, they are easily preformed and preheated, either by RF preheaters or with screw
plasticators. The higher bulk-factor grades of the melamine compounds require using
special equipment for these operations, because of their lack of easy pourability.
Usually the ureas, melamines, and phenolics are compared to each other, as is done
throughout this book, since they continue to be old competitors. They each have their
place for the designer. Phenolics have by far the largest market, because of their per-
formance and cost advantages. The advantages of the melamines over the ureas include
their better retention of electrical properties at elevated temperatures and in the presence
of moisture, their superior heat resistance, improved surface hardness and gloss, better
resistance to staining, lower water absorption, and being better for products that will be
in contact with food and drink.
ELASTOMERS
An elastomer may be defined as a natural or synthetic material that exhibits the rubberlike
properties of high extensibility and flexibility. Although the term rubber originally meant
the TS elastomeric material obtained from the para rubber tree (Hevea braziliensis) it
now identifies any thermoset elastomer (TSE) or thermoplastic elastomeric (TPE) material.
Such synthetics as neoprene, nitrile, styrene butadiene, and butadiene are now grouped
with natural rubber.
These TSEs and TPEs serve engineering's needs in fields dealing with shock absorption,
noise and vibration control, sealing, corrosion protection, abrasion and friction resistance,
electrical and thermal insulation, waterproofing, and all types of load-bearing products
[470-81].
These materials are differentiated on the bases of how long such a material if deformed
requires to return to its approximately original size after the deforming force is removed,
and by its extent of recovery. The standard ASTM D 1566 defines an elastomer as a
macromolecular material that is capable at room temperature of recovering substantially
in shape and size after the removal of a deforming load. This standard has details on the
rates of conducting tests as they relate to quick and forcible deformations. Basically, an
elastomer must be capable of retracting within one minute to less than 1.5 times its
original length after being stretched at room temperature to twice that length and being
held for one minute prior to release. (Consult the standard for the actual definition, the
test conditions, and so on.)
The ASTM D 2000 and SAE J 200 standards designate rubber or elastomeric materials
according to their performance in thermal and oil immersion tests (see Tables 6-10 and
6-11). Thermal tests define the types based on their maximum service temperatures,
ranging from 21 to 135°C (70 to 275°F) for rubber and 71° to 274°C (160 to 525°F) for
elastomers, using letters A through J. The class designations are based on the maximum
volume of swelling upon immersion in the prescribed ASTM #3 oil test and use the
letters A through K to designate the ten classes of their volume swell behavior. These
type and class designations are then written together.
Design Approaches for Elastomers

Selecting an elastomer for an application requires consideration (like for plastics and
foams) of many factors, including the mechanical and physical service requirements, the
product's life cycle, the material's process ability , and its cost (see Figs. 6-24 and 6-25
and Tables 6-12 and 6-13). A wide range of properties is available, based on the many
different compounds that can be produced.
Table 6-10. Basic Requirements of Elastomers*

Temperature, Volume Swell,
Type °C (oF) Class Max. %
A 70 (158) A Not required

B 100 (212) B 140
C 125 (257) C 120
D 150 (302) D 100
E 175 (347) E 80
F 200 (392) F 60
0 225 (437) 0 40
H 250 (482) H 30
J 275 (527) J 20
K 10
OPer ASTM D 2000 and SAE J 200; based on type and class designations.
Stress-Strain Curves
The standard stress-strain curve described in Chapter 3 displays important characteristics
for rigid or elastomeric materials. Since elastomeric designs usually do not need high
strengths, elongation is important and can be related to flexibility and softness. Elastomers
are capable of extreme elastic deformation at low levels of stress. This strain is not
proportional to stress (see Figs. 6-26 and 6-27). Like solid plastics, the elastomers become
brittle below their Tg. which is in the range of - 20°C ( - 4°F) for most rubbers and about
- 60°C ( - 75°F) for natural and silicone rubbers.
Table 6-11. Some Popularly Used Elastomers per ASTM D 2000 and SAE J 200
Type ~ ~ Class Typical Rubber
AA Natural rubber, styrene butadiene, butyl, ethylene propylene,

polybutadiene, Polyisoprene
AK Polysulfide
BA Ethylene propylene, styrene butadiene (high temperature)
Butyl
BC Chloroprene, chlorinated polyethylene
BE Chloroprene, chlorinated polyethylene
BF Nitrile
BO Nitrile, urethane
BK Polysulfide, nitrile
CA Ethylene propylene
CE Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, chlorinated polyethylene
CH Nitrile, epichlorohydrin
Ethylene/acrylic
DA Ethylene propylene
DE Chlorinated polyethylene, chlorosulfonated polyethylene
DF Polyacrylate (butyl-acrylate type)
DH Polyacrylate
FC Silicone (high strength)
FE Silicone
FK Fluorinated silicone
OE Silicone
HK Fluorinated rubbers
TSEs
High Cost
Fluouroelastomer
Acrylate
Eplchlorohydrin
Nitrile
CIIlorosu/fonllted Polyethylene
Po/ychloroprene
EPDM
Butyl Rubber
Natural Rubber
SBR
Low Cost
Low Performance Special Purpose High Performance

Commodity Specialties
TPEs
High Cost
Polyamides
Copolyesters
Urethanes
EllIstomeric Alloys
Olefinic Blends
Styrenics
Low Cost
Low Performance Special Purpose High Performance

Commodity Specialties
Figure 6·24. A general guide for TSEs and TPEs regarding cost as opposed to performance.
TH~RMOSFT RlJBBFR
f II XIHII P\ (
50A 75A I (lOA
1 HLRMOPLASTIC flASTOMI:RS
75A 40D 55D 60D 72D
POI'rf THYl ENE
lOW DENSITY HIGH [)( NSITY
POlYPROPYU-NF
Figure 6·25. Durometer-scale relationships and hardness ranges for a few TPEs. The letter
designations refer to Shore hardness tests.
460
Elastomer parts were usually designed using either closed-form equations or empirical
equations developed from previous successful designs. Typically, tooling is built and a
few parts molded and tested. Then, based on the results, changes are usually made in
the tooling or elastomeric compound to meet the final requirements. This procedure is
then repeated as necessary. To help the advanced designing of elastomeric products for
the aerospace and petroleum markets, finite element analysis (FEA) techniques may be
used to help reduce development problems. The FEA approach is gradually being em-
ployed for other marketable products.
Fabrication Techniques
The TSEs tend to be fabricated in compression and transfer-molding equipment. As is
typical of TS materials, they produce flash, but with proper mold design, it can be
significantly reduced. The TPEs can be processed by all the processes seen in Chapter
7, basically using faster cycle times that are more efficient, with no flash and so on [10-
12]. TPE processing eliminates the need for the relatively slow, laborious, energy-inten-
sive batch processing associated with TSEs. However, there are TSE-processing tech-
niques that can be used that do provide the efficiency associated with the TPEs.
Table 6-12. Potential Advantages and Disadvantages of

Some Natural and Synthetic Elastomers
Rubber Advantages Disadvantages Typical Applications
Natural rubber (NR) Building tack, resilience, Reversion at high Tires, engine mounts
and flex resistance molding temperatures
Styrene butadiene Abrasion resistance Poor ozone resistance Tires, general
rubber (SBR) molded goods
Ethylene propylene Good ozone resistance Poor hot·tear resistance Door and window
diene monomer seals, wire
(EPDM) insulation
Nitrile butadiene Good solvent resistance Poor building tack O-rings and hose
rubber (NBR)
or nitrile
Thermoplastic Short injection molding Poor creep characteristics Shoe soles, wire
rubber cycle (thin parts) insulation
Polyurethane Short molding cycle Adhesion to mold Cushioning, rolls,
(RIM) and low exterior
molding pressure automotive
parts
Isobutylene Low air permeation in Voids caused by trapped Inner tubes, body
isoprene rubber finished parts air during molding mounts for
(IIR) or butyl automobiles
Chloroprene rubber Moderate solvent Sticking during Hose tubes and
(CR) or resistance processing and covers, V belts
neoprene premature
crosslinking (scorch)
with some types
~
N
Table 6-13. Properties and Applications of Elastomers

Useful
Temperature
Type Polymer and Source Typical Applications Range, "F Major Characteristic
Non-oil Resistant Natural rubber Elastic cord, tires -65 to 220 High resilience, abrasion resistance,
(swelling or Styrene-Butadiene GRS tear strength
decomposition in (thermoset}- Tires Good abrasion resistance
presence of oil, various -65 to 220
fuel, etc.) Butyl-Exxon Inner tubes Very low gas permeability
Ethylene-Propylene Automobile weather Excellent weather resistance
(EPR and stripping, seals -65 to 220
EPOM}-various
-60 to 300
TPEs
Styrene-Butadienes: Footwear, toys, household -80 to 150 Tough, rubbery materials; 35 to 95

Kraton-Shell items Shore A; inexpensive; can be
Solprene-Phillips blended with polyethylene or
polypropylene to increase
toughness
Ethylene-Ethyl Acetate Toys, household items, wire -60 to 150 High flexibility; can be clear; can
(EEA), Ethylene- insulation, flexible be filled; moderate price
Vinyl Acetate hose, toys, household
(EVA}-U.S. Ind. items, medical devices
Chern.
Oil Resistant (slight Perftuoroelastomer: Seals, a-rings for special -20 to 550 Excellent high-temperature, oil, and
swelling in oils, KaJrez-Ou Pont applications chemical resistance; very
fuels, etc.) expensive; 65-80 Shore A
Fluorocarbon: Viton- Seals, a-rings for high- - 10 to 400 Very good resistance to chemical
Ou Pont temperature deterioration; poor low-
applications temperature properties;
expensive; 60-80 Shore A
Acrylonitrile (Buna Hydraulic O-rings, aromatic -65 to 250 Low swell and good strength in oil,
N}-various fuel seals fuel, etc.; good abrasion
resistance; inexpensive; 40-80
Shore A
Neoprene Gasoline hose, cable covers -20 to 300 High strength, good abrasion
(Chloroprene)- resistance, excellent
Du Pont weathering, best general-
purpose rubber, 40-95 Shore
A, moderate price
Polysulfide-Thiokol Sealing material -65 to 225 Good resistance to many solvents,
Corp. low mechanical and thermal
properties, 40-85 Shore A,
inexpensive
Fluorosilicone-Dow Seals, O-rings -120 to 350 Very good flexibility at low
Corning temperatures, good resistance
to high temperatures, oils and
gasolines, expensive, 50-80
Shore A
Chlorinated -10 to 300 High temperature and combustion
Polyethylene resistant, good weathering,
(CPE)-Dow 50-95 Shore A, moderate
Chemical price
Acrylic, Ethylene Automotive transmission o to 400 Good chemical resistance, poor
seals low-temperature properties, 55
Shore A, moderate price
Acrylic: Seals -30 to 250 50 Shore A, moderate price
Cyanacryl-American
Cyanamid
Vamac-Du Pont
(cont'd)
!
~
a'>
~
Useful
Temperature
Type Polymer and Source Typical Applications Range, OF Major Characteristic
TPEs
Polyurethane: Seals, cable jacketing, -65 to 200 High strength and excellent
Estane-Goodrich abrasion-resistant parts abrasion resistance, 75 shore
Pellethane-Upjohn A to 60 Shore D, moderate
Plastothane-Thiokol price
Corp.
Roylar-Uniroyal
Texin-Mobay
Cyanaprene-
American
Cyanamid
Polyester: Couplings, gears, -65 to 300 Very tough, high-performance
Hytrel-Du Pont mechanical parts material; moderate to high-
priced; 40-50 Shore D
Olefinic Rubbers: Household items, -60 to 250 Medium hardness and performance
Somel-Du Pont mechanical parts materials, 50 Shore A to 50
Telca-Goodrich Shore D, inexpensive
TPR-Uniroyal
Vistaflex-Exxon
Heat resistant Perfluoroelastomer: Seals, O-rings -20 to 550 See above

Kalrez-Du Pont
Silicones: Seals, O-rings, etc., not -100 to 450 Available as curable gum stock,
Dow Coming, requiring oil resistance RTV materials, and one-part
General air-curing; excellent
Electric Co. weathering and electrical
properties; 30-90 Shore A;
moderately expensive
Fluorocarbon: Seals, O-rings, etc., not -20 to 400 Poor low-temperature flexibility,
Viton-Du Pont requiring low- high heat resistance, good
Fluorel-3M Co. temperature flexibility weathering and electrical
below -20°F properties, good oil resistance
Fluorosilicone: Seals, O-rings, etc., in -120 to 350 See above, except good low-
Dow Coming contact with oil temperature properties, fair
mechanical properties
Acrylic: Cyanacryle- Auto transmission seals o to 450 See above
American
Cyanamid
TPEs
Polyester: Mechanical parts -65 to 300 See above
Hytrel-Du Pont
Weather, light, UV, Ethylene-Propylene: Dust seals, fairings exposed -65 to 300 Excellent weather resistance, poor
and ozone Nordel-Du Pont, to weather oil resistance, good thermal
resistant Epcar-Goodrich, and meachenical properties,
Vistalon-Exxon resistant to phosphate ester
fluids, inexpensive
Chlorosulfonated Flexible coatings, tarps, etc. -50 to 300 Excellent weather resistance, need
Polyethylene: not be black, relatively
Hypalon-Du Pont inexpensive
Silicones and Fairings, seals, etc. -100 to 450 See above, expensive
Fluorosilicons- requiring flexibility at
Dow Comings and low temperatures
G.E. Co.
Fluorocarbons: Fairings, seals, O-rings, -20 to 400 See above, expensive
Viton-Du Pont etc. ,. requiring good
weather resistance and
chemical resistance
Neoprene-Du Pont Cable covers, etc., where -20 to 300 See above, moderately expensive
good all-around
properties are required
TPEs
Polyester: Mechanical parts, seals -65 to 300 See above
Hytrel-Du Pont
Olefinics: Seals, noncritical items -60 to 250 See above
Somel-Du Pont
Telcar-Goodrich
TPR-Uniroyal
....
(J1
=- (cont'd)
Useful
CI'I
..
CI'I Temperature
Type Polymer and Source Typical Applications Range, of Major Characteristic
Specialty Rubbers Seals, O-rings, not in -65 to 250 Best for gas retention, medium
Low gas Butyl contact with oil physical properties, medium
permeability cost
Fluorocarbons: Seals, O-rings, in contact -20 to 400 See above
Viton-Du Pont with oil and solvents
High gas Silicones and "Breathable" diaphragms -100 to 450 See above
permeability Fluorosilicones and seals
Damping and energy Silicone, Shock absorbers, mounts, -65 to 300 Very low resilience, "dead"
absorbing Fluorosilicone, and vibration dampers materials, moderate physicals.
Chlorobutyl Silicones and ftuorosilicones
Polyurethane can be used over wider
temperature range than
chlorbutyl or polyurethane
Electrically Silicone filled with RFl shielding -100 to 400 Conductive materials with fair
conductive electrically physical properties
conductive
particles
Thermally conductive Silicone and other Conforming gaskets -100 to 450 High thermal conduction and
polymers filled between hot parts and conformance to rough surfaces
with thermally heat sink
conductive
material
Room-temperature Silicones Form-in-place seals, -120 to 450 Many types differing mainly in
vulcanizable coatings, prototype hardness and mechanical
(RTV) parts properties
Thermoplastic Styrene-Butadiene, Various parts not to be Thermoplastics, injection moldable
elastomers TPEs Ethylene Polymers, operated at at production rates. Used for
Polyesters temperatures over 120- high production of light-
Urethanes, 140"F (except colored or transparent parts.
Olefinic Elastomers polyester, 3oo"F) Polyesters for high-strength
harder parts, urethanes for
abrasion resistance
Extremely low Shore Polynorborene: Very soft dampers, etc. -65 to 160 Very soft to hard, good mechanical
Norsorex-American properties
Cyanamid
THERMOSET ELASTOMERS
What follows is a general overview of the various types of TSEs [470-79].
Natural Rubber
The commercial base for natural rubber (NR) is latex, a milklike serum produced by the
tropical tree Hevea brasiliensis. Naturally occurring latex is the rubber that exudes from
these trees in an aqueous serum containing various inorganic and organic substances. The
rubber precipitated out of this solution can be characterized as a coherent TS elastic solid.
It is against NR that all the other rubbers and elastomers are measured. For centuries it
was the only rubber available; it was extensively used even prior to the discovery of
vulcanization (TS cross-link curing), in 1883. To date no synthetic material has yet equaled
the overall depth of engineering characteristics and consequent wide latitude of appli-
cations available in NR.
As with the other elastomers, many grades and types of NR are available, as produced
by varying impurity levels, collection methods, and fillers and processing techniques.
NR is generally considered to be the best of the general-purpose rubbers, meaning those
with characteristics suitable for broad applications. With NR, compounds can be produced
over a wider stiffness range than with any other material. NR could be the best choice,
except where an extreme performance or exposure requirement dictates the use of a
special-purpose elastomer, which will often occur at the sacrifice of some other, less
critical property.
Natural rubber has a great capacity for being deformed. This and its ability to strain
crystallize gives it added strength while deformed. Its high resilience, which is responsible
for its low heat buildup during flexing, makes it a prime candidate for shock and severe
dynamic loads. With its low heat buildup NR is recommended for use in applications
where such properties as flexure, cut and abrasion resistance, and general endurance
would be adversely affected by heat in less resilient elastomers.
The shortcomings of NR include its service temperature, from -18 to 120°C (- 6 to
248°F). Its poor oil, oxidation, and ozone resistance can be minimized either by proper
design accommodation or by compounding. Degradation from such environments is
essentially a surface effect that can be tolerated or minimized by using thicker cross-
sections, shielding, or adding antioxidants and antiozonants.
Poly isoprene
The synthetic rubber that comes closest to duplicating the chemical composition of NR
is synthetic polyisoprene (IR). It shares with NR the properties of good uncured tack,
high unreinforced strength, good abrasion resistance, and the characteristics that provide
good performance in dynamic applications. However, because of having some inherent
impurities, NR is somewhat better overall. An IR is distinguished by its low hysteresis
and high tensile strength, but it is readily attacked by solvents, gasoline, and ozone. Its
tensile strength is in the range of 24 to 31 MPa (3,500 to 4,500 psi), and its elongation
is 550 to 650 percent.
One significant disadvantage of IR is its lack of green strength, which is to say during
the time period during processing, prior to curing. An IR can be used interchangeably
with NR in all but the most demanding parts. The applications are about the same as for
NR.
"iii
.3-
400
'"'"
<II
!::
'"
.!:!
"iii
c:
<II
200
~
o 200 400 600 1100

Elongation (percent)
Figure 6·26. The stress-strain curve for TSE polyisobutylene.
3000 r-----------..., 20.0
2500
15.0
2000
'iii
Co
£a
...
("j)
iii en
1500 10.0 !b
...
Ul
Q)
3:
en ~
III
1000
5.0
500
o 0
o 100 200 300 400 500
Strain, percent elongation

Figure 6·27. Stress-strain curves for TPEs at different durometers of hardness.
Styrene Butadiene
This elastomer, SBR, emerged as a high·volume substitute for NR during World War II
because of its suitability for use in tires, belts, hoses, rubber floor tiles, and the like. Its
tensile strength after compounding it with carbon black and vulcanizing it is 17 to 24
MPa (2,500 to 3,500 psi), which is less than NR's, but it has an elongation of 500 to
600 percent. In abrasion and skid resistance it is superior to NR, but has better resistance
to solvents and weathering.
This general·purpose rubber continues to be used in many applications where it has
replaced NR, even though it does not have NR's overall versatility, because it meets its
performance requirements but has a cost advantage over NR. For most uses SBR must
be reinforced to have acceptable strength, tear resistance, and general durability. It ~s
significantly less resilient than NR, so it has higher heat buildup upon flexing. It also
lacks NR's green strength and tack.
Polybutadiene
This general-purpose, crude-oil-based rubber is more resilient than NR. Polybutadiene
(BR) was the material that made the solid golf ball possible. It is superior to NR in its
low-temperature flexibility and in having less dynamic heat buildup. However, it lacks
NR's toughness, durability, and cut-growth resistance. BR can be used as a blend in NR,
SBR, and other materials to improve their low-temperature flexing, but this is achieved
at a much higher price and at the sacrifice of other key properties, such as tensile strength,
tear resistance, and general durability.
Neoprene
Except for BR and JR, neoprene (CR) is perhaps the most rubberlike of all materials,
particularly with regard to its dynamic response. CRs are a family of elastomers with a
property profile that approaches that of NR, but it has better resistance to oils, ozone,
oxidation, and flame. CRs age better and do not soften up on exposure to heat, although
its high-temperature tensile strength may be lower than that of NR. Neoprene comes in
grades suitable for service at 250°C (4800 P) and has maximal resistance to oils and greases.
These materials, like NR, can be used to make soft, relatively high-strength compounds.
One important difference is that, in addition to neoprene's being more costly by the
pound than NR, its density is about 25 percent greater than NRs. CRs also do not have
the low-temperature flexibility of NR, which detracts from their use in low-temperature
shock or impact applications.
Nitrile
The nitriles (NBRs) are copolymers of butadiene (B) and acrylonitrile (AN) that are used
primarily for parts requiring resistance to petroleum oils and gasoline. Their resistance
to aromatic hydrocarbons is better than is neoprene's, but not as good as polysulfide's.
NBR has excellent resistance to mineral and vegetable oils, but relatively poor resistance
to the swelling action of oxygenated solvents like acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and
various other ketones. With its higher AN content its solvent resistance is increased but
low-temperature flex decreased.
The low-temperature resistance of NBR is inferior to that of NR and, although it can
be compounded to improve its performance in this area, the gain is usually at the expense
of its oil and solvent resistance. NBR's tear strength is inferior to NR's, and its electrical
insulation rating is also lower. NBR is used instead of NR where increased resistance to
petroleum oils, gasoline, or aromatic hydrocarbons is required.
Polyurethane
These elastomeric combinations of polyesters, or polyethers and diisocyanates, are unusual
in that their physical properties do not depend upon the compounding materials. The
PURs cross-link and undergo chain extension to produce a wide variety of compounds
available both as castable or liquid materials and as solids or mill able gums. The PURS
have outstanding abrasion resistance and excellent tensile strength and load-bearing ca-
pacity, with an elongation potential that is accompanied by high hardness. Their properties
also include low temperature resistance, high tear strength, either a high or a low coef-
ficient of friction, good radiation resistance, and good elasticity, with resilience, even in
very hard stock.
Butyl
The two types of rubber in this category of butyl (HR) rubber are both based on crude
oil. One is polyisobutylene, with an occasional isoprene unit inserted into the polymer
chain to improve its vulcanization characteristics. The other butyl is the same, except
that chlorine is added to it at about 1.2 percent by weight, resulting in its having greatest
vulcanization flexibility and cure compatibility with the other general-purpose rubbers.
The HRs have outstanding impermeability to gases and excellent oxidation and ozone
resistance.
The chemical inertness of HRs is further reflected in their lack of molecular-weight
breakdown during processing, which permits the use of hot mixing processes to promote
the polymer-filler interaction. Their flexing, tear, and abrasion resistance approach those
of NR, and with the HRs' moderate strength (14 MPa, or 2,000 psi) unreinforced com-
pounds can be made at competitive costs. It should be noted that butyls lack the toughness
and durability of some of the general-purpose rubbers.
Ethylene Propylene
Like the butyls, there are basically two types of ethylene propylene. One is a fully saturated
chemically inert copolymer of ethylene and propylene (EPR). The other, called EPDM,
has the ethylene and the propylene, plus diene monomer. EPDM is chemically reactive
and capable of sulfur vulcanization. The copolymer, EPR, is cured with a peroxide
catalyst.
The physical properties of EPR and EPDM are not as good as those obtainable with
NR. Nevertheless, their property retention is better than that of NR on exposure to heat,
oxidation, or ozone. Their bonding is somewhat more difficult, however, especially with
EPR. They have a broad resistance to chemicals, but not to oils and other hydrocarbons.
Their electrical properties are good.
Chlorinated Polyethylene
This family of elastomers is produced by the random chlorination of HOPE (the proprietary
Tyrin is from Dow Chemical). The properties of chlorinated polyethylene (CM) include
excellent ozone and weather resistance, heat resistance to 149°C (300 0 P) and even 177°C
(350 0 P) in many types of oil, dynamic flex resistance, and resistance to abrasion.
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
This elastomer, Du Pont's Hypalon, has excellent combinations of properties. Among
others, they include total resistance to ozone along with excellent resistance to abrasion,
weather, heat, flame, oxidizing chemicals, crack growth, and dielectric properties. They
also have low moisture absorption and can be made into a wide range of colors, because
carbon black is not required as a reinforcement. Their resistance to oil is similar to
neoprene's. Their low-temperature flexibility is only fair, at -40°C (-40 0 P).
Acrylates
This family of different acrylate polymers is highly resistant to oxygen and ozone, has
excellent flex life and permeability resistance, and is resistant to oil swell and deterioration,
among other characteristics. Their heat resistance is superior to that of all other commercial
rubbers, except for the silicones and the fluorine-containing rubbers. The water resistance
of the acrylates (ACMs) is poor; nor is their low-temperature flex good, and these rubbers
decompose in alkaline solutions and are swelled by acids.
The Ethylene/Acrylics
This family of rubbers, Du Pont's Vamac being perhaps best known, are moderately
priced, heat and fluid resistant, and surpassed only by the expensive specialty types such
as the fluorocarbons and fluorosilicones. A special feature of the ethylene/acrylics (EAMs)
is then nearly constant damping characteristic over a broad range of temperatures, fre-
quencies, and amplitudes. They have good resistance to hot oils and hydrocarbon- or
glycol-based proprietary lubricants as well as to transmission and power-steering fluids.
EAMs are not recommended, however, for use with esters, ketones, or high-pressure
steam.
Polysulfides
These polymers have outstanding resistance to oils, greases, and solvents but have an
unpleasant odor, their resilience is poor, and their heat resistance is only fair. The abrasion
resistance of polysulfides (PTRs) is half that of NR, and its tensile strength runs only
from 8.3 to 9.7 MPa (1,200 to 1,400 psi). However, these values are still retained even
after extended immersion in oil. Their increased sulfur content improves their solvent
and oil resistance but reduces their permeability to gases.
Silicone
Silicone rubber (SM) comprises a versatile family of semiorganic synthetics that look
and feel like NR, yet have a completely different type of structure and performance from
other rubbers. They have no molecular orientation, crystallization, or propensity for
stretching and must be strengthened by reinforcements. Although they are on the high
end of the cost scale, they can be made to withstand temperatures as high as 315°C
(600°F) without deteriorating, and they retain their flexibility down to -129°C (- 200°F).
Even though their strength is low (609 MPa or 1,000 psi) compared to other rubbers,
SMs have outstanding fatigue and flex resistance. They also do not require high tensile
strength to perform in dynamic applications. Their fall-off in tensile properties with
extended exposure to high temperatures is much less than for other materials; also under
these conditions they resist chemical deterioration, oil, oxygen, and ozone. SMs' chemical
inertness makes them well suited for surgical and food-processing equipment.
Fluorosilicone
This type of silicone, fluorosilicone or FVMQ, provides most of the useful qualities of
silicones plus improved resistance to many hydrocarbon fluids, except the ketones and
phosphate esters. However, they can be blended with dimethyl silicones, which have
good resistance to these fluids at temperatures up to 149°C (3000P) and are most useful
where the best in low-temperature flexing is required, in addition to fluid resistance.
FVMQ has moderate dielectrics, a low compression set, and excellent resistance to ozone
and weathering.
Fluorocarbons
The high-perfonnance, high-cost fluorocarbon (FKM) rubbers have outstanding resistance
to heat and to many chemicals, oils, and solvents. In air, parts made of FKM retain at
least half their original properties after 16 hours' exposure at 315°C (600°F). The same
materials offer low-temperature stability down to - 40°C ( - 400 P).
THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS
There are different thennoplastic elastomers (TPEs) that meet different requirements (see
Table 6-13). As is the case with many TSEs and plastics, their properties can be varied
and controlled by varying the ratio of the basic monomers used to compound TPEs, as
well as by changing the types and amounts of additives and fillers.
Polyurethanes
The first major elastomer that could be processed without vulcanization was the urethanes.
The TP polyurethanes (PURs) do not have quite the heat resistance and compression-set
resistance of the TS PURs, but most of their other properties are the same. The abrasion
resistance among the elastomers is outstanding, their low-temperature flex is good, PURs'
oil resistance is excellent at 82°C (180~, and their load-bearing capability ranks them
with the best of all the elastomers. Additives can improve their dimensional stability or
heat resistance, reduce friction, or increase their flame retardancy, fungus resistance, or
weatherability.
The excellent abrasion resistance of PURs qualifies them for use in bumpers, gears,
rollers, sprockets, solid tires, vibration-damping components, and other such products.
The newest, with lower-molecular-weight polymers, have better color stability in regard
to UV radiation and hydrolysis than do the conventional grades. The softer grades are
used with suitable antioxidants in medical applications and as adhesives. Other new grades
have been stabilized for use as wear layers in aircraft wings and the like.
Copolyesters
These TPEs are generally tougher over a broader temperature range than are the PURs.
They are also easier to work and more forgiving in processing. Several grades, produced
by Du Pont (Hytrel), Hoechst-Celanese (Riteflex), and Eastman (Ecdel), range in hardness
from 35 to 72 Shore D. These TPEs can be processed by conventional plastics equipment.
The copolyesters and urethanes are high priced, but they have excellent dynamic prop-
erties, good elongation and tear strength, and good resistance to flex fatigue at both low
and high temperatures. Their brittle temperature is below 32°C (90°F), and at -40°C
(-400 P) their modulus is only slightly higher than at room temperature. Copolyesters'
heat resistance is good to 149°C (3000 P).
The copolyesters' resistance to nonoxidizing acids, some aliphatic hydrocarbons, ar-
omatic fuels, hot oils, and hydraulic fluids ranges from good to excellent. Thus, they
compete with such rubbers as nitriles, epichlorohydrins, and acrylates. However, hot
polar materials, strong mineral acids and bases, and chlorinated solvents and creosols
degrade the copolyesters. Their weather resistance is low but can.be improved consid-
erably, with UV stabilizers and carbon-black additives.
These TPEs are not direct substitutes for TS rubbers in existing designs. Rather, such
parts must be redesigned to use their higher strength and modulus and operate within the
elastic limit. Thinner parts, from about! to i in., are usually used.
Styrene Copolymer
The styrenics, generally, are the lowest-priced TPEs. They range in hardness from 28 to
95 Shore A. Their tensile strength is lower and their elongation higher than those of SBR
or NR, but their weather resistance is about the same. Styrenics' properties can be
improved by alloying them with such resins as PP and EVA. They resist water, alcohols,
and dilute alkalis and acids. They are soluble in or are swelled by strong acids, chlorinated
solvents, and ketones. One type has a service-temperature limit of 65°C (150°F), another
to 121°C (250°F). Both have excellent low-temperature flex at - 85°C ( - 120°F).
Olefins
The TP olefin elastomers are available in several grades having a room-temperature
hardness from 60 Shore A to 60 Shore D. They have the lowest density of all the TPEs,
and their cost is in the mid-range of the TPEs. Olefins' flexibility remains down to - 51°C
( - 60°F), and they are not brittle at 32°C (90°F). They are autoclavable and can be used
up to 135°C (275°F) in air. These TPOs have good resistance to some acids and most
bases. They are attacked by chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents. Olefin compounds rated
v-o by UL 94 are available.
Polyamide Alloys
These TPEs have high elongation, with good solvent and abrasion resistance and low
density. They are designed to replace such TS rubbers as EPDM, nitrile, and neoprene.
Elastomeric Alloys
This class of TPEs consists of mixtures using two or more polymers that have received
proprietary treatment to give them properties significantly superior to the simple blends
of the same constituents. The two basic types are the TP vulcanizates, called TPVs, and
the melt-processable rubbers (MPRs). The TPVs are essentially a fine dispersion of highly
vulcanized rubber in a continuous phase of a polyolefin. TPVs' cross-linking gives them
high tensile strength (7.6 to 26.9 MPa, 1,100 to 3,900 psi), high elongation (375 to 600
percent), resistance to compression and tension set, oil resistance, resistance to flex
fatigue, and a maximum service temperature of 135°C (275°F). The specific gravity of
TPVs is 0.9 to 1.0, of MPR, 1.2 to 1.3.
FILM AND SHEETING

Several secondary forms of plastics have become families of materials in their own right.
Film and sheeting, for example, can be used by themselves-package wrapping, tank
liners, or industrial structures-or can be shaped into products by various types of ther-
moforming (see Chapter 7). Virtually all TPs can be made into film or sheeting by
extrusion, casting, or calendering (see Table 6-14 and Fig. 6-28).
Figure 6-28. With the touch of a button, interior windows can change from clear to translucent,
using liquid-crystal TP polyester film. This window consists of a two-layer laminated GE Lexan
sheet to protect an inner polyester film. This polycarbonate product is strong and mar and UV
resistant. The film is able to switch electrically between a highly translucent state providing
privacy, glare control, and shading to a clear state for good visibility .
There are other plastics used in addition to those listed in Table 6-14. One example
is a polyphenylene sulfide film that is biaxially oriented (BOPPS), with 40 percent
crystallinity. It is roughly equivalent to a polyester film in its mechanical properties. This
self-extinguishing PPS has a long-term heat resistance per UL 746 B of 160°C (320°F)
for mechanical and 180°C (356°F) for electrical resistance.
Strapping
Extruded strapping tape is another example of a whole family of materials. This basically
narrow-width sheeting that is usually oriented to maximize its performance has important
uses in packaging applications where only steel strapping had previously been available.
Steel and plastic strappings each have their own advantages and disadvantages, so the
designer can select the best type based on the product's requirements. For example, when
strapping is used where the heat could fluctuate, as in a railroad boxcar or storage room,
the steel at high temperature could expand and cause what it contained to become loose.
The elastic deformation of plastics lets them retain their tension with temperature change,
however.
Some typical strapping properties for PP, nylon, polyester (TP) and low-carbon steel
are as follows: the breaking strength of a piece! in. wide by 0.020 in. thick is SOO, 640,
600, and 1,200 lbs., respectively; the working-range elongation is 5, 7, 2!, and 1110
percent; the elongation recovery in in. is S.S, 9, 2, and 1110; the ratio ofretained tension
at maximum working range to a time after 24 hours is (in psi) 200/S0, 2S0/17S, 300/
244, and 700/66S; their heat resistance is fair, good, good, and excellent, respectively;
and their humidity resistance is excellent, fair, excellent, and excellent.
FOAMS
Foamed plastics, whether TPs or TSs, are a special category of the plastics family. They
are available with open-celled construction, closed or interconnecting construction, or in
combination. Their densities range from 1.6 to over 960 kg/m3 (0.1 to over 60 Ib'/ft.3).
They can be rigid, semirigid, or flexible, colored or plain, and the foam can be virtually
any TP or TS. The range of properties they offer in terms of their insulating value,
rigidity, compressive strength, cushioning and loading, structural characteristics, and
others can be very extensive (see Tables 6-1S through 6-19). Their performance depends
to a great extent on the type of base plastic used, the type of blowing system, and the
method of processing. Each plastic can include fillers or reinforcements to provide certain
desirable properties.
There are many ways in which foams can be processed and used: as slabs, blocks,
boards, sheets, molded shapes, sprayed coatings, in extruded profiles, and "foamed in
place" in an existing cavity, in which process the liquid material is poured and allowed
to foam. Conventional equipment such as extruders, injection molding machines (see
Fig. 6-29), and compressors is used (see Chapter 7) [1, 10-12,40-42, S03, S13, SI4].
The foaming methods vary widely. One is to whip air into suspension or a solution of
the plastic, which is then hardened by heat curing. A second is to dissolve a gas in a
mix, then expand it when the pressure is reduced. Another is to let a liquid component
of a mix be volatilized by heat. Similarly, water produced in an exothermic chemical
reaction can be volatilized within the mass by the heat of reaction. A different technique
lets carbon-dioxide gas be produced within the mass by chemical reaction. A related way
is for a gas such as nitrogen to be liberated within the mass by the thermal decomposition
of a chemical blowing agent [12]. Finally, tiny beads of resin or even glass microballoons
can be put into a plastic mix or syntactic foam or the like.
In syntactic foams, instead of employing a blowing agent to form bubbles in the mass,
preformed bubbles of glass, ceramics, or plastic are embedded in a matrix of an unblown
resin. In multifoams such preformed bubbles are combined with a foamed resin to provide
both kinds of cells. Reducing weight is one obvious objective, but this change may be
accompanied by other properties. A mixture of microspheres and the resin can be for-
mulated into a moldable mass that can then be shaped or pressed into cavities and molds
much as can molding sand and clay. The properties of the finished hardened or cured
mass can then be tailored by a suitable formulation. Synthetic wood, for example, is
created by a mixture of polyester resin and small hollow glass spheres. Epoxy foams are
commonly syntactic (see Table 6-19).
Table 6-14. Film and Sheeting Property Chart
Sq. In. Per

Specific Lb. One Mil
Generic Name Gravity Thickness Thickness Range Manufacturing Method
ASTM
No. 0-1505
I. Acrylic 1.14-1.26 22.000-24.000 0.002-0.006 extrusion

2. Acrylonirrile butadiene styrene 1.01-1.30 25.600-27.400 0.0075-2.000 calendering. extrusion. press
laminated
3. Acrylonirrile-styrene copolymer 1.08-1.09 25.400 0.001-0.020 biaxially oriented
4. Cellophane 1.40-1.50 II .600-25.000 0.0008-0.0017 extrusion
5. Cellulose acetate 1.28-1.43 21.000-22.000 0.0005-0.250 casting. extrusion
6. Cellulose acetate butyrate 1.19-1.22 23.800 0.0011-0.150 casting. extrusion
7. Cellulose propionate 1.20 23.000 0.003-0.250 extrusion

8. Cellulose rriacetate 1.28-1.31 21.200-22.000 0.0005-0.200 casting
9. Ethyl cellulose 1.15 23.800 0.002-0.015 extrusion
10. Ethylene chlororrilluoroethylene 1.66-1.68 16.600 0.005-0.090 extrusion
copolymer (E-CfFE)
II. Ethylene methacrylate 0.942 29.280 0.04-0.250 extrusion. blown. casting

12. Ethylene-tetralluoroethylene 2.15 16.300 extrusion
copolymer (ETFE)
13. Ethylene-vinylacetate copolymer 0.924-0.920 29.000 0.00075 and up extrusion
14. Fluorinated ethylene propylene 2.15 12.900 0.0005-0.060 extrusion
copolymer
15. Ionomer 0.94 29.400 0.001-0.01 extrusion
16. Polyamide (nylon 6/6) 1.14 24.350-25.700 0.0005-0.030 extrusion
17. Polyamide (nylon 6) (biaxially 1.16 23.870 0.0005-0.001 extrusion. orientation

oriented)
18. Polyamide (nylon 11 and 12) 1.03 26.630-27.200 0.0005-0.030 extrusion
19. Polycarbonate 1.20 23.000-23.100 0.001-0.250 extrusion
20. Polyester 1.380-1.399 20.000-21.000 0.00015-0.014 biaxially oriented. extrusion
21. Polyether sulfone 1.37 20.000 0.001-0.250 casting. extrusion
22. Polyethylene (low density) 0.910-0.925 30.000 0.0004-0.250 calendering. casting. extrusion.
biaxially oriented
23. Polyethylene (medium density) 0.926-0.940 29.500 0.001-0.250 calendering. casting. extrusion.
biaxially oriented
24. Polyethylene (high density) 0.941-0.965 29.000 0.0004-1.000 calendering. extrusion. stress
relieving
476
Maximum-
minimum Use Heat
Shelf Temperature U.V. Sealing
Clarity Life FIammability Range of Resistance Range OP
CS-192 0-759 D-1435
excellent indefinite slow burning -65 to 215 excellent yes

poor good slow burning to self- -65 to 215 poor to
extinguishing good
excellent good slow burning -80 to 185 fair
good indefinite slow burning o to 350 good 250-300
excellent indefinite slow burning -IS to 200 good 350-450
good to indefinite slow burning -30 to 180 good

excellent
good indefinite self-extinguishing -30 to 200 good 350-450
excellent indefinite self-extinguishing o to 400 fair nonsealing
excellent indefinite slow burning -75 to 250 good nonseaIing
good indefinite self-extinguishing -80 to 400 good 475-500
fair indefinite slow burning -80 to 150 fair 175-350

good indefinite self-extinguishing good 525
burns 120 to 180 fair 150-300

good indefinite nonflammable -415 to 400 good 575-700
good indefinite
fair to indefinite self-extinguishing -100 to 300 poor to fair 400-450

good
good indefinite slow burning -100 to 300 good 400-450
good indefinite slow burning 320-390

excellent excellent self-extinguishing -150 to 275 fair to good 350-440
excellent excellent slow burning to self- -75 to 300 fair to good 325-450
extinguishing
fair indefinite slow burning to self- -100 to 400-450 poor 500-550
extinguishing
good to indefinite slow burning -70 to 180 fair 230-400
excellent
excellent indefinite slow burning -70 to 200 fair 250-400
good indefinite slow burning -70 to 250 fair 260-425
(cont'd)
477
Water Vapor Water
Permeability Absorption
Dimensional Gas Permeability Gml24 hr.llOO 24 hr.
Generic Change at ccll 00 sq. in. 24 hr.lmil sq. in.lmil@ Immersion Resistance to Resistance to
Name High RH% (0" N" CO" SO,) 95° F. 90% RH % Acids Alkalies
ASTM No. D-1434 E-96 (B) D-570 D-543 D-543
I. 8 (3 mil) 1.4-16 good good
2. 0.2-0.3 fair to good good

3. CO, 210, N,9, 0, 36 12.0-14.0 0.5 good excellent
4. 2.5 CO, 0.4-0.6, H, 1.2-2.2 0.4-1.34 45-115 poor poor
N, 0.5-0.6, 0, 0.5-0.8
5. .5 0, 117, N, 40, CO, 1000 100-200 4-9 poor to good poor
6. CO, 6,000, N, 250, 0, 4.5 - 6.5 0.1-3.4 poor to good poor

950 730'
7. 0.5 High 100-200 1.6 poor poor
8. 0.5 CO, 880, N, IS, 0, 30, 0 50-150 2.0-4.5 good to poor poor
9. CO, 7,800, N, 100 4.8-14.2 2.5-7.5 fair to poor excellent
0,3,500
10. 2.5 CO, 110, N, 10, 0, 25 0.6 <0.02 good good
11. nil 0,335, CO, 4,780 4.1 nil fair to good good
12. CO, 250, N, 30, 0, 10 0.04 <0.02 good good

13. CO, 6,000, N, 400, 0, 2-3 <0.01 fair fair
840
14. none 0,3,250, N, 1,500, CO, 0.01 excellent excellent
3,150
15. 0,600 0.4 good good
16. 3.4 CO, 160, 0, 25 19.0 9.5 poor excellent

(50% RH)
17. 3.4 0, 1.2-1.4 10-11 poor fair
18. CO, 153-336, N, 3.4-18, 4.0 0.27-0.25 poor good
0, 34-92, H, 323
19. none CO, 1,075,0,300, N, 50 11.0 0.15 excellent fair
20. II X I~ CO, 16, 0, 6, N, I 1.7 <0.8 fair to fair to good

excellent
21. CO, 950, N, 40, 0, 230 2.1 good good
22. none CO, 2,900, 0, 550, N, 1.2-1.5 0-0/8 excellent excellent
180
23. none CO, 990, 0, 280 0.7-0.9 nil excellent excellent
24. none CO, 6,200-3,300, 0, 0.3-0.4 nil excellent excellent
800-450, N, 100-50
478
Resistance Tearing
Resistance to to Water Tensile Strength
Greases and Resistance to and/or Strength Ibs. Elongation (Elmendorf Folding
Oils Organic Solvents Detergents sq. in @RT % GM/mil) Endurance
D-722 D-546 D-882 D-882 D-1004 D-2172
good paramatrics, good 4,400 130 25 6,000+

(aliphatics)
excellent fair to excellent 1,700-7,800
good excellent to good 10,000-15,000 20-60
excellent poor good 7,000-18,000 10-50 2-20 500
good poor good 8,000-16,400 25-35 2-25 250-2,000
good poor excellent 4,100-9,700 40-100 3-10 1,200-1,500
good poor excellent 5,000 80 25 1,000-2,000

good fair 9,000-16,000 10-40 4-10 3,500-4,000
good poor 8,000-10,000 20-30 7-36 250,000
good good good 8,000-10,000 150-250 900-1,300 250,000
poor poor excellent 1,500-1,800 600-1,000 60MD 6,000+

150 TO
good good good 7,000-8,000 300 600-900
poor fair good 1,000-3,500 400-800 very high
excellent excellent excellent 3,000 300 125 4,000
good good good 5,000 250-450 30 very high
excellent excellent good 9,000-12,000 300-400 50-90 >250,000
excellent good good to poor 32,600-35,000 100-120
good good good to poor 7,000-12,000 250-400 good
good poor fair 8,000-10,500 85-105 20-25 250-400
excellent good to excellent excellent 25,000-40,000 50-120 12-40 230,000
good good to poor good 10 ,000-12 ,000 20-150 7-16

poor good (6O"C) up to 12,000 200-800 50-300 very high
good good fair up to 17,000 50-650 50-300 very high

good good (80"C) 2,400-6,100 10-650 15-300 very high
(cont'd)
479
~ielectric Constant Dissipation Factor Dielectric Volume
Strength, Resistivity
Generic Name 103 cps 10" cps 10" cps 103 cps 10" cps 10" cps V/mil ohm-em
ASTM No. 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-150 0-149 0-257
I. 4.4 3.5 0.046 0.040 2,400 10 1"

2. 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 350-400 10 1"
3.
4. 3.2 O.oJ5 2,000-2,000 lO"
(uncoated) (uncoated) (uncoated)
5. 3.6 3.2 3.2 0.016 0.33 3,2()(}"5,000 IO lO_IO"
6. 2.9 2.5 2.8 0.013 0.03-0.04 3,400 1O"-10"

7. 3.2 O.oJ5
8. 3.2-4.5 3.3-3.8 3.2 0.016 0.033 3,700 1013-10"
9. 3.1 3.0 0.002-0.20 0.010-0.06 0.046 1,500 (10 mil) 10"
10. 2.6 2.6 0.002 0.013 5,000-6,000 101"
11. 3.1 0.15 3()(}"5oo lOIS
12. 2.6 2.6 0.008 O.oJ5 3,500 10 1"

13. 2.7-2.9 2.7-2.9 0.01-0.02 O.oJ-O.Q2 5,000 10"
14. 2.0-2.50 2.0-2.05 2.05 <0.002 0.0004 0.0015 7,000 10 1"
15.
16. 4.0 3.4 850 4.5 x 1013

17.
18. 3.8 3.1 0.05 0.03 1,800 1013
19. 2.99 2.93 2.89 0.0015 0.010 0.012 1,500 101"
20. 3.2 3.0 2.8 0.005 0.016 0.003-0.008 7,500 lOIS
21. 3.5 3.5 0.0035 0.006 2,400 (4 mil) 1O I7 _IO IS

22. 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 470 101"
23. 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 500 10 1"
24. 2.3 2.3 2.3 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 500 10 1•
480
Sq. In. Per
Generic Specific Lb. One Mil Manufacturing
Name Gravity Thickness Thickness Range Method
25. Polymimide 1.42 19,400 0.0005-0.005 casting

26. Polymethyl methacrylate 1.18-1.19 23,400 0.005-5.000 extrusion,
biaxially
oriented
27. Polymethyl pentene 0.83 33,360 0.003-0.030 extrusion
28. Polyparabanic acid 1.3 20,800 0.001-0.005 casting
29. Polypropylene, cast 0.9 30,700 0.0003-1.000 casting,
extrusion
30. Polypropylene, balanced, oriented 0.91 30,800-30,600 0.0005-0.0015 orientation

31. Polypropylene, balanced, 0.94 29,500 0.0009-0.0011 orientation
oriented, coated
32. Polystyrene (casting, extrusion) 1.05-1.06 26,100 0.0004 and up casting,
extrusion
33. Polystyrene (oriented) 1.05-1.06 26,100-26,300 0.0003-0.020 oriented,
biaxially
oriented
34. Polysulfone 1.24-1.25 22,355 0.0001-0.250 extrusion
35. Polytetraftuoroethylene (Tefton 2.14-2.17 12,700-13,000 up to 0.250 skiving,

TFE) casting,
extrusion
36. Poly(perftuoroalkoxytetra- 2.13-2.16 casting,
ftuorethylene) (PFA) extrusion,
molding
37. Polytriftuorochloroethylene (Kel- 2.1-2.2 13,000 0.0005-0.020 casting,
F) extrusion
38. Polyurethane 1.11-1.24 23,000 0.0005 and up calendering,
casting
extrusion
39. Polyvinyl alcohol 1.21-1.31 21,600 0.0005-0.012 casting,
extrusion
40. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (rigid) 1.35-1.48 20,000-23,000 0.0001-2.000 calendering,

press, casting,
extrusion
41. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 1.24-1.45 20,000-24,000 0.0005-0.375 calendering,
(ftexible) press, casting,
extrusion
42. Polyvinyl ftuoride (Tedlar) 1.38-1.57 20,000 0.0005-0.002 extrusion
43. Polyvinylidene ftuoride (Kynar) 1.75-1.78 16,000 0.002-0.020 extrusion
44. Rubber hydrochloride 1.11 25,000 0.0004-0.0025 casting
45. Vinyl chloride-acetate 1.30-1.39 21,000 0.001-0.030 calendering,

copolymers (rigid) extrusion,
casting
46. Vinyl chloride-acetate 1.20-1.35 21,000 0.001-0.030 calendering,
copolymers (ftexible) extrusion,
casting
47. Vinylidene chloride-vinyl 1.57-1.68 16,300-23,000 0.004-0.010 calendering,
chloride copolymer biaxially
oriented,
extrusion,
casting
48. Vinylnitrile rubber 1.18-1.21 22,800-23,700 0.001-0.020 casting,
extrusion,
calendering
(cont'd)
481
Maximum-
minimum Use
Generic Shelf Temperature U.V.
Name Clarity Life Flammability Range of Resistance
25. good excellent self-extinguishing -450 to 600 good
26. excellent excellent slow burning - to 190 good to

excellent
27. fair indefinite bums poor
28. good indefinite slow burning -320 to 500
29. excellent indefinite slow burning o to 275 fair
30. excellent indefinite slow burning -60 to 240 fair

32. excellent slow burning -55 to 200
34. good indefinite -100 to 350 poor
35. poor indefinite nonflammable -450 to 500 excellent
36. good indefinite self-extinguishing -450 to 500 excellent

37. good indefinite nonflammable -423 to 300 excellent
38. good indefinite slow burning -100 to 190 poor to

good
39. excellent slow burning -40 to 420 good
40. good to excellent slow burning to -50 to 200 fair to good

excellent self-extinguishing
41. good to indefinite slow burning to -50 to 200 poor to
excellent self-extinguishing good
42. good indefinite slow burning to -100 to 225 excellent
self-extinguishing
43. fair indefinite self-extinguishing -80 to 275 good
44. good poor self-extinguishing -20 to 205 poor
45. excellent slow burning to -50 to 200 poor to

self-extinguishing good
46. excellent slow burning to -60 to 200 poor to
self-extinguishing good
47. excellent indefinite self-extinguishing o to 200 (dry) good
300 (wet)
48. slow burning 32 to 200
482
Water Vapor Water
Permeability Absorption
Heat Dimensional Gas Permeability Gml24 hr.llOO 24 hr.
Sealing Change at cc/lOO sq. in. 24 hr.lmil sq. in.lmil @ 95 0 Immersion Resistance
Range of High RH% (0" N" CO" SO,) F. 90% RH % to Acids
does not 22 x 10-" CO, 450, 0, 25, N, 6 5.4 2.9 good to

heat seal excellent
375-450 0.35 0.5 negligible good
285-400 0.005 good

250-350 2.8 good
260-375 none CO, 800, 0, 240, N, 60 0.7 0.005 or less excellent
narrow none CO, 540, 0, 160, N, 15 0.25-0.45 nil excellent

200-275 none CO, 520, 0, 130 0.40 nil excellent
0.5-0.7, 6.0 good
280-330 none AIR 105, CO, 1,080, H, 7.0-10.0 0.04-0.06 good
2,420, N, 49.5,0,310
CO, 405, N, 40, 0, 90 18 0.3 good
does not <0.01 excellent

heat seal
600-700 0.03 excellent
325-375 He 600-1,150, 0, 1.3-5.8, N, 0.025 nil excellent
9.3-19, CO, 11.7-225
275-375 CO, 450-1650, N,41-119, 40-75 0.55-0.77 poor to good
0,75-327
240-380 none He 0.2, H, nil, CO, nil, 0" 10.0 est 55 poor
nil (0% RH)
340-400 negligible CO, 970, 0, 150 (50% RH) 4.0 negligible excellent
275-350 very slight CO, 5,000, 0, 500 (50% RH) 0.8-20.0 negligible good to
excellent
400-425 none CO, 15, 0, 3, N, 0.25, H, 5.2 0.5 excellent
58.1
375 CO, 5.5, N, 9, O 2 14 2.6 0.04 excellent
225-250 CO, 6--13,000, 0, 3.2-3.250 0.008-0.03 (MP) 5 good
300-350 none CO, 970, 0, 150 4.4 negligible very good to

(50% RH) excellent
280-350 none CO, 970, 0, 150 0.28 negligible excellent
(50% RH)
230-315 none CO, 3.8-150, 0, 8-24, 0.02-0.6 negligible excellent
NE, 12-10
low negligible good
(cont'd)
483
Tearing
Resistance to Tensile Strength
Generic Resistance to Resistance to Resistance to Water and/or Strength Ibs. Elongation (Elmendorf
Name Alkalies Greases and Oils Organic Solvents Detergents sq. in. @RT % GMimil)
25. poor excellent excellent 25,000 70 8

26. good good fair 8,000-4,000 4-12
27. good fair fair good 2,700-4,000 10
28. poor good good 16,000 10 500
29. excellent good good good 3,200-10,000 300-500 5-1,800
30. excellent good to excellent good good 25,000-30,000 45-85 5-7

31. coating attacked excellent good good 30,000 70 8
32. excellen! good poor to excellent 7,100-12,100 3-40 25
33. excellent good poor to excellent good 7,100-12,100 3-40
34. good good poor good 8,400-10,600 64-110 9-12
35. excellent excellent excellent excellent 1,500-4,000 100-350 10-100

36. excellent excellent excellent excellent 4,000-4,500 300-480
38. poor to good good good fair to good 5,000-12,000 200-700 220-710
39. poor excellent excellent excellent 6,500-12,000 200-600 250-800
40. excellent good poor to excellent excellent 7,000-14,000 10-175 10-700

41. good to good to excellent poor to good good to very 1,400-17,000 100-510 60-1,400
excellent good
43. fair to poor excellent fair to good good 5,200-7,400 25-500
44. good excellent good 3,500-5,000 stretches 60-1,600
45. excellent excellent poor to excellent excellent 3,000-8,000 depends on 10-30

depends on plasticizer
plasticizer
46. excellent fair to excellent poor to excellent very good 2,000-4,500 250-300 30-1,400
47. good to good to excellent good to excellent excellent 8,000-20,000 35-110 10-7,100
excellent
48. good excellent good 2,500-4,000 200-960
484
Dielectric Constant Dissipation Factor Dielectric Volume
Folding Strength, Resistivity
Endurance 103 cps 10" cps 109 cps 10' cps Hl" cps 109 cps V/mil ohm-em
10,000 3.5 3.4 0.003 0.010 7,000 1018

3.5--4.0 3.0-3.5 2.58 0.040 0.030 0.009 400 1015
2.1 2.1 0.003 10 1"
25,000 3.4 3.4 0.004 5,700 5 x 101"
very high 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 3,000--4,500 3 x 10 15
very high 2.2 2.2 2.2 <0.0002 <0.0002 <0.0002 7,000-10,000 3 x 1018
very high 2.2 2.2 2.2 <0.0002 <0.0002 <0.0002 7,000-10,000 3 x 1018
2.4-2.7 2.4-2.7 2.4-2.7 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 5,000 107 x 10 1"
2.4-2.7 2.4-2.7 2.4-2.7 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 5,000 107 x 10 16
3.05 3.05 3.00 0.0008 0.0034 0.0041 7,500 5 x 1016
very high 2.0-2.1 2.0-2.1 2.0-2.1 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 =2,500 (I mil) 1018
2.06 2.06 2.06 0.000035 0.000080 0.00115 2,000 1018
2.5-2.7 2.3-2.4 2.3 0.022-0.24 0.009-0.017 0.004 1,000-3,700 1018
5.2-7.5 5.5-7.1 0.040-0.060 600-1,300 1-3.0 x 10"
very high
very high 3.0-3.3 2.8-3.1 2.8 0.009-0.017 0.006-0.017 0.019 425-1,300 1016
very high 4.0-8.0 3.3--4.5 0.07-0.016 0.04-0.14 250-1,000 10"_10 14
excellent
7.46 6.1 2.98 0.019 0.059 0.110 260-1,280 2 x 1014
250,000 3.0 3.0 0.006 1013
very high 3.0-3.3 2.8-3.1 2.8 0.0009-0.017 0.006-0.019 0.019 425-1,300 10 16
4.0-8.0 3.3--4.5 0.070-0.160 0.04-0.140 250-1,000 10"_1014

>500,000 3.9--4.5 3.0--4.0 2.7 0.052-0.063 0.050-0.080 0.016 3,000-5,000 10 12_1015
very high
485
CD
.
CI'I
Table 6-15. Properties of a Few Rigid Plastic Foams

Polyvinyl
Chloride Phenylene
Phenolics
Rigid Oxide Polyethylene Polystyrene Polyurethane
ASTM Foamed in Syntactic Closed Foamable Medium- Rigid Closed
Property Test Place Castable Cell Resin Polycarbonate Density Foam Molded Extruded Cell
Density, Ib.lft. 3 2-5 50--60 2-4 50 50 5.5-7.0 2.0 2-5 4-8

(kglm3) (32-80) (800-960) (32-64) (800) (800) (88-112) (32) (32-80) (64-130)
Tensile strength, psi D 1623 20-54 1000 1,000 3,300 5,500 110-210 42-68 180-200 90-290
(MPa) (6.89) (6.89) (22.7) (37.9) (0.76-1.45) (0.29-0.47) (1. 24-1.38) (0.62-2.00)
Compression strength D 1621 22-85 8,000- 5,500 7,500 2-18 25-40 100-180 70-275
at 10% deflection, 13,000 at 5%
psi (MPa) (0.15-0.59) (55.1-89.6) (37.9) (51. 7) (0.014-0.12) (0.17-0.28) (0.69-1.24) (0.48-1.90)
Impact strength, 19-21 18 45 0.21
ft.-Ib.lin.
Maximum service Continuous
temperature at 300
dry, OF ("C) 225 275 200 270 180-200 165-175 165-175 200-250
(149) (135) (93.3) (132) (82-93) (74-79) (74-79) (93-121)
Thermal conductivity D 2326 0.20-0.22 1.0 2.0 0.32-0.34 0.23 0.17-0.21 0.15-0.21
BTU/in.Ihr._ft.2-
"F (W/mK)
(0.29-0.032) (0.14) (0.29) (0.046-0.049) (0.033) (0.024-0.030) (0.022-0.030)
Coefficient of linear D 696 5 100 40--60 38 25 30-40 30-40 40
expansion, 1~
in.lin.-"F
Table 6-16. Properties of a Few Relatively Flexible Foams
Elongation Heat Deflection Thennal Conductivity
Specific at Break Temperature °C W/mK (BTU-in.lhr.
Material Gravity (%) (OF) ft.2 . oF)
Polyphenylene oxide 0.8 15.0 96 (205) 0.124 (0.860)

Polycarbonate 0.8 4.0 128 (262) 0.151 (1.05)
Epoxy resin 0.78 0.7 (4.8)
Isocyanurate 0.032 0.1 (0.69)
Polyether 0.08
Polystyrene 0.17 0.65 (4.5)
Polystyrene 1.04 3.5 101 (214)
Polyurethane 0.11 0.3 (2.1)
ABS 0.86-1.1 72 (162)
Acetal 1.130 153 (307)
Nylon 6/6 0.97 4.1 255 (491)
Polybutylene terephthalate 1.1 1.3 207 (405)
Polyimide 277 (531)
Polysulfone 0.87 3.5 177 (351)
Polyvinylchloride 0.6 370.0
Table 6-17. Thermal Properties of a Few Plastic Foams Compared to Wood
Wood
Property Polystyrene Urethane Polyethylene (red oak)
Density, Ib./cu. ft. 1.0-3.0 1.5-2.5 2.0 0.7

(kg/m3) (16-48) (24-40) (32)
Insulation Value (K factor,
BTU-in.lhr. OF ft.2) 0.24-0.30 0.14-0.16 0.35
(W/m' K) (0.030-0.043) (0.020-0.023) (0.050)
Linear coefficient of thennal 4 x 10-5 5 X 10-5 8 X l(J-5
expansion, in.lin. OF
Maximum temperature for 170---180 250 160
continuous use, OF ("C) (77-82) (121) (71)
Heat of Combustion
BTU/lb. (MJ/kg) 16,000 (37.18) 11,000 (25.56) 16,000 (37.18) 8,000 (18.59)
BTU/cu. ft. 32,000 22,000 32,000 320,000
BTUlboard ft. 2,660 1,840 2,660 26,600
Ignition temperature
(ASTM D 1929-62T)
Flash ignition temp., OF ("C) 650---700 (343-371) 600 (316) 650 (343) 500 (260)
Self-ignition temp., OF ("C) 735-915 (391-490) 975 (524) 660 (349) 500 (260)
Surface flame spread
(ASTM E 84-61 "Tunnel Test") 10---25 40---80 NonFR 100
487
Table 6-18. Plastic Foams Reinforced with Glass Fibers

Material
Property PA PS SAN PC PC PP ABS
Percent glass, by wt. 30 20 20 20 40 20 20

Specific gravity 0.99 0.84 0.85 0.94 1.06 0.67 0.84
Tensile strength, psi 15,500 5,000 6,100 14,000 19,300 4,000 7,000
(MPa) (107) (34.5) (42.1) (96.53) (133) (27.6) (48.2)
Aexural modulus, 106 psi* 0.114 0.Q75 0.Q78 0.058 0.100 0.042 0.075
Aexura1 strength, psi* 24,700 8,500 9,500 14,200 17,800 6,000 12,000
Izod impact strength, 1.2 0.6 0.6 2.1 1.8 1.4
ft.-Ib'/in.
Unnotched impact strength, 6.2 1.5 2.1 7.1 6.1 3.5 3.5
ft.-Ib'/in.
Deflection temperature under 380 190 202 276 272 162 210
load @ 264 psi, OF
eC) (193) (88) (94.4) (135) (133) (72.2) (98.9)
'To convert psi to pascals (Pa). multiply by 6.895 x UP.
Table 6-19. Syntactic Plastic Foams as are Used in Deepwater

Flotation Materials
Uniaxial
Compressive
Yield Hydrostatic
Foam Density Glass Epoxy Strength, Compressive Method of Resin
Ib./ft. 3 Microballoons Macroballoons psi* Strength, psi* Preparation System
24 Yes Yes 1,700 1,800 Pack-in-place Polyester

27 Yes Yes 2,800 2,300 Pack-in-place Epoxy
30 Yes Yes 2,500 3,000 Infiltration Polyester
32 Yes No 7,300 7,000 Pack-in-place Polyester
34 Binary No 16,000 Infiltration Epoxy
35 Yes No 10,500 14,000 Vacuum cast Epoxy
38 Yes No 10,000 14,000 Cast Polyester
42 Yes No 10,000 15,000 Cast Polyester
'To convert psi to pascals (Pa). multiply by 6.895 x UP.
Cushioning Design
When plastic foams are used to cushion products, as they are in packaging, there are
specific design approaches to use. It is widely held that the lower density closed-cell
foams that are usually priced lower provide superior cushioning performance, but this
assumption is usually incorrect. Figure 6-30 illustrates how closed-cell PE foams with
differing densities but the same type and thickness behave under the same dynamic
cushioning conditions. These curves represent the amount of mechanical shock experi-
enced during an impact. The lower the curve goes, the greater the cushioning efficiency.
For densities above 2 pcf ObJft. 3 ) the maximum cushioning efficiency of each material
is not significantly different, but the loading at which this maximum efficiency will occur
will vary dramatically.
If a 40-g package were to be designed according to Figure 6-30 using a 6.0 pef foam,
the foam would measure 3 in. thick at a loading of about 1.35 psi. If an identical package
were then produced using a 2.2 pcf foam, its shock performance would not go as low
as 40 g's but would instead produce about 60 g's, or 50 percent more shock. In order
Figure 6-29. A collapsible HDPE (Petrothene L Y 656, from Quantum Chemical) foam shipping
container injected molded by the J.I.T. Corp. of Southfield, Michigan. This is 114 cm X 122
cm x 86 cm (45 in. x 48 in. x 34 in.) high. It holds and delivers .85 m3 (30 cu. ft.) of
materials, but on the return it takes only .28 m3 (10 cu . ft.), because of its plastic mechanical
hinges and latches . Stacked three high, they can hold 1.8 metric tons (4,000 lbs.) in a shipping
mode.
to return to 40 g's, the 2.2 pcf package would need to be redesigned. One approach
would be to greatly increase the thickness of the pads constructed from the lower-density
foam, to provide adequate protection. This approach would, however, increase the pack-
age size, impair handling and shipping efficiency, and possibly result in higher costs.
The 6.0 pef foam could, however, be reliably used at 1.2 psi in the thickness shown in
Figure 6-30.
Another approach is to keep the 2.2 pef foam thickness the same, but decrease the
loading from 1.35 to 0.87 psi, to get back to the 4O-g level. Although this approach
keeps the package size the same, nearly twice as much foam must be used to meet the
lower loading. The lower-density foam must therefore cost less than half as much as the
high density type on a cost-per-unit volume basis if using the lower-density one is to
result in a cost savings. Below a density of about 2.2 pcf the cushioning efficiency can
begin to change with the density . This situation is shown in Figure 6-31 where the test
results for PE foams in several densities below 3 pef are compared.
Thus, lowering the density produces a considerably higher deceleration and reduces
cushioning performance. Also significant is the narrower range of usable static loadings
at the bottoms of the curves that resulted when the density was reduced. Another important
consideration in comparing foams of different densities is their compressive creep resis-
tance (see Chapter 3), their ability to resist undergoing a permanent thickness loss during
their time under load. As the density decreases, so does the creep resistance.
80 r----------.----------.---------~
..... 60
-'"
.g
c
g
!2
~
40
~
~
6 pcl
!
20
1.0
Static
Figure 6-30. How a closed-cell PEs foam density affects both its cushioning and its loading.
180
150
.....
•w
9
~ 120
e
I 90
~
~
! 60
30
00 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

StatIC
Figure 6-31. A closed-cell PE foam at different densities compared to its cushioning efficiency.
490
Although it may seem logical for a lower-density foam to cost less to produce because
it contains less plastic, this is not necessarily true. The manufacturing rate, the amount
and cost of the blowing agent, and the amount and cost of the base resin all influence
the final cost. As a result, very low density foams can actually be more costly to make
than others. Thus, it should not be assumed that the cost of a foam will be proportional
to its density. (Incidentally, this cost situation can also occur with solid plastics in certain
shapes, thicknesses, and types, but in solids the problem is rare.) Cushioning performance
is therefore not improved merely by increasing a foam's density. In order to be certain
that a material selected is appropriate and efficient, the designer should carefully compare
documented performance data.
TRANSPARENT AND OPTICAL PLASTICS

The use of plastics in certain transparent or optical applications is marked by selective
but significant advantages of plastics over glass. Plastics weigh less and in many cases
cost less, yet provide higher performance, such as impact strength (see Figs. 6-32 and
6-33). They also have many more configuration possibilities to simplify assembly. There
are expensive plastics with added performance features related to chemical resistance,
heat resistance, high tensile and flexural strengths and others that are used in specialty
parts.
The factor of configuration flexibility is particularly useful in systems that use aspheric
or curved surfaces to simplify design and reducing the part count, weight, and cost.
Moreover, the light-transmission abilities of plastic optics are comparable to those of
high-grade crown glass. And from a safety standpoint, when plastics break they do not
splinter, like glass, and are thus less hazardous [11, 12, 14, 62-68, 515, 516].
Figure 6-32. This streamlined headlamp by Ford and GE provides contoured, flush-mounted
polycarbonate lenses that reduce air drag and some degree of weight.
Figure 6-33. Complex thermoformed acrylic and PC aircraft canopies being inspected to ensure
their having relatively no visual distortion for the pilot. The grid placed on the wall lets the
canopy be checked against it to determine if there is any distortion.
Plastic's chief disadvantages are its low scratch resistance and, in some systems,
comparative intolerance to severe temperature fluctuations. Even if plastic does have less
temperature tolerance than glass, most optical systems do not operate in ambient tem-
peratures beyond the thermal limits of plastics.
The processing advantages of plastics that exist, such as injection molding it with
multicavity molds, allows low-cost manufacturing to be combined with comparatively
inexpensive materials. By carefully sizing a mold for the required production volume,
plastics' breakeven cost, compared to glass, can be low. Another advantage of plastics
fabrication is that in the mounting and assembly features like brackets, holes, and flanges
can be molded integrally with the optical element to result in a single-piece design
eliminating mounting hardware and simplifying alignment. Multiple elements can thus
easily be combined and molded in unique optical configurations.
REINFORCED PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES

The terms reinforced plastics (RPs) and composites refer to combinations of plastic and
reinforcing materials that usually come in fiber forms, as chopped, continuous, woven
fabrics, porous mats, and so on (see Tables 6-20 through 6-26 and Fig. 6-34). Both TS
and TP resins are used [417-27]. When the modem RP industry started, in 1940, glass-
fiber-reinforced unsaturated TS polyesters or low-pressure or contact-pressure curing
resins principally were used. Now at least 80 percent by weight of composites are glass
fiber and 60 percent are polyester (TS) types. A designer can now produce RP products
whose mechanical properties in any direction will be both predictable and controllable.
This is done by carefully selecting the resin and the reinforcement in terms of both their
composition and their orientation, and following up with the appropriate process (see
Chapter 7). All types of shapes can be produced: flat and complex, solid and tubular rods
or pipes, molded shapes and housings and other complex configurations, such structural
shapes as angles, channels, box and I-beams, and so on. The RPs can in fact produce
the strongest materials in the world.
The molder has a variety of alternatives to choose from regarding the kind, form, and
amount of reinforcement to use (see Tables 6-24 and 6-25 and Figs. 6-35 through 6-41).
With the many different types and forms (organics, inorganics, fibers, flakes, and more)
available, practically any performance requirement can be met, molded into any shape.
Possible shapes range from very small to extremely large, and from the simple to the
extremely complex.
The reinforcement type and form chosen (woven, braided, chopped, etc.) will depend
on the performance requirements and the method of processing the RP. Fibers can be
oriented in many different patterns to provide the directional properties desired. Depending
on their packing arrangement, different reinforcement-to-resin ratios are obtained. In its
simplest presentation, using glass fiber with resin, if the fibers were packed as closely
as possible (like stacked pipe), the glass would occupy 90.6 percent of the volume (95.6
percent by weight). With a "square" packing (fibers directly on top of and alongside each
other) the glass volume would be 78.5 percent (88.8 percent by weight). Glass fibers and
most other reinforcements require special treatment to ensure maximum performance,
such as selecting materials compatible with the resins used, protecting individual filaments
during handling and processing, and so on.
Strength-to-weight comparison Stiffness-to-weight comparison

'"
I
"'o
I 4 ~ 4
x
X
Ie:
~~ 3
-6 2
o
E
...c
~
~
.~ 1
e eu
.~ :;:::
·u ·u
1i 0 '--''----'---'-----''--'--'---'----''--'---'---- ~'" O'--C~ar-bo-n~!-'-G-las-s!~~W-OO-d~AI~um-i~nu~m-'-S-te~el~
Vl Carbon! Glass! Wood Aluminum Steel
epoxy epoxy epoxy epoxy
Figure 6-34. A comparison of plastic composites with other materials.
The acceptance and use of nonwoven fabrics as reinforcements has led to the devel-
opment of major products. These reinforcements include felts and paper structures, which
usually contain a binder that retains these structures and is compatible with the resin
matrix. Combinations of different chopped fibers (glass and aramid, and so on) are also
used, including long filaments, woven fabrics, and more. The combinations provide
unique properties and, in most cases, permit the molding of different shapes that otherwise
would not be possible. The longer fibers are best for optimizing mechanical properties.
With short, chopped fiber structures, the fiber length can range from extremely short
(0.001 in.) to at least 0.5 in., and on up to 2 in. The length used usually depends on the
processing and performance requirements. Basically, to obtain the best mechanical per-
formance with fibers in a properly molded part, it is necessary only for them to have an
aspect ratio (length over diameter) of about ten.
Practically all TS and TP resins are used in RPs, but a few predominate (see Tables
6-21 through 6-26), with TS polyesters being the major type. The properties typical of
polyesters are summarized in Table 6-5. The polyester RPs are used in all processes, but
their principal use is in the low-pressure methods (spray-up, hand lay-up, pressure bag
molding, casting, pultrusion, rotational molding, filament winding, and compression
molding (see Chapter 7).
RPs can be processed in different ways. The individual components of reinforcement
and resin can be put together by the processor. Although TP resins generally require no
additional material, the TSs usually require the addition of different additives and fillers,
such as those reviewed in Chapter 2.
Most of the TPs used in the RPs are injection molded with compounds prepared by
material suppliers. It is estimated that more than half the TSs are prepared by the processor.
There are compounds available from material suppliers, as well as in some processing
plants, that are ready to be processed, the most popular being the SMCs and BMCs.
Sheet Molding Compound

An SMC is a reinforced plastic compound in sheet form. Most SMCs combine glass fiber
with a polyester (TS) resin. Any combination of reinforcement and resin can be produced
(see Fig. 6-39). The reinforcements can have continuous long fibers or any size of chopped
fibers laid out in a different orientation from that of the resin (see Fig. 6-40). The different
orientation makes it feasible to use SMCs on flat to complex-shaped molds (see Fig. 6-
41). These SMCs will contain various additives and fillers to provide a variety of pro-
cessing and performance properties.
SMCs are made to meet the shelf life required. These B-staged compounds are usually
used in a few weeks or months. Some have a shelf life of six months, for example.
Suppliers' recommendations should be followed in keeping these compounds at a low
temperature, or a curing action will occur (see Chapter 7).
TPs are also used in sheet form with different reinforcements and resins. They are
called stampable sheets rather than SMCs. These compounds provide unique properties
with a quick and easy processing capability.
Bulk Molding Compound

A BMC is a molding compound that is not produced in sheet form. It basically consists
of the mixture used in an SMC, except that it contains only short fibers.
Basic Design Theory

Fiber-reinforced plastics differ from many other materials because they combine two
essentially different materials-fibers and a resin-into a single composite. In this way
they are somewhat analogous to reinforced concrete, which combines concrete and steel.
However, in the RPs the fibers are generally much more evenly distributed throughout
the mass and the ratio of fibers to resin is much higher [1, 14,29,32,86].
In designing fibrous-reinforced plastics it is necessary to take into account the combined
actions of the fiber and the resin. At times the combination can be considered homoge-
neous, but in most cases homogeneity cannot be assumed. Thus, it is necessary to allow
for the fact that two widely dissimilar materials have been combined into a single unit.
This section sets out the basic elements of design theory. In the basic design approach
here, certain fundamental assumptions are made. The first, and most important, as-
sumption is that the two materials act together and that the stretching, compression, and
twisting of the fibers and resin under load is the same; that is, the strains in the fiber
and resin are equal. This assumption implies that a good bond exists between the resin
and the fiber to prevent slippage between them and wrinkling of the fiber.
The second major assumption is that the material is elastic, meaning that the strains
are directly proportional to the stresses applied and when the load is removed the defor-
mation will disappear. In engineering terms the material is assumed to obey Hooke's
Law (see Chapter 2). This assumption is probably a close approximation of the material's
actual behavior in direct stress below its proportional limit, particularly in tension, if the
fibers are stiff and elastic in the Hookean sense and carry essentially all the stress. This
assumption is probably less valid in shear, where the resin carries a substantial portion
of the stress. The resin may then undergo plastic flow, leading to creep or relaxation of
the stresses, especially when the stresses are high.
More or less implicit in the theory of materials of this type is the assumption that all
the fibers are straight and unstressed or that the initial stresses in the individual fibers are
essentially equal. In practice this is quite unlikely to be true. It is expected, therefore,
that as the load is increased some fibers will reach their breaking points first. As they
fail, their loads will be transferred to other as yet unbroken fibers, so that failure will be
caused by the successive breaking of fibers rather than the simultaneous breaking of all
of them. The effect is to reduce the material's overall strength and reduce its allowable
working stresses accordingly, but the design theory is otherwise largely unaffected, as
long as basically elastic behavior occurs. The development of higher working stresses is
thus largely a question of devising fabrication techniques like filament winding to make
fibers work together to obtain their maximum strength (see Chapter 7).
In the following discussion of design theory the values of a number of elastic constants
must be known in addition to the strength properties of the resin, the fibers, and their
combination. In the examples used, more-or-Iess arbitrary values for the elastic constants
and strength values have been chosen to illustrate the basic theory, but any other values
could have been used just as well.
The Theory of Combined Action

Any material, when stressed, stretches or is otherwise deformed. If the resin and the fiber
in reinforced plastics are firmly bonded together, the deformation will be the same in
both. For efficient structural behavior high-strength fibers are employed, but these must
be more unyielding than the resin. Therefore for a given deformation or strain a higher
Table 6-20. Mechanical, Thermal, and Processing Properties of Glass-Fiber-
Reinforced Plastics. Courtesy Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp.
Glass
Fiber, Specific
Material Wt.% Gravity
D 792
Glass-fiber-reinforced Polyester SMC, compression 30.0 1.85
thennosets (RTS) Polyester SMC, compression 20.0 1.78
Polyester SMC, compression 50.0 2.00
Polyester BMC, compression 22.0 1.82
Polyester BMC, injection 22.0 1.82
Epoxy filament wound 80.0 2.08
Polyester, pultruded 55.0 1.69
Polyurethane, milled fibers 13.0 1.07
(RRIM)
Polyurethane, flaked glass 23.0 1.17
(RRIM)
Polyester spraying/lay-up 30.0 1.37
Polyester, woven roving, lay-up 50.0 1.64
Glass-fiber-reinforced Acetal resin 25.0 1.61
thennoplastics Nylon 6/6 30.0 1.48
(RTP) Polycarbonate 10.0 1.26
Polypropylene 20.0 1.04
Poly(phenylene sulfide) 40.0 1.64
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 20.0 1.22
terpolymer (ABS)
Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) 20.0 1.21
Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer 20.0 1.22
(SAN)
Poly(butylene terephthalate) 30.0 1.52
Poly(ethylene terephthalate) 30.0 1.56
Acetal resin 1.41
Unreinforced Nylon 6/6 1.13
thennoplastics (TP) Polycarbonate 1.20
Polypropylene 0.89
Poly(phenylene sulfide) 1.30
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 1.03
terpolymer (ABS)
Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) 1.10
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) 1.05
Poly(butylene terephthalate) 1.31
Poly(ethylene terephthalate) 1.34
ASTM A-606 HSLA steel, cold 7.75
rolled
SAE 1008 low carbon steel, cold 7.86
rolled
Metals AlSI 304 stainless steel 8.03
TA 2036 aluminum, wrought 2.74
ASTM B 85 aluminum, die cast 2.82
ASTM AZ 91B magnesium, die 1.83
ASTM AG 40A zinc, die cast 6.59
496
Heat Thermal Specific
Thermal Deflection Conductivity, Heat, Tensile Tensile
Coefficient at 1.8 MPa, (W/m'K) J/(kg . Strength, Modulus,
of Expansion CO CF) (BTU' in.lhr.ft. 2 OF) K)b MPa (psi) GPa (kip/in. 2)
D 696 D 648 C 177 D 638 D 638

200+ (392 +) 1.26 83 (12,000) 11.7 (1,700)
200+ (392+ ) 1.26 36.5 (5,300) 11.7 (1,700)
9.4 200+ (392+ ) 1.26 158 (22,900) 15.7 (2,280)
6.6 260 (500) 8.37 (58.1) 1.26 41.3 (5,990) 12.1 (1,750)
6.6 260 (500) 8.37 (58.1) 1.26 33.5 (4,860) 10.5 (1,520)
2.0 200+ (392 +) 1.77 (12.3) 0.96 552 (80,000) 27.6 (4,000)
5.0 6.92 (48.0) 1.17 207 (30,000) 17.2 (2,490)
78.0 29 (84) 19.3 (2,800)
53.1 30.4 (4,410)
12.0 200+ (392 +) 2.60 (18.0) 1.30 86.2 (12,500) 6.9 (1,000)
4.0 200+ (392 +) 255 (37,000) 15.5 (2,250)
4.7 161 (322) 128 (18,600) 8.6 (1,250)
1.8 254 (489) 2.60 (18.0) 1.26 159 (23,100) 8.3 (1,200)
1.8 141 (286) 7.97 (55.3) 1.21 83 (12,000) 5.2 (750)
2.4 132 (270) 14.5 (100.6) 45 (6,500) 3.7 (540)
1.1 266 (511) 3.47 (24.1) 1.05 152 (22,000) 14.1 (2,050)
76 (11,000) 6.2 (900)
2.1 99 (210) 2.42 (16.8)
2.0 143 (289) 6.57 (45.6) 0.84-1.67 100 (14,500) 6.3 (910)
2.1 102 (216) 4.84 (33.6) 100 (14,500) 8.6 (1,250)
1.4 213 (415) 12.1 (84.0) 0.46 131 (19,000) 8.3 (1,200)
1.7 216 (427) 11.2 (77.7) 145 (21,000) 9.0 (1,300)
4.7 110 (230) 2.80 (19.4) 1.46 81 (11,700) 2.6 (380)
4.5 75 (167) 2.94 (20.4) 1.26 79 (11,400) 2.8 (400)
3.7 132 (270) 2.34 (16.2) 1.26 66 (9,600) 2.3 (330)
3.8 46-60 (115-140) 2.10 (14.6) 1.88 34 (4,900) 0.7 (100)
135 (275) 2.89 (20.1) 66 (9,600) 3.3 (480)
41 (5,900) 2.1 (300)
3.2 93-104 (199-219) 1.61 ( 11.2)
68.0 100 (212) 1.59 (11.0) 0.84-1.67 54 (7,800) 2.6 (380)
36.0 104 (219) 1.21 (8.40) 1.38 66 (9,600) 2.8 (400)
4.5 50-85 (122-185) 1.76-2.89 (12.2-20.1) 57 (8,300) 1.9 (280)
38-41 (100-106) 1.51 (10.5) 1.42 59 (8,600) 2.8 (400)
448 (65,000) 207 (30,000)

6.8 43.3 (300) 0.46
331 (48,000) 207 (30,000)
6.7 60.6 (420) 0.42
9.6 16.3 (113) 0.50 552 (80,000) 193 (28,000)
13.9 159 (1100) 0.88 338 (49,000) 70 (10,000)
11.6 91.8 (637) 331 (48,000) 71 (10,300)
14.0 72.5 (503) 1.05 228 (33,000) 448 (65,000)
15.2 113 (784) 0.42 283 (41,000) 75 (11,000)
(cont' Ii)
497
Elongation, Flexural Modulus

Material % OPa (kip/in2)
D 638 D 790
Glass fiber-reinforced Polyester SMC, compression <1.0 11.0 (1,600)
thermosets (RTS) Polyester SMC, compression 0.4 9.7 (1,400)
Polyester SMC, compression 1.7 13.8 (2,000)
Polyester BMC, compression 0.5 10.9 (1,580)
Polyester BMC, injection 0.5 9.9 (1,400)
Epoxy filament wound 1.6 34.5 (5,000)
Polyester, pultruded 11.0 (1,600)
Polyurethane, milled fibers (RRIM) 140.0 0.26-0.37 (38-54)
Polyurethane, flaked glass (RRIM) 38.9 1.0 (145)
Polyester spraying/lay-up 1.3 5.2 (7,500)
Polyester, woven roving, lay-up 1.6 15.5 (2,250)
Glass fiber-reinforced Acetal resin 3.0 7.6 (1,100)
thermoplastics Nylon-6/6 1.9 5.5 (800)
(RTP) Polycarbonate 9.0 4.1 (600)
Polypropylene 3.0 3.6 (520)
Poly(phenylene sulfide) 3.0 13.1 (1,900)
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 2.0 6.0 (870)
terpolymer (ABS)
Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) 5.0 5.2 (750)
Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN) 1.8 7.6 (1,000)
Poly(butylene terephthalate) 4.0 8.1 (1,200)
Poly( ethylene terephthalate) 6.6 8.6 (1,250)
Acetal resin 30.0 2.7 (390)
Unreinforced Nylon-6/6 60.0 2.9 (420)
thermoplastics (TP) Polycarbonate 110.0 2.3 (330)
Polypropylene 200.0 0.9-1.4 (130-200)
Poly(phenylene sulfide) 1.0 3.8 (550)
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 5.0 2.4-2.8 (350-400)
terpolymer (ABS)
Poly(phenylene oxide) (PPO) 50.0 2.3-2.8 (330-400)
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) 0.5 3.8 (550)
Poly(butylene terephthalate) 50.0 2.3-2.8 (330-400)
Poly( ethylene terephthalate) 50.0 2.4-3.1 (350-450)
ASTM A-606 HSLA steel, cold rolled 22.0
SAE 1008 low carbon steel, cold 37.0
rolled
Metals AISI 304 stainless steel 40.0
TA 2036 aluminum, wrought 23.0
ASTM B85 aluminum, die cast 2.5
ASTM AZ91B magnesium, die 3.0
ASTM A040A zinc, die cast 10.0
498
Compressive Impact Strength Water Mold
Strength, Izod at 22°C, Absorption Shrinkage,
MPa (psi) JIm Hardness in 24 hr. % %
D 695 D 256 D 785 D 570 D 955

166 (24,100) 854 Barcol68 0.25
159 (23,100) 438 Barcol68 0.10 0.002
221 (32,000) 1036 Barcol68 0.50
138 (20,000) 227 Barcol68 0.20 0.001
154 Barcol68 0.20 0.004
310 (45,000) 2400 M98 0.50 0.008
207 (30,000) 1335 Barcol50 0.75
Shore D 65-75
112
152 (22,000) 690-800 Barcol50 1.30
186 (27,000) 1760 Barcol50 0.50
117 (17,000) 96 M79 0.29 0.004
183 (26,500) 117 M95 0.50 0.002
97 (14,000) 107 M80 0.14 0.005
172 (24,900) 59 R103 0.05 0.003
145 (21,000) 80 RI23 0.01 0.002
97 (14,000) 64 RI07 0.30 0.002
121 (17,500) 96 R107 0.24 0.003

121 (17,500) 59 RI22 0.06 0.002
124 (18,000) 96 RII8 0.06 0.003
172 (24,900) 96 RI20 0.05 0.003
90 (13,000) 32 RII9 0.3-1.9 0.005
103 (14,900) 43 RI20, M83 1.0-1.3 0.008
86 (12,500) 854 M70 0.15 0.005-0.007
24 (3,500) 50-1000 R50-96 0.03 0.020
110 (16,000) <27 RI23 <.02 0.007
69 (10,000) 160-320 R 107-11 5 0.20-0.45 0.004-0.009
83 (12,000) 270 RII5 0.07 0.005-0.007
97 (14,000) 16-24 M80-85 0.20-0.35 0.005-0.007

59 (8,500) 43 M68-78 0.08-0.09 0.015-0.020
76 (11,000) 13-35 M94-101 0.1-0.2 0.02-0.025
448 (65,000) B80
331 (48,000) B34-52
552 (80,000) B88
338 (49,000) R80

331 (48,000) Brinen 85
227 (32,900) Brinen 85
283 (41,000) Brinen 82
499
Table 6·21. Properties and Processes for the Major Thermoset Resins
Used in Composites
Thennosets Properties Processes
Polyesters Simplest, most versatile, economical, Compression molding, filament

and most widely used family of winding, hand lay-up, mat
resins; good etectrical properties, molding, pressure bag molding,
good chemical resistance, continuous pultrusion, injection
especially to acids molding, spray-up, centrifugal
casting, cold molding,
encapsulation
Epoxies Excellent mechanical properties, Compression molding, filament
dimensional stability, chemical winding, hand lay-up,
resistance (especially to alkalis), continuous pultrusion,
low water absorption, self- encapsulation, centrifugal casting
extinguishing (when
halogenated), low shrinkage,
good abrasion resistance,
excellent adhesion properties
Phenolic resins Good acid resistance, good electrical Compression molding, continuous
properties (except arc lamination
resistance), high heat resistance
Silicones Highest heat resistance, low water Compression molding, injection
absorption, excellent dielectric molding, encapsulation
properties, high arc resistance
Melamines Good heat resistance, high impact Compression molding
strength
Diallyl o-phthalate Good electrical insulation, low water Compression molding
absorption
stress is developed in the fiber than in the resin. If the stress-strain relationships of fiber
and resin are known (e.g., from their stress-strain diagrams), the stresses developed in
each for a given strain can be computed and their combined action determined.
Figure 6-42 shows stress-strain diagrams for glass fiber and two resins. Curve A,
typical of glass, shows that stress and strain are very nearly directly proportional to each
other to the breaking point. Here stiffness, or the modulus of elasticity as measured by
the ratio of stress to strain, is high. Curve B represents a hard resin. Stress here is directly
proportional to strain when both are low, but the stress gradually levels off as the strain
increases. Its stiffness is much lower than that of glass. It is measured by the tangent to
the curve, usually at the origin. Curve C represents a softer resin intermediate between
the hard resin and the very soft plastics. Stress and strain here are again directly pro-
portional at low levels, but not when the strains become large. The modulus of elasticity,
as measured by the tangent to the curve, is lower than for the hard resin.
These stress-strain diagrams may be applied, for example, to the investigation of a
rod of which half its total volume is glass fiber and half resin. If the glass fibers are laid
parallel to the axis of the rod, at any cross-section, half the total cross-sectional area is
glass and half resin. If the rod is stretched 0.5 percent, reference to the stress-strain
diagrams in Figure 6-42 will show that the glass is stressed at an intensity of 345 MPa
(50,000 psi) and the resin (if resin B) at 52 MPa (7,500 psi) or (if resin C) at 17 MPa
(2,500 psi). If, for example, the rod has a total cross-section of one-half square inch,
the glass is one-quarter square inch and the total stress in the glass is one quarter times
Continuous strand
Fabric
-
.c
-
1:11 Chopped strand
C
I!!
fn
Volume of reinforcement --------~)
Figure 6-35. The strength-to-volume relationship for reinforcements used in composites.
50
II)
40 2
...I 'iii
8.
8 E
0
)( u
~30 l'!
'u :>
"5
~ ....
Qi'"
~:> 20
:;
"8
:::!l
10
0
0
Specific gravity
Figure 6-36. The relationship of the modulus of elasticity to the specific gravity of various
materials.
g
----
<.l 11 -
"KEVLAR" 29 "KEVLAR" 49
(279~
c;; (2540) .,
RESIN IMPREGNATED
..- 9
STRANDS
S' 12286)
, 8
r
c;
(2032)
7 •
"S"-GLASS
•
HT GRAPHITE
~ {I778)
<r 6
tn (1524)
~ (1270)
5
OTHER ORGANICS
•
BORON •
HM GRAPHITE
~ {l0 161 ~~~/ • "E"-GLASS
:;: 17 62~ '< • STEEL
u 150B1
UJ
:;, 12541
• ALUMINUM
°0~~~-----L----~----4~--~5----~6----~
12541 15081 17621 110161 112701 115241 1177B1
SPECIFIC TENSILE MODULUS, 10 8 in 110 8 em 1
Figure 6-37. The relationship of different reinforcing fibers used in composites, comparing their
specific tensile strength and their specific tensile modulus of elasticity (the specific value = the
mechanical property divided by the specific gravity).
501
VI
N
= Table 6-22. Trade-offs in Thermoplastic Composites*
Sacrifice (from base resin)
Desired Modification How Achieved Amorphous Crystalline Comments
Increased tensile Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Glass fibers are the most cost-effective way of gaining
strength Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost tensile strength. Carbon fibers are more
Fibrous minerals NA Ductility expensive; fibrous minerals are least expensive
but only slightly reinforcing. Reinforcement
makes brittle resins tougher and embrittles tough
resins. Fibrous minerals are not commonly used
in amorphous resins.
Increased flexural Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Any additive more rigid than the base resin produces
modulus Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost a more rigid composite. Particular fillers severely
Rigid minerals Ductility Ductility degrade impact strength.
Flame resistance FR additive Ductlity, tensile Ductility, tensile FR additives interfere with the mechanical integrity of
strength, cost strength, cost the polymer and often require reinforcement to
salvage strength. They also narrow the molding
latitude of the base resin. Some can cause mold
corrosion.
Increased heat-deflection Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost When reinforced, crystalline polymers yield much
temperature (HDT) Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost greater increases in HDT than do amorphous
Fibrous minerals NA Ductility resins. As with tensile strength, fibrous minerals
increase HDT only slightly. Fillers do not
increase HDT.
Warpage resistance 5 to 10% glass NA Cost Amorphous polymers are inherently nonwarping
fibers NA Cost molding resins. Only occasionally are fillers such
5 to 10% carbon Ductility, cost, Ductility, cost, as milled glass or glass beads added to
fibers tensile strength tensile strength amorphous materials, because they reduce
Particulate shrinkage anisotropically. Addition of fibers
fillers tends to balance the difference between in-flow
and cross-flow shrinkage usually found in
crystalline polymers. When a particulate is used
to reduce and balance shrinkage, some fiber is
needed to offset degradation.
Reduced mold shrinkage Glass fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost Reinforcement reduces shrinkage far more than fillers
(increased mold-to- Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductility, cost do. Fillers help balance shrinkage, however,
size capability) Fillers Tensile strength, Tensile strength, because they replace shrinking polymer. The
ductility, cost ductitily, cost sharp shrinkage reduction in reinforced
crystalline resins can often lead to warpage. The
best "mold to size" composites are reinforced
amorphous composites.
Reduced coefficient of PTFE Cost Cost These fillers are soft and do not dramatically affect
friction Silicone mechanical properties. PTFE loadings commonly
MoS 2 } range from 5 to 20%; the others are usually 5%
Graphite or less. Higher loadings can cause mechanical
degradation.
Reduced wear Glass fibers The subject of plastic wear is extremely complex and
Carbon fibers should be discussed with a composite supplier.
Lubricating
additives
Electrical conductivity Carbon fibers Ductility, cost Ductilty, cost Resistivities of I to 100,000 ohm-cm can be achieved
Carbon powders Tensile strength, Tensile strength, and are proportional to cost. Various carbon
ductility, cost ductility, cost fibers and powders are available with wide
variations in conductivity yields in composites.
'Courtesy ICI-LNP Corp.
\11
w
=
""~
Table 6-23. Properties of Unreinforced vs. Aramid Fibers with TP Resin Composites
Tensile Flexural Impact Strength, Izod
Mold Water Strength Modulus (ft.-lb.lin.) Thermal Deflection
Specific Shrinkage Absorption, 103 psi 106 psi Expansion Temperature,
Gravity (in.lin.) 24-hr. (%) (MPa) (GPa) Notched Unnotched (10-5in.lin.- OF) 264 psi OF
Base Resin D 792 D 955 D 570 D 638 D 790 D 256 D 256 D 696 (OC) D 648
Nylon 6/6 1.19 0.008 0.90 14.5 100.0 0.64 (4.4) 1.0 6.7 2.4 450 (232)
(1.14) (0.016) (1.50) (11.8) 81.4 (0.41) (2.8) (0.9) (4.5) (170) (76.7)
Nylon 6/6 1.29 0.008 0.6 (13.5) 93.1 0.55 (3.8) 1.0 8.5 3.1 465 (240)
Nylon 6 1.19 0.008 1.0 13.0 89.6 0.58 (4.0) 1.1 9.0 3.0 390 (199)
(1.14) (0.016) (1.8) (11.8) 81.4 (0.40) (2.8) (1.0) (4.6) (167) (75)
Polyester (PBT) 1.33 0.013 0.06 9.5 65 0.60 (4.1) 0.8 9.0 3.0 380 (193)
(1.31) (0.020) (0.08) (8.5) 59 (0.34) (2.3) (1.2) (5.3) (130) (54.4)
Polycarbonate 1.23 0.005 0.12 11.0 75.8 0.54 (3.7) 0.9 II 3.0 280 (138)
(1.20) (0.006) (0.15) (9.0) 62 (0.33) (2.3) (2.7) (60) (3.7) (265) (129)
Table 6-24. Fiber Reinforcements Used in Reinforced Plastics
Tensile
Tensile Elastic Specific
Density Strength Specific Modulus Elastic
Type of Fiber Specific Ib.lin. 3 103 psi Strength 106 psi Modulus
Reinforcement Gravity (g/cm 3 ) (GPa) 106 in. (GPa) 108 in.
Glass
E Monofilament 2.54 0.092 (2.5) 500 (3.45) 5.43 10.5 (72.4) 1.14
12-end roving 2.54 0.092 (2.5) 372 (2.56) 4.04 10.5 (72.4) 1.14
S Monofilament 2.48 0.090 (2.5) 665 (4.58) 7.39 12.4 (85.5) 1.38
12-end roving 2.48 0.090 (2.5) 550 (3.79) 6.17 12.4 (85.5) 1.38
Boron (tungsten
substrate)
4 mil or 5.6 mil 2.63 0.095 (2.6) 450 (3.10) 4.74 58 (400) 6.11
Graphite
High strength 1.80 0.065 (1.8) 400 (2.76) 6.15 38 (262) 5.85
High modulus 1.94 0.070 (1.9) 300 (2.07) 4.29 55* (380) 7.86
Intermediate 1.74 0.063 (1.7) 360 (2.48) 5.71 27 (190) 4.29
Organic
Aramid 1.44 0.052 (1.4) 400 (2.76) 7.69 18 (124) 3.46
IJAlso commercially available up to 100 x 106 psi.

Note: The principal reinforcement, with respect to quantity, is glass fibers, but many other types are used (cotton, rayon. polyester/TP, nylon,
aluminum, etc.). Of very limited use because of their cost and processing difficulty are "whishers" (single crystals of alumina, silicon carbide,
copper, or others), which have superior mechanical properties.
Table 6-25. Thermal Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

Property E Glass Carbon HM Carbon Aramid
Mean fiber diameter, 10-17 (0.39-0.67) 7 (0.27) 8 (0.31) 12 (0.47)

f.L (mils)
Therm. Cond., io 60 97 3.5
BTU-in.lhr.-ft. 2 (1.0) (8.6) (14) (0.50)
(W/m' K)
Specific Heat @ 70°F, 0.192 0.17 0.17 0.34
BTU/lb.l°F (803) (710) (710) (1400)
(J/Kg . K)
Coefficient of thermal exp.,
1~ in.linfF
(I~ cm/cm 0c)
Longitudinal 1.6 (2.9) -0.55 (-0.99) -0.28 (-0.50) -1.1 (-2.0)
Transverse 4.0 (7.2) 9.32 (16.8) (1.8) 33.0 (59.4)
Surface energy, ergs/cm2 31.0 53.0 41.0
Note: One micron = 0.001 em or =0.00004 in.

One grain of sall = 100 microns.
One human hair = 70 microns.
The human eye cannot distinguish below 40 microns.
Usually the length of short fibers is less than 3.175 mm (0.125 in.), bUI generally is 0.76 to 0.52 mm (0.030 10 0.060 in.), and long fibers
are longer than 3.175 mm (0.125 in.).
505
ULTIMATE TENS It( STREN GTH (lbJ /sq in _UII I

_N
c:> c:>
... ... ...
c:>
C; ~
CI
co
....
c:>
co
....
'"
c:>
W
c:>
'"
CI CI c:>
c:> CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI CI
!
ALUMINIU M _ ~
ALLOY
TITANIUM
AllOY
_HIGH TENSI LE
.... I
STEEl foI
_ SPECIAL
GLASS FIB RE I
EPOXY
FIBREGlAS S
SILICA FIB RE
I I
EPOXY l1li I
CARBON FI BRE
BORON FIB RE
CARBON FI BRE
IRON WHIS KER ..."...
'" II I I JI
- SiC WHISK ER
ALUMINA
I
WHISKER I
GRAPHITE
WHISKER
II I I I II II I
s 10 15 20 25 30 3S 40
a M . ei • •
SPECIFIC MODULUS (ii' . 10' )
Figure 6-38. Tensile strengths and specific moduli of elasticity of different types of composite
plastics including whisker fibers, as compared to aluminum, titanium, and steel.
RESIN
ROVINGS
RESIN
Figure 6-39. A schematic of the method for manufacturing sheet molding compound (SMC) in
which continuous glass-filament rovings go through a chopper (where the length of the chopped
fibers is present by changing the location of the blades) at a controlled rate and the resin paste
compound would be controlled by a doctor blade that provides an opening for the paste to move
over the speed-controlled revolving conveyor belt. Plastic carrier films (not shown) eliminate the
sticking problem of B-stage TS compounds, permit ease of handling for shipment, cool room
storage, and lay-up for fabrication. The films are removed prior to fabrication lay-up.
50,000, or 12,500 Ibs. Similarly, the stress in the resin (if resin B) is 1,875 Ibs., and in
resin C is 625 Ibs. The load required to stretch the rod made with resin B is therefore
the sum of the stresses in the glass and resin, or 14,375 Ibs. Similarly, for a rod utilizing
resin C the load is 13,125 Ibs. The average stress on the one-half square inch cross-
section is therefore 28,750 psi or 26,250 psi, respectively.
An analogous line of reasoning shows that at a strain of 1.25 percent the stress intensity
in the glass is 862 MPa (125,000 psi) and in resins Band C 87 and 31 MPa (12,600 and
4,500 psi), respectively. The corresponding loads on rods made with resins B and Care
34,400 and 32,375 Ibs., respectively.
RESIN
ROVINGS
Figure 6-40. This schematic shows the production of SMCs incorporating long, high-
performance fiber reinforcements oriented in either the machine direction or positioned in any
direction desired, using single or multiple fibers and rovings to obtain the desired orientation.
Molding Cavity
~ ~SMCCh
, I i l~! I! I
I i , I I'I! 'II
I I I!
, I i ! II III
I ! i
!I
I
I
I iI i I ! I I'll I! I
I I I I I ' 'I
I i I I I I I.I I I
Typical Charge Typical Molding

Pattern
- pierced 1st ply ::; ·'windows" 1st ply
-.- pierced 2nd ply ::::;"windows" 2nd ply
Figure 6-41. This schematic of the off-line production process used when required to cut
directional-type SMC to conform to a specific mold contour to significantly reduce or even
eliminate unwanted wrinkles during lay-up.
The foregoing can be put into the form of an equation as
(6-1)
where
IT = mean stress intensity on entire cross-section

ITt = stress intensity in fiber
IT r = stress intensity in resin
A = total cross-sectional area

At = cross-sectional area of fiber
Ar = cross-sectional area of resin
If the moduli of elasticity, as measured by the tangents to the stress-strain diagrams,

are known, the following relationships hold:
or (6-2)
where
E, = modulus of elasticity of resin
Ef = modulus of elasticity of fiber
Substituting (6-2) into (6-1), then, we have
(6-3)
Referring to Figure 6-42, the tangent to the stress-strain curve for glass gives a value
of the modulus of elasticity Ef = 10 X 106 psi. The tangents to the two resin curves
give values of E, equal to 1.5 x 106 psi and 0.5 x lQ6 psi, respectively. Substituting
these values into (6-3) and solving for the stresses in the one-half-square-inch rod in the
previous example gives
Resin B O"A = 50,000 ( 0.25 + 10

1 .0.25
5)
= 14,375 lb.
0" = 28,750 psi
Resin C 0" A = 50,000 ( 0.25 + 10

0 .0.25
5)
= 13,125 lb.
0" = 26,250 psi
The average values for the modulus of elasticity of the entire cross-section may be
computed by dividing 0" by the strain. The strain is 0.5%. Therefore, the two average
values for E of the rod, incorporating resins B and C, are 5.75 x lQ6 psi and 5.35 x
106 psi, respectively.
For a cross-section made up of a number of different materials, (6-1) may be generalized
to
i=n
O"A = :L O"t Ai (6-4)
i=1
in which O"t is the tensile strength and Ai the cross-sectional area of any component in
the cross-section. This equation can be still further generalized to include tension,
compression, and shear as
i=n
SA = :L SiAi (6-5)
;=1
240 60
220 55
200 50
Glass fiber A
180 45
160 40
·iii
'g, 140 c.. 35
§
~ 120
.!:
:; 30
III
2!1oo
'"2!'" 25
US US
Tangent to B
80 20
I
/
I
60 15 I
I
I
40 10 I-
20
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
% Strain % Strain
Figure 6-42. The stress-strain diagrams for a glass fiber A and two resins B and C. Resin B is
a hard, high-strength material, resin C of intermediate strength and hardness.
in which Si is the strength property of the cross-sectional area Ai of component i and S

is the mean strength property over the entire cross-section A.
Similarly, to find the overall modulus of elasticity of a cross-section the equation
becomes
i=n
EA (6-6)
;= 1
in which E is the overall modulus of elasticity, A the total cross-section, and Ei the
modulus of elasticity corresponding to the partial cross-sectional area Ai. For shear mod-
ulus G the equation then becomes
i=n
GA (6-7)
Plain Reinforced Plates

Fibrous reinforced plates, either flat or curved, are commonly made with matt, fabrics,
and parallel filaments, alone or in combination. Matt is usually used for good strength
at minimum cost, fabrics for high strength, and parallel filaments for maximum strength
in a particular direction.
Because the fibers in a mat are randomly oriented, matt-reinforced materials have
essentially the same strength and elastic properties in all directions in the plane of the
plate, that is, they are essentially isotropic in the plane. Consequently, the usual engi-
neering theories and design methods employed for isotropic engineering materials may
be applied. It is necessary only to know the strength, the modulus of elasticity, the
shearing modulus, and Poisson's ratio for the combined matt and resin. These can be
obtained from standard stress-strain measurements made on specimens of the particular
combination of fiber and resin under consideration.
In fabric- and roving-reinforced materials the strength and elastic properties are different
in different directions; that is, they are not isotropic, and the usual engineering equations
must accordingly be modified. Because fabrics are woven with their yarns at right angles
(in the warp and fill directions), a single layer of fabric-reinforced material has two
principal directions or natural axes, the longitudinal (warp) and the transverse (fill), at
right angles to each other. Such a structure is called orthotropic (in right-angled directions).
Having parallel strands of fiber, as in a single layer of roving-reinforced or unidirectional
fabric-reinforced plates, also results in orthotropic materials, with one direction parallel
and the other at right angles to the fibers. Multilayered plates in which layers of fabric
or roving are laid up parallel or perpendicular to each other are also orthotropic. If the
same number of strands or yarns is found in each principal direction (balanced construc-
tion), the strength and elastic properties will be the same in those directions, but not at
intermediate angles; if the number of strands or yarns is different in the two principal
directions (unbalanced construction), the strength and elastic properties will be different
in those directions as well as at all intermediate angles.
In the foregoing discussion the direction perpendicular to the plane of the plate has
been neglected because the plate is assumed to be thin and the stresses are assumed to
be applied in the plane of the plate rather than perpendicular to it. This assumption, which
considerably simplifies the theory, carries through all the following discussion. It is true,
of course, that properties perpendicular to the plane of the plate are undoubtedly different
than those in the plane of the plate, and in thick plates this difference has to be taken
into account, particularly when the stresses are not planar.
For isotropic materials, such as mat-reinforced construction, if E is the modulus of
elasticity in any reference direction, the modulus E1 at any angle to this direction is the
same, and the ratio E11E is therefore unity. Poisson's ratio v is similarly a constant in all
directions, and the shearing modulus is G = E/2(1 + v). If Vi for example, is 0.3, then
GIE = 0.385 at all angles. These relationships are shown in Figure 6-43.
The following familiar relationships between direct stress (T and strain E and shearing
stress T and strain 'Y hold:
E = (TIE (6-8)
'Y T/G (6-9)
A transverse strain (contraction or dilation) ET is caused by (T equal to
ET = -VE (6-10)
For orthotropic materials, such as fabric and roving-reinforced construction, EL and

ET are the elastic moduli in the longitudinal (L) and transverse (T) directions, GLT is the
shearing modulus associated with these directions, VLT is Poisson's ratio giving the trans-
verse strain caused by a stress in the longitudinal direction, and VTL is Poisson's ratio
giving the longitudinal strain caused by a stress in the transverse direction. The modulus
I I I I I I I I I I
1.ooI--------=E~1/:=E------ -
0.90 f- -
0.80 f- -
0.70 !- -
0.60 ,.--- -
0.50 -
1
-
0.40 1-_ _ _ _ _ _ _G_/_E_=_2(..:...l_+....;"')~_ __ -
0.301-------------- " -
0.20 - -
0.10 - -
I I I I I I I I I I
°0~~1~0~2~0~3~0--4~0--5~0~~60~~70~~OO7-~9~0~1700~
Degrees
Figure 6-43. The modulus of elasticity, the shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio for an isotropic
material such as fiber matt-reinforced plastics. Because constants do not vary with the angle of
load, the ratio of modulus E 1 at any angle to E at any reference direction is unity. The shear
modulus is a constant proportion of E, and Poisson's ratio is constant.
at any intennediate angle is E 1 • If 0'1 is a stress applied in the 1 direction at an angle a

with the longitudinal direction (see Figure 6-44, top), the stress al causes strain £1
(6-11)
in which E I may be found from
(6-12)
This relationship is plotted as EIfEL in Figure 6-44, in which 0° corresponds to the

longitudinal direction and 90° to the transverse direction.
A transverse strain £2 is caused by 0'1
(6-13)
in which (see Figure 6-44)
V12 = ;~ {VLT - ~ (1 + 2VLT + ;~ - ~:J sin 2

2a} (6-14)
Unlike isotropic materials, when stress 0'1 is applied at any angle except 0° and 90°,
it causes shear distortion. The shear strain 'V12 is found from
(6-15)
in which (see Figure 6-44)
ml = sin 2 a{VLT + EL - ! EL - cos 2 a(1 + 2VLT + EL _ EL)} (6-16)

ET 2 GLT ET GLT
A shearing stress 1T12 applied in the 1-2 directions causes shear strain "112
(6-17)
in which (see Fig. 6-44)
GLT = GLT
G I2 EL
{(I + 2VLT + EL) _
ET
(1 + 2vLT + EL - EL) cos 2 2a}
ET GLT
(6-18)
This relationship is plotted as G I2 /G LT in Figure 6-44.

Unlike isotropic materials, stress 1'12 causes strain 101 in the 1 direction:
(6-19)
2
1.00
0.90 0.50
0.40
0.80 e.. 0.30
0.70 --rS.,.
~ 0.20
0.10
0
~
eo! 0.60 -0.10

I:
'C
... 0.50
~
J; 0.40
0.30
--~
~
0.20
0.10
0
Angle a
Figure 6·44. The elastic constants of an unbalanced orthotropic material. E\, G l2 , and 'Y12 are
all functions of the angle between the direction of stress and the longitudinal axis (warp
direction) of the material. Factors ml and m2 account for the direct and shear strains caused by
direct and shear stresses, respectively. Angle 0° is the longitudinal direction, angle 90° the
transverse direction.
and strain E2 in the 2 direction:
(6-20)
in which (see Fig. 6-44)
m2 = sin 2a{VLT + EL - -21 EL - sin2

ET GLT
a( 1 + 2VLT + EL _ EL)}
ET GLT
(6-21)
The two values of Poisson's ratio are related:
(6-22)
In plotting Figure 6-44 the following values were used:
EL = 5,000,000 psi
ET = 500,000 psi
GLT = 550,000 psi
VLT = Voo = 0.450
VTL = V90° = 0.045
These values might correspond, for example, to a parallel glass-filament-reinforced panel

employing an intermediate polyester resin.
When an orthotropic material is balanced, its longitudinal and transverse properties are
the same; that is, EL = ET and VLT = VLT = VTL. The properties are symmetrical about
the 45° angle, as shown in Figure 6-45, in which the following values were used:
EL = ET = 3,000,000 psi
GLT = 500,000 psi

VLT = VTL = 0.20
These values might correspond, for example, to a square-weave or symmetrical satin-
weave fabric-reinforced construction.
As an example of an application of the foregoing equations, tensile stress ITI acting
on the small plate at the top of Figure 6-44 is 68 MPa (10,000 psi), its shear stress 'T12
is 28 MPa (4,000 psi) and angle a is 30°. Then, from Figure 6-44 we can determine that
or EI = 0.367 x 5,000,000 = 1,830,000 psi

G 12/G LT = 0.81 or G I2 = 0.81 x 550,000 = 445,000 psi
V12 = - 0.0286 ml = 4.66 m2 = 4.98

Then strains caused by IT 1 are
EI = 10,000/1,830,000 = 5.45 x 10- 3 (6-23)

+1.00
+0.80
+0.60 +2.00
..
'"
:;:
-
rS.,.
IS
.
"'" +0.20
c:
+1.00
~ ~
-
::: { -0.2:
E;
~ 0.600 -0.40
0.400 -0.60
-0.80
-1.00
o
Angle III
Figure 6-45. The elastic constants in a balanced orthotropic material. These constants and
angles have the same meanings as in Figures 6-42, 6-43, and 6-44.
EI = - (- 0.0286) 5.45 X 10- 3 = 0.16 X 10- 3 (6-24)

"112 = -4.66 X 10,000/5,000,000 = -9.32 X 10- 3 (6-25)
The strains caused by 'T 12 are
"112 = 4,000/550,000 = 7.28 X 10- 3 (6-26)

EI = -4.66 X 4,000/5,000,000 = -3.73 X 10- 3 (6-27)
E2 = -4.98 X 4,000/5,000,000 = -3.98 X 10- 3 (6-28)
The total strains, therefore, are
"112 = -2.04 X 10- 3
EI = 1.72 X 10- 3
E2 = - 3.82 X 10- 3
Problems involving Figure 6-45 can be solved in an analogous manner.

It must be kept in mind that equations 6-12,6-14,6-16,6-18, and 6-21 are valid and
useful if the fibers and the resin behave together in accordance with the assumptions upon
which their derivation is based. If only the values of EL , ET , GLT , and VLT are available,
the intermediate values of Ej, G 12 , V12, and the values of ml and m2 can be estimated by
means of these equations.
Composite Plates
Fibrous reinforced plates are in practice often made up of several layers, each of which
may be of different construction, such as mat, fabric, or roving. Furthermore, the various
layers may be oriented at different angles with respect to each other in order to provide
the best combination to resist some particular loading condition. Outside loads or stresses
applied to a composite plate of this type result in internal stresses that are different in
the individual layers. External direct stresses may result not only in internal direct stresses
but in internal shear stresses as well, and external shear stresses may result in internal
direct stresses as well as internal shear stresses.
Figure 6-46 depicts a small composite plate made up of materials a and b having
principal longitudinal and transverse directions La and Ta and Lb and Tb respectiVely.
Several layers of each are present, with their total thicknesses as ta and tb, respectively,
and an overall thickness of t. Outside stresses (TJ, (T2, and TI2 are applied in the 1 and 2
directions, as shown. The 1 direction makes angle a with La and reverse angle J3 with
Lb. Angle a is considered to be positive and angle J3 negative.
The internal stresses (Tla, (T2a, TI2a, and (Tlb, (T2b, TJ2b in the individual layers can be
found by observing that the sums of the internal stresses in the 1 and 2 directions must
be equal the external stresses in these directions and that the strains must be the same in
all layers. These relationships may be written in the following forms:
(TIt - (Tlata
(Tlata + (Tlbtb = (TIt; (Tlb = (6-29)
tb
(T2t - (T2at a
(T2at a + (T2btb = (T2t ; (T2b (6-30)
tb
TI2t - TJ2ata
T 12ata + T 12btb TJ2t; TI2b = (6-31)
tb
r l
--T12
I
I al
~~
la bl
a2
I goo
I goo ~
0"2+-- I
Tb ~0"2 a3
T..
I
!
I
T12 -+-- 2 t,. = tal + ta2 + t,.3
tl tb = tb) + tb2
t=ta+tb
Figure 6·46. A composite panel with layers a and b of different orthotropic materials oriented
at arbitrary angles 0: and j3 with respect to stress 0"1> 0"2, and T12.
(6-32)
(6-33)
'Y12a 'Y12b = 'Y12 (6-34)
Strains and stresses are induced in each layer. Because the layers are firmly bonded
together, the strains are the same in the a and b layers and are equal to the strains in the
whole plate:
(Tla (T2a TJ2c

10 la -
- E- - V21a - - mla-E
{ la E2a La
(6-35)
(Tlb (T2b EI2b
Elb - Elb - V21b E- - m lb -E
2b Lb
10 2 (6-36)
'YI2a =
{ (6-37)
'YJ2a =
Solving equations 6-26 through 6-37 leads to the following simultaneous equations:
(6-38)
(6-39)
(6-40)
in which
1
AIJ +-- AJ2
V21a V21b
AJ3 - -mla
- ---
mlb
Elata Elbtb E2at a E2bt b ELata ELbtb
VI2b 1 m2a
A21
VI2a
A22 +-- A 23 - -m2b
-
Elata Elbtb E2at a E2bt b ELata ELbtb
1 1
A31 = AI3 A32 = A 23 A33 =--+--
G I2a ta GJ2bt b
where A2 = aJ2, numerically.

An application of the foregoing expressions may be illustrated by a cylindrical pressure
vessel, as shown in Figure 6-47. The wall of this vessel, having an eternal radius of 127
mm (5 in.) and a wall thickness of 5.08 mm (0.20 in.), may be considered to be a thin
plate. It is subjected to an internal pressure of 5.5 MPa (800 psi). The circumferential
stress (1\ and longitudinal stress (12 in the wall are calculated
pro .
(1\ =- = 19 200 PSt
t '
pro .
(12 =- = 9 600 PSt
2t '
The stresses acting on a small part of the wall are therefore as shown in Figure 6-47.
Three types of construction will be investigated, as shown in the three parts of Figure
6-47. All three employ the balanced fabric having the characteristics shown in Figure 6-
45. In (1) the fabric is simply wrapped in layers a and b with the Land T directions laid
in the circumferential and axial directions. In (2) the layers are laid at 45° to the axis of
the cylinder, and in (3) they are laid at alternate 30° angles in left-hand and right-hand
spirals as shown. In each instance ta = tb = 0.10 in.
'~ \~i':~~;=
0'2 + - - 0'2 9600 psi
2
/0'1
p = 800 psi
Tl = 5.00 in.
ro =4.80 in.
t19,200 psi t 19,200 psi

1
-- -
45" La
~
Tb 9600 psi Tb
.-
9600 psi .- go• 9600 psi
.-
90· Lb 9600 psi 9600 psi
Lb
T" 2 2
T"
~ ~ ~
19,200 .psi 19,200 psi 19,200 psi
(1) (2) tatb • (3)
~0.10\n.
"""1 ~t4. 0.20;n.

Figure 6-47. A fiberglass-reinforced plastic thin-walled cylinder showing internal pressure
alone.
Referring to Figure 6-45, it can be seen that for Case 1
Vl3a = V21a = Vl2b = V21b = 0.20
...
Equations 6-38 to 6-40 therefore become
Solution of these equations and reference to equations 6-29 to 6-31 shows that
O"la = O"lb = 0"1 = 19,200 psi
0"2a = 0"2b = 0"2 = 9,600 psi
'T12a = 'T12b =0
This proves what might have been expected intuitively, that because of symmetry with
respect to the 1-2 directions chosen the internal direct stresses O"la, O"lb, 0"2a, and 0"2b are
equal to the imposed stresses 0"1 and 0"2, and there is no internal shear stress.
The same result is found for Case 2. In this balanced fabric ml = m2 = 0 at 45°,
there is no shear distortion caused by direct stress, and the shear therefore is zero. In
Case 3,
= 0.597 x 3 x 106 = 1.78 X 106 psi
G I2a = G I2b = 1.82 x 0.5 x 106 = 0.91 X 106
VI2a = VI2b = V30° = V60° = V21a = V21b = 0.523

mla = m30° = 0.775, mlb = -ml a = -0.775
m2a = m60° = 0.775, m2b = -m2a = -0.775
The values of mlb and m2b are negative, because the 30° angles of orientation of the
longitudinal direction Lb of layers b are measured in the negative direction, whereas it
is positive for the a layers.
Equations 6-38 become
The first two of these equations are exactly like the first two equations for Cases 1 and
2 and show that the internal direct stresses are equal to the imposed; that is,
(11 = 19,200 psi
(12 = 9,600 psi
The third equation is not, however, equal to zero, and its solution, together with
equation 19c, shows that
'rJ2a = 6,750 psi

'rl2b = -6,750 psi
Appreciable shear stresses are set up within the body of the cylinder wall when the layers
are oriented as in Case 3, even though no shear forces are applied to the cylinder itself.
The shear stresses in layers b are oriented in the direction opposite to those in layers a.
The difference in the shear stresses between the two layers must be taken up by shear
in the adhesive bond between them, in the layer of resin that holds the fiber-reinforced
layers together. The difference is 6,750 - (-6,750) = 13,500 psi. This shear stress in
the bonding resin is therefore seen to be high.
In Cases 1 and 2 the orientation of the fibers with respect to the 1 and 2 directions
chosen resulted in zero shear stresses associated with those directions, whereas in Case
3 the shear stresses were not zero. In all three cases, a symmetry of fiber orientations
with respect to the stress directions resulted in internal stresses that were equal to the
external stresses. These are special cases. In the more general case, the internal direct
stresses in the individual layers are not necessarily equal to the external direct stresses,
nor are they the same in the various layers. Furthermore, even symmetrical Case 3 leads
to there being internal shear stresses when external shear stresses are absent. In the more
general case it is even more true that internal shear stresses may be appreciable, or be
absent, depending upon the magnitude of the external stresses and the orientation of the
1 and 2 directions with respect to the external stresses.
A more general case is shown in Figure 6-48 in which the same cylinder is chosen as
in Figure 6-47 except that a torsional effect equal to a twisting couple of 25,000 in.-Ib.
has been added. The construction of the wall has also been changed. Layers a of ~n
balanced material having the properties of Figure 6-44 are a total of 0.13 in. thick and
are oriented at 15° to the circumferential direction, as shown. Layers b, of balanced
material having the properties of Figure 6-45, are a total of 0.07 in. thick and are oriented
at 45°, as shown. Referring to Figure 6-45, the properties are found to be
a layers b layers
ta = 0.13 in. tb = 0.07 in.

a = 15° a = 45°
Ela = 0.703 X 5 X 106 = 3.515 X 106 psi Elb = E2b = 0.526 X 3 X 1<f =
1.578 X 1<f psi
E14 = 0.109 X 5 X 106 = 0.545 X 106 psi ])12b = ])21b = 0.579
])114 = 0.193 mlb = m2b = 0
mla = 2.63 G I2b = 2.5 X 0.5 X 1<f = 1.250 X 106 psi

m14 = 2.94
G I14 = 0.93 X 0.5 X 106 =
0.465 X 106 psi
Solving for the various constants, and substituting in equations 6-38 through 6-40, we
find that
11.2412<Tl a - 5.6641<T2a - 4.046h l2a = + 190,180

-5.6641<Tla + 23.2030<T2a - 4.5156TI2a = -21,150
-4.0461 glb - 4.5156<T2a + 26.4668Tl2a = + 16,190

The solution of the foregoing simultaneous equations leads to the following results for
stresses in the a layers:
= 19,200 psi
') \ T,.-m
0"1
p
J
,;
0"2 = 9600 psi ~ 0"2 = 9600 psi
T12 = 920 psi - - )

0"1 = 19,200 psi
0"1 = 19,200 psi
t _ 9 2 0 psi
i
-- -9600 psi
920 psi ~ 2
! 19,200 psi
Figure 6-48. A fiberglass-reinforced plastic thin-walled cylinder with internal pressure plus
twisting moment.
(Jla = 21,100 psi
(JZa = 5,200 psi
TlZa = 4,740 psi
When these results are employed with equations 6-29 to 6-31, it is found that the stresses
in the b layers are:
(JIb = 15,700 psi
(J2b = 17,800 psi
TI2b = -6,150 psi
Bending of Beams and Plates

Plates and beams of fibrous glass-reinforced plastics may be either homogeneous and
isotropic or composite and nonisotropic, depending upon their structure. Mat-reinforced
plates may be considered to be essentially isotropic, and the usual engineering formulas
may be applied. Composite structures require suitably modified formulas, but otherwise
the procedures for computing bending stresses, stiffness, and bending shear stresses are
essentially the same as for isotropic materials. The differences and similarities may be
brought out by considering two beams of identical overall dimensions, one isotropic and
the other composite. Two such cross-sections are shown in Figure 6-49. For each cross-
section it is necessary to know the stiffness factor, EI, to compute deflection, the section
modulus to compute bending stresses, and the statical moments of portions of the cross-
section to compute shear stresses. For isotropic materials (a) the neutral axis of a rec-
tangular cross-section is at mid-depth, and the familiar formulas are
bd 3
Moment of inertia I = 12' stiffness factor = EI (6-41)
I bd 2
Section modulus = - = - for outermost fiber (6-42)
y 6
__y 6M
Bending stress = (J = M- = - for outermost fiber (6-43)
I bd 2
Shear stress =
VQ
hi = 23 bd
V. .
for maximum shear at neutral aXIs (6-44)
For composite materials the neutral axis is not necessarily at the mid-depth point of a
rectangular section and it must first be found:
Neutral axis X = LEi AiXi/LEi Ai (6-45)
in which Ei , Ai, and Xi are the modulus of elasticity, the cross-sectional area (bdi), and
the distance from some reference line, such as the bottom of the cross-section, to the
center of gravity of any particular layer.
11 11
~E
AIEl
A2E2
A,E .!£ -Aa E3
Neutral axis
-
0/2 A4E,
AsEs
(/I) (b)
U)OO"
/I -II
~
~ (1)
:!! ~ is
11
...0 0-r.:::r-~
l8 0
11 1. is '"0
...'"0 ~
c
- r---.~ ---
(2)
"'r.-
_..Q. - - f - - . -
~ __t Neutral
axis
(3) ,
~t fn
is 0 !!It-.... d
It)
...
...
N
is ...~
0
~ ~
0
(4) ......ri: 0
'" It)
"'0=
:3' 0
~ ~
~1 ~ ... 0
II
d
(5)
IF t
1 -I
t (c)
~ lit
....i£
I ::u..
~ IE 10'"
~I~
(d)
Figure 6-49. a) Cross-section of an isotropic beam; b) cross-section of a composite beam made

of layers of different materials; and c) cross-section of a composite beam having properties
indicated.
E1 = 5.0 X lOb psi (11 = 40,000 psi
E2 = 3.0 x lW psi 0"2 = 25,000 psi
E3 = 1.0 X 106 psi (13 = 5,000 psi
E4 = 5.0 X 106 psi (14 = 40,000 psi
Es = 3.0 X 106 psi (15 = 25,000 psi
Stiffness factor = EI = ~Ei Ii (6-46)
in which Ei and Ii are, for any particular layer, the modulus of elasticity and the moment
of inertia about the neutral axis.
Bending stress C1 = MEyytEI (6-47)
in which y is the distance from the neutral axis to any point and Ey is the modulus of
elasticity of the layer at that point. The maximum bending stress does not necessarily
occur at the outermost (top or bottom) fiber, as it does in isotropic materials.
Shear stress T = VQ'thEI (6-48)
in which V is the total shear on the cross-section, T is the shear stress intensity along
some horizontal plane, and Q' is the weighted statical moment EiAiY about the beam's
neutral axis, of the portion of the cross-section between the horizontal plane in question
and the top or bottom outer edge of the cross-section.
An example of the foregoing is illustrated in Figure 6-49(a) in which a composite beam
is made up of five layers having three differential moduli of elasticity, and three different
strengths, as shown.
The neutral axis, found by applying equation 6-45, is 0.415 in. from the bottom of
the cross-section. The distances from the neutral axis to the centers of the individual
layers are computed, and the stiffness factor EI calculated by means of equation 6-46.
This is found to be
EI = LEi Ii = 0.174 X 106 lb. in. 2
Bending stresses are next computed for the top and bottom edges of the cross-section
and the outer edge of each layer; that is, the edge of each layer farther from the neutral
axis. From these the bending moment the cross-section is capable of carrying can be
computed. This may be done, for example, by applying a bending moment M of one in.-
lb. and computing the unit bending stresses. These unit bending stresses, divided into
the strengths of the individual layers, give a series of calculated resisting moments the
smallest of which is the maximum bending moment the beam is capable of carrying
without exceeding the strength of any portion of the cross-section.
For a unit bending moment M = 1 in.-Ib.
EyY
ITy =-
EI
from equation 6-47.
<T
---
Plane y Ey <T/in.-Ih. <Tylin.-Ih. M
a-a 0.385 in. '5 X 106 11.1 psi 40,000/11.1 3,600 in.-Ih.
bob 0.185 in. 3 X 1~ 3.19 psi 25,000/3.19 7,800 in.-Ih.
e-e 0.085 in. 1 X 1~ 0.49 psi 5,000/0.49 10,200 in.-Ih.
dod 0.115 in. I x 106 0.66 psi 5,00010.66 7,600 in.-Ih.
e-e 0.315 in. 5 x 106 9.07 psi 40,000/9.07 4,400 in.-Ih.
f1 0.415 in. 3 X 106 7.16 psi 25,00017 .16 3,500 in.-Ih.
If, for example, the beam were a simple beam carrying a load Won a lO-in. span, as
shown in Figure 6-48, the bending moment at the center of the span would be WLI4.
Setting this equal to 3,500 in.-Ib. gives load Was 1,400 lb. Shear V is then WI2 or 700
lb. Using this value, the shear stress intensity at various horizontal planes in the beam
may be computed by means of equation 6-48.
For planes b-b, c-c, and d-d, for example:
Plane Layers EA, y' Q' T
g
bob 1 0.2 x 5 x 106 0.285" 0.285 x 106 1,150 psi
0.2 x 5 x 106 0.285
e-e 0.326 x 106 1,315 psi
+0.1 x 3 x 106 0.135
0.215
{~
0.2 x 5 x 106
dod 0.324 x 106 1,310 psi
+0.1 x 3 x 106 0.365
These would be the critical planes, because they represent planes between layers of
different materials, and consequently the resin alone would largely carry the stress. The
shear stress at the neutral axis would be slightly higher and might or might not represent
the critical plane, depending upon the structure of the material in layer three.
REGRIND AND RECYCLING

In practically all processing plants it is necessary to reclaim reprocessable TP scrap, flash,
rejected parts, and so on. The reclaiming ofTSs is usually not done, however, since they
cannot be remelted. They can nevertheless be granulated and used as fillers for certain
TS or TP plastics. If possible, the target is to eliminate having a scrap, because it has
already cost money and time to go through the process; granulating just adds more money
and time. Different types of granulators are available, from many different suppliers, and
the selection of a granulator depends on such factors as the type of plastic used, the type
of reinforcement, the product's thickness and shape, and so on. There are some series
units in which subsystem granulators incrementally reduce the size from a large one to
the required small size [10-12, 24].
When reinforced plastics are granulated, the length of their fibers is reduced. When
they are reprocessed, with virgin materials or alone, their process ability and performance
definitely change. So it is important to determine if the change will affect final part
performance; if it will, a limit for the amount of regrind mix should be determined.
An easy "cutting" unit is required, to granulate with minimal friction, as too much
heat will destroy the plastic. The general-purpose types have definite limitations. Blending
with virgin material definitely influences, and can significantly change, the melt-pro-
cessing conditions and the performance of the end product. Recycled material is denser
and usually has a variable-size regrind that could affect a product's properties, as shown
in Figure 6-50 and 6-51.
TenSile strength IASTM 0638·721 Impact strength IASTM 0256·731 Per cent elongation IASTM 012381
12.000
60
460
S/'I,\,i N" Ion
450
10.000 40 440 HOPE
~ 20 200
8000 II
6000
POIYSlyrt' n e
~
;' 11
..e
"160
HOPE i< 120

f
t>
10
0
W
4000 ~
10
~
8 SAN
2000 HOPE 6
SAN
Polystyrene
20 40 60 80 100 a 20 40 60 80 100 a 20 40 60 80 100

Scrap content, % Scrap content. % Scrap cont.nt, %
Figure 6-50. How regrind levels affect the mechanical properties of certain formulations of
plastics "once through" the fabricating process and blended with virgin material. The regrind, or
scrap, amount is a percentage by weight.
Tensile Strength
100
-----j----1 25
95
40
-
.c
90
60
--
en
c 85
!!!
III 80
CI
C
--....
CI
;::: Impact Strength
c
IU 100
IU
c
IU
95 25
U
IU
1:1..
90 40
85
80 ~____~____~__~60
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Number of times molded
(Heat history effects performances)
Figure 6-51. An example of the potential effects of regrinding on the performance of an
injection-molded TP mixed and blended with virgin material.
GUIDE FOR PLASTICS IDENTIFICATION

Throughout this book references are made to different classifications of materials, prod-
ucts, and test specifications and standards. The "References" section at the end of this
book lists the organizations that provide this type of information.
Plastics Classification ASTM D 4000

A "classifying" materials standard for plastics that can serve many of the industry's needs
has been issued for ASTM. This standard, designated D 4000, or ISO 1043, is entitled
"Standard Guide for Identification of Plastic Materials." It provides for an easy means
of identifying plastic materials used in fabricating parts.
Ever since classification systems were adopted years ago for materials such as 1030
steel and elastomers, there has been activity toward issuing this guide. The approach
used follows the ASTM unified classification systems for steel and elastomers.
This guide provides properties tabulated for unfilled, filled, and reinforced plastic
materials that are suitable for all methods of processing into parts. This standard is required
to reduce the growing number of material specifications and the paperwork and man-
hours needed to ensure that parts of known quality are being produced from commercially
available materials. The D 4000 standard will eliminate the many certifications required
for the same material that a processor might have to obtain from several vendors for one
or more customer's.
Table 6-27 provides a basic outline that identifies the D 4000 line callouts (specifi-
cations). The classification system and its subsequent line callouts is intended to be a
means of identifying plastic materials used to fabricate end items or parts. It is not intended
for the selection of materials. Material selection should be made after careful consideration
of the design and performance required of the part, the environment to which it will be
Table 6-26. Characteristics of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polyesters (TS)

Polyester Type Characteristic Typical Uses
General purpose Rigid moldings. Trays, boats, tanks, boxes,

luggage, seating.
Flexible resins and Tough, good impact resistance, high Vibration damping; machine covers
semirigid flexural strength, low flexural and guards, safety helmets,
resins modulus. electronic part encapsulation,
gel coats, patching
compounds, auto bodies,
boats.
Light-stable and Resistant to weather and ultraviolet Structural panels, skylighting,
weather- degradation. glazing.
resistant
Chemical-resistant Highest chemical resistance of Corrosion-resistant applications,
polyester group; excellent acid such as pipe, tanks, ducts,
resistance, fair in alkalies. fume stacks.
Flame-resistant Self-extinguishing, rigid. Building panels (interior),
• electrical components, fuel
tanks.
High heat distortion Service up to 500°F, rigid. Aircraft parts.
Hot strength Fast rate of cure (hot), moldings Containers, trays, housings.
easily removed from die.
Low exotherm Void-free thick laminates, low heat Encapsulating electronic
generated during cure. components, electrical premix
parts-switch-gear.
Extended pot life Void-free uniform, long flow time Large complex moldings.
in mold before gel.
Air dry Cures tack-free at room Pools, boats, tanks.
temperature.
Thixotropic Resists flow or drainage when Boats, pools, tank linings.
applied to vertical surfaces.
exposed, the fabrication process to be employed, the inherent properties of the material
that are not covered in this document, and the various economic factors.
This classification system is based on the fact that plastic materials can be arranged
into broad generic families and then, using their basic properties, arranged into groups,
classes, and grades. A system is thus established that, together with the values describing
additional requirements, permits as complete a description as desired of the selected
material (see Tables 6-28 through 6-32).
Plastic materials are to be classified first on the basis of their broad generic family,
identified by the letter designations shown in Table 6-28. These letters represent the
standard abbreviations for plastics in accordance with ASTM abbreviations for D 1600.
For example, PA indicates polyamide (nylon).
A generic family is based on the broad chemical makeup of its base polymer. By its
designation, certain inherent properties are specified. The generic family is then classified
into groups according to their general chemical composition. These groups are further
subdivided into classes and grades, as shown in the basic property table that applies. The
letter designation applicable is followed by a three-digit number indicating its group,
class, and grade.
The basic property tables have been developed to identify the commercially available
reinforced plastics into groups, classes, and grades. These tables are found in the ASTM
standards listed in D 4000.
Table 6-27. ASTM D 4000 Line Callout

o 2 3 4 5 6
Specific Cell Requirements

Group Broad I Reinforcement % Reinforcement Table I
generic
type I Group Class Grade I Ixxxxxi
Physical Properties
o= One digit for expanded group, as needed.
I = Two or more lette.. identify the generic family, based on Abbreviations D 1600.
2 = Three digits identify the specific chemical group, the modification or use class, and the grade by viscosity or level of modification. A basic
property table will provide property values.
3 = One letter indicates reinforcement type.
4 = Two digits indicate percent of reinforcement.
S = One letter refe.. to a cell table listing of physical specifications and test methods.
6 = Five digits refer to the specific physical parameten listed in the cell table.
The format of this system was prepared to permit the addition of property values for
future plastics. To facilitate the incorporation of future materials, or where the present
families require expanding a basic property table, a number preceding the symbol for the
generic family is used to indicate that additional groups have been added to the table.
This digit, coupled with the first digit after the generic family, indicates the group under
which the material is to be found in the basic property table.
Rubber/Elastomer Classification ASTM D 2000

When D 4000 for plastics was being prepared, D 2000 was used as a guide, since it
provided many years of international experience. ASTM D 2000 has proven a very useful
standard, as previously noted.
Identifying Plastics
To identify a specific plastic, the detailed techniques of characterization available from
different industry laboratories are used, as well as the more conventional chemical analysis
and synthesis methods routinely performed in various laboratories. To provide a quick
way of identifying plastics, refer to Figure 6-52 the following chart. It is only a guide,
not foolproof. A detailed chart would cover a wide range of plastics (see Figure 6-52).
Although the chart may appear to be somewhat formidable at first glance, only three
simple tests are necessary to identify all the plastics shown. No special equipment is
needed-just water, matches, and a hot surface-and the only sensors required are one's
eyes and nose.
The first step is to try to melt the material to determine whether it is a thermoset or a
thermoplastic. This is usually done with a soldering iron, but any implement with a
temperature of approximately 260°C (5000f) could be used. If the material softens, it is
a thermoplastic; if not, it is a thermoset.
If the material is found to be a thermoplastic, the next step is to find out whether its
specific gravity is greater than or less than 1. This is done simply by dropping a sample
in water. If the material floats, its specific gravity is less than 1; if it sinks, its specific
gravity is greater than 1. The thermoplastics that have a specific gravity less than 1 are
the polyeolefins-polypropylene and polyethylene.
The final step for both thermosets and thermoplastics is a burn test, which should, of
course, be performed in a well-ventilated area. The material should be held with pliers
or clamps, and ignited with long wooden matches or a Bunsen burner. If there is only a
small piece of material to test, it is best to break it into several parts, as it might take
several tries to identify the odor and observe the other effects noted on the chart.
The major difficulty in interpreting a bum test is that the bum rate and color of the
flame of many plastics are affected by fillers, fire retardants, and other additives. However,
in most cases the odor is not affected by these additives. It is recommended that you first
perform the tests on a styrene drinking glass, a polyethylene milk bottle, or some other
known plastic. This practice will prove invaluable when it is time to identify an unknown
material.
The identification tests reviewed in this section are only a quick way possibly to get
information about the type of plastic. They should not replace the laboratory analysis
and testing of the material for definitive identification (see Chapter 9).
COMPUTERIZED DATABASES
There are more than fifteen thousand plastics compounds alone, so to review what is
available as well as keeping up with the constantly proliferating new types for a specific
set of design requirements can seem daunting. Nevertheless, with a logical approach to
design and engineering this can be done practically. However, it would probably be
impossible to keep up to date manually even for the veteran. Manual searching capable
of doing the job at an affordable cost has become difficult to arrange for. On-line com-
puterized databases can cut through this information overload by organizing a material's
properties into a manageable format. Such programs not only significantly reduce time
but also present a host of new options.
Besides doing a relatively fast, efficient materials search on what is available today,
some databases also offer integration with CAD/CAE/CAM systems to support processing,
finite element analysis, and other programs. See Appendix D for information on the
databases available. To make the databases more practical and useful, major international
agreements are being arrived at to set uniform methods for sample preparation and test
methods. Basically, numerous test standards exist that in many cases are either not in
accord with each other or are so only regionally [528-36].
In order to meet the rising demand for information by the economy, industry, and
research interests, about four thousand databases are available worldwide. Nearly all
supply technical literature, economic information, patent references, and manufacturers'
addresses. Materials databases with numerical values are a relatively small part of these
programs. Because the majority of these databases are from individual manufacturers of
plastics, there is only limited comprehensive, neutral information on most materials.
The German federalist ministries of the Economy and of Research and Technology
recognized this situation and during the 1980s launched programs to assist in the devel-
opment of comprehensive factual databases. Within this framework, the Deutsches Kunst-
I PLASTICS MATERIALSJ
Softens I
I Thermoplastics Press a soldering iron I Thermo.ts J
or a hot rod (SOO°F)
against the sample I
Burn a small corner of the sample
I I
Self-extinguishing I I Continues to burn I
Floats Drop a small I Sinks
Melamine Phenol
I
::~rlein I Urea
~81 Oap Polyester Silicone Epoxy
Observation formaldehydo formaldehyde formaldehyde
Yellow with Yellow with Yellow with Bright
Color of flame Vellow Yellow Yellow
blue tip greenish blue edge blue edges yellow
I All others I Faint odor Sour Pungent
Odor Fish like Phenol Formaldehyde None
of phenol cinnamon amine
Other Black Swells and Mayor may not Swells and Black smoke Contin:Jes Black
~ characteristics smoke cracks be self-exiting cracks with soot to burn smoke
I Burn a small corner of the sample Self-extinguishing I

I I
I No flames I I Continues to burn I
ASS Acrylics Nylon
Acetals Polycarbonate
PTFE Cellulose acetate PPO
CTFE Cellu lose acetate butyrate Polysulfone
PVF Cellulose propionate PVC
FEP Cellu lose nitrate
Polystyrene
Polyurethane
Drips 'Dri';;;"
~.-
Ves No Ves
ciJ ® ~
pp Collulo.. Collulo. Collulose Poly· Collula .. Poly· Poly· Poly·
~I PE FEP CTFE PTFE PVF ABS Acetal acotate Poly_r Nylon PPO PVC
acotate butyrate propionate styrene nitrate urothan sulfone carbonate
Observations
Blue with Blue with Blue with Yellow Yellow Yellow Blue with Orange Yellow
Pale Yellowish
Color of flame yellow yellow ... . .. . .. yellow Blue with with blue Yellow Yellow with blue Yellow yellow Orange or with green
yellow orange
tip tip edges sparks tip edges tip yellow ~ges
Acrid or Rancid Illuminating Burnt Odor Hydro-
Burnt Acetic Burnt Formalde· Burnt Burning Faint
Odor Paraffin diesel Acidic Acrid Vinegar gas or Camphor wool of Phenol Phenol chloric
hair acid hair hyde butter sugar rubber apple
fumes marigold or hair sulphur acid
Speed of burning
slow < 3 inches Fast Slow ... ... . .. Slow Slow Slow Slow Fast Fast Fast Fast Fast Slow Fast Slow Slow Slow
fast> 3 per min.
Black Black Some Some Dense Black Sample Slight Black Black Difficult
Other Melts No White
... ... . .. " smoke smoke smoke black smoke smoke burns black Froths smoke smoke to ignite
characteristics & drips smoke smoke
with soot with soot with soot smoke with soot with soot completely smoke with soot with soot smoke
\1'1
N
<.C Figure 6-52. Identification Procedures for Representative Plastics.
Table 6-28. Standard Symbols for Generic Families, with Referenced Standards
and Cell Tables
Suggested Reference
Cell Tables for
Materials Without an
ASTM Standard
Standard ASTM
Symbol Plastic Family Standard Unfilled Filled
ABS Acrylonitrilelbutadiene/styrene D---

AMMA Acrylonitrile/methylmethacrylate E
ASA Acrylonitrile/styrene/acrylate E
CA Cellulose acetate D 706
CAB Cellulose acetate butyrate D 707
CAP Cellulose acetate propionate E D
CE Cellulose plastics, general E D
CF Cresol formaldehyde H H
CMC Carboxymethyl cellulose E
CN Cellulose nitrate E D
CP Cellulose propionate D 1562
CPE Chlorinated polyethylene F
CS Casein H H
CTA Cellulose triacetate E D
CTFE Polymonochlorotrifluoroethylene
DAP Poly(diallyl phthalate) H H
EC Ethyl cellulose E D
EEA Ethylene/ethyl acrylate F
EMA Ethylene/methacrylic acid F
EP Epoxy, epoxide H H
EPD Ethylene/propylene/diene
EPM Ethylene/propylene polymer F D
ETFE Ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer
EVA Ethylene/vinyl acetate F
FEP Perfluoro (ethylene-propylene) copolymer
FF Furan formaldehyde H H
IPS Impact styrene (See PS)
MF Melamine-formaldehyde H H
PA Polyamide (nylon) D4066
PAl Polyamide-imide G G
PARA Polyaryl amide
... etc.
stoffinstitut (DKI; German Plastics Institute) established the materials database called
Polymat. This program brings greater availability into a plastics market in which a general
perspective is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain. This database contains information
on plastics, supplying about thirty to fifty properties for each material. At present some
six thousand plastics, from about seventy manufacturers, are stored.
The concept of the Polymat database was based on the following criteria: 1) the database
is neutral, independent of raw-material manufacturers; 2) anyone can use the database;
3) all the products on the European market should, if possible, be included; 4) since
testing is carried out in accordance with a variety of different international standards, the
relevant standard, as well as the testing conditions, should be registered; 5) during the
Table 6-29. Reinforcement-Filler Symbols and Tolerances
Symbol Material Tolerance
C Carbon and graphite fiber-reinforced ± 2 Percentage points

G Glass reinforced ± 2 Percentage points
L Lubricants (i.e., TFE, graphite, By agreement between the
silicone, and molybdenum supplier and the user
disulfide)
M Mineral reinforced ± 2 Percentage points
R Reinforced-combinations/mixtures ± 3 Percentage points (based on
or reinforcements or other the total reinforcement)
fillers/reinforcements
Table 6-30. Suffix Symbols and Requirements

Symbol Characteristic
A Color (unless otherwise shown by suffix, color is understood to be natural)

Second letter A = does not have to match a standard
B = must match standard
Three-digit number 001 = color and standard number on drawing
002 = color on drawing
B Not assigned
C Melting point-softening point
Second letter A = ASTM D 789 (Fisher-Johns)
B = ASTM D 1525 Rate A (Vicat)
C = ASTM D 1525 Rate B (Vicat)
D = ASTM D 3418 (Transition temperature DSC/DTA)
E = ASTM D 2116 (Fisher-Johns-high temperature)
Three-digit number = minimum value °C
D Deformation under load
Second letter A = ASTM D 621, Method A
B = ASTM D 621, Method B
First digit 1 = total deformation
2 = recovery
Second and third digit x factor of 0.1 (deformation) = % min.
1 (recovery)
E Electrical
Second letter A = dielectric strength (short-time), per ASTM D 149
Three-digit number x factor of 0.1 = kV/mm, min.
B = dielectric strength (step by step), per ASTM D 149
Three-digit number x factor of 0.1 = kV/mm, min.
D = dielectric constant at 1 MHz, per ASTM D 150, max.
Three-digit number x factor of 0.1 = value
E = dissipation factor at 1 MHz, per ASTM D 150, max.
Three-digit number x factor of 0.0001 = value
F = arc resistance, ASTM D 495, min.
Three-digit number = value
[Other methods under review, per ASTM D 257 and D 1531)
F Flammability
Second letter A = per ASTM D 635 (burning rate)
000 = to be specified by user
B = per ASTM D 2863 (oxygen index)
Three-digit number = value %, max .
. . . etc
531
IN
""N
Table 6-31. Cell Table G Detail Requirements*

Designation
Order Cell Limits
Number Property
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tensile strength, per ASTM D 638, Unspecified 15 40 65 85 110 135 160 185 Specify
MPa, min.! (psi) (2,100) (5,800) (9,400) (12,000) (16,000) (19,600) (23,200) (26,800) value
2 Flexural modulus, per ASTM Unspecified 600 3,500 6,500 10,000 13,000 16,000 19,000 22,000 Specify
D 790, MPa, min.! (kipS/in.2) (87) (510) (940) (1,400) (l,89O) (2,300) (2,800) (3,200) value
3 Izod impact per ASTM D 256, Unspecified 15 30 50 135 270 425 670 950 Specify
JIm, min. 2 value
4 Deflection (temperature, per ASTM Unspecified 130 160 200 230 260 300 330 360 Specific
D 648, 1820 kPa), °C, min. (266) (320) (392) (446) (500) (572) (626) (680) value
("F)
5 To be determined Unspecified
*Other cell tables are in 0 4000.

'MPa x 145 = psi.
2J/m x 18.73 x J()-3 = ft.·lbf.lin.
Table 6-32. Data Developed Based on ASTM D 4000

Tensile Impact
Tensile Modulus FlexuaJ Strength
Strength Strength Flame
106 ft· Hardness, Rating,
Material MPa ksi GPa psi MPa ksi 11m lbf.lin. Rockwell UL94
ABS 41 6.0 2.3 0.33 72.4 10.5 347 6.5 RI03 HB

ABS-PC 59 8.5 2.6 0.38 89.6 13.0 560 10.5 R1l7 HB
DAP 48 7.0 10.3 1.50 117 17.0 37 0.7 E80 HB
POM 69.0 10.0 3.2 0.47 98.6 14.3 133 2.5 RI20 HB
PMMA 72.4 10.5 3.0 0.43 110 16.0 21 0.4 M68 HB
PAR 68 9.9 2.1 0.30 82.7 12.0 288 5.4 R122 HB
LCP 120 17.5 11.0 1.60 124 18.0 101 1.9 R80 VO
MF 52 7.5 9.65 1.40 93.1 13.5 16 0.3 M120 VO
Nylon 6 81.4 11.8 2.76 0.40 113 16.4 59 1.1 R119 V2
Nylon 6/6 82.7 12.0 2.83 0.41 110 16.0 53 1.0 R121 V2
Nylon 12 81.4 11.8 2.3 0.34 113 16.4 64 1.2 R122 V2
PAE 121 17.6 8.96 1.30 138 20.0 64 1.2 M85 VO
PBT 52 7.5 2.3 0.34 82.7 12.0 53 1.0 R117 HB
PC 69.0 10.0 2.3 0.34 96.5 14.0 694 13.0 R1l8 V2
PBT-PC 55 8.0 2.2 0.32 86.2 12.5 800 15.0 R1l5 HB
PEEK 93.8 13.6 3.5 0.51 110 16.0 59 1.1 R120 VO
PEl 105 15.2 3.0 0.43 152 22.0 53 1.0 MI09 VO
PESV 84.1 12.2 2.6 0.38 129 18.7 75 1.4 M88 VO
PET 159 23.0 8.96 1.30 245 35.5 101 1.9 R120 HB
PF 41 6.0 5.9 0.85 62 9.0 21 0.4 MI05 HB
PPO 54 7.8 2.5 0.36 88.3 12.8 267 5.0 R1l5 VO
PPS 138 20.0 11.7 1.70 179 26.0 69 1.3 R123 VO
PSU 73.8 10.7 2.5 0.36 106 15.4 64 1.2 M69 HB
SMA 31 4.5 1.9 0.27 55 8.0 133 2.5 R95 HB
UP 41 6.0 5.5 0.80 82.7 12.0 32 0.6 M88 HB
search, all properties should be capable of being linked with one another as desired; and
6) the sources used for the database are the technical data sheets and additional information
supplied by raw-material manufacturers, and various lectures, pUblications, and measured
data from different institutes.
In order for such an extensive project to remain manageable, certain requirements were
necessary. Initially the data were confined to TPs, TSs, TPEs, and casting resins. To be
included in this group were the TSEs, composites, foams, semifinished products, and
others. Polymat'completed its initial work in 1989. New plastics products on the market
and updated additional information on existing products will continue to be added. Data
no longer available are still accessible to the user in a memory file.
Each plastic in this database is first characterized by descriptive data such as its trade
name, manufacturer, product group, form of supply, or additives. Then follows complex
technical information on each material, with details of fields of application, recommended
processing techniques, and special features. The central element of this material database
is the numerical values it gives on a wide range of mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical,
and other properties. All these items can be searched for individually or in the combination
of properties that was the subject of the enquiry.
A number of material suppliers offer information on their products on floppy discs for
use on personal computers. One especially important one, called Campus, is a database
concept started by four German material manufacturers who use a uniform software. This
database, developed jointly by BASF, Bayer, Hoechst, and Hulls, provides for other
manufacturers to join later. It is given in the form of diskettes in German, English, French,
Italian, or Spanish. Each diskette contains the uniform test and evaluation program and
the range of the respective material producers. It runs on IBM-compatible personal
computers under the MS-DOS operating system [528, 536].
In order to understand the possibilities of these two databases, a comparison can be
made of a central database like Polymat and Campus as an example of one from man-
ufacturers.
The Polymat central database provides the following: 1) all the products of the various
firms represented on the European market are included; 2) the search is independent of
the manufacturers and can be performed for all the products of all the manufacturers; 3)
available are not only the values contained in the list of basic values but other data
specified in such standards as DIN, ASTM, and BS (although a search can nevertheless
be confined to products whose data conform to the list of basic values); 4) the information
is presented only once and is then maintained centrally; and 5) a selection can be made
between a greater number of materials and manufacturers.
The manufacturers' database, Campus, provides use that is free of charge and no
charges for data transmission. The actual value of the table of basic values described in
Campus lies in its effect on the standardization and streamlining of testing. In the long
term, the nonparticipants in the material market will not be able to remain outside this
development.
This comparison shows how these two electronic information systems are not com-
parable, because they pursue completely different objectives. The material manufacturers'
databases provide information on products whose manufacturer and product class are
already known. Polymat also gives information if the manufacturer and product class are
not known, but only if the requirements with regard to the material can be described.
Polymat can also be used if a replacement material !s being sought for a product that can
no longer be supplied. Furthermore, Polymat is also capable, for example, of answering
the question of possible manufacturers of nylon 6, or of how many different nylon 6
grades an individual manufacturer can supply. If only the trade name is known, its
manufacturer or distributor in Europe can be traced. This is especially important in the
case of foreign products sold by a trading company under the same trade name.
When Polymat was being established, it was necessary to decide on whether to charge
the material manufacturer but not the user, or make no charge to the manufacturer but
charge the user. DKI chose not to charge the user.
Neither database generally offers the possibility of integrating into it the greater number
of values and test data that may already be established by users or processors. These
organizations have data for their own internal use, and their goal has been to integrate
all these types of data sources. Such in-house databases are at present available under
operating system BS 2000 and in conjunction with the database software known as Adabas.
With regard to the common European market, the European Economic Community
(EEC) has undertaken numerous activities concerned with materials and material infor-
mation systems. In one demonstration program for material databases eleven such da-
tabases from various countries in the EEC are being cooperatively developed with joint
standards for terminology, data presentation, database access, and the user interface of
search commands, aids, and menus. For the materials class of plastics, Polymat was
selected to participate in this cooperative work. Interesting developments will no doubt
occur from which the users of central material databases in the entire EEC area can
benefit.
SELECTION WORKSHEETS
Selecting an optimal material for a given part must obviously be based on analysis of
the requirements to be met. A simplified approach involves comparing the specific service
requirements to the potential properties of a plastic. What follows is a simplified but
practical material-selection approach. This "longhand" system, which is a basis of the
fastest computerized databases, follows these steps: 1) select the design criteria from a
worksheet (see Table 6-33) and check off only the major criteria across the worksheet,
keeping it simple but realistic; 2) refer to the selection chart (see Table 6-34) and transfer
the bold-faced numerical rating in each selected criteria column to the worksheet; for
example, if toughness is one criterion, list 6, 4, I, 2, 4, and 2 on the worksheet from
top to bottom in the toughness column; 3) add up the numbers across the worksheet in
Table 6-33 to the "point subtotal" column to find the resin group with the lowest-point
subtotal, which will be the best for a given application on a performance basis; 4) add
in the cost factor and total it, to find again the resin group with the lowest number, again
the best for the application on a cost-performance basis. Finally, repeat the first four
steps, but this time use the small numbers on the selector chart in Table 6-34 and only
for the resin group that was found to be the best. The resin with the lowest final total
will be the best for the application on a cost-performance basis.
Such a selector worksheet can include specifically what the designer requires, with
appropriate numerical ratings. Tables 6-35 and 6-36 provide examples of how to use
these simplified worksheets in evaluating two different products.
SELECTING MATERIALS
The material information and data presented in this chapter and other sections have
provided a variety of useful selection guides. The following section elaborates on some
of the data seen earlier. These tables and figures present general overall data, ratings,
and guides concerning different properties. It should.be remembered that the values given
here and elsewhere in this book are representative rather than precise. These values vary
depending on the type of material, the manufacturing process, and the condition and
method of testing. Thus, for example, the tensile strength of a PC given in one table
could be quite different from that in another table. The procedure to follow is to properly
identify a plastic, usually by its manufacturer's name, its trade name, the manufacturer's
grade or identification listing, and by what its data sheet says about its properties, the
goal being to have minimum and maximum values.
The data presented in this book are not intended to be used as a substitute for more
up-to-date and accurate information on the specific plastics. Such details can be obtained
from in-house sources, testing laboratories, and various institutions or the material's
supplier. The data here are provided instead as a comparative guide to help in under-
standing the performance of plastics and in making the decisions that must be made when
developing a logical approach to design when compromises have to be made [1, 10-12,
40,62-64,99,249,262,278, 386,444,485,497,519-36].
Table 6-33. Selection Worksheet (Courtesy ICI-LNP)
W
'"
0\ Strength Short-Teno Long-Teno Environ- Dimensional Wear and
Material and Heat Heat mental Accuracy in Dimensional Frictional Point Point
Characteristics Stiffness Toughness Resistmce Resistance Resistance Molding Stability Properties Subtotal Cost Total
G/R Criteria
Resin
~ Groups
Styrenics
ABS
SAN
Polystyrene
Olefins
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Other Crystalline
Resins
Nylons
6
6/6
6/10, 6/12
Polyester
Polyacetal
Arylates
Modified PPO
Polycarbonate
Polysulfone
Polyethersulfone
High Temp. Resins
PPS
Polyamide-imide
Auorocarbons
PEP
ETFE -- _.- _.- _. --- -- - L ... - ----
RabngS: I-most desirable; 6-1easl desirable. Large numbers indicate group classification. small numbers the specific: MSins within thai group.
Strength and stiffness: The ability to resist instantaneous applications of load while exhibiting a low level of strain. Materials that demonstrate a proportionality between SlIcss and strain have been assigned better
relative ratings.
Toughness: 1bc ability 10 withstand impacting at high strain rates.
Short-tcnn heal resistance: The abilily to withstand CII:POSUrc 10 elevated IcrnpcralUreS for a limited period of lime wilhout distortion.
Long·tcrm heal reslslance: The ability to relaID a high level of room-temperature mechanical properties after exposure to elevated temperature for a sustaincd period.
Environmental resistance: The ablhty to withstand exposure to solvents and chemicals.
Dimensional accuracy in molding: The ability to produce warpfrce, high-tolerancc molded parts.
DimensIOnal stability: 'The ability to maintain the molded dimensions ariel exposure to a broad ransc of temperatures and environments.
Wear and frictional propenies: The ability of the plastic to resist removal of material when run against a mating metal surface. The lower the frictional values. Ihc better the relatIve rating.
Cosl: 'The relative cost per cubic inch.
Table 6-34. Glass-Reinforced TP Compound Selection Chart (Courtesy ICI-LNP)
Strength Short-Term Long-Term Environ- Dimensional Wear and

Resin and Heat Heat mental Accuracy Dimensional Frictional
Groups Stiffness Toughness Resistance Resistance Resistance in Molding Stability Properties Cost
Styrenics
ABS 2 I I 1 1 3 2 3
SAN 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
Polystyrene 3 3 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 2 1 3 5 2 6 ;2
Olefins
Polyethylene 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2
Polypropylene 5 1 4 1 4 1 5 1 3 1 5 1 5 1 3 !1
Other Crystalline
Resins
Nylons
6 2 2 2 2 5 1 4 3 1
616 I 3 1 1 4 2 3 2 2
6110,6112 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 3
Polyester 4 4 2 1 2 2 1 4
Polyacetal 5 1 5 1 5 2 2 4 1 4 3 4 2 4 1 2 :3
Arylates
Modified PPO 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 1
Polycarbonate 2 1 3 3 4 1 3 3
Polysulfone 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
Polyethersulfone 3 3 2 1 3 1 3 1 5 3 1 1 2 2• 4 !4
High Temp. Resins
PPS I 2 2 2 1 1 2 2
Polyamide-imide 2 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 4 1 1 1 4 !5
Fluorocarbons
FEP 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1
c.n ETFE 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2
w 6 2 2 1 1 6 6 1 ~6
'I
Ratings: I-most desiJable; 6-least desiJable. Large numbers indicate group classification, small numbers the specific ",sins within Ibat group.
\11 Table 6-35. Gasoline-powered Chain-saw Housing: Approach Resulting in Selection of Nylon 6/6 or 6
W
CD
Strength Short-Tenn Long-Tenn Environ- Dimensional Wear and
Material and Heat Heat mental Accuracy Dimensional Frictional Point Point
Characteristics Stiffness Toughness Resistance Resistance Resistance in Molding Stability Properties Subtotal Cost Total
GIR.. Criteria X X X X
Resm
Groups
~
Styrenics
ADS
SAN 3 6 6 6 21 2 23
Polystyrene
Olefins
Polyethylene 5 4 4 3 16 1 17
Polypropylene
Other Crystalline
Resins
Nylons
6 2 2 2 5
616 I 1 3 1 I 2 4 4 I! 8 ~ 3 :~ 11
6110,6112 3 I 3 3 10 4 14
Polyester 4 4 2 2 12 I 13
Polyacetal 5 5 5 I 16 I 17
Arylates
ModifiedPPO
Polycarbonate
Polysulfone
3 2 3 5 13 4 17
Polyethersulfone
High Temp. Resins

PPS
Polyamide-imide 2 4 1 2 9 5 14
Fluorocarbons
FEP
ETFE 6 2 2 1 11 6 17
Table 6-36. Impeller for Chemical-handling Pump: Approach Resulting in Selection of PPS
Strength Short-Term Long-Term Environ- Dimensional Wear and
Material and Heat Heat mental Accuracy Dimensional Frictional Point Point
Characteristics Stiffness Toughness Resistance Resistance Resistance in Molding Stability Properties Subtotal Cost Total
Design
G/R Criteria
Resin
x x x x
Groups
Styrenics
ABS
SAN
3 6 6 6 21 2 23
Polystyrene
Olefins
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
5 4 5 3 17 1 18
Other Crystalline
Resins
Nylons
6
6/6
6/10,6/12
1 2 4 4 11 3 14
Polyester
Polyacetal
Arylates
Modified PPO
Polycarbonate
Polysulfone
3 3 3 5 14 4 18
Polyethersulfone
High Temp. Resins

PPS 2 2 1
Polyamide-imide ~ 2 1 1 1 2 2 ~6 ~5 ~ 11
Fluorocarbons
FEP
Ion
W EfFE 6 2 1 1 10 6 16
..0
The information that follows is categorized by certain main subjects; however, some
of the data in one specific subject will also come under other subjects as selection guides:
Mechanical properties ofunrein/orced and reinforced plastics: See Figures 6-53-59 and
Table 6-37-39.
Temperature properties: See Figures 6-60-66 and Tables 6-40-48.
Chemical properties: See Figure 6-67 and Tables 6-49-51.
Other properties: See Figure 6-68 and Tables 6-52-56.
Other parts of this book contain selection guides that may also prove useful, such as
some figures in Chapters 1 and 3 and a number of tables in Chapters 2 and 3.
SELECTING MATERIALS UNDER DYNAMIC LOADING

Hysteresis Measurement Gives Dynamic Characteristics
One objective of the dynamic testing of materials and components, in addition to deter-
mining the number of cycles to break, is to establish the causes and pattern of failure.
Normally, in such tests the stress and strain (extension) are measured and an elastic
modulus derived from these values. However, this can be only the initial step in the
direction of developing a complete description of the failure pattern. This analysis is
based on the work by F. Orth and G. W. Ehrenstein Kassel [300].
One method that has been developed for measuring hysteresis during a dynamic test
allows for four different paraqteters to be determined simultaneously: stresses, extensions
(strains), stiffnesses, and the mechanical energy involved. These factors are determined
separately for the tension and compression phases, enabling a finely differentiated analysis
of the behavior of the material. In addition, the damping factor can be calculated from
measuring the stored energy and the energy loss, f<,lr both linear and nonlinear viscoelastic
behavior.
If the dynamic behavior of a material or a component must be guaranteed, the material
and its processing conditions are normally subject to continuous checking to ensure that
the properties do not vary. The better way, of monitoring the dynamic properties directly,
is confronted with the current high cost of testing. The hysteresis measurement procedure
offers the possibility of obtaining the maximum of information on the dynamic behavior
of a material or a component in a very short time.
Characteristics: Definition and Calculation

To determine the values of material characteristics, the stress and extension signals are
plotted against each other. Damping (mechanical loss) in a material causes a phase shift
between strain and stress. When the two signals are superimposed, a hysteresis diagram
is obtained on which four different characteristic quantities can be defined: stresses, strains,
elastic moduli, and mechanical losses.
The maximum and minimum stresses and strains can be read straight off the diagram
(see Figure 6-69). The upper path of the stress from Eu to Eo is indicated by the upper
curve, (1ok(E), and the lower one correspondingly by the curve, (1uk(E).
The mean curve (1mk results from these two as
(6-49)
Special significance attaches to the intersection of the middle curve with the mean value
of stress,
(6-50)
since it defines the origin of the relative coordinate system. The extension at this point
is the mean extension Em, which is a measure of the creep of the material under load.
During loading the test sample takes in energy; this is not all recovered on unloading.
The difference, which is the energy loss Wv , corresponds to the area enclosed by the
curve (see Fig. 6-70, left):
(6-51)
The stored energy is obtained from the surface area between the middle or mean curve
and the mean stress (see Fig. 6-70, right):
Ws =f <Tmk • dE (6-52)
By means of the relative coordinate system, division of the total energy into upper and
lower energy (index 0 and u) can be undertaken. The ratio of lost energy to stored energy
is the relevant damping A.
A = Wv u
(6-53)
u Ws u
(6-54)
A = Wv g
(6-55)
g Ws g
If the material is linear-viscoelastic, there is a pha~e difference, 8, between the extension

and the stress, and the hysteresis diagram takes the form of an ellipse. Equations 6-51,
6-52, and 6-53 can in this case be solved analytically:
Wv = 1T • {1 • E • sin 8 (6-56)
Ws = {1 • E + cos 8 (6-57)
(6-58)
where {1 and E are the stress and strain amplitudes, respectively.

In equation 6 the energies and the damping are angular functions. On the other hand
the definition of energies according to 6-51 and 6-52 has the advantage that it is valid
for both linear-viscoelastic materials and nonlinear-viscoelastic materials. Damping-the
quotient of energy loss to energy stored-is dimensionless and independent of stress and
strain.
Table 6-37. Guide for Selecting Glass Fiber
I.n
to.) Tensile Flexural Impact
"'" Modulus,
Tensile Modulus, Compressive Strength,
Glass-fiber Specific Strength, Tensile GPa", Flexural GPa", Strength, Izod Notched,
Content, Gravity, MPa", Elongation, (kips/in2) Strength, (kips/in2) MPa", (psi) J/m b 0 256
Plastic wt% 0792 (psi) 0 638 %,0638 0638 MPa", (psi) 0 790 0790 0695 (ft-lbf/in.)
ABS 10 1.10 65 (9,400) 3.0 4.6 (670) 102 (14,800) 4.5 (650) 83 (12,000) 64 (1.2)
20 1.22 76 (11,000) 2.0 5.1 (740) 107 (15,500) 4.9 (710) 97 (14,000) 59 (1.1)
30 1.28 90 (13,000) 1.4 6.3 (910) 116 (16,800) 6.4 (930) 104 (15,100) 53 (0.99)
acetal 10 1.54 72 (10,400) 2.4 6.6 (960) 107 (15,500) 6.1 (880) 69 (10,000) 53 (0.99)
30 1.63 83 (12,000) 2.0 7.7 (1,100) 114 (16,500) 7.2 (1,050) 81 (11,700) 43 (0.80)
nylon-6 15 1.25 104 (15,000) 4.0 5.9 (860) 159 (23,000) 5.4 (780) 97 (14,000) 80 (1.5)
30 1.37 166 (24,000) 3.0 7.2 (1,050) 200 (29,000) 6.9 (1,000) 166 (24,100) 117 (2.19)
nylon-6,6 13 1.23 97 (14,000) 4.0 6.2 (900) 173 (25,100) 4.5 (650) 93 (13,500) 53 (0.99)
30 1.37 173 (25,100) 3.0 9.0 (1,300) 235 (34,100) 9.0 (1,300) 186 (27,000) 107 (2.00)
nylon-6, 12 30 1.30 135 (19,600) 4.0 8.3 (1,200) 193 (28,000) 7.6 (1,100) 138 (20,000) 117 (2.19)
polycarbonate 10 1.26 83 (12,000) 9.0 5.2 (750) 110 (16,000) 4.1 (590) 97 (14,000) 107 (2.00)
30 1.43 121 (17,500) 2.0 8.6 (1,250) 141 (20,400) 6.9 (1,000) 117 (17,000) 128 (2.40)
polyester, thermoplastic 30 1.52 131 (19,000) 4.0 8.3 (1,200) 193 (28,000) 7.9 (1,100) 124 (18,000) 96 (1.8)
polyethylene 10 1.04 36 (5,200) 4.0 2.5 (360) 46 (6,700) 2.5 (360) 35 (5,100) 75 (1.4)
30 1.18 59 (8,600) 3.0 5.0 (720) 89 (12,900) 4.9 (710) 41 (5,900) 91 (\.7)
poly(phenylene oxide), 20 1.21 100 (14,500) 5.0 6.4 (930) 128 (18,600) 5.2 (750) 121 (17,500) 96 (1.8)
modified
poly(phenylene sulfide) 40 1.64 152 (22,000) 3.0 14.1 (2,050) 255 (37,000) 13.0 (1,900) 145 (21,000) 80 (1.5)
polypropylene 10 0.98 43 (6,200) 4.0 2.5 (360) 54 (7,800) 2.4 (350) 41 (5,900) 43 (0.81)
20 1.04 45 (6,500) 3.0 3.7 (540) 57 (8,300) 3.6 (320) 45 (6,500) 59 (1.1)
30 1.12 47 (6,800) 2.0 4.4 (640) 63 (9,100) 4.3 (620) 47 (6,800) 69 (1.3)
polypropylene, 10 0.98 50-59 (7,200- 4.0 3.7 (540) 72-94 (10,400- 3.5 (510) 43-44 (6,200- 64-75 (1.2-1.4)
chemically coupled 8,600) 13,600) 6,400)
20 1.04 57-68 (8,300- 3.0 3.9 (570) 81-106 (11,700- 3.7 (540) 44-47 (6,400- 69-80 (1.3-1. 5)
9,900) 15,400) 6,800)
30 1.12 68-83 (9,900- 2.0 4.6 (670) 90-131 (13,000- 4.6 (670) 45--48 (6,500- 69-91 (1.3-\.7)
12,000) 19,000) 7,000)
polystyrene
high heat copolymer 20 1.22 90 (13,000) 1.2 8.3 (1,200) 131 (19,000) 7.9 (1,100) 110 (16,000) 59 (1.1)
high heat terpolymer 30 1.35 83 (12,000) 1.8 6.5 (940) 123 (17,800) 5.7 (830) 76 (11,000) 80 (1.5)
polysulfone 20 1.38 97 (14,000) 2.5 6.0 (870) 138 (20,000) 5.9 (860) 124 (18,000) 64 (1.2)
40 1.55 124 (18,000) 1.5 11.6 (1,680) 173 (25,100) 10.7 (1,550) 138 (20,000) 80 (1.5)
polyurethane 10 1.22 33 (4,800) 48.0 0.7 (100) 43 (6,200) 0.6 (90) 35 (5,100) 747 (14.0)
PVC 20 1.58 97 (14,000) 3.0 0.8 (116) 145 (21,000) 6.9 (1,000) 83 (12,000) 80 (1.5)
SAN 20 1.22 100 (14,500) 1.8 8.6 (1,250) 131 (19,000) 7.6 (1,100) 121 (17,500) 64 (1.2)
35 1.35 110 (16,000) 1.4 10.4 (1,510) 155 (22,500) 9.3 (1,350) 45 (6,500) 53 (0.99)
"To convert MPa to psi, mUltiply by 145; to convert GPa to psi, multiply by 145,000.
"To convert Jim to ft·lbf/in., divide by 53.38.
Coefficient of
Linear Thennal Dielectric
Heat-deflection Expansion, Maximum Water Volume Strength, Mold
Glass-fiber Temp at 1.7 MPa", 10-" em/cdC Temp, Absorption, Resistivity, Dry, Shrinkage,
Content, WI "C, ("I') (10-5 in.lin. "1'), Continuous 24h, %, O-cm, V/fLm , em/em,
Plastic % D 648 D 696 Use,oC D 570 D 257 D 149 D 955
ABS 10 98 (20S) 4.1 (2.3) 77 (171) 0.3 10" 17.7 0.003

20 99 (210) 3.S (2.1) 82 (180) 0.3 10 1• 18.3 0.002
30 100 (212) 3.1 (1.7) 82 (180) 0.2 101• 18.9 0.002
Acetal 10 124 (255) 5.2 (2.9) 110 (230) 0.22 101• 20.0 0.006
30 163 (325) 4.3 (2.4) 127 (261) 0.2 10 1• 18.9 0.005
nylon-6 15 196 (385) 3.1 (1.7) 93 (199) 1.8 10 15 16.5 0.007
30 204 (399) 2.7 (1.5) 110 (230) 1.3 1015 16.1 0.004
nylon-6,6 13 246 (475) 2.7 (1.5) 107 (225) 1.0 101• 20.9 0.007
30 252 (486) 2.3 (1.3) 127 (261) 0.9 101• 19.7 0.004
nylon-6,12 30 199 (390) 2.2 (1.2) 110 (230) 0.2 1013 19.7 0.004
polycarbonate 10 138 (280) 3.2 (1.8) 127 (261) 0.14 1015 17.3 0.005
30 143 (289) 2.3 (1.3) 132 (270) 0.12 10 15 18.9 0.003
polyester, thermoplastic 30 213 (415) 2.5 (1.4) 121 (250) 0.06 10 1• 23.6 0.003
polyethylene 10 110 (230) 5.4 (3.0) 82 (180) 0.08 10 1• 26.8 0.005
30 124 (255) 3.8 (2.1) 93 (199) 0.06 10 1• 24.0 0.003
poly(phenylene oxide), 20 143 (289) 3.6 (2.0) 116 (241) 0.06 10 17 16.5 0.003
modified
poly(phenylene sulfide) 40 266 (511) 2.0 (1.1) 232 (450) 0.01 101• 20.0 0.002
polypropylene 10 127 (261) 4.7 (2.6) 82 (180) 0.05 10 1• 17.3 0.007
20 132 (270) 4.3 (2.4) 88 (190) 0.05 10 1• 17.3 0.006
30 138 (280) 3.8 (2.1) 99 (210) 0.04 101• 16.5 0.006
polypropylene, chemically 10 135-141 (275-286) 4.5 (2.5) 93 (199) 0.05 10 1• 16.9 0.006
coupled
20 142-146 (288-298) 4.1 (2.3) 110 (230) 0.04 101• 16.7 0.006
30 146-149 (295-300) 3.6 (2.0) 121 (250) 0.04 101• 16.7 0.006
polystyrene
high heat copolymer 20 116 (241) 4.0 (2.2) 104 (219) 0.28 101• 15.7 0.003
high heat terpolymer 30 149 (300) 3.6 (2.0) 116 (241) 0.10 101• 15.7 0.002
polysulfone 20 179 (354) 2.7 (1.5) 163 (325) 0.2 101• 19.7 0.004
40 185 (365) 2.3 (1.3) 171 (340) 0.18 101• IS.9 0.002
VI polyurethane 10 54 (129) 6.1 (3.4) 43 (109) 0.4 1012 15.0 0.007
olio PVC 20 82 (ISO) 4.1 (2.3) 66 (151) 0.09 1013 16.5 0.002
w
SAN 20 102 (216) 3.8 (2.1) 82 (180) 0.24 101• 19.3 0.002
35 104 (219) 2.9 (1.6) 88 (190) 0.21 101• 19.7 0.001
c.n
:t
Table 6-38. Properties of Different Selected Materials

Strength (psi) (MPa) Coefficient of
(Yield values except where noted) Modulus of Thermal
Elasticity (E) Expansion
Material Tension Compression Shear (ksi) (GPa) COp-I) (I Q-6)
Wood (dry) parallel-to-grain

Douglas fir 6,000 (41.4) 3,500 (24.1) 500 (3.45) 1,700 (11.7) 2
Redwood 6,500 (44.8) 4,500 (31.0) 450 (3.10) 1,300 (8.96) 2
Southern pine 8,500 (58.6) 5,000 (34.5) 600 (4.14) 1,700 (11.7) 3
Steel
Mild, low-carbon 36,000 (248) 36,000 (248) 20,000 (138) 29,000 (200) 6.5
Cable, high strength 275,000* (1,896) 25,000 (172) 6.5
Concrete
Stone 200* (1.38) 3,500 (24.1) 180* (1.24) 3,500 (24.1) 5.5
Structural, lightweight 150* (1.03) 3,500* (24.1) 130* (0.80) 2,100 (14.5) 5.5
Brick masonry 300* (2.07) 4,500* (31.0) 300* (2.07) 4,500 (31.0) 3.4
Aluminum, structural 30,000 (207) 30,000 (207) 18,000 (124) 10,000 (69.0) 12.8
Iron, cast 20,000* (138) 85,000* (586) 25,000* (172) 25,000 (172) 6
Glass, plate 10,000* (69.0) 36,000* (248) 10,000 (69.0) 4.5
·Ultimate strength.
Table 6-39. Weights of Different Selected Materials·
Material Ib.lft. 3 kg/m3
Aluminum 160 2,560

Brick masonry construction 120 1,920
Cement plaster 120 1,920
Concrete masonry construction, hollow blocks 80 1,280
Concrete, stone, reinforced 150 2,400
Concrete, structural lightweight, reinforced 110 1,760
Earth, sand, loose 100 1,600
Earth, topsoil, packed 90 1,440
Glass 180 2,880
Gypsum board 50 800
Insulation, rigid 20 320
Plywood 40 640
Steel 490 7,850
Stone 160 2,560
Wood, Douglas fir 30 480
Wood, oak 45 720
Wood, redwood 25 400
Water, fresh 62 990
·Values in this table are intended to be representative rather than precise. Most material densities vII}' considerably. depending upon type and/or
ambient conditions.
t.I1
t.I1
..
~
THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS POL YBUTYLENES

POLYMETHYLPENTENE THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS
POLYBUTYLENE FLUOROPLASTICS
FURAN NYLONS
SILICONE CELLULOSICS
POLYETHYLENE. COPOLYMERS POLYTHYLENE • COPOLYMERS
CELLULOSICS POLYURETHANE
POLYURETHANE PVC • COPOLYMERS
THERMOSET POLYESTER THERMOSET POLYESTER PVC • COPOLYMERS EPOXY
ALKYD ALKYD FLUOROPLASTIC / COPOLYMERS THERMOSETTING POLYESTERS
VINYL ESTER VINYL ESTER POLYPROPYLENE ALKYDS
NYLON (INCLUDING AROMATICS' NYLON (INCLUDING AROMATICS) PHENOLIC VINYL ESTERS
THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTERS POLYIMIDES ABS POLYPROPYLENE
(INCLUDING AROMATICS' POLY AMIDE-IMIDES EPOXY POL YCARBONATE
POLYCARBONATES/ ALLOYS THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTERS POLYSTYRENE MELAMINES
POL YSULFONES (INCLUDING AROMATICS' THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTERS PHENOLIC
POLYSTYRENE/COPOLYMERS POLYSULFONES POLYAMIDE·IMIDES POLYIMIDE
(EXCEPT ABS) POLYSTYRENE/COPOLYMERS POLYIMIDES ALLYLS
EPOXY (EXCEPT ABS) ALKYD ACRYLIC
POL YPHENYLENE SULFIDE EPOXY VINYL ESTER ABS
ABS POL YPHENYLENE SULFIDE PPOBASED
POLYACETAL PHENOLIC POL YARYL ETHOR
PHENOLIC PPOBASED GLASS-REINFORCED SILICONE
PPOBASED UREAS POLYSTYRENE COPOLYMERS
POLYIMIOES PVC • COPOLYMERS
MELAMINE
Figure 6-53. Overview of mechanical properties.

- STANDARD AND NON·GLASS REINFORCED GRADES
IZlll1lZlllZmI GLASS REINFORCED GRADES
3-50 THERMOSET POLYESTER, ALKYD, VINVL ESTER

0.5-13
1.3-28 NYLONS INCLUDING AROMATICS
7.4-14
2.6-26 POL YIMIDES AND POLY (AM IDE·IMIDESI
10.8-25
2.5-12 THE RMO PLASTIC POL YESTE RS
9.6-25 POL YCARBONATE AND ALLOYS
7.5-9.5
17-23 GLASS REINFORCED POLYSULFONES
10.2-12.2 POL YSULFONES
9-20 POLYSTYRENE AND COPOLYMERS (EXCEPT ABSI
- 1.5-12.0
5-20 EPOXY
2-13
19.5 GLASS REINFORCED POL YPHENYLENE SULFIDE
13.4 POLYPHENYLENE SULFIDE
8.5-19 GLASS REINFORCED ABS
2.5-8 ABS
[T"fIIII""'TTUWTWUWUI 6.9-18.5 POLYACETAL
8.5-10
5.0-18 PHENOLIC
3-12
IlZZlZZZZI 14.5-17 GLASS REINFORCED PPO BASED
6.5-12 PPO BASED
__. i"l"itttFn:n:ttt:n:Z1ZZZizzrzzZZZ/l1d
~:~~~7 POLYPROPYLENE
5.5-13.6 UREA-FORMALDEHYDE
5.0-10.5 MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDE
5.0-13.0
12 GLASS REINFORCED FLUOROPLASTICS
2.0· 7.4 FLUOROPLASTICS AND COPOLYMERS
0.5-12 PVC AND COPOLYMERS
9.5 GLASS REINFORCED PVC
6.0-11 ALLYLS
5.0-8.7
5.0-11 ACRYLIC
0.2-11 POLYURETHANE
1.9-9 CELLULOSICS
9.0 GLASS REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE
0.6-5.5 POLYETHYLENE AND COPOLYMERS
7.5 POLYARYL ETHER
amm 4~.5 GLASS REINFORCED SILICONE
•
- 0.35-1.0
3.0 ..... 5
SILICONE
FURAN
3.8.....4 POLYBUTYLENE
3.5.....0 POLYMETHYLPENTENE
-
•• 0.65-3.0 THERMOPLASTIC RUBBER
o 10 20 30 40 50
- PSI x 103
TENSILE STRENGTH
VI
Figure 6-54. Tensile strengths of different plastics.
"""
111 - STANDARD AND NON-GLMS REINFOIICED GRADES
I» _ _ GLMS REINFOIICED GRADES
.. NDBREAK THERMOPLASTIC RUBBER
18-70 I
10-38 r PHENOLIC
111-&0 I THERMOSET POL VESTER
12-38 r ALKVD. VINVL ESTER
MELAMINE·
:::1 FORMALDEHVDE
2&--4& UREA·FORMALDEHVDE
EPOXV
~I
1.7--40 POLVIM IDE • POLVAMIDE·IMIDE
32.& GLMS RFD POLVIM IDE
1.1-38 CELLULOSICS
211-3& I ALLVLS
2.0-32 r
18.2-30 I THERMOPLASTIC
8.8-2.0 r POLVESTER
12.8-30 I NVLONS INCLUDING
111-21.4 AROMATICS
13-22 I POLVSTVIIENE •
4-17 r COPOLYMERS
IEXCEPT ASSI
~~8:~2.& I Aas
0.1-22 PVC • COPOLYMERS
1 GLASS RFD PVC
22.0 SULFONES IVIELDI
13.1 GLASS liFO SULFONES
IVIELDI
21.0 GLASSIIFDPOLV·
PHENVLENE SULFIDE
14-21 GLASS liFO POLVCARBONATE
12.11 POLVCARBONATE
2.0.0 POLVURETHANE
8.4--11 ACRVLlC
..",. POL VACETAL 110% DEFI
~:=~: 1
17.6-17.11 PPOBABED
.- 16-16.4
trllIIIIIIIIII 10-1. GLASS RFD SILICONE
10-13 FURAN
1.7-10 FLUOIIOPLASTICS. COPOLVMERS
10 GLASS RFD FLUOROPLASTICS
...... - <U:j ! POLVPRDPVLENE
7 GLASS liFO POL VETHVLENE • COPOLYMERS
2.0-6.8 POLVETHVLENE • COPOLVMERS
8-6.8 POLVMETHVLPENTENE
0 10 2.0 so 70
-- psi x 103
Figure 6·55. Compressive strengths of different plastics.
IIDZIIIZZI GLASS REINFORCED GRADES
_ STANDARD AND NON·GLASS REINFORCED GRADES
NO BREAK THERMOPLASTIC RUBBERS
7-80} THERMOSET POLYESTERS. ALKYDS. VINYL ESTERS
6-23
10-80 } EPOXY
1-24
lH:fB.6 f PHENOLIC
49.6 GLASS REINFORCED POLYIMIDE
7.1-30.7 POLYIMIDE. POLY(AMIDE·IMIDEI
18-41 I NYLONS INCLUDING AROMATICS
5-281
13-38 } THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTERS INCLUDING AROMATICS
6.6-18
13.5 POLYCARBONATE
15-32 GLASS REINFORCED POLYCARBONATE
ll-fi } ALLYLS
6-1
23-30 } SULFONES
15.4-18.6
28 GLASS REINFORCED POL YPHEYLENE SULFIDE
20 POL YPHENYLENE SULFIDE
• ,umfiiur22"""" 16-28 }
-- 13.. 14 POLYACETALS
12-27 ABS
-14 }
lo·!:ftl POLYSTYRENE. COPOL YMERS EXCEPT ABS

14-23 } MELAMINE·FORMALDEHYDE
11-16
_a 18.5-20 } PPO BASED
12.8-17.5
7-19 ACRYLIC
0.7-19 POLYURETHANES
10-18 UREA·FORMALDEHYDE
4.2-18 PVC. COPOL YMERS
- 1.8-18
10-14
CELLULOSICS
GLASS REINFORCED SILICONE
rJ1IIlI' 7-11 } POLYPROPYLENE
5-9
11 POLYARYL ETHER
- 11
2-7
GLASS REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE
POLYETHYLENE. COPOLYMERS
10.7 GLASS REINFORCED FLUOROPLASTICS
5.5-9.3 FLUOROPLASTICS
0.8--9.0 FURAN
4 .. 6.5 POLYMETHYLPENTENE
--
o
- PSI x 103
V1 Figure 6·56. Flexural strengths of different plastics.
\,Q
""
20 FLEXURAL MODUWS (0Pa)
15r~~···~··:··:··:..:..~..__________~P:H~::O:U:C____________________ J
10 r-
••••••
... ...PET
...
.......
...........
PAil
....
........ .
...... .-..
.•.•.•.....•.•••••.•...•• :~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
50 150 200
70
60
";;;
0. 50
0
~~ 40 Glass Reinforced • Mg
";;; I
C.c.
QJ- 30 45,. GRPEt. -:l5,. Gil PET
-0>
c 20 Unreinforced ( .3O'f. Gil ~h
C, ·-
~ PA 66-33'f.-GR-P~ ~ • 3m. GItPBT
Vi ~ Acetal------
10 :-PBTI
....!.-,A8s y
O~__~~~~~----~--~~~--~~--~~
100 1.000 10.000 100.000
Flexural MOdulus - 1Q-l psi
Figure 6-58. Example of strength versus stiffness for unreinforced and reinforced TP
composites and die-cast metal.
550
_ STANDARD AND NON-GLASS REINFDRCED GRADES
I/llIJ1l1lI1l GLASS REINFORCED GRADES

NO BREAK (NBI POLYBUTYLENE, THERMOPLASTIC RUBBER
2.S-NB FLUOROPLASTICS
8.0 GLASS REINFORCED FLUOROPLASTICS
0.8··NB NYLON INCLUDING AROMATICS
/llllZZI 2.2-304 GLASS REINFORCED NYLON
0.6-NB CELLULOSICS, POLYETHYLENE AND
COPOLYMERS
1.1 GLASS REINFORCED POLYETHYLENE
OA-NB POLYURETHANE, PVC AND COPOLYMERS
2.0-30 1 EPOXY
0.3-5.0
0.5-30 1THERMOSETTING POLYESTERS,
0.2->70 I ALKYDS, VINYL ESTERS
0.6-20 POLYPROPYLENE
1-6 I
t.z~6 IpOLYCARBONATE
g:~4~~ I MELAMINE·FORMALDEHYDE
0.3-18 PHENOLIC
0.2-8
- 17 GLASS REINFORCED POLYIMIDE
0.26-2.6 POL YAMIDE·IMIDE & POL YIMIDE
gj:~\ 1 ALL YLS
0.3-15 ACRYLIC
- ..........- 2-12
1-2.4 1 ABS
3-10 PPOBASED
2.3 GLASS REINFORCED PPO BASED
8 POLYARYL ETHER
0.3·-8 GLASS REINFORCED SILICONE
0.25-8 POLYSTYRENE AND COPOLYMERS
004-4.5 (EXCEPT ABSI
0.7-2.3 POLYACETAL
0.8.. 1.8
2.2 POL YPHENYLENE SULFIOE
I 104 GLASS-REINFORCED PPS
1.3-1.6 SULFONES
dB 1.1-1.6
--
rIIIP 0.6-1.6
0.23-1
THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTERS
I- 0.3-1.2 1 POLYMETHYLPENTENE
..l...-....J 0.25-0.4 UREA FORMALDEHYDE
I- I I I I ~ ~ ~
0 2 10 12 ,. 1. 18 20 22 24 28 28 30
• • • FT·LBS/INCH OF NOTCH
I.n Figure 6·59. Impact strengths of different plastics.

I.n
-
CONTINUOUS OPERATING TEMPERATURE
I I
I I
STANDARD TEMPERATURE LOW TEMPERATURE
HIGH TEMPERA TURE
75 - 3000 F < 750 F
>300o F 11490 C)
(25 -1490 F) « 2SOC)
_OF
POLVIMIDES 500-800
...!!!-1fQ..N~ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ PPO BASED 170-260 CHLORINATED POLVETHVLENE -60
400-600
FLUOROPLASTICS 300-550 POLVPROPVLENE 205-250 POL VURETHANE -65
POL V AMIDE·IM IDE 520-545 POLVURETHANE 190-250 FLUOROSILICONE -90
EPOXV 175-500 VINVLS 150-230 SILICONE -180
POL VPHENVLENE SULFIDE 500 POLVBUTVLENE 225 FLUOROPLASTICS -300
ACETALS 195-220
ALLVLS 300-450 ABS80SAN 160-220
PHENOLICS 212-450 POL VSTVRENE 125-205
POLVETHERSULFONES ~
ABSIPOL VCARBONATE ALLOV 190-200
POLVSULFONES 340-400 ACRVLICS 140-200
MELAMINES 300-400 CELLULOSICS 120-200
THERMOSET POLVESTER 150-400 POLVETHVLENE 120-180
UREAS 200-350 & COPOLVMER
ACRVLATE RU8BER 400
FLUOROSILICONES 400
-- -- -- -- -- --
NVLONS 225-350
THERMOPLASTIC POL VESTER 310-320
POLVARVLETHER 250-320
POLVMETHVLPENTENE 250-320
POL VCARBONATE 180-310
ALKVOS 250-300
CHLORINATED POL VETHVLENE 300
Figure 6-60. Overview of temperature properties.
Time. h
Figure 6-Cil. Heat-resistance properties of resins retaining 50 percent of properties obtainable at
room temperature with resin exposure and testing at elevated temperature. Zone 1: Acrylics,
cellulose esters, LOPE, PS, PVC, SAN, SBR, UF, etc. Zone 2: Acetals, ABS, chlorinated
polyether, ethyl cellulose, EVA, ionomer, PA, PC, HOPE, PET, PP, PVC, PUR, etc. Zone 3:
PCTFE, PVOF, etc. Zone 4: Alkyds, fluorinated ethylene-propylene, MF, polysulfone, etc.
Zone 5: TS acrylic, OAP, epoxy, PF, TS polyester, PTFE, etc. Zone 6: Parylene,
polybenzimidazole, silicone, etc. Zone 7: PAl, PI, etc. Zone 8: Plastics in R&O etc. Since
plastics compounding is rather extensive, certain basic resins can be modified to meet different
heat-resistance properties.
1_ '!..,..--
Figure 6-62. Classifying plastics by range of continuous or rather long-time heat exposure.
553
Figure 6-63. Basic guide to flash ignition and self-ignition temperatures, per ASTM D 1929.
9.0 SPECIMENS
NO LONGER BREAK
1.0
-i-7.0
"
...~
... 6.0 IMMCT STYRENE
iis 5.0
i
POLYSTYRENE
Figure 6-64. Example of Izod unnotched-impact strength versus temperature.

554
555
Table 6-40. Thermal Properties of Different Plastics
Thennal Conductivity
Material °C op W/m·k Btu . in.lhr.. ff . op
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) 60 140 0.27 1.9

ABS-polycarbonate alloy (ABS-PC) 60 140 0.25 1.7
Diallyl phthalate (DAP) 130 265 0.36 2.5
Polyoxymethylene (POM) 85 185 0.37 2.6
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 90 195 0.19 1.3
Polyarylate (PAR) 0.22 1.5
Liquid crystal polymer (LCP) 220 430
Melamine-formaldehyde (MF) 130 265 0.42 2.9
~ylon 6 75 165 0.23 1.6
Nylon 616 75 165 0.25
Amorphous nylon 12 65 150 0.25
Polyarylether (PAE) 160 320
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) 120 250
PC 115 240 0.20
PBT-PC 105 220
PEEK 250 480 0.25 1.7
Polyether-imide (PEl) 170 340 0.22 1.5
Polyether sulfone (PESV) 170 340
PET 140 285 0.17
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) 150 300 0.25 1.7
Unsaturated polyester (UP) 130 265 0.12 0.8
Modified polyphenylene oxide alloy (PPO) 80 175
(mod)
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) 200 390 0.17
Polysulfone (PSU) 140 285 0.26 1.8
Styrene-maleic anhydride terpolymer (SMA) 80 175
Table 6-41. Tensile Strength versus Temperature

Tensile
Strength at Percent Retention of Tensile Strength at
UL 23°C (73"F)
Engineering Temperature x 1,000 psi 100°C 1500C 200°C
Polymer Index (MPa) (212 oF) (302 "F) (392 oF)
PPS 220 23.2 (160) 48.3 34.9 4.7

PES 180 22.8 (157) 85.5 57.7 13.7
Nylon 6/6 130 31.0 (214) 51.3 39.7 7.2
PET 140 19.0 (131) 38.1 21.0
P-Sulfane 150 17.4 (120) 86.1 13.3
PAl 200 27.5 (190) 72.8 59.1 29.9
Phenolic-GP 150 8.0 (55) 83.7 51.2 50.1
Phenolic-HR 160 8.5 (59) 71.9 57.6 52.0
Phenolic-Glass 170 10.0 (69) 75.1 59.7 69.9
556
Table 6-42. Flexural Strength vs. Temperature
Flexural
Strength at Percent Retention of Flexural Strength at
UL 23°C (73°F)
Engineering Temperature x 1,000 psi 100°C 150°C 200"C
Polymer Index °C (MPa) (212 "F) (302 "F) (392 oF)
Nylon 6/6 115 17.4 (120) 36 29 23

Nylon 6/6 120 35.8 (247) 51 41 36
PET 150 29.2 (201) 46 30 24
PET 155 37.6 (259) 51 33 26
Phenolic-GP 150 8.8 (61) 67 62 42
Phenolic-HR 160 10.2 (70.3) 77 64 48
Phenolic-Glass 170 15.9 (110) 82 70 54
Table 6-43. Heat-Deflection Temperature vs. Temperature

Test Result at Deflection Test Results at Deflection
Temperature Temperature Plus 10°
ASTM D 648
Deflection Temperature Maximum Degrees Maximum Degree
at 264 psi (1.82 MPa) Stress Load Deflection Stress Load Deflected!
Material °C ("F) psi (MPa) in 4 Hours psi (MPa) When Occurred
P-Sulfane 175 (347) 1,050 (7.2) 5 275 (1.90) Failed!<1 hour

PBT 200 (392) 525 (3.6) 9 275 (1.90) Failed!<2 hours
PET 210 (410) 1,050 (7.2) 8 525 (3.62) Failedl<4 hours
PEl 210 (410) 1,050 (7.2) 8 275 (1.90) Failed!<1 hour
PAS 215 (419) 275 (1.90) Failed
PPS 260 (500) 275 (1.90) 4 275 (1.90) Failed!<2 hours
Phenolic-HR 210 (410) 2,100 (14.5) 4 2,100 (14.5) 7°/4 hours
Phenolic-Glass 270 (518) 2,100 (14.5) 2,100 (14.5) 2°/4 hours
Table 6-44. Tensile Strength of TP Composites at Elevated Temperatures

Tensile Strength (103 psi) at Temperature
Base Fiber 73°F 200"F 300"F 350"F 4OO"F 4500F 500"F

Resin (wt%) (23°C) (93.3) (149) (176) (204) (232) (260)
GLASS-FIBER REINFORCED
PES 30 23.0 16.0 13.8 11.0 7.0 X X
PEl 30 25.8 19.0 13.7 10.7 6.7 X X
PPS 40 23.0 11.8 9.0 6.7 5.2 2.5 X
PEEK 30 25.0 17.5 10.2 8.0 6.3 5.4 4.5
HTA 30 19.5 15.2 12.2 11.1 10.0 6.7 X
PFA 20 6.2 4.3 3.2 2.5 2.3 1.8 1.1
PEK 30 26.4 19.7 14.5 8.9 7.3 6.7 5.2
CARBON-FIBER REINFORCED
PES 30 26.0 18.2 15.4 12.5 8.1 X X
PEl 30 34.0 22.6 16.3 12.4 8.0 X X
PPS 30 26.0 13.3 10.2 7.6 5.9 2.8 X
PEEK 30 30.6 25.2 15.2 9.8 7.9 6.8 5.4
PEEK 40* 35.5 29.0 17.4 11.2 9.0 7.7 6.0
HTA 30 21.5 16.8 13.5 12.3 11.0 7.5 X
PFA 10 5.0 3.1 2.4 1.8 1.7 1.3 1.0
x = No effective strength.
'Long·fiber (Verton) composite (ICI-LNPJ.
557
Table 6-45. Flexural Modulus of TP Composites at Elevated Temperatures
Tensile Strength (106 psi) at Temperature
Base Fiber 73°F 200°F 300°F 350°F 400°F 450°F 500°F

Resin (wt%) (23°C) (93.3) (149) (176) (204) (232) (260)
PES 30 1.260 1.150 1.120 1.100 0.400 X X
PEl 30 1.380 1.200 1.150 1.120 0.420 X X
PPS 40 1.900 1.500 1.000 0.750 0.450 0.250 X
PEEK 30 1.500 1.450 0.950 0.550 0.350 0.350 0.350
UTA 30 1.250 1.150 1.130 1.100 1.050 0.450 X
PFA 20 0.520 0.110 0.075 0.065 0.060 0.055 0.030
PEK 30 1.530 1.480 1.000 0.650 0.500 0.475 0.450
PES 30 2.050 1.880 1.800 1.780 0.740 X X
PEl 30 2.500 2.160 2.050 2.000 0.750 X X
PPS 30 3.100 2.400 1.600 1.230 0.750 0.400 X
PEEK 30 1.950 1.720 1.300 0.750 0.480 0.480 0.480
PEEK 40* 4.400 3.900 2.800 1.600 1.020 1.020 1.020
UTA 30 2.000 1.900 1.800 1.750 1.700 0.850 X
PFA 10 0.530 0.115 0.080 0.070 0.065 0.055 0.035
'Long-fiber (Yerton) composite (ICl-LNP).
Table 6-46. Shear Strength of TP Composites at Elevated Temperatures

Shear Strength (l03 psi) at Temperature
Base Fiber 73°F 200°F 300°F 350°F 400°F 450°F 500°F

Resin (wt%) (23°C) (93.3) (149) (176) (204) (232) (260)
PES 30 11.6 9.9 8.5 7.6 4.8 X X
PEl 30 14.0 13.4 11.0 9.0 6.2 X X
PPS 40 12.0 10.3 10.2 9.3 5.0 2.5 X
PEEK 30 14.6 11.8 8.8 6.8 6.0 5.0 4.0
UTA 30 10.4 9.0 7.9 7.2 5.8 3.5 X
PFA 20 3.8 3.2 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.5
PEK 30 16.0 12.9 9.5 8.7 8.1 7.8 6.7
PES 30 10.5 8.6 7.3 6.6 4.1 X X
PEl 30 13.1 12.5 10.0 8.4 5.8 X X
PPS 30 9.5 8.2 8.0 6.5 4.0 2.0 X
PEEK 30 12.4 10.1 7.5 5.8 5.1 4.2 3.4
PEEK 40* 15.5 12.6 9.4 7.3 6.4 5.3 4.1
UTA 30 9.5 7.2 7.0 6.5 5.0 2.3 X
PFA 10 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1
'Long-fiber (Yerton) composite (ICI-LNP).
"To convert psi to pascals (Pa), multiply by 6.895 x UP.
558
Table 6-47. Tensile Stress Relaxation of TP Composites at Elevated Temperatures
Decrease in Applied Stress (%) with Time* at Temperature
Base Glass 73"F 200"F 300"F 35O"F 4OO"F 45O"F 500"F

Resin (wt%) (23°C) (93.3°C) (149) (176) (204) (232) (260)
PES 30 7/8/9 20/21125 33/35/39 35/40/57 61n4/90 XlXIX XIXIX

PEl 30 7/9111 13/16125 32134/38 34/39/55 58/69/86 XlXIX XlXIX
PPS 40 3/5/9 20/21122 26127/28 26128/32 26133/34 XlXlX XlXlX
PEEK 30 13/14/16 17/21123 25/28/30 28/32135 30/33/40 32138/40 32138/41
PEEK 40t 19/21125 21123/27 29/32137 33/35/40 35/37/42 36138/43 38/39/44
HTA 30 71718 14/16122 23/27/35 30/35/50 39/47/59 45/63/55 XlXlX
PEK 30 12113/15 15/18/20 18/21124 23/25/29 26127/30 27/28/31 28/29/32
'Thm: values indicate pen:ent stIess relaxation for I h, S h, and IS h. Example: 7/8/9 indicates 7% at I h, 8% at S h, and 9% at IS h.
tLong-carhon (Verton) composite (ICI-LNP). X indicates sample would not sostain the test load. Initial stIess for all tests was 2,SOO psi.
How They Rank in Stress Relaxation

Temperature ("F)
Base Glass
Resin (wt%) 73 (23°C) 200 (93.3) 300 (149) 350 (176) 400 (204) 450 (232) 500 (260)
PES 30 3 6 6 7 X X X
PEl 30 4 5 5 6 X X X
PPS 40 3 2 2 2 X X
PEEK 30 6 4 3 3 3 2 2
PEEK 40* 7 7 7 4 4 3 3
HTA 30 2 2 4 5 5 4 X
PEK 30 5
The lower the number, the higher the retained stIess at the indicated temperature.
'Long-carbon (Verton) composite (ICI-LNP).
Table 6-48. Polymeric Materials for Extreme-Temperature Applications

Polymer Comments
Polyphenyls Decompose at 530°C (986°F); infusible, insoluble polymers.

Polyphenylene oxide Decomposes close to 500°C (932"F); heat cures above 150°C (302"F) to
. elastomer; usable heat range - 135 to 185°C ( - 211 to 36s"F)
Polyphenylene sulfide Melts at 270 to 315°C (578 to 599°F); cross-linked polymer stable to
450°C (842°F) in air; adhesive and laminating applications.
Polybenzyls; polyphenethyls Fusible, soluble, and stable at 400°C (752"F); low molecular weight.
Parylenes (poly-p-xylylene) Melt above S20"C (968"F); insoluble; capable of forming films; poor
thermal stability in air; stable to 400 to 525°C (752 to 977"F) in
inert atmosphere.
Polyterephthalamides Melting points up to 455°C (851 "F); fibers have good tenacity,
elongation, modulus.
Polysulfanyldibenzamides Melting points up to 330"C (626"F); soluble; good fiber properties.
Polyhydrazides Dehydrate at 200"C (392"F) to over 4OO"C (752"F) to form
polyoxadiazoles; good fiber properties.
Polyoxamides Some melting points above 4OO"C (752"F); give clear, flexible films.
Phenolphthalein polymers Melting points of 300"C (572"F) to over 400"C (752"F); formable into
fiber and film.
Hydroquinone polyesters Soluble polymers with melting points of 335°C (635"F) to over 400°C
(752"F).
Polyhydroxybenzoic acids Films melt at 380 to 450"C (716 to 842"F); stable to oxidation but not to
hydrolysis; tough, flexible films; good thermal stability.
(cont'd)
559
Polymer Comments
Polyimides Commercial film, coating, and resin stable up to 600"C (l,1l20f');

continuous use up to 300"C (S72Of').
Polyarylsiloxanes Good thermal stability 400 to SOO"C (752 to 9320f'); coatings, adhesives.
Carboranes Stable in air and nitrogen at 400 to 4SO"C (752 to 8420f'); elastomeric
properties for silane derivatives up to S38"C (l,OOO"F); adhesives.
Polybenzimidazoles Detelopmentallaminating resin, fiber, film; stable 24 hours at 300"C
(S72Of') in air.
Polybenzothiazoles Stable in air at 600°C (l,1l2°F); cured polymer soluble in concentrated
sulfuric acid.
PolyquinoxaIines Stable in air at SOO"C (9320f'); tough, somewhat flexible resins; make
film, adhesive.
Polyphenylenetriazoles Thermally stable to 400 to SOO"C (752 to 9320f'); make film, fiber,
coatings.
Polydithiazoles Decompose at S2S°C (9770f'); soluble in concentrated sulfuric acid.
Polyoxadiazoles Decompose at 450 to 500°C (842 to 9320f'); can be made into fiber or
film.
Polyamidines Stable to oxidation up to SOO"C (9320f'); can make flexible elastomer.
Pyrolyzed polyacrylonitrile Stable above 900"C (l,62SOf'); fiber resists abrasion with low tenacity.
Polyvinyl isocyanate ladder Soluble polymer that decomposes at 38S"C (72SOf'); prepolymer melts
polymer above 405°C (76 I Of'}.
Polyamide-imide Service temperatures up to 288°C (SSOOf'); amenable to fabrication.
Polysulfone Thermoplastic; use temperature -102"C (-IS20f') to greater than 150°C
(3020f'); acid and base resistant.
Polybenzaylene Thermally stable to 600"C (l,1l20f'); insoluble in common solvents;
benzimidazoles good mechanical properties.
(pyrrones)
Polybenzoxazoles Stable in air to 500°C (9320f'); insoluble in common solvents except
sulfuric acid; nonflammable; chemical resistant; film.
Ionomer High melt and tensile strength; tough; resilient; oil and solvent resistant;
adhesives, coatings.
Diazadiphosphetidine Thermoplastic up to 350°C (6620f'); tbennosetting at 357"C (7070f');
cured material has good thermal stability to SOO"C (9320f');
amenable to fabrication.
Phosphorous amide epoxy Soluble B-staged material; amenable to fabrication; good thermal
stability.
Pbosphonitrilic Retention of properties in air up to 399"C (7S00f').
Metal polyphosphinates Polymers stable to better than 400"C (7S20f').
Phenylsilesesquioxanes Soluble; bigh molecular weight; infusible; improved tensile strength; bigh
(phenyl-T ladder thermal stability to 525°C (977"F) in air; film forming.
polymers)
560
1.0
7.0
i~
6.0
z
::::: ~.O
III
oJ
~
...
~ 4.0
...
IE
Z
...
~ 3.0
u
:!
2.0
HIGH DENSITY
1.0
I'OLYEllM.EJ«
0.0
Z20 110 140 100 10 20 -20 -10 -100
TEMPERA~I"1
Figure 6·66. Example of Izod notched-impact strength versus temperature.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
GOOD
FLUOROPLASTICS POLYESTERS ITP 81 TSI STYRENICS

POLYIMIOES SILICONES CELLULDSICS
POL YOLEFINS PHENOLICS POL YCARBONATE
ACETALS POLYSULFONES
POL YPHENYLENE SULFIOE NYLONS
ALLYLS VINYLS
EPOXIES POLYURETHANES
IONOMERS ACRYLICS
POLYAMIDE-IMIOE ALKYDS
STYRENE-ACRYLONITILE
AMINOPLASTICS
POLYARYL ETHER
POL YARYL SULFONE
Figure 6-67. Overview of chemical properties.
561
~
""N
I MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES I
I I ~ I
I LOW FRICTION I ABRASION RESISTANCE I LOWEST OENSITIES I
NON-FLAMMABILITY
< 0.8 ON STEEL
I< 10,000 MG/KC I J l < 1.0 UNFILLEO
ABS NYLONS I POLYMETHYLPENTENE 0.83-0.84
POLYACETALS POLYURETHANES POL YOLE F IN TPR 0.88~.90
SOME NYLONS INHERENTLY-V-O I
POLYACETALS POLYPROPYLENE 0.89~.91
eOLYSULFONES ACRYLIC/PVC ALLOY
I POLY (ETHYLENE CO PROPYLENEI 0.896-0.899
THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTERS ABS/POLYURETHANE ALLOY FLUOROPLASTICS POLYBUTYLENE 0.908-0.917
FLUOROPLASTICS POLYSULFONES IONOMER POLYETHYLENE
GRAPHITE, MOLYBOENUM DISULFIDE PPO BASED MELAMINES (INCLUDING UHMWPE) 0.910-0.940
AND FLUOROPLASTIC FILLED COMPOUNDS THERMOPLASTIC POLYESTER POL YPHENYLENE SULFIDES POLY (EHTVlENE CO VINYL ACETATE) 0.92~.95
POLYIMIDES POLYSULFONES POLY (ETHYENE CO ETHYL ACRYLATE) 0.93
SOME POLYSTYRENES VINYLS IONOMER 0.93-0.96
FLUOROPLASTIC COPOl YMERS POLYIMIDES
I SOME FLUOROPLASTICS POL YAMIDE·IMIOES
I COLORABILITY I UHMWPE
GRAPHITE FILLED COMPOUNDS
I
r I I
UNLIMITED LIMITED I ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
I II I .1
ABS EPOXY WITH MODIFICATION
TRANSPARENCY (COLORLESS)I
ACETAL FURAN
I OR COMPOUNDING
I I
ACRYLIC PHENOLIC I I
ALKYD POL YAMIOE·IMIDE '?C. LOW FREOUENCY I ARC RESISTANCE ABS THICK SECTION> 0.100 IN.
ALLYL POLYIMIDE lOW VOLTAGE >200 SEes ACRYLIC ACRYLIC
CELLULOSIC POLYPHENYLENE SULFIDE
I
ACRYLICS NO TRACK
I ALKYD POLYCARBONATE
FLUOROPLASTICS SILICONES MC.T PLASTIC MATERIALS 70-_ CELLULOSE ACETATE POL YSTYRENE
ALKYDS 15-420
MELAMINES FLUOR~LASTICS ALLYLS CELLULOSSICS
NYLONS CELLULOSICS 50-310 EPOXY SAN
--.~
_..,.. ......... ....
_ r ......... " .. - _.... POL YESTE ~ - . __ .
HIGH
I NYLON
FREQUENCY POLYSULFC R SULFONE
HIGH VOL TAGE J THIN SECTION .)
THERMOSETTING POLYETHYLENE AND CCPOI. YMERS POLYETHYLENE & POLYESTER (TP & TS) POL YETHYLENE
POLYESTER CHLORINATED PVC IHIGH VOl TAGE) Cc::.Ot.YMERS 135-_ POLYOLEFINS POLYPROPYLENE
POLOLEFINS POLYSTYRENE ANDCOPOLVMERS POLY IMIDE 230 STYRENICS POLYVINYLS
POL YSTYRENES POlYPROPYLENE MELAMINES 05-200 POL YURETHANES
OLEFINIC THERMC»LASTIC POL YPHENLENE POLYBUTYLENES
POLYURETHANES RU88ERS SULFIDE 200 SILICONES IONOMER
THERMOPLASTIC AROMATtC POLYESTERS UREAS POLYMETHYLPENTENE
ELASTOMERS FLUOROPLASTICS FLUROPLASTICS
UREAS
VINYLS
VINYL ESTERS
Figure 6·68. Overview of other properties,

Figure 6·69. Definitions of stress and extension (strain) on a hysteresis loop.
Load-dependent stiffnesses can be defined by way of the mean curve (see Fig. 6-71).
The compression stiffness at minimum load emerges at the lower end of the diagram
and, analogously, the mean- and tensile stiffnesses at points O'm and 0'0 for mean and
maximum loads:
0-
Eu =
(~:) la=au = -:- tan au
E
(6-59)
0-
Em = = -:- tan am (6-60)
(::)Ia=a m E
0-
Eo =
(~:) la=ao = -:- tan a o
E
(6-61)
The dynamic secant modulus E dyn is obtained from the maximum and minimum stresses
and strains:
(6-62)
Equipment and Procedure for Hysteresis Measurement

The equipment used is shown in Figure 6-72. The material undergoing testing is stressed
by a servohydraulic device, and the signals from the force-measuring cell, and the ex-
tensometer or a strain gauge, are simultaneously amplified and digitized. The computer
reads in data from the transient recorder at predetermined intervals and calculates the
values of the hysteresis parameters. They are then printed out and stored with the data
concerning the hysteresis loop. The function generator controls the testing machine by
reference to the set point. The set point of the function generator is set by the computer.
The computer thus controls the test cycle and records the data. It is also possible to attach
a temperature controller.
UI
Table 6-49. Chemical Resistance of Various Plastics, Steel, and Aluminum by Chemical Class
~
Material
p p
~ ~ f0
~
. !!
-8 ..!!
~ ~ ~
» ;f
} ~
ell 11
~ -! ell
.g ." ~ i!! it
:I ..!! .!l
0 'i!
11 i ]» 11
I., J
t I
u :t: ~ §- ~ oS ell e
·iii" .~
:9 l ~ ell "
Chemical Class
.S!
:;:"
1 8 I
;f
i i .?;>
;f
~
;f
'"
'"
;;;
§
:;;: Example
J J J ~ ! .f I i .f ::E ::! ~
Acids and bases
Acids, weak A B C A A A A A A A B A A A A A C Dilute mineral acids
Acids, strong C C C B C B A C C A A B C C Concentrated
mineral acids
Bases, weak A C A B B A B A C A A A A A B C Dilute sodium
hydroxide
Bases, strong A C C ---- B C A C A A A B B C Concentrated sodium
hydroxide
Acids, organic, weak A B C A A A A A A A B A A A A C C Acetic acid, vinegar
Acids, organic, strong C C C B C B A C C A A A B C C Trichloroacetic acid
Automotive
Automotive, fuel A A A A A A A A C C A C C A A A A
Automotive, lubricants A A A A A A A A C C A A A A A B A
Automotive, hydraulic A A A A A A C C C A A A ------
Solvents
Aliphatic hydrocarbons A A A A A A A A A A A B C A A A A Heptane, hexane
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, A B C B B A A A C C C ------ B B B Ethylene chloride,
halogenated chloroform
Alcohols A A B A A A A A A A A A A A A A B Ethanol,
cyclohexanol
Aldehydes A A A A B B A A C B A A B A Acetaldehyde,
formaldehyde
Amines ------------ C B C C A A B B Aniline,
triethanolamine
Aromatic hydrocarbons A B A A B B A A C C C C C C A A A Toluene, xylene,

naphtha
Aromatic hydrocarbons, ---------- C A C C C ------ A A A Chlorobenzene
halogenated
Aromatic, hydroxy C C C C C A A C C A B C A Phenol
Esters B B A B B B A A C C C C B B B Ethel acetate,
dioctyl
phthalate
Ethers B A A ------ A A B C A A A Butyl ether, diethyl
ether
Ketones B B A B B B A A C C C B C A A A Methyl ethyl ketone,
acetone
Miscellaneous
Detergents A -- A -- B ---- A A A -- B A -- A A B Laundry and
dishwashing
detergents,
soaps
Inorganic salts B B B A ---- A A ---- A A B B B Zinc chloride, cupric
sulfate
Oxidizing agents, strong C C C C -- B B C ---- A C C C 30% hydrogen
peroxide,
bromine (wet)
Oxidizing agents, weak C C C A -- A A A -- A -- A A A B C A Sodium hypochlorite
solution
Water, ambient A A B A A A A A A A A A A A C B
Water, hot B C B C C B A A C A C A C B
Water, steam C C C C C C B A C ---- C A C
This infonnation is presented for instructional purposes and is not intended for design. The data were extracted from numerous sources, making consistent rating assignments difficult. Further, the response of any
given material to specific chemicals in anyone class can vIII}' significantly. Indeed, during the preparation of the table, the effect on one plastic of various chemicals in the same category ranged from essentially
no effect to toIaI dissolution. Therefore, an "A" rating for a particular plastic exposed to a particular class of chemicals should not he inlelpreted as applying to all chemicals in that class. The rating simply means
that for the chemicals in that class found in the literature reviewed the rating was generally an "A." There may he other chemicals in the same class for which the rating would he • "C." Finally, the typical
chemicals listed do not necessarily correspund to the ones on which the individual ratings are based.
A-minimal effect.
B-some effect.
C-generally not recommended.
Room temperature except hot water, steam and " ... Generally, extended expusure (more than a week) data were used
IJ1 ·-2ooF
~ Source: (Hoechst-Celanese)
\11
~ Table 6-50. Effects of Elevated Temperature and Chemical Agents on Stability of Plastics*
~
Environment
p p
~ ~ ~
* J
. ;...
I~ I
fI)
~ !.g I 1 ~ ! j
fI)
.g B 8
i G) G) '"
:I ~ J;... * rl j
1 !t
~ fI)
~ til ~ 8- e f'B
Q:I
8 ! 1
fI)
) )
I~ ~
i
~ ;...
i :g I fI)
i J f ~ 5 l I ~ ~ ::E ~ ~ ..,~ ~u ·<1

Temperature ("F)
77 200 % Change
Plastic Material (25°C) (93.3°C) 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 by Weight
Acetals 1-4 2-4 1 2 1-2 4 1-3 2-5 1-5 2-5 5 5 5 5 2-3 0.22-0.25
Acrylics 5 5 2 3 5 5 3 2 5 4 4-5 5 5 5 5 0.2-0.4
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene- 4 5 2 3-5 3-5 5 2-4 2-4 1-4 5 1-5 5 3-5 5 0.1-0.4
Styrenes (ABS)
Aramids (aromatic 2 3 4 5 3 4 2 5 2 0.6
polyamide)
Cellulose acetates (CA) 2 3 2 3 3 4 2 3 3 5 3 5 3 5 5 5 2-7
Cellulose acetate butyrates 4 5 3 3 4 2 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 5 5 0.9-2.0
(CAB)
Cellulose acetate 4 5 3 3 4 2 3 5 3 5 3 5 5 5 1.3-2.8
propionates (CAP)
Diallyl phthalates (DAP, 1-2 2-4 2 3 2 4 2 3 2 4 1-2 2-3 2 4 3-4 4-5 0.2-0.7
filled)
Epoxies 2 2 1-2 3-4 1-2 2 2-3 3-4 4 4-5 2 3-4 0.01-0.10
Ethylene copolymers (EVA) 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 5 5 5 2 5 0.05-0.13
(ethylene-vinyl
acetates)
Ethyleneltetraftuoro- <0.03
ethylent copolymers
(ETFE)
ethylene <0.01
6'" Fluorinated
propylenes (FEP)
~ Perftuoroalkoxies <0.03
~ (PFA)
~ Polychlorotriftuoro- 3 4 0.01-0.10
ethylenes (CTFE)
Polytetraftuoro- 0
ethylenes ®(TFE)
Furans I 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 5 5 1 0.01-0.20
Ionomers 2 4 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 2 4 1 5 1 4 0.01-1.4
Melamines (filled) 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 0.01-1.30
Nitriles (high barrier alloys 4 2-4 1-4 2-5 2-4 1 2-4 2-5 5 3-5 5 1-5 5 0.2-0.5
of ABS or SAN)
Nylons 2 1 2 2 3 5 5 5 5 I I 0.2-1.9
Phenolics (filled) I 1 I 1 1 2 3 3 5 1 4 5 2 2 0.1-2.0
Polyallomers 2 4 2 4 4 5 1 3 4 3 <0.01
• A rating of I indicates greatest stability. (cont'd)
~
cr>
.....
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Environment
"t:l '" ....

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Temperature (OF)
77 200 % Change
Plastic Material (25°C) (93. 3°C) 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 77 200 by Weight
Polyamide-imides 1 2 3 1 3 4 2 3 2 3 I 0.22-0.28
Polyarylsulfones (PAS) 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 2 2 1 2 4 3 4 1.2-1.8
Polybutylenes (PB) 3 5 5 4 5 2 1 3 3 4 1 3 <0.01-0.3
Polycarbonates (PC) 5 5 1 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 5 5 0.15-0.35
Polyesters (thermoplastic) 2 5 1 3-5 3 5 3-4 2 5 3 4-5 2 3-5 2 3-4 0.06-0.09
Polyesters (thermoset-glass 1-3 3-5 2 3 2 4 2 3 3 5 2 3 2 4 3-4 4-5 0.01-2.50
fiber filled)
Polyethylenes (LDPE- 4 5 4 5 4 5 1-2 1-2 1-3 3-5 2 3 0.00-0.01
HDPE-Iow density to
high density)
Polyethylenes 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 <0.01
(UHMWPE-ultrahigh
molecular weight)
Polyimides 2 3 4 5 3 4 2 5 1 1 0.3-0.4
Polyphenylene oxides 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 2 2 3 0.06-0.07
(PPO) (modified)
Polyphenylene sulfides 2 2 2 <0.05
(PPS)
Polyphenylsulfones 4 4 I I 5 5 I 1 3 4 0.5
Polypropylenes (PP) 2 4 2 4 2-3 4-5 I 1 2-3 2-3 4-5 2 4 0.01-0.03
Polystyrenes (PS) 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 0.03-0.60
Polysulfones 4 4 I I 5 5 1 I I I 3 4 0.2-0.3
Polyurethanes (PUR) 3 4 2 3 4 5 2-3 3-4 2-3 3-4 2-3 3-4 4 4 4 5 0.D2-1.50
Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 5 4 5 0.04-1.00
Polyvinyl chlorides- 4 4 2 5 5 2 2 2 2 3 4 5 0.04-0.45
chlorinated (CPVC)
Polyvinylidene fluorides 2 2 2 3 5 0.04
(PVDF)
Silicones 4 4 2 3 4 5 2 4 5 3 4 4 5 2 4 0.1-0.2
Styrene acrylonitriles 4 5 3 4 3 5 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 0.20-0.35
(SAN)
Ureas (filled) 3 I 3 3 2 3 2 3 4 5 2 3 I 2 0.4-0.8
Vinyl esters (glass-fiber 3 1-2 2-4 1-2 4 3 3 2 2 3 3-4 4-5 0.01-2.50
filled)
• A rating of I indicates greatest stability.
1/1
$
VI
Cl
Table 6-51. Tensile Strength (10 3 psi) versus Liquid Chemical Environment of High-Temperature TP Composites
(Courtesy ICI-LNP)*
Base
Resin! Sulfuric
Glass Initial Nitric Acid, Ammonium Ethylene Motor Transm. Brake Skydrol Tricholoro- Freon
(%) Strength Acid, 10% 10% Water Hyd.lO% Glycol Oil Oil Gasoline Fluid 500 Toluene ethylene TF
7 Days at 73°F
PES/30 22.7** F20.0 A24.0 E22.7 F20.2 E22.7 E22.7 E22.0 E22.7 X12.0 X12.0 F19.3 F19.3 A21.6
F17.7 FIS.2 E22.7 FI7.S E22.7 E22.7 A21.7 E22.7 XC XC XIO.O F19.3 F20.2
PEII30 26.7 A25.7 E26.7 E26.7 F20.3 E26.7 E26.7 E26.0 X19.0 F22.0 X16.0 X20.0 X17.0 A25.0
A2S.3 E26.4 E26.4 XIS.S E26.2 A24.2 A2S.S XC XIS.O XC XC XC F20.0
PPS/40 23.2 F20.0 F20.2 E23.0 E23.2 A22.0 E23.2 E23.2 E23.0 E23.2 E23.2 A21.1 FIS.I F20.4
F19.7 F19.3 E22.7 E23.2 A21.3 E23.2 E23.2 E23.2 E23.2 E23.1 F19.3 XIS.S F20.0
PEEKl30 21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E21.0 E20.5
E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 E20.S A19.2 A20.2 E20.S E21.0 A20.0
HTAl30 17.7 Al7.0 A17.0 E17.7 F15.0 El7.7 El7.7 E17.7 E17.7 F14.0 XII.O A15.9 E17.7 E17.7
A16.4 AIS.9 A17.0 F14.7 E17.7 E17.7 E17.7 E17.7 F13.2 XC F14.6 A16.4 E17.7
PFAl20 6.4 A6.0 E6.3 E6.4 E6.3 E6.3 E6.4 E6.4 E6.4 E6.4 E6.3 E6.4 E6.4 E6.4
AS.9 A6.1 E6.3 E6.2 E6.2 E6.4 E6.4 E6.4 E6.3 E6.2 E6.4 E6.4 E6.4
PEKl30 20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.3 E20.5 E20.5 E20.3 E20.5 E20.5
E20.S E20.S E20.S E20.S E20.S E20.S E20.S E20.0 E20.S E20.S E20.1 E20.S E20.S
3 Days at ISO°F
PES/30 22.7 F19.3 A20.4 A20.4 FIS.O E22.7 E22.7 A21.S E22.5 XII.O X6.0 F17.3 X16.3 A20.9
XI6.S FIS.4 FI9.S XI6.S A21.3 E22.S A21.S E22.2 XC XC XC XI4.S Fl9.1
PEII30 26.7 F23.9 F23.S E26.0 XS.O E26.7 E26.7 F24.0 X19.0 X19.0 X15.0 X7.0 X5.0 A24.S
F22.4 F22.4 F23.9 XC E26.0 F24.0 F21.0 XC XC XC XC XC XI7.S
PPS/40 23.2 X15.3 X16.2 A21.1 E23.0 A20.9 FIO.7 F19.5 E23.2 E23.0 E23.2 E19.7 X16.0 F19.5
X13.7 XI2.S F17.6 Al2.0 F20.4 F19.7 FI9.S Al2.2 Al1.0 XI6.S F19.0 X14.4 FIS.6
PEEK/30 21.0 E20.S E20.4 E21.0 AlS.9 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 A19.1 FlS.0 E20.3 A19.3 A19.1 A19.6
XI2.S AIS.9 A19.0 FIS.S E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 FIS.S F17.7 A19.2 FIS.S XIS.O AIS.9
HTAl30 17.7 A16.3 A16.1 A16.3 F14.2 E17.2 E17.7 E17.7 E17.7 F13.S X7.0 F15.0 F13.5 E17.7
F13.S F13.3 FI3.S FI3;S A16.1 E17.7 E17.4 E17.7 F13.S XC F13.7 XU.S E17.0
PFAl20 6.4 F5.0 A5.9 E6.4 F5.5 F6.0 A5.S F5.1 A6.0 F5.1 F5.0 A5.S F5.5 E6.4
FS.O AS.S E6.3 FS.3 FS.6 AS.S FS.O AS.9 FS.O A4.9 AS.6 FS.4 E6.4
PEK/30 20.5 E19.9 E20.2 E20.2 A19.5 E19.9 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5
AIS.S AIS.7 AIS.9 AIS.S AIS.6 E20.S E19.9 AIS.7 E20.S E20.S AIS.6 AIS.9 E20.S
1 Day at 300°F
PES/30 22.7 F17.0 Xl1.6 FlS.4 X15.0 F17.3 E22.7 A21.7 E22.4 XlO.O XC XD X16.1 FI9.S
XIS.O X6.1 XIS.9 X13.1 XIS.4 E22.0 AlI.O E22.1 XC XC XD XC X13.0
PEI/30 26.7 F23.2 X19.9 A25.4 XD A25.S E26.0 F22.0 XlS.0 XlS.0 X14.0 XD XD A24.5
F21.S XIS.O X19.3 XD XIS.2 F23.S X14.0 XC XC XC XD XD X13.0
PPS/40 23.2 XI2.S XlO.2 X15.1 X15.1 X17.2 X17.0 X16.7 E23.0 E23.0 E23.2 X17.2 X15.1 X16.9
XI2.S X9.7 X12.3 XIS.I X17.2 X17.0 X16.7 F20.1 AlO.9 XI4.S X16.7 X13.7 X16.0
PEEK/30 21.0 E20.4 A19.9 E21.0 F15.9 E21.0 E21.0 E21.0 F17.5 F17.2 A19.3 FlS.5 FI5.S A19.3
XU.O X14.6 XIS.I XI2.S FIS.9 E21.0 AIS.9 F17.3 F17.1 FIS.3 X13.S X13.3 F16.6
HTAl30 17.7 F13.S X12.5 F14.2 X13.0 F15.1 E17.7 E17.7 E17.7 F13.6 X6.0 F14.0 X12.7 E17.7
XU.S XU.O X12.0 XU.S F14.3 E17.7 AI6.S E17.7 F13.3 XC X13.2 XC E17.7
PFAl20 6.4 X4.4 F4.S F5.1 F5.1 F5.2 A5.S F5.0 A6.0 F5.1 F5.0 F5.0 F5.2 F5.7
X4.3 X4.7 FS.I X4.S FS.I AS.S F4.S FS.6 FS.O F4.S FS.O FS.O FS.S
PEKl30 20.5 A19.0 AlS.5 A19.1 FlS.0 A19.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5 E20.5
XIS.O XI4.S XIS.S XI4.S AIS.O E20.S A19.0 FIS.O E20.S E20.S FIS.S FI7.S E20.3
*Test samples were ASTM type V tensile specimens. Key to ratings:
Values in bold Iype an: for sample strained 0.25% in ftexure during tesl. E = Excellenl (0 10 3% loss of lensile strength)
""To convert psi 10 Pascals, multiply by 6,895. A = Acceptable (3 10 10% loss)
F = Fair (10 10 25% loss)
X = Unacceptable (more than 25% loss)
C = Sample crazed or cracked
D = Sample dissolved or severely tackified
In
.....
-
IJ1
;j
Table 6-52. General Characteristics of TPs

Flame Color
(Copper Wire)
Specific Smoke
Material Gravity As is Color Density Odor Solvents Comments
Polypropylene 0.S5-O.9 Blue-yellow Yes White Very little Heavy Toluene Drips, swells
(trans) (slowly
slight)
LOPE 0.91-0.93 Blue-yellow Yes White Very little Candle wax Dipropylene Drips, swells
(trans) glycol
HOPE 0.93-0.96 Blue-yellow Yes White Very little Candle wax Toluene Drips, swells
(trans)
Epoxy 1-1.25 Orange yellow No Black Phenolic Some soot
(green)
Chlorinated PE 1-2.4 Green Yes Toluene
Polystyrene 1.05-1.0S Orange yellow Yes Black Dense Sweet Oiethyl Soot, no drip
marigolds benzene
Polyvinyl butyral 1.07-1.0S Blue mantle Yes Rancid butter Drips, swells
Yellow (trans)
Nylon 1.09-1.14 Blue mantle Yes Burnt hair Swells,
Yellow froths
Ethyl cellulose 1.1-1.16 Blue white Yes Sweet Sec-amyl Drips
alcohol
Polyester 1.12-1.46 Yellow No Black Dense Sweet Softens
(resinous)
Vinyl chloride 1.15-1.65 (Green) Yes White to Little Acrid Toluene No Drip
Yellow-orange Softening Green chlorine
Acrylic l.lS-1.19 Blue mantle Yes Some Floral burnt Toluene Clear bead
Yellow-orange (trans) Black fat
Vinyl acetate 1.19 Dark yellow Yes Black Acetic Sec-hexyl Some swell
alcohol
CycJohexanol
Acetonitrile
Polycarbonate 1.20 Orange-yellow No Black Phenolic Toluene Chars
sweet
Cellulose acetate 1.27-1.34 Dark yellow Black Acetic Furfuryl Burns,
Mauve blue vinegar Alcohol and charred
Yes acetionitrile bead
Cellulose nitrate 1.35-1.40 Intense white Yes No odor Dipropylene
Glycol and
Acetionitrile
Acetal 1.41-1.42 Blue mantle Yes Formaldehyde Drips
Yellow
Saran 1.58-1.75 Yes
Vinylidene 1.62-1.72 (Green) Yes Sweet Heavy black
chloride Yellow
Tetrafluoroethylene 2.1-2.3 No Burnt hair Chars
\11
......
w
VI
'I
.... Table 6-53. General Characteristics of TSs
Property Polyesters Epoxies Phenolics Melamines Silicones Polyimides
Specific gravity color 1.10-1.45 1.10-1.4 1.30-1.86 1.40-1.48 1.30-1.34 1.42-1.90

Possibilities Very good Good Limited Very good Good
By-products of cure None None H 2O H 2O H 20, RCOOH H 2O
Molding pressures O-high O-high Low-high Medium-high Low-high Low-high
Molding temp., OF <70-320 <70-330 270-320 270-360 280-360 330-660
Shrinkage, % 2-8 0.1-0.4 1-1.2 1-1.5 1-1.5 0.1-0.3
Tensile strength, 103 6-10 4-13 6-9 7-9 4-5 5-27
PSI
Elongation, % 5 2.6 1.5-2.0 <1-10
Modulus of elasticity 3--6.5 4--6 4-5 7.5-10 1.9-28.5
tension, 103 PSI
Compressive strength, 13-36.5 15-21.5 12-15 40-45 9-15 4.7-40.0
10-3 PSI
Aexural strength 103 8.5-18.5 13-21 11-17 11-14 9-14 7.1-49.5
PSI
Impact strength (Izod) 0.2-4 0.2-1.0 0.25-0.40 0.24-0.40 0.25--6.0 0.25-0.8
Heat resistance OF 250-500 250-500 160.250 210 (99) >600 (315) >600 (315)
(continuous) ("C) (121-260) (121-260) (71-121)
Heat distortion, "F 140-400 115-550 165-260 298 (148) >900 (482) 270--680
(OC) (60-204) (46-288) (74-127) (132-360)
Water absorption, %, 0.15-0.60 0.08-0.15 0.03-0.04 0.3-0.5 0.1-0.5 0.11-0.60
(24 hrs.)
Dielectric strength V 200-420 400-500 360-400 300-400 200-500 250-725
per mil
Dielectric constant 2.8-5.2 3.3-5.0 4.0-7.5 4.3-7.6 3.2-5.2 3.2-131.5
(60-106 CPS)
Dissipation (power 0.003-.028 0.002-.050 0.01-.15 0.015-0.080 0.0008-0.01 0.0018-0.013
factor 60-106
CPS)
Arc resistance, sec. 125 45-120 Tracks 100-145 250-360 230
Burning rate Slow to self- Slow to self- Very low Self- None to slow
extinguishing extinguishing extinguishing
Effect of sunlight Yellows None Darkens Slight color None to slight
change
Effect of weak acids None None None None None to slight Resistant
Effect of strong acids None to Attacked by Decomposed by Decomposes Slight Slowly
considerable some oxid. attacked-
acids, resistant
none to
slight with
regular
org. acids
Effect of weak alkalis None to slight None Slight to None None to slight Slowly attacked
marked
function of
pH
Effect of strong Attacked Slight Decomposes Attacked Slight Attacked
alkalis
Effect of organic Attacked Generally Attacked by None Attacked by Very resistant
solvents (ketones resistant some some
and
chlorinated
solvents)
Machining qualities Good Good Excellent Fair Fair to good
Major limitations Cure shrinkage Dermatitis, Colors limited High cost Very high cost High cost
difficult
to mold
release
Major advantages Ease of Low Good general Arc Heat resistance, Heat resistance
fabrication, shrinkage, properties, resistance, low
clarity with excellent low cost Scratch dissipation
flame adhesion resistance, (power)
retardancy, colorability factor
moderate
dissipation
(power)
factor
\II
'I
\II
Table 6-54. Example of Qualitative Plastics Environmental Ratings
Weather
Abrasion Ability Paint
Material Family Resistance (Natural) Ability· Transparent Translucent
ABS F F-P No Yes Yes

Acetal G F No Yes
Acrylic P G No Yes
Allyl G F No
ASA F P No Yes
Cellulosic F-P F-G No Yes
Epoxy G F Yes Yes
Fluoroplastic G E No Yes
Melamine-formaldehyde G F-G Yes Yes
Nylon G F-P Yes Yes
Phenol-formaldehyde G G Yes Yes
Poly (amide-imide) VG F No Yes
Polyarylether G F No Yes
Polybutadiene G F-G No
Polycarbonate F F No Yes
Polyester (TP) G F No Yes Yes
Polyester-fiberglass (TS) G G Yes Yes Yes
Polyethylene G P No Yes
Polyimide VG F-P No
Polyphenylene oxide G F-G Yes
Polyphenylene sulfide G G No
Polypropylene G F-P No Yes
Polystyrene P F-P No Yes
Polysulfone G F-P No Yes
Polyurethane (TS) (TP) VG E-G No Yes
SAN F F No Yes Yes
Silicone F VG No Yes Yes
Styrene butadiene G G No Yes
Urea formaldehyde G F Yes
Vinyl G G No Yes
"Those with "No" ""Iuire special paint. primer. or ptqJOintiDll surface preparation.
Code: E = ExccUent; VO = Very Good; 0 = Good; F = Fair; P = Poor.
576
Table 6-55. Example Showing Permeability of Some Plastics
Water
Specific Gravity Vapor Resistance to
Type of Polymer (ASTM D 792) Barrier Gas Barrier Grease and Oils
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene 101-1.10 Fair Good Fair to good

styrene)
Acetal-homopolymer and 1.41 Fair Good Good
copolymer
Acrylic and modified acrylic 1.1-1.2 Fair Good
Cellulosics acetate 1.26-1.31 Fair Fair Good
Butyrate 1.15-1.22 Fair Fair Good
Propionate 1.16-1.23 Fair Fair Good
Ethylene vinyl alcohol 1.14-1.21 Fair Very good Very good
copolymer
Ionomers 0.93-0.96 Good Fair Good
Nitrile polymers 1.12-1.17 Good Very good Good
Nylon 1.13-1.16 Varies Varies Good
Polybutylene 0.91-0.93 Good Fair Good
Polycarbonate 1.2 Fair Fair Good
Polyester (PET) 1.38-1.41 Good Good Good
Polyethylene
Low density 0.910-0.925 Good Fair Good
Linear low density 0.900-0.940 Good Fair Good
Medium density 0.926-0.940 Good Fair Good
High density 0.941-0.965 Good Fair Good
Polypropylene 0.900-0.915 Very good Fair Good
Polystyrene
General purpose 1.04-1.08 Fair Fair Fair to good
Impact 1.03-1.10 Fair Fair Fair to good
SAN (styrene acrylonitrile) 1.07-1.08 Fair Good Fair to good
Polyvinyl chloride
Plasticized 1.16-1.35 Varies Good Good
Unplasticized 1.35-1.45 Varies Good Good
Polyvinylidene chloride 1.60-1.70 Very good Very good Good
Styrene copolymer
(SMA) Crystal 1.08-1.10 Fair Good Fair
Impact 1.05-1.08 Fair Good Fair
577
Table 6-56. Examples of Properties of TP and TS Elastomers·
Non-Oil-Resistant Rubben
Styrene-Butadiene
Generic Name Natural Rubber (GRS) (SBR) Butyl EP Rubber
Lb.lin.' 0.033 0.034 0.033 0.031

(g/cm') (0.91) (0.94) (0.91) (0.86)
Weight of Base Elastomer Specific Gravity 0.93 0.94 0.92 0.86
Durometer range 30-100 40-100 30-100 30-90

Resilience 0 G F G
fit
Tensile strength, psi (reinforced) 4,000 (27.5) 2,000 (13.8) 2,000+ (13.8) 2,000-3,000
(MPa) (13.8-20.7)
Elongation % (reinforced) 500 450 300-800 500
1liil~ Creep, room temperature E E F F
'1iloS! Compression set G G F F
i Electrical resistivity E E E E
Impermeability, gas G F 0 G
1l Impact E E G G
j Resistance to
Abrasion
Tear
E
E
E
F
G
G
G
P
~ Cut growth E G E G
25O"F (121"C) 1,800 1,200 1,000 2,000

(12.4) (8.27) (6.90) (13.8)
Tensile strength;
400"F (204"C) 125 170 350 400
I
Psi (M Pal, at
(0.862) (1.17) (2.41) (2.76)
elongation, 'Ib, at
250"F (l21"C) 500 250 250 300-500
400"F (204"C) SO 60 SO 0-120
~ Creep at 212'F (l00"C) G G F (-23 to -40) F
:l Heat aging at 212'F (IOO"C) G G (-18 to -45) E E(-29to -46)
J Flame resistance
Stiffening, 'F ("C)

P
-20 to -50
P
0-50
P
-lOto -40
P
-20 to -50
j
(-29 to -45) (-18 to -45) (-23 to -40) (-29 to -46)
Low temperature
Brittle pt., 'F ("C) -SO -80 -SO -90
(-62) (-62) (-62) (-68)
Weather F F E E
Oxidation G G E G
Ozone P P E E
Radiation F-G G P P
Water E E E G-E
.J Acid
Alkali
P-G
F-G
F-G
F-G
E
E
G-E
G-E
.ll Gasoline, kerosene. etc. (aliphatic Hes) P P P P
Benzol, toluol, etc. (aromatic HCs) P P F-G F
Degreaser solvents (halogenated HCs) P P P P
Alcohol G F E P
Synthetic lubricants (diester) P-F P F P-F
Hydraulic Silicates P P-F F F-G

fluids Phosphates P-F P G G-E
Taste F-G F-G F-G G

Subjective
Odor F-G G G G
Properties
Nonstaining P-G P-G G G
E E F-E P
Bonding to rigid materials Elastic cord, Tires Air and gas Weather-
Typical applications tires containers resistant
parts
·Ratmgs lItt In thiS decreasing order: Outstandin,. ElI.l;Cllcnt. Good. Fair. Poor.
Note. 0 = ouiscanchng. E "" cJ.cellem. G = good; F - fau-; P ., poor.
578
Oil-Resistant Rubbers Heat-Resistant Rubbers
Acrylonitrile Poly- Auoro- Auoro-

Neoprene (BUNA-N) Polysulfido urethane Silicone silicone elastomers Acrylics
0.044 0.036 O.04S 0.039 0.036 0.049-0.06 0.05-0.07 0.040
(1.22) (1.00) (1.33) (1.0S) (1.00) (1.36-1.66) (I.3S-1.94) (1.11)
1.23 1.00 1.34 1.05 0.95 1.35-1.65 1.4-1.95 1.10
4()-95 2()-9O 2()-SO 55-100 25-S0 4()-SO 65-90 4()-9O

E G F G-E P-E P-G F G
3000+ 1,()()()-3,500 5Q()-1,500 4,()()()-S,000 6Q()-1,500 SQ()-I,350 1,5Q()-3,000 1,700
(20.7) (6.9()-24.1) (3.44-10.3) (27.6-55.2) (4.14-10.3) (5.52-9.31) (10.3-20.7) (11.7)
65()-S5 4Q()-6()() 2Q()-550 25()-SOO 9()-SOO l00-4S0 100-450 450
F-G G P G-E F-E F-G G F
F-G G P-F E G-E G-E G-E F-G
F P F G E E G F
G G E G P P E G
G F P E P-F P-F P-G P

G-E E P-F E P-G P-G G F-G
G G P-F E P-G P-G P-G F
G G P F-E P-G P-G P-G G
1,500 700 700 1,800 S50 S50 3Q()-SOO 1,300

(10.3) (4.S3) (4.S3) (12.4) (5.S6) (5.S6) (2.07-5.52) (S.96)
ISO 130 Under 25 200 400 350 15()-300 225
(1.24) (0.90) (0.17) (I.3S) (2.76) (2.41) (I.03-2.Q7)
350 120 140 300 350 160 IQ()-350 400
()-IOO 20 Under 25 140 200 150 5()-16O 150
F-G E P E E E G-E F
G G G F-G E E 0 E
G P-F P P-F F-G F-G E P-F
+ 1()-20 + 3()--20 -1()--45 -1()--30 -6()--120 -70 + 2()-+ 30 +35-+10

( -12--29) ( -1.1--29) ( -23--43) (-23--34) (-51--84) (-57) ( -6.6---1.1) (1.7--12)
-45 -65 -60 -60 -9()--14O -9()--120 +1()-+20 -10
(-43) (-54) (-51) ( -51) ( -6S--96) ( -6S--84) ( -12--6.7) (-23)
E G E E E E E E
G F-G E E E E 0 E
E P E E E E 0 E
F-G F-G F-G G F-E F F-G P-G
G E G G G G G F
G G F P-F P-G G G-E F
G F-G G P-F P-F G P-G P
G E E E P-F G E E
P G E P-F P F E P
p P F-G F-G P-F F-G G P
F E G G G G E p
P F-G G P P-F G F-G G
G F P-F P G G G
P P P-F P G G P P
F-G F-G P-F G G G F-G F-G

F-G G P G G G G F-G
G-E P-G P-F G 0 0 P-G G
G-E G-E F-G F-G F-E G P-G G

Weather- and Gasoline- Solvent- Abrasion- High- and High- and High- High-
oil- and oil- resistant resistant low- low- temperature temperature,
resistant resistant parts parts temperature, temperature, solvent- oil-
parts parts non-oil- oil- resistant resistant
resistant resistant parts parts
parts parts
(cont'd)
579
Weather-Resistant Specialty
Rubbers Rubbers
Chlorosulfonated
Polyethylene
Generic Name (Hypalon) Various Types
Lb.lin.' (glcm') 0.040 Electrically

Weight of Base Elastomer Specific Gravity 1.10 conductive,
50-95 Thermoplastic,
Durometer range
G Thermally
Resilience
.~ 1500-2500 conductive,
t: ~ Tensile strength, psi (reinforced)
(10.3-17.2)
(,I)
8.e-g Damping,
£ S[(l
:l
8.
(MPa)
Elongation % (reinforced)
High and low
Ojfile Creep, room temperature
200-500 permeability
.~~ 8 Compression set
F For specific
F-G details consult
if Electrical resistivity
G manufacturer.
Impermeability, gas
E
OJ
..
Impact F-G
'8 Abrasion G
..c Resistance to
~ Tear F-G
::il Cut growth F-G
Tensile strength; 250"F (l21°q 500 (3.45)
Psi, (MPa) at 4OO"F (204°q 200 (1.38)
~ elongation, %, at 250°F (l21°q 60
i3
e 400°F (204°q 20
~ Creep at 212°F (loooq F
~ Heat aging at 212"F (lOOoq E
.~
Harne resistance G
8.
£ Low temperature
Stiffening, "F (OC) -30 to -50(-34 to -46)
"" Brittle pI., OF eq -60 (-51)
·&!1 Weather
Oxidation
E
E
Ozone 0
Radiation F-G
~ Water G
"e Acid E
,g= Alkali
Gasoline, kerosene, etc. (aliphatic HCs)
E
F
;.
Jj Benzol, toluol, etc. (aromatic HCs) P-F
Degreaser solvents (halogenated HCs) P-F
Alcohol G
Synthetic lubricants (diester) P
Hydraulic Silicates G
fluids Pbosphates P-F
Taste F-G
Subjective
Odor G
Properties
Nonstaining E
F-G
Bonding to rigid materials
Weather-resistant
Typical applications
coatings
580
Thennoplaslic Elastomers
Styrene-
butadiene Olefinic Urethanes Polyester EVA andEEA
0.03~.038 0.031~.037 0.042~.04S 0.043 0.03~.34

0.93-1.113 0.88-1.02 1.15-1.25 1.20 0.91~.9S
3S-9SA 6S-90A, SOD 7SA-6SA 92A-63D SOA-60D

High Low High-Damp Low Medium
500-3,000 (3.45-20.7) 650-2,000 (4.48-13.8) 3,000-7,000 (2.07--48.3) 5,800-6,400 (40.0-44.1) 800-4,000 (5.52-27.6)
400-1,350 180-250 200-500 500-800 50-1,200
P P-G F-G G P
G High P G F
F-G F-G o G F-G

G G E E F-G
Maximum use
temp, "F ("C) 250 (121) 200 (93.3) 250-300 (121-149) 140(60)
150P P P P P
-40(-40) -60 (-51) -40(-40) -70(-57) -20 (-29)

-76(-60) -94 (-70)
F-P E E-G G G-F

F E G-F G G-F
F E G-F G G-F
G E P G E
F G-F F G G
F 0
Very poor G-F E G P
Very poor P G G-F P
Very poor P F P P
Very poor G-F F-P G F
G P G G F
Gaskets, seals, footware Gaskets, seals, toys Household items, toys Gears, industrial parts Household items, toy
581
c {
Figure 6-70. Definitions of the mechanical energy components on a hysteresis loop; energy loss
(left) and stored energy (right).
Figure 6-71. Definitions of stiffness on a hysteresis loop.
Two test patterns have proved to be useful: the increasing-load test and the dynamic
fatigue test. In the increasing-load test, the load is increased by a set amount to a series
of prescribed values, after which the specimen is unloaded to a load level where no failure
occurs. If the parameters return to their initial values after unloading, no irreversible
damage has occurred at the preceding stress level. This method is suitable for a rapid
study of the stress dependence of dynamic characteristics, while in the dynamic fatigue
test the time dependence of changes in characteristics is recorded. With this test also, it
is often good policy to unload to a lower level to allow possible damage to be detected.
Hysteresis Measurements on Fabric Laminates

A TS polyester resin/glass-fabric laminate containing about 60 wt.-% glass was studied.
Figures 6-73 to 6-77 reproduce the original diagrams from an increasing-load test, using
a 10 Hz sine-wave alternating load cycle, with (R = -1). The load was increased
successively by 10 N/mm2 from 60 N/mm2 to break at 100 N/mm2 (see Fig. 6-73a). Each
load level was maintained for 15,000 cycles and then reduced again to the starting level.
The temperature on the surface of the test sample was measured during the test.
The energy loss changes with the level of load (see Fig. 6-37b). It heats up the sample,
and the surface temperature increases correspondingly (see Fig. 6-73c). Whenever the
energy loss changes, the temperature falls or rises exponentially. The damping shows a
similar pattern to the energy loss (see Fig. 6-73d). However, the different load levels
ranSlent recorder servo -hydraulIC

dIgItal testing machme
IntermedIate
store
personal
(omputer 1--+.1.----1--1
Figure 6-72. Experimental arrangements for hysteresis measurement.
can be compared better, since damping is independent of stress (see equation 6-58).
Damping first exhibits a maximum, then falls off and later increases again.
The origin of the first damping maximum is the creation of transverse cracks between
bundles of long fibers. The development of transverse cracks later decreases, until a point
is reached when no further cracks occur. This situation in cross-laminated composites is
called the characteristic damage state. The edges of the transverse cracks rub against one
another and so raise the energy loss. After a while the crack edges become smooth and
the frictional losses become less. Thus, damping decreases after cracking stops, because
no more rubbing surfaces are created and the frictional loss per unit of crack area decreases.
The second rise in damping before breakage indicates the occurrence of a second stage
of damage to the sample. Lengthwise cracks are formed at the crossover points of the
weave. These grow along the length of the fiber bundles and lead to delamination. During
the compression phase, this results in partial crumpling of individual layers, and breakage.
During dynamic fatigue tests, damping shows the same kind of behavior as in increas-
ing-load tests. Figure 6-74 shows the pattern of change of damping during a ten-
sion/compression test at 70 N/mm 2 (R = -1). A damping maximum and minimum can
again be seen. Thus, in dynamic fatigue tests three characteristic features occur:
The damping maximum that characterizes the completion of transverse cracking

The damping minimum that signals the creation of longitudinal cracks
The breaking point
~ ml-,----~ L...J Ll
I00r====----;::====~____;;::::====="~
__________________~-------
j
...
Q)
o~r
(a) U5 -,O ;-;----~ _ _ _,.........,
-IOO~ i
o 10 20 30 )0
;t;;i;;;:):L)1
I
I/)
I/)
0.045
.Q
...
>.
C)
Q)
c 0.015 I <:::J
W
(b) o I
o 10 20 30 0 so 6O.tO! 70
34,----c---~--------~----~--~--~
~}~-~ ~E¥ :
~
:::I
~
Q)
a.
E
Q)
(c) ~ o 10 20 30 40 60 .1 0) 70
(d)
C)
c
.0.
E
~
:~n;; ~· i :{l I
o 10 20 30 0 )0 60 .,0) 70
Number of cycles
Figure 6-73. Patterns of change in characteristic quantities observed during an increasing-load

test on TS polyester-glass fabric laminate containing 60 percent glass by weight.
0,040 r-----..,.....------.......,.....--------.
0,036 ~---i---~_+_-------30_-----J-
R = -1
C>
0,032 ~----- C1max = 70 N/mm
c
.0. f = 10 Hz
E
~ 0.028 L.-_ _--:-_ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ ..l...__ __
10' 10 3 101.
Number of cycles
Figure 6-74. Change of damping at 70 N/rrun2 •
584
160,-----------r-----.----
N/mmZ
120r---+--1~~-~--~-~
.....
40r-----~----_+----<'~------r-----~
O~-~--~---~-~~-~
10 2
Number of cycles
Figure 6-75. Break curve (O'B) and curves for damping extremes ('Ymin, 'YmoJ on stress versus
number of cycles diagram.
If these three points for a number of different stresses are transformed into a diagram of
stress versus number of cycles, two other curves appear, in addition to the breaking line
(see Fig. 6-75).
The damping maximum curve characterizes the completion of transverse crack for-
mation, and the damping minimum curve signals the creation of longitudinal cracks.
Hysteresis Measurements on Shoe-Sole Material

The demands made on the soles of jogging shoes are very high. For one, the material
has to be soft so that the wearer's joints are as lightly loaded as possible. For another,
the material must give back the highest possible proportion of the energy it stores when
it is loaded, so as to minimize the expenditure of energy during running. So as to be able
to judge the suitability of different materials as soles for running shoes, some means of
characterizing the above-mentioned properties must first of all be found. After this, the
parameters must be measured by a simulated-service test.
The values of materials' characteristics change with time because of aging. The con-
stancy over time of a characteristic should be noted as a third criterion for the choice of
a soling material, since shoes ought to remain usable for the longest possible time.
The physical characteristic used for the first requirement (material softness) is the
compression modulus. If the modulus is low, the load on the joints is less than if it is
high. The damping coefficient quantifies the proportion of mechanical energy not given
back by the sole. It is the ratio of the energy lost to that stored (see equation 6-55) and
is thus a measure of the energy lost in the shoe during running.
The efficiency, IJ., can be calculated from the damping. It indicates the ratio of the
work recovered (stored energy) to the total energy put in:
1
IJ.= =-- (6-63)
Wv + Ws A + 1
20r-----~--------------------._----_o------~
(J)
:::l
"S
u
o
E
c:
o
'in
(J)
....
Q)
a.
E
o
() 5~----~------~------------~---------------
o 10 15 20 25 ,,10 3 30
Number of cycles
Figure 6-76. Compression moduli of three PUR foam materials.
Simulation of a Loading Cycle

During running, a material undergoes cyclic loading. The foot presses down and the sole
is compressed. The compressive load increases from zero to some maximum value. After
this the foot rolls off the sole and unloads it until the foot descends again. The time taken
to reach the maximum load of 1 N/mro2 is some 40 ms, the contact time about 450 ms,
and the total cycle time between successive descents of the foot is about 700 ms. This
curve pattern was simulated by the function generator. The setting of amplitude and
prestress is carried out by the computer controlling the test cycle.
Differences in Patterns of Damage

Three different systems of soft polyurethane (PUR) foam were tested, all of which are
used for the soles of jogging shoes. Test samples 30 mm square and 18 mm thick were
used. It turned out that all the samples were severally damaged during the first 1,000 test
cycles and that after this damage proceeded approximately linearly with time (see Figs.
6-76 and 6-77).
In Figure 6-78, two hysteresis curves for sample 3 are shown. They were measured
shortly after the start of the test, at 15 cycles, and before the end of the test, at 28,730
cycles, respectively. It is clear that the energy loss (area enclosed by the curves) becomes
smaller with an increasing number of cycles. A shift of the hysteresis curve, caused by
quasi-permanent set, is observed. Also, the upper and lower gradients change with in-
creasing time under load.
This qualitative information can be quantified by means of the trend in values of material
characteristics. The lower slope describes the force/extension behavior in the region of
greatest compressive loading when the foot descends (see Fig. 6-76). The elastic modulus
of three samples increases rapidly at first; but later differences become evident. Samples
I and 3 exhibit a slower rate of increase, while the modulus of sample 2 at the end
of the test is almost twice its value after the first few load cycles. The efficiency of all
three materials becomes essentially constant after rapid initial increase in value (see Fig.
6-77).
00
0/0
/2
90
60
? ,
"
>-
0
c
Q)
fr '3
.(3 70
:=
w
60L-----~------------------------------------
o S 10 1S 20
Number of cycles
Figure 6-77. Efficiencies of three PUR foam materials.
Or-------------------------~-------------
N/mml
-0,4 f------+H'------~_____7"~__7'_::......------------
-0,6 f----Htf------l.-f-+......,.--------....:....-----------
II)
~ -0,6~--~--------_++_~------------------------------
Ci5
________- L______________________________
..
-1L--A~
-20 o 20 0/0
Extension (Strain)
Figure 6-78. Hysteresis curves for a PUR foam material (sample 3) after 15 and 28,730 load
cycles.
587
Material Choice Exemplified By Soling for a Jogging Shoe

Different materials show different dynamics behavior under simulated running loads. The
mechanical characteristics of materials change somewhat during fatigue testing because
of internal damage. The biggest changes occur during the first 1,000 cycles (see Figs.
6-76 and 6-77).
For making qualitative judgments about the suitability of the three materials as soling
materials, it is useful to analyze the region from 1,000 cycles onward, after the running-
in phase. The compression moduli of samples 1 and 3 increase some 10 percent to 10
N/mm2 from here to the end of the test, while the value for sample 2 rises to some 20
N/mm2, about twice the value of the other two samples. As time goes on this material
will load the joints very much more heavily.
The second criterion is the efficiency, the ratio of recoverable ("stored") energy to total
energy. After the running-in phase, it stays almost constant at 78 percent for sample 3,
85 percent for sample 1, and 90 percent for sample 2. This means that with a sole made
from material 3, 22 percent of the energy a sportsman uses in running is transformed
into heat; with material 2, in contrast, it is only 10 percent.
But material 2 is very hard for running shoes, and the efficiency of material 3 is worse
than that of material 1. Thus it appears that material 1 is the most suitable for the soles
of jogging shoes.
Hysteresis Measurements for Material and Part Tests

Hysteresis measurements provide values for a number of characteristics of materials that
describe their behavior under dynamic loading. The damping coefficient has proved to
be particularly successful for describing the behavior both of materials and of components.
By example of the glass-fabric laminate it has been shown how, with the help of the
damping factor, the degree of damage can be described. The increasing-load test provides
the possibility of rapidly recording the development of damage. An increasing-load test
lasts about one hour; in this time it readily shows up changes in material characteristics,
and the development of internal damage that occurs in vibration fatigue tests. With this
method the dynamic behavior of different materials or materials modifications, and the
effects of production changes on a material, can be discovered rapidly and cost effectively.
Furthermore, the hysteresis-measurement procedure is very effective when values of
dynamic characteristics and efficiencies are required as indices of quality: for example,
in the choice of suitable foam materials for sport shoes, the pattern of modulus change
under dynamic load, or the damping index, can be used.
Chapter 7
THE PROCESSING OF PLASTICS
The various processes discussed in this chapter are used to fabricate all types and shapes
of plastic products, ranging from household convenience packages to electronic devices
and many others-including the strongest products in the world, used in space vehicles,
aircraft, building structures, and so on. Proper process selection depends upon the nature
and requirements of the plastic, the properties desired in the final product, the cost of
the process, its speed, and the product volume. (Remember that a plastic may also be
called a polymer or a resin.) Some materials can be used with many kinds of processes,
but others require a specific or specialized machine (see Fig. 7-1). Plastics consumption
by process is given in Table 7 -1. Numerous fabrication process variables play an important
role and can markedly influence a product's aesthetics, performance, and cost.
This review provides information on the effects on performance and cost of changing
individual variables during processing, including upstream and downstream auxiliary
equipment. Many of these variables and their behaviors are the same in the different
processes, as they all relate to temperature, time, and pressure. This chapter contains
information applicable to all processes characterized by certain common variables or
behaviors, such as plastic melt flow, heat controls, and so forth. It is essential to recognize
that for any change in a processing operation there can be advantages and disadvantages.
The old rule still holds: for every action there is a reaction. A gain in one area must not
be allowed to cause a loss in another; changes must be made that will not be damaging
in any respect.
All processes fit into an overall scheme that requires interaction and proper control of
its different operations. An example is shown in Figure 7-1, where a complete block
diagram pertains to a process. This FALLO (Follow ALL Opportunities) approach can
be used in any process by including those blocks that pertain to the fabricated product's
requirements.
Knowledge of all the processing methods, including their capabilities and limitations,
is useful to a designer in deciding whether a given part can be fabricated and if so by
which process. Certain processes require placing high operating pressures on plastics,
such as those used in injection molding, where pressures may range from 13.8 to 206.9
Pa (2,000 to 30,000 psi). Because of these pressures and the fact that three-dimensional
parts are molded, injection molding is the most complex process, but it is easily controlled.
Lower pressures are used in extrusion and compression, ranging from 1.4 to 69 Pa (200
to 10,000 psi), and some processes, such as thermoforming and casting, operate at
relatively little pressure. Basically, with the higher pressures it is possible to develop
589
Figure 7-1. Alpha I, the centerpiece mUltipurpose machine for GE Plastics' Polymer Processing
Development Center in Pittsfield, Mass. is in the center of a facility with a dozen more different
processing machines. This one-of-a-kind multipurpose machine measuring 75 ft. long x 50 ft.
wide x 55 ft. tall can produce parts up to six feet square. It is the world's first machine to
combine more than seven processes, including injection molding, flow molding, tamping,
coinjection molding, gas injection molding, compression molding, flow forming, side-by-side,
and proprietary processes.
590
THE PROCESSING OF PLASTICS 591
Table 7-1. Plastics Consumption by Processes

Percent by
Material Weight
Extrusion 36
Injection 32
Blowing 10
Calendering 6
Coating 5
Compression 3
Powder 2
Others 6
Approximate values, U.S. and worldwide.
tighter dimensional tolerances with higher mechanical performance, but there is also a
tendency to develop undesirable stresses (orientations) if the processes are not properly
understood or controlled. A major exception is reinforced plastics processing at low or
contact pressures. Regardless of the process used, its proper control will maximize per-
formance and minimize undesirable process characteristics.
Practically all processing machines can provide useful products with relative ease, and
certain machines have the capability of manufacturing products to very tight dimensions
and performances. The coordination of plastic and machine facilitates these processes.
This interfacing of product and process requires continual updating because of continuing
new developments in manufacturing operations. The information presented throughout
this book should make past, present, and future developments understandable in a wide
range of applications [1-14, 62-69, 537-673].
Most products are designed to fit processes of proven reliability and consistent pro-
duction. Various options may exist for processing different shapes, sizes, and weights
(see Table 7-2). Parameters that will help one to select the right options are 1) setting
up specific performance requirements; 2) evaluating materials' requirements and their
processing capabilities; 3) designing parts on the basis of material and processing char-
acteristics, considering part complexity and size (see Fig. 7-2) as well as a product and
process cost comparison (see Table 7-3); 4) designing and manufacturing tools (molds,
dies, etc.) to permit ease of processing; 5) setting up the complete line, including auxiliary
equipment (Fig. 7-1 and Chapter 8); 6) testing and providing quality control, from delivery
of the plastics through production to the product (see Chapter 9); and 7) interfacing all
these parameters by using logic and experience or obtaining a required update on tech-
nology.
Polymers usually are obtained in the form of granules, powder, pellets, and liquids.
Processing mostly involves their physical change (thermoplastics), though in some cases
chemical reactions occur (thermosets) (Chapter 2). A variety of processes are used. One
group consists of the extrusion processes (pipe, sheet, profiles, etc.). A second group
takes extrusion and in certain cases injection molding through an additional processing
stage (blow molding, blown film, quenched film, etc.). A third group consists of injection
and compression molding (different shapes and sizes), and a fourth group includes various
other processes such as thermoforming, calendering, and rotational molding.
The common features of these groups are 1) mixing, melting, and plasticizing; 2) melt
transporting and shaping; 3) drawing and blowing; and 4) finishing. Mixing, melting,
and plasticizing produce a plasticized melt, usually made in a screw (extruder or injection).
\11
~
N
Table 7-2. Examples of Competitive Processes versus Different Products

Reaction Compression
Injection Blow Thenno- Injection Rotational and Transfer Matched Mold,
Molding Extrusion Molding forming Molding Molding Molding Spray-up
Bottles, necked 2, A 2, A 2 2
containers, etc.
Cups, trays, open 2
containers, etc.
Tanks, drums, large 2, A 2
hollow shapes, etc.
Caps, covers, closures, 2 2
etc.
Hoods, housings, auto 2 2 2
parts, etc.
Complex shapes, 2
thickness changes,
etc.
Linear shapes, pipe, 2,B 2,B
profiles, etc.
Sheets, panels, I, C 2 2
laminates, etc.
1. Prime process.
2. SecondaJy process.
A. Combine two or more pans with ultrasonics, adbesives, etc.
B. Short sections can be molded.
C. Also caleoderiDg process.
Table 7-3. Cost Comparison of Plastic Products and Different Processes

(Cost Factor x Material Cost = Purchased Cost of Product)
Cost Factor
Process Overall Average
Blow molding 111.6 to 4 11/8 to 2

Calendering 11/2 to 5 21/2 to 31/ 2
Casting 11/2 to 3 2 to 3
Centrifugal casting 11/2 to 4 2 to 4
Coating 11/2 to 5 2 to 4
Cold pressure molding 11/2 to 5 2 to 4
Compression molding 1% to 10 11/2 to 4
Encapsulation 2 to 8 3 to 4
Extrusion forming 111.6 to 5 11/8 to 2
Filament winding 5 to 10 6 to 8
Injection molding 11/8 to 3 13/16 to 2
Laminating 2 to 5 3 to 4
Match-die molding 2 to 5 3 to 4
Pultrusion 2 to 4 2 to 31/ 2
Rotational molding 11/4 to 5 11/2 to 3
Slush molding 11/2 to 4 2 to 3
Thermoforming 2 to 10 3 to 5
Transfer molding I1h to 5 13/4 to 3
Wet lay-up 11/2 to 6 2 to 4
Melt transporting and shaping involve applying pressure to the hot melt in order to move
it through a die or into a mold. The drawing and blowing technique stretches the melt
to produce orientation of the different shapes (blow molding, forming, etc.). The final
feature of processing, finishing, is the usual solidification of the melt.
Many product designs are inherently limited by the economics of the process that must
be used to make them. For example, TSs cannot be blow molded, and to date they have
limited extrusion possibilities. Many hollow parts, particularly very large ones, may be
produced more economically by the rotational process than by blow molding. The need
for a low quantity of parts may eliminate certain molding processes and indicate the use
of casting or others. The extrusion process has fewer problems with TPs than does injection
/,
Blow Molding
I' Injection Molding
~ Compression
I'
Thermoforming
Extrusion
I~ "/
Small Large
Part Size
Figure 7·2. A design guide for processing characteristics in regard to size and complexity.
molding but has greater problems in dimensional control and shape. However, as the
plastic leaves the extrusion die, it can be relatively stress-free. It is drawn in size and
passed through downstream equipment from the extruder to form its shape as it is cooled,
usually by air and/or water. The dimensional control and the die shape required to achieve
the desired part shape are usually solved by trial-and-error settings, with the more ex-
perience one has in the specific plastic and equipment being used meaning the less trial
time needed.
Other analyses can be made. Compression and injection molds, which are expensive
and relatively limited in size, are employed when the production volume required is great
enough to justify the molds' costs and the sizes are sufficient to fit available equipment's
limitations. Extrusion produces relatively uniform profiles at unlimited lengths. Casting
is not limited by pressure requirements and large sheets, for example, can be produced.
Calendered sheets are limited in their width by the width of the material's rolls, but are
unlimited in length. Vacuum forming is not greatly limited by pressure, although even
a small vacuum distributed over a large area can build up an appreciable load. Blow
molding is limited by equipment that is feasible for the mold sizes. Rotational molding
can produce relatively large parts.
The tendency of injection molding and extrusion to align long chain molecules in the
direction of flow results in their having markedly greater strength in that direction than
at right angles. With an extruded pressure pipe, for example, its major strength could be
in the axial/machine direction when the major stresses in the pipe wall are circumferential.
With the proper processing-condition controls, the directional properties required can be
obtained. If in an injection mold the plastic flows in from several gates, the melts must
unite or weld where they meet. This process may not be complete, however, especially
with filled plastics, so the welds may be points of weakness. Careful gating with proper
processing control can allow welds to occur where stresses will be minimal.
The nature of the process may have profound influence on such properties as lzod
impact strength. Figure 7-3 compares the impact strengths of three PP formulations that
were processed either by injection or compression molding. In this example the 1M process
resulted in a drastic reduction of impact strength over that offered by the CM. This
situation can be reversed by varying the processing conditions.
Certain products are most economically produced by fabricating them with conventional
machining out of compression-molded blocks, laminates or extruded sheets, rods or tubes.
It may be advantageous to design a product for the postmolding assembly of inserts, to
gain the benefit of fully automatic molding and automatic insert installation, even though
inserts could greatly increase the cost of TP parts.
The choice of molder and fabricator places no limits on a design. There is a way to
make a part if the projected values justify the price; any job can be done "at a price."
The real limiting factors are tool-design considerations, material shrinkage, subsequent
assembly or finishing operations, dimensional tolerances, allowances, undercuts, insert
inclusions, parting lines, fragile sections, the production rate or cycle time (see Fig. 7-
4), and the selling price.
Applying the following principles, applicable to virtually all manufacturing processes,
will aid the designer in specifying parts that can be produced at minimum cost: 1)
maintaining simplicity; 2) using standard materials and components; 3) specifying liberal
tolerances; 4) employing the most processable plastics; 5) collaborating with manufac-
turing people; 6) avoiding secondary operations; 7) designing what is appropriate to the
expected level of production; 8) utilizing special process characteristics; and 9) avoiding
processing restrictions.
THICKNESS, mm
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
9 12
8 II
M.I. '"
-
f! 10~
.... 7
I
.2-
I 9 I....
.... l.?
l.?
Z 6 Z
UJ 8 UJ
c:: c::
....
.... Vl
Vl
.... 5 7 ....
U U
< <
c..
c.. 6 :E
~
.... 4 ....
I 5 Il.?
l.?
W W
3: 3 4 3:
l.? all materials l.?
Z injection Z
....J
....J
< 2
IJ..
mOldOO] 3 :J
....J
<
IJ..
2
0
...==- =cb:-....._..::-.:-iO 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
THICKNESS, in.
Figure 7·3. An example of the effect of processing conditions on lzod impact strength for PP
with different melt index flow behaviors.
Part thickness, in.

2.5 3.75 5.0 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
110
.c 90
.,u
II;
., 70
i:[
50
010 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

Part thickness, mm
Figure 7·4. An example of cycle time during the injection molding of TPs as a function of part
thickness.
595
TOLERANCES AND SHRINKAGES

After preliminary study, the designer has to define the part geometry. This process usually
passes through several stages, beginning with preliminary drawings and sketches that
indicate the basic design and functions. More detailed sketches will show the appropriate
wall thickness, ribs, radii, and other structures, including the tolerances that are required
to be met. Chapter 3 included a review on tolerances with the factors that influence how
to predict part shrinkages (see Table 7-4 through 7-6). To meet tolerances or shrinkages
needs more than applying simple lItithmetic-the part designer and toolmaker, the plastic's
behavior and particularly its fabrication method all have to participate together [10-12,
62-68, 551-95].
Using the calculated shrinkage theory can dictate how much oversize to cut the tool
(the mold or die) if a part has a relatively simple shape. For other shapes some critical
key dimensions of the part will, more often than not, not be as predicted from the shrink
allowance, particularly if the item is long, complex, or tightly toleranced. The important
factors that influence the shrinkage of a specific plastic in using a specific machine, such
as injection molding, by causing it to vary and not follow the values like those in Table
7-4-6, are flow direction, wall thickness, flow distance, and the presence of reinforcing
fibers.
Determining shrinkage involves more than just applying the appropriate correction
factor from a material's data sheet. Shrinkage is caused by a volumetric change in a
plastic as it cools from a molten to a solid form. As discussed in Chapters 3 and 7,
shrinkage is not a single event but occurs over a period of time. Most of it happens in
the mold, but it can continue for up to twenty-four to forty-eight hours. This so-called
postmold shrinkage is when a part might be constrained in a cooling fixture. Additional
shrinkage can occur when frozen-in stress is relieved by annealing or exposure to high
service temperatures.
The main considerations in mold design affecting part shrinkage are to provide adequate
cooling, proper gate size and location, and structural rigidity [10-12]. Of the three,
cooling conditions is the most critical, especially for crystalline resins (see Chapter 2).
The cooling system must be adequate for the heat load. Slow cooling increases shrinkage
by giving resin molecules more time to reach a relaxed state. In crystalline types, having
longer cooling time leads to a higher level of crystallinity, which in turn accentuates
shrinkage. Proper cooling, along with having an overall melt-flow analysis of how the
material will react in the mold, by the mold designer, will eliminate or at least be capable
of controlling the potential problems of shrinkage and warpage. This analysis can also
include the best gate locations.
A number of the computer-aided flow-simulation programs now offer modules designed
to forecast part shrinkage-and, to a limited degree, warpage-from the interplay of resin
and mold temperatures, cavity pressures, stress, and other variables in mold-fill analysis.
The predicted shrinkage values in various areas of the part should be used as the basis
for sizing the mold cavity, either by manual input or feed-through to the mold-dimen-
sioning program. All the programs can successfully predict a certain amount of shrinkage
under specific conditions (see Appendix D, under "Shrinkage").
MODEL BUILDING
Model building, prototype construction, soft tooling, and pattern making are the key steps
in product design. These stages, which are usually expensive and time consuming, often
Table 7-4. Guidelines for Nominal TP Mold Shrinkage Rates Using ASTM 1/4 - and
1/ 2 -inch-thick Test Specimens
Avg. Rate* per ASTM D 955
0.125 in. 0.250 in.

Material (3.18 rnm) (6.35 rnm)
ABS
Unreinforced 0.004 0.007
30% glass fiber 0.001 0.0015
Acetal, copolymer
30% glass fiber 0.003 NA
HOPE, homo
30% glass fiber 0.003 0.004
Nylon 6
30% glass fiber 0.0035 0.0045
Nylon 6/6
15% glass fiber + 25% mineral 0.006 0.008
15% glass fiber + 25% beads 0.006 0.008
30% glass fiber 0.005 0.0055
PBT polyester
30% glass fiber 0.003 0.0045
Polycarbonate
10% glass fiber 0.003 0.004
30% glass fiber 0.001 0.002
Polyether sulfone
30% glass fiber 0.002 0.003
Polyether-etherketone
30% glass fiber 0.002 0.003
Polyetherimide
30% glass fiber 0.002 0.004
Polyphenylene oxide/PS alloy
30% glass fiber 0.001 0.002
Polyphenylene sulfide
40% glass fiber 0.002 NA
Polypropylene, homo
30% glass fiber 0.0035 0.004
Polystyrene
30% glass fiber 0.0005 0.001
'Rates in in.lin. (Courtesy ICI-LNP)
597
Table 7-5. Example of Wall-Thickness Ranges and Tolerances for
RP/Composite Parts
Thickness Range* Maximum
Practicable Buildup
Min., Max., Within Individual Nonnal Thickness
Molding Method mm (in.) mm (in.) Part Tolerance, mm (in.)
Hand lay-up 1.5 (0.060) 30 (1.2) No limit; use cores ±0.5 (0.020)
Spray-up 1.5 (0.060) 13 (0.5) No limit; use many ±0.5 (0.020)
cores
Vacuum-bag 1.5 (0.060) 6.3 (0.25) No limit; over three ±0.25 (0.010)
molding cores possible
Cold-press molding 1.5 (0.060) 6.3 (0.25) 3-13 mm e/s-1/2 in.) ±0.5 (0.020)
Casting, electrical 3 (.125) 115 (4.5) 3-115 mm e/s-41/2 ±0.4 (0.015)
in.)
Casting, marble 10 (.375) 25 (1) 10-13 mm; 19-25 +0.8 (.031)
mm e/s-1/2 in;
3/4-1 in.)
EMC molding 1.5 (0.060) 25 (1) Min. to max. ±0.13 (0.005)
possible
Matched-die 1.5 (0.060) 25 (1) Min. to max. ± 0.13 (0.005)
molding: possible
SMC
Pressure-bag 3 (.125) 6.3 (.25) 2: I variation possible ± 0.25 (0.010)
molding
Centrifugal casting 2.5 (0.100) 4.5% of 5% of diameter ±0.4 mm for 150-mm
diameter diameter (0.015
in. for 6-in.
diameter); ±0.8
mm for 750-mm
diameter (0.030
in. for 30-in.
diameter)
Filament winding 1.5 (0.060) 25 (1) Pipe, none; tanks, Pipe, ± 5%; tanks, ±
3: I around ports 1.5 mm (0.060
in.)
Pultrusion 1.5 (0.060) 40 (1.6) None 1.5 mm, ±0.025 mm
e/16 in. ±O.OOI
in.); 40 mm,
±0.5 mm (11/2
in. ± 0.020 in.)
Continuous 0.5 (0.020) 6.3 e14) None ± 10% by weight
laminating
Injection molding 0.9 (0.035) 13 (0.5) Min. to max. ± 0.13 (0.005)
possible
Rotational molding 1.3 (0.050) 13 (0.5) 2: I variation possible ±5%
Cold stamping 1.5 (0.060) 6.3-13 3: I possible as ±6.5% by weight;
(0.25-0.50) required ± 6.0% for flat
parts
*Thickness may be varied within parts, but prolonged cure times, slower production rates, and the possibility of warpage may result. If possible,
the thickness should be held unifonn throughout a part.
598
Table 7-6. Recommended Dimensional Tolerances for RP/Composite Parts

Class A* Class Bt Class C**
Dimension, (fine tolerance), (nonna! tolerance), (coarse tolerance),
mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
0-25 (0-1) ±0.12 (±0.005) ±0.25 (±0.010) ±0.4 (±0.016)

25-100 p-4) ±0.2 (±0.008) ±0.4 (±0.016) ±0.5 (±0.020)
100-200 (4-8) ± 0.25 (± 0.010) ±0.5 (±0.020) ± 0.8 (± 0.030)
200-400 (8-16) ±0.4 (±0.016) ±0.8 (±0.030) ± 1.3 (±0.050)
400-800 (16-32) ±0.8 (±0.030) ± 1.3 (±0.050) ±2.0 (±0.080)
800-1,600 (32-64) ± 1.3 (±0.050) ±2.5 (±O.loo) ±3.8 (±0.150)
1,600-3,200 (64-128) ±2.5 (±O.loo) ±5.0 (±0.2oo) ±7.0 (±0.280)
'Class A tolerances apply to parts compression molded with precision matched-metal molds. BMC, SMC, and preform an: included.
tClass B tolerances apply to parts press molded with somewhat less precise metal molds. Cold-press molding, casting, centrifugal casting,
rotational molding, and cold stamping can apply to this classification when molding is done with a high degree of care. BMC, SMC, and
preform compression molding can apply to this classification if extra can: is not used.
"Class C applies to hand lay-up, spray-up, vacuum bag, and other methods using molds made of RP/C material. It applies to parts that would
be covered by Class B when they an: not molded with a high degree of care.
account for more than half the time taken for design. Almost every type of product design
involves creating one or more prototypes prior to production_ Different modeling systems
that have recently become available now permit making parts in a matter of a few hours
or overnight where previously this had taken from days to months [11].
For industrial designers using CAD, even seeing a part on a high-resolution graphics
screen is sometimes not enough. The physical design can bring to life a high-tech design,
along with formerly unnoticed flaws. By quickly forming three-dimensional conceptual
models from design ideas, designers can evaluate a design concept, demonstrate its
feasibility, then sell the new idea.
The process called stereolithography is basically a method for building complex parts
automatically, by successively printing across sections of photopolymerized plastics on
top of each other until all the thin printed layers can be joined together to form a whole
part. The chemical key to the process, photopolymerization, is a well-established tech-
nology in which a photo initiator absorbs UV energy to form free radicals that then initiate
the polymerization of the liquid monomers. The degree of polymerization is dependent
upon the total amount of light energy absorbed. This system enables having precise
control over the process and constructing parts with complex geometries [587-88].
MOLDS AND DIES

Molds are used to produce components by one of the usual molding or forming procedures.
Dies are used for extruded, stamped, and some heat-formed products. Production molds
or dies are usually made from steel for high-pressure molding that requires heating or
cooling channels, strength to resist the forming forces, and wear resistance to withstand
the wear of plastics, particularly that which has glass and other abrasive fillers. Most
blow molds are cast or machined from aluminum, beryllium copper, zinc, or Kirksite
[10-12].
The design and construction of a mold plays a significant role in the dimensional
integrity of its product (see Figs. 7-5 and 7-6). The cavity that forms the final product
can be shaped using a variety of steel removal methods from jig grinding to wire-feed
electrical discharge machining. Each removal method has a corresponding range of vari-
TME M OL.DMAKER$ DI VISION
THE SOCIETY OF THE PLASTICS INDUSTRY, INC.

3150 Des PlaInes Avenue (RIver Roadl. Des j)lalnflS III 600'8 hrephone 31212976150
TO FROM QUOTE NO. _ _ __

OATE _ _ __
DELIVERY REO _ _ __
Genllemen:
Please submil your Quolal lon for a mold as per following specifications and drawin gs:
COMPANYNAME
Name __
1. _ _ _ __
_ __
__ _ ~~=~---------~~~---~~----
__ _ BIP No _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Rev No. _ _ _ No. Cav. _ __
of 2. BI P No Rev. No. _ _~ No . Cav _ __
Partls 3. BI P No. Rev. No. _ _ _ No. Cav. _ __
No. of Cavities : Design Charges: Prfce: Delivery:
Type of Mold: 0 Injection r CompressIon Transfer Other (specify) _ __

Mold ConstNction Special Features Material
o
Standard o
Leader Pins & Bushings in K.O. Bar Ca.itles Cores
0 3 Plate o
Spring Loaded K.O. Bar [J Tool Steel o
o
Stripper C Inserts Molded In Place r Beryl. Copper o
o
Hot Runner o
Spring Loaded Plate o Steel Sinkings o
o
Insulated Runner l Knockout Bar on Stationary Side [ Other (Specify) _ __
o
Other (Specify) _ __ r Accelerated K.O.
Positive K.O. Return Press
Mold Base Steel ,... Hyd. Operated K.O Bar Ctamp Tons _ _ _ __
0 111 ~ Parting Line Locks MakelModel _ _ _ __
0 112 Double EjectIon
D .3 Other (Specify) _ __
Finish Coolin
Cavilies Cores Cavities Cores Ca.ltles Core
o Hardened SPE!SPt f Inserts CJ
o Pre·Hard Mach. Fin ish ~ Reta iner Plales
o Other (Specify) _ __ Chrome Plate r Olher Plates 0
Texture r Bubblers tJ
Other (SpeC Ify) _ __ Other (Specify) _ __
Cavities Cores
o K.O. Pins Side Action T 01 Gate
o Blade K.O. Cavities Cores
o Sleeve Angle Pin C Edge
o Stripper Hydraulic Cyl n Center Sprue
D Air All Cyl 'J Sub·Gate
o Special Lifts Posilive Lock D Pin Point
, Other (SpeCIfy) _ __
::J Unscrewing (Auto) Cam
o Removable Inserts (Hand) K.O Actlvaled Spring Ld.
o Other (Specify) _ __ Olher (SpeCIfy) _ __
Design by: 0 Moldmaker Customer
Type 01 Design: 0 Detailed Design Layout Only
Limit Switches: 0 Suppl ied by _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Mounted by Moldmaker
Engraving: 0 Ves L' No
Approxlmlte Mold Size: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Huters Supplied By: [J Moldmaker Customer
Duplicating Clsts By: OMoldmaker "Customer
Mold Function Try·Out By: rl Moldmaker - Customer
Tooling Modells or Masterls By: r Moldmaker r Customer
Try·Out Material Supplied By: ~ Moldmaker Customer
Terms subject to Purchase Agreement. TillS quotation holds for 30 days .
Spec ial Instructions: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __
The prices Quoted are on the baSIS of piece part print . models or designs subm itled or supplIed. Should there be
any change in the fina l design. prices are subject to change
By _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ ____ Title _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ ___
OlllrlbuHon~ Use or "''11$ 3 pari form IS 'ecommenOed as toliowS 1) Wh ile oiInd yellOW ~lI!Inl Wl lh leoue:,.1 to QuOle
Plnll, . m. i nl.,"e~ m ... ell1j'~ Itle 21 White onQtnal returned Wllh QuOHlllOn YlI!IlIow '1I!IlalneCi In Moldmaker's achve hIe
Figure 7·5. A guide for mold quotation. Courtesy Moldmakers Division, Society of the Plastics
Industry.
600
Dls!on PIOC"'"CI
DeClOI'on QYlnhl V.ndo, I'Y-oul (10,.1 ,
Decide numbe, Of elvllI" M OIO JunellOnl"g
$e1 ..CI mOlding mac'.. n. M. ,ol dimenS Ions
St. molO SP9C I'lc. 1I0ns CorrleltOns.
SCleen canOlo.1t vendors
'Isue QuOl1 '.Que.1
A.".e.... QUO"I
A.'1lew mold coneeOIl,
Fln. hze ,,,oauci Clraw ,ng
Pllet order ... chln lng
Al le lse Of.wlng Pll ee orael Vendor I'lout (add ,tlon.'1
Cort and ('''' ''Y
Shde . no ,nSIUS oC de lllleO I"S~Cljon
eore pins l ie Correctlonl 10uc.n·uD
Mole Din
In Dl."1 I'l-O,, "I)

o C In'C»etltonfS)
•• nchlng TOuch·uptS)
Dell llino Ptotess lIanOl ros.
Fill ing OC •• ,....
PoII,'.. n; ( "gln.e.,,"; ,.Ie.se
Ailimbly Re l'IS!' to' pfOCuCI1on
Figure 7-6. Time considerations must be allowed for in going from designing to producing an injection mold able to fabricate
products that meet performance requirements. The time-line events in weeks provide a guide on events that could occur.
a-
S
ation. Although the tolerances of these processes are geometry dependent, some processes
are more accurate than others. Studies can be performed to determine an average range
of variation for each method. Among other important tool design and construction con-
siderations for determining tool performance for a given dimension are the mold's con-
struction details, such as its main parting lines. All these factors add to the overall
variations in related dimensions of the mold's products.
DRYING HYGROSCOPIC PLASTICS

Of the various plastics available, such TPs as nylon, PC, PMMA, PUR, PET, and ABS
are among those categorized as hygroscopic. These absorb moisture, which then has to
be removed before the plastics can be converted into acceptable products. Low concen-
trations, as specified by the resin's supplier, can be achieved through having efficient
drying systems and properly handling the dried resin prior to and during molding or
extrusion.
Drying hygroscopic resins should not be taken casually. The simple tray dryers or
mechanical convection hot-air dryers that may be adequate for nonhygroscopic resins are
simply not capable of removing water to the degree necessary for the proper processing
of hygroscopic resins or their compounds, particularly during periods of high humidity.
The effect of having excess moisture manifests itself in various ways, depending on
the process being employed. The common result is a loss in both mechanical properties
(see Fig. 7-7) and physical properties, with splays, nozzle drool between shot-size control,
sinks, and other losses that may occur during processing. The effects during extrusion
can also include gels, trails of gas bubbles in the extrudate, arrowheads, wave forms,
surging, lack of size control, and poor appearance.
HEAT HISTORY, RESIDENCE TIME, AND RECYCLING

The process of heating and cooling TPs can be repeated indefinitely by granulating scrap,
defective parts, and so on. During the heating and cooling cycles of injection, extrusion,
and so on, the material develops a "time to heat" history, or residence time. With only
limited repeating of the recycling, the properties of certain plastics are not significantly
affected by residence time. However, some TPs can significantly lose certain properties.
OO~----~~---+----~r---~~----~
.!
...5~ 8O..---+--~--+---..:t----f
o.,. 70~----~-----+--~~+-----~--~~
80~----;------+------~~--;-----~
~~----~----~~--~~----~----~
.01
"" H,O
Figure 7-7. An example of the effects of moisture on the mechanical properties of a

hygroscopic PET upon injection molding.
Some examples of change in properties for injection-molded parts were shown in Figure
6-26. If incorrect methods were used in granulating recycled material, more degradation
will occur [11].
PROCESS CONTROL
Adequate process control and its associated instrumentation are essential for product
quality control. The goal in some cases is precise adherence to a control point. In other
cases, maintaining the temperature within a comparatively small range is all that is
necessary. For effortless controller tuning and the lowest initial cost, the processor should
select the simplest controller (of temperature, time, pressure, melt-flow, rate, etc.) that
will produce the desired results.
One example of controls used with injection molding is seen in Figures 7-8-10. Based
on the process-control settings, different behaviors of the plastics will occur. Some
examples of these behaviors are shown in Figures 7-11 for injection molding and 7-12
for extrusion.
Regardless of the type of controls available, the processor setting up a machine uses
a systematic approach that should be outlined in the machine or control manuals. Once
the machine is operating, the processor methodically makes one change at a time, to
determine the result. Two basic examples are presented in Figures 7-13 and 7-14 to show
a logical approach to evaluating the changes made with any processing machine. As the
injection-molding machine is very complex with all the controls required to set it up,
these examples refer to the injection-molding process [11].
TROUBLESHOOTING
With all types of plastics processes, troubleshooting guides are set up to take fast,
corrective action when products do not meet their performance requirements [10-12].
This problem-solving approach fits into the overall fabricating-design interface. One brief
example of troubleshooting an RP/composite is in Table 7-7.
A simplified approach to troubleshooting is to develop a checklist that incorporates the
basic rules of problem solving such as 1) have a plan, and keep updating it, based on
Table 7-7. Troubleshooting RP Processses

Problem Possible Cause Solution
Nonfills Air entrapment Additional air vents and/or vacuum required

Gel and/or resin time Adjust resin mix to lengthen time cycle
too short
Excessive thickness Improper clamping Check weight and lay-up and/or check
variation and/or lay-up clamping mechanisms such as alignment
of platens
Blistering Demolded too soon Extend molding cycle
Improper catalytic action Check resin mix for accurate catalyst content
and dispersion
Extended curing cycle Improper catalytic action Check equipment, if used, for proper catalyst
metering
Remix resin and contents; agitate mix to
provide even dispersion
i
'Jirgln
FilletS
Ma\e•tla\~
~RelnlotcReeglmintel
NOllie Mell,e nIS
Moltl ,empetampetalute
lute
screVl RPM
preSSure
.-?~Y'"·"'_'"' ,~ Bac~
0 / ~ MeiIV
Mell comptessib
iliW
iscOSiW~
cyc\eTime
#-. . . . . .
~ =-=-- -lit! S\\OI
Si2e o·,slance
?ull Back o·,slance
~ Maletial
BOOSI ?tessute
I~ Boosl floW
---- / / t:r, Back?teSsute
Back ptes sute Bul\tl\lp,\me
pea~ "ydrau
\ic pressure Back ptessute BUlltl UP Rale
,
f-.-......... Pea~ p\a
stic Pressure Holtl ptessute
Holtl ptessute
Holtl ptessute Builtl up Time
Builtl uP Rate
rwerage "o
\d Pressure
~ sctewRPM
SCtew Contlitio
, " =:.... n
< " sc w,ip
• finte
al fill Speetl
ovetali Fill sp
Machine Ftictee d
io n
=_:=========
=:==:=-=__=-==__=-==
• C
-=__=-==__=-==_ _ _O Cl"" p' O
Cu
= team,im osin'"g ,im
Cle,w "~e
• Clamp Open
_ Holtl "met lime
Figure 7 .8 Seiling
. Injection
molding mach
ine controls
.
MOld
Design
Cost
and Humber 01
Cycle Time Paris Required
Part Shape
Tool L11e
MOld
Cooling
Aulysl.s
Tolerances
Type Bushln.
2·Plale Temperatur.~ Runner Length
3·P1311 Runner Diameter
Slacked Cavlly Lo cations
CamAction. Others
COrl Pullers
Inserls
Olhers
Figure 7-9. Control factors important to mold operation.
a-
=>
<.n
PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

CAE - IJORKSTATlON
(PPe>
CPU CPU
Ho..ster
\linch • • 1,r Disk IBMIAT \r'lnch~s1fr Disk
Top' Cortrldgl' Tap .. Cor1rldg.
Serial Bus
I
I
I
32 INJECTIONI
MOLDINGI
MACHINES:
PER LINE I
I
L-O
6Q[I\!!l.BLe8~MGELHifI!Hi\!..L *
TMCOHC£PT E'port Systeo for Molding PPP - Production Planning Pa(~age
"S - MaterIal Selection
"CO - MoldIng L Cost Optl.lzatlon SOH Set Data Manage.ent
FA - Floo An.lysls
[SE - Co.puterlzed Shrinkage E~al~atlon PDM Production Data Manag~ment
PP - Past-Processor
Figure 7-10. An overview of the Computer-Integrated Injection Molding (CIIM) machine from
TMConcept, which includes shrinkage control (Metstal is a Swiss machine manufacturer).
the experience gained; 2) watch the processing conditions; 3) change only one condition
or control at a time; 4) allow sufficient time for each change, keeping an accurate log of
each; 5) check housekeeping, storage areas, granulators, etc.; and 6) narrow the range
of areas in which the problem belongs-that is, machine, molds-dies, operating controls,
material, part design, and managyment.
INSPECTION
Inspection variations are often the most critical and most-overlooked aspect of the tolerance
of a fabricated part. Designers and processors base their development decisions on in-
spection readings, but they rarely determine the tolerances associated with these readings.
The inspection variations may themselves be greater than the tolerances for the charac-
teristics being measured, but without having a study of the inspection method capability
this can go unnoticed.
Inspection tolerance can be divided into two major components: the accuracy variability
of the instruction and the repeatability of the measuring method. The calibration and
accuracy of the instrument are documented and certified by its manufacturer, and it is
periodically checked. Understanding the overall inspection process is extremely useful
in selecting the proper method for measuring a specific dimension. When all the inspection
methods available provide an acceptable level of accuracy, the most economical method
should be used.
As the overall fabricating tolerance is analyzed into the sources of its variation com-
ponents, the potential advantage of analytical programs comes into play with their ability
to efficiently process all these factors. All the empirical tolerance ranges for each tooling
f - t
-------
WITH FLOW
SHRINKACE SHRINKAGE
- ACROSS FLOW IN LINE
OF FLOW
MOLD TEMPERATURE-+ GATE AREA ---...
t
SHRI N KA.GE
WITHFLDW
-
t
DIFFERENTIAL
SHRINKAGE- - -_ _ _ _ _-_
CAVITY TH ICKNESS---'" MELT TEMPERATURE_
t \ . RESTRICTED GATE
t R~
~,
SHRINKAGE SHRINKAGE
~
PACKI~IG TIt.4E_ CAVITY TI;;CKNESS_
t t
&"
COLD MOLD
i'OST
MOLDING
SHIliNKAGE
OF
TALLINE
POLYMER PACKING
ANNEALED
TIME
AGEING TIME ~ ~
Figure 7·11. Examples of how injection-molding machine settings affect certain properties of
plastics, including shrinkage.
method and inspection method are stored in data files for easy retrieval. For each critical
dimension the program sums all the component tolerances and computes a ± overall
tolerance for each critical dimension. The program then provides a tabulated estimate of
the achievable processing tolerances and pinpoints the areas that contribute most to the
overall required tolerance. This information is useful in identifying the needed tolerances,
which in practice can be expected to exceed the initial design tolerances.
t t
FILM
OPTICAL
PROPERTIES
-------- HAZE
VALUE
--------
DIE TEMPERATURE_ DIE LAND LENGTH---.
t
HIGH
ALM
IMRO.CT
STRENGTH
BLOW UP
RATIO
LO
+
FILM
IMPACT
STRENGTH
/
FREEZE LINE HEIGHT_ 8l.C1tY UP RATIO ___
t t
~,
HIGH BLOW
UP RATIO
~
FILM TENSILE
IMPACT STRENGTH
STRENGTH DIRECTION
LOW BLOW
UP RATIO
MACHINE
DIRECTION
t
COOLING RATE -.... BLOW UP RATIO - - - - .
!
+ -
~-(")
LOW BLOW UP
FILM --JD
ALM
TEAR TEAR
STRENGTH STRENGTH MD
-
IRECTION
TO
~~~WJN(MD) -MD
HIGH BLOW UP
BLOW UP RATIO ----p. FREEZE LINE HEIGHT---.·
Figure 7-12. An example of how blown film-extrusion machine settings can affect the
properties of plastics.
~ Flash area
a
'"'"
D-
...E
a:
I
Short shot area
----4.~ Mold temperature
Figur.e 7-13. A two-dimensional molding-area diagram (MAD) that plots injection pressure (that
is, ram pressure) against mold temperature. Within this area all parts meet the performance
requirements. However, rejects can develop at the edge of the diagram, because of machine and
plastics variations .
.;;;
0.
~
:::
~
a.
Q)
E
<0
a:
Figure 7-14. After a three-dimensional molding-volume diagram (MVD) is constructed, it can

be analyzed to find the optimum combination of melt temperature, mold temperature, and
injection or ram pressure.
609
Establishing initial design tolerances is often done on an arbitrary, uninformed basis.

If the initial estimated tolerance proves too great, a lower-shrink plastic could be used
to reduce the shrinkage range. However, if the key dimension was across a main parting
line, the tooling could be redesigned to eliminate the condition and consequently reduce
variation from tool construction. Even with all these data processed by a computer,
estimating tolerances is difficult if they are not properly interrelated with the highly
dependent factors of the part and tooling designs.
INJECTION MOLDING
The injection-molding (1M) process is greatly preferred by designers because the man-
ufacture of parts in complex shapes and three dimensions can be more accurately controlled
and predicted with 1M than with other processes. As its method of operation is much
more complex than others, 1M requires a thorough understanding. Figures 7-15 and 7-
16 show schematics of the load profile and the molding cycle that highlight the way in
which the melt is plasticized (softened) and forced into the mold, the clamping system
for opening and closing the mold under pressure; the type of mold used, and the machine
controls [1, 2, 10, 12,576-600].
Plastic moves from the hopper onto the feeding portion of the reciprocating extruder
screw. The flights of the rotating screw cause the material to move through a heated
extruder barrel where it softens (is made fluid) so that it can be fed into the shot chamber
(front of screw). This motion generates pressure (usually 50-300 psi [0.35-2.07 MPa)),
which causes the screw to retract. When the preset limit switch (or a position transducer,
on newer machines), is reached the shot size is met and the screw stops rotating. At a
preset time the screw acts as a ram to push the melt into the mold. Injection takes place
Table 7-8. An Example of 1M Processing Temperatures used with Heat Resistance

for Engineering TP*
Processing
Tg deg. F Temperature.
Polymer Type (0C) deg. F eC)
Polyetheretherketone Semicrystalline 290 (143) 650 (343)

(PEEK)
Polyphenylene sulfide SemicrystaIline 185 (85) 630 (332)
(PPS)
Polyaryleneketone SemicrystaIline 400 (204) 700--780 (371-416)
Polyarylene sulfide Amorphous 410 (210) 625-650 (329-343)

Polyetherimide (PEl) Amorphous Varies Varies
450 (232) 575-650 (302-343)
545 (285) 650-700 (343-371)
Polyarylether Amorphous 476 (247) 650 (343)
Polyethersulfone (PES) Amorphous 510 (266) 575 (302)
Polyamide-imide (PAl) Amorphous 470 (243) 650 (343)
Polyimide Pseudothermoplastic 480 {249) 680 (360)

482 (250) 660 (349)
536 (280) 660 (349)
536 (280) 660 (349)
·Typical commodity TPs use about 400" to 550"F (204° to 2SS°C},

at high pressure (up to 30,000 psi [207 MPa] melt pressure in the nozzle). Adequate
clamping pressure must be used to eliminate mold opening (flushing). The melt pressure
within the mold cavity ranges from 1 to 15 tons/sq. in. and is dependent on the plastic's
rheology/flow behavior (see Chapter 2).
Time, pressure, and temperature controls indicate whether the performance require-
ments of a molded part are being met. The time factors include the rate of injection,
duration of ram pressure, time of cooling, time of plastication, and screw RPM (see Fig.
7-16). Pressure factors are injection high and low pressure, back pressure on the extruder
screw, and pressure loss before the plastic enters the cavity, which can be caused by a
variety of restrictions in the mold. The temperature factors are mold (cavity and core),
barrel, and nozzle temperatures, as well as the melt temperature from back pressure,
screw speed, frictional heat, and so on.
The large number of variables summarized in Figure 7-8 will cause part changes if not
properly controlled. The basic settings for these variables are provided by the plastic's
producer: the injection barrel temperature, melt temperature (see Table 7-8), the cavity
melt pressure, and so on. However, the final settings are determined by the processor on
a specific machine and mold.
Even though most of the literature on processing specifically identifies or refers to
thermoplastics (TPs), as in this book, some thermosets (TSs) are used (TS polyesters,
phenolics, epoxy, etc.). The TPs reach maximum heat prior to entering "cool" mold
cavities, whereas the TSs reach their maximum temperature in "hot" molds.
Productivity
Productivity is directly related to cycle time. There usually is considerable common
knowledge about a part's geometry and process conditions that will provide a minimum
cycle time. Practices such as using thinner wall sections, cold or hot runners for TPs or
hot or cold ones for TSs (see Figs. 7-17 and 7-18), narrow sprues and runners, the optimal
size and location of coolant (or heat) channels, and lower melt or mold heat, will when
possible decrease the solidification time.
Screw
Nozzle 2.25 in. dia.
(4 sq. In.)
Sprue
Mold ~!:=:7~~2~~~~~~~!~;i:;=::;"] Cylinder,

HydraulIC
7.161n dla.
Runner i - --<t (40 sq. in.)
Gate 12,000 psi
Molded part
4,000 psi
15,000 psi
Figure 7-15. An example of pressure loading on plastic melt during injection molding (see
Appendix B for English to metric conversions).
t-______________~CO MP LETE CYCLE~____________~
&0 SEC.
I NJE CTIO COOLI G EJECTIO

1--- - - 3D S EC-------1-'~ 2 S SEC
...........
uuu
"'''''''
N - N
SC R EW-R AM
TR AVEl PL AST IC COOLI G I MOLD
a SEc.. 4 7 SEC
DWELL I
RAM S SEC 17SEC 5 SEC.,
rRH
TR AVEL GA E SHRI K AGE OCC URS
SEAL I ~ OLO
TI ME - ----I
8 SEC 17 SEC 3D SEC 5 S C
Figure 7-16. An example of injection molding cycle processing thermoplastics.
';'.--i.l~t:..d - CAVI1Y AND MOLDEO PART

/"I""t<E--< --MOLD SEPARATES
RUNNER
PUNCH 011 fORCE PLATE <V
I"t"-E<E-~- MOLD SEPARATES
PUNCH 011 FORCE PLATE ~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1=~~HOT ELECTRIC HEATED

FOLD
M"HIRUNNER
NSULATED NOZZLE
~t--<-- MOI.O SEPARATES
Figure 7-17. Types of injection molds.

612
Numerous factors affect the elapsed time required to eject a part, as different plastics
can have dramatically different melt behaviors. Many of these influences are poorly, if
at all,. understood. Some critical ones are the coefficient of expansion, melt rheology,
thermal diffusivity, and the thermomechanical spectrum. Although the usual and important
ways to optimize time are based on part design and process conditions, it can be shown
that additional and significant decreases occur by using modified molding compounds via
additives, alloying ratios, molecular weight distribution, and so on.
I'K...- - " - --ElECTRIC HEATER

-INSULATED RUNNER
CAVI TY AND MOLDED PART

...--~'" - MOLD SEPARATES
I NSULATING SHELL
.........._ - - MOLTEN POLYMER
HOT MANIFOLD
I"'t"'~<--MOLO SEPARATES
I NJECIION MOLD
1fGi~'1$~;;;~~-HEATING UNI T
Figure 7-18. Three further types of injection molds.

Mathematical models of part geometry and melt flow within the mold cavity, which
are available for mold design, are useful tools for optimizing cycle times. They allow a
wide variety of plastics materials and process parameters to be evaluated in a convenient,
cost-effective manner [10]. CAD and engineering algorithms offer a continually higher
level of sophistication in determining the best heat distribution throughout the part. In
actual practice, parts are not ejected according to a measurement of their internal or wall
temperatures. Ejection times are set through secondary characteristics of part heat, such
as the ability of the part to withstand the forces of ejection, the occurrence of sink marks
or other thermal warpage, and the part's overall gloss or appearance. The prediction of
sink marks appears amenable to CAD/CAE calculation. Part appearance still plays a larger
role in the art of 1M.
Screw Design
With practically all machines, only the cylinder temperature is directly controlled. The
actual heat of the melt, within the screw and as it is ejected from the nozzle, can vary
considerably, depending on the efficiency of the screw design and the method of operation.
The factors affecting melt heat include the time the plastic remains in the cylinder; the
internal surface heating area of the cylinder and the screw, per volume of material being
heated; the thermal conductivity of the cylinder, screw, and plastic; the heat differential
between the cylinder and the melt; and the amount of melt turbulence in the cylinder. In
designing the screw, some balance must be maintained between the need to provide
adequate time for heat exposure and to maximize output most economically.
In general, heat-transfer problems have led screw designers to concentrate on making
screws more efficient as heat-transfer devices. As a result, the internal design and per-
formance of screws will vary considerably to accommodate the different plastics used.
Most machines are single, constant-pitch, metering-type screws to handle the majority
of plastics.
Air Entrapment
Air can be entrapped in the melt during processing when plastic pellets or flakes are
melted in a normal air environment, as in a plasticating extrusion process or injection
barrel, compression mold, casting form, or spray system and the air cannot escape.
Generally, the melt is subject to a compression load, or even a vacuum, which causes a
release of air, but in some cases the air is trapped. If the air entrapment is acceptable,
no further action is required. However, it is usually unacceptable, for reasons of both
performance and aesthetics.
Changing the initial melt temperature in either direction may solve the problem. With
a barrel and screw, it is important to study the effects of temperature changes. Another
approach is to increase the pressure in processes that use process controls. The particle
size, melt shape, and the melt delivery system may have to be changed or better controlled.
A vacuum hopper feed system may be useful. With screw plasticators, changes in screw
design may be helpful. Usually, a vented barrel will solve the problem.
The presence of bubbles could be due to air alone or moisture, plastic surface agents
or volatiles, degradation, or the use of contaminated regrind. With molds such as those
used for injection, compression, casting, or reaction injection, air or moisture in the mold
cavity will be the culprit. So the first step to resolving a bubble or air problem is to be
sure what problem exists. A logical troubleshooting approach can be used.
Shot-to-Shot Variation
During 1M, shot-to-shot variations can occur. The major causes of inconsistency are worn
nonreturn valves, bad seating of a nonreturn valve, a broken valve ring, a worn barrel
in the valve area, or a poor heat profile. To identify the cause, follow a logical procedure.
Any problem caused by the valve will cause the screw to rotate in the reverse direction
during injection. To locate the trouble, pull and inspect the valve and check the OD of
the ring for wear. The inspector looks for a broken valve stud (caused by cold startup
when the screw is full of plastic), bad seating of the ring or ball (the angles of the ring
ID and the seat must be different, in order to ensure proper shutoff action at the ID of
the ring), and a broken ring. Check the dimensions of the valve and compare them with
those determined before using the machine.
Purging
Purging has always been a necessary evil, consuming substantial amounts of materials,
labor, and machine time, all nonproductive. In 1M it is sometimes necessary to run
hundreds of pounds of resin to clean out the last traces of a dark color before changing
to a lighter one. Sometimes there is no choice but to pull the screw for a thorough
cleaning. Although there are few generally accepted rules on how to purge, the following
tips should be considered: I) try to follow less viscous with more viscous resins; 2) try
to follow a lighter color with a darker color of resin; 3) maintain the equipment; 4) keep
the materials-handling equipment clean; and 5) use an intermediate resin to bridge the
temperature gap (such as that encountered in going from acetal to nylon), and use a PS
as a purge.
Molds
A mold must be considered one of the most important pieces of production equipment
in the plant. It is a controllable complex device (see Fig. 7-19) that must be an efficient
heat exchanger. If not properly designed, handled, and maintained, it will not be an
efficient operating device. Hot melt, under pressure, moves rapidly through the mold.
Water or some other medium circulates in the mold to remove (for TPs) or add (for TSs)
heat. Air is released from cavities to eliminate melt burning or voids in the part. All
kinds of actions operate, including sliders and unscrewing devices [2, 10, 11]. Parts like
knockout pins as well as air are ejected at the proper time. These basic operations in tum
require all kinds of interactions, including such parameters as fill-time, hold pressure,
and other variables, as shown in Figures 7-8 and 7-9.
Each of the plastics used has special distinctive properties. Some are abrasive or
corrosive; others require very tight heat control and pressure. Settings that work for one
resin probably will not work for another, or a machine change to a duplicate will probably
require different settings. Shrinkage requires special attention. Crystalline resins shrink
more than amorphous ones (see Chapter 2). Differential shrinkage can cause warpage.
With tight part tolerances it is necessary to leave more, rather than less, steel in the mold
so that corrections requiring metal "cutting" can correlate processing with tolerances.
CAD and CAE programs are available that can aid in mold design and in setting up
the complete process [11]. These programs are concerned with melt flow to part solidi-
fication and the meeting of performance requirements. Many different factors are incor-
porated, including heat transfer, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, the coefficients
of friction, machine and mold operating setup, and so on.
~----------Locating Ring
- - - - - - - - - - - S p r u e Bushing
'"'~""~,.,.,77~"7i:J-"-Cm""7/':,.,.,?7m"":01_Front Clamping Plate
~ClampSlot
-Front Cav. Retainer PI.

of>-l'>J---Water Channels
---Cavity
_ _~.....--Force (Male Cavity)
Guide Pin Bushing
Rear Cav. Retainer PI.
~t~~~IH~~ t~~1~0~~I~~~--Push-back Pin
Support Plate
It--t++---+--Ejector Pin
Sprue Lock Pin
Support Pillar
\ ~Ejector Retainer PI.
L-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~\ ~Ejector Plate
LClampSlot
Ejector Housing
Figure 7-19. A two-part standard mold.
Molding Variables versus Performance

There are variables during molding that influence part performance. The information
presented here shows how melt flow variables behave to influence products' properties.
A flow analysis can be made to aid designers and moldmakers in obtaining a good mold.
Of paramount importance is controlling the fill pattern of the molding so that parts can
be produced reliably and economically. A good fill pattern for a molding is one that is
usually unidirectional in nature, thus giving rise to a unidirectional and consistent mo-
lecular orientation in the molded product. This approach helps avoid warpage problems
caused by a differential orientation, an effect best demonstrated by the warpage that
occurs in thin center-gated disks. In this case all the radials are oriented parallel to the
flow direction, with the circumferences transverse to the flow direction. The difference
in the amounts of shrinkage manifests itself in terms of warpage of the disk.
In order to achieve a controlled fill pattern, the mold designer must select the number
and location of gates that will result in the desired pattern. Flow analysis can help by
allowing the designer to try multiple options for gate locations and evaluate the impact
on the molding process. This analysis often can be conducted with the product designer
to achieve the best balance of gate locations for cosmetic impact and molding consid-
erations. Figures 7-20 through 7-29 show various flow patterns, orientation patterns, and
property performances (see also Chapter 3) [11].
In the practical world of mold design, there are many instances where design trade-
offs must be made in order to achieve a successful overall design. While naturally balanced
runner systems are certainly desirable, they may lead to problems in mold cooling or
increased cost due to excessive runner-to-part weights (see Fig. 7-17). Additionally, there
are many cases such as parts requiring mUltiple gates or family molds in which balanced
runners cannot be used. Flow analysis tools allow successful designs of runners to balance
for pressure, temperature, or a combination of both.
SURFACE HIGHL.Y ORIENTEO
.,
t f , /
CORE ORIENTATION
FROW BUL.K-SHEAR - -
\ '\
SUB-SURFACE ORIENTATION
FROM HIGH SHEAR NEAR WALL
Figure 7-20. Cavity melt flow looking at a part's thickness.
-
SHEAR TIiINNING LAYER
J.
-.
""
-
- PWG FLOW FAST~
f'--""""
~
---'----'
--
&DW~
-- ~
-
- ORIENTATION
--
-- -1
--I
Figure 7-21. The effects of different fill rates.
Cavity
Parlin!! I,ne
(A) (8)
Figure 7-22. Plastic melt does not flow uniformly through the diaphragm of plate mold (A) in
the compensating phase, but spreads in a branching pattern (B).
617
Figure 7-23. Flow paths are determined by part shape and gate location. Flow fronts that meet
head on will weld together, forming a weld line. Parallel fronts tend to blend, however,
producing a less distinct weld line but a stronger bond.
Figure 7-24. Example of flow lines or weld lines in a telephone handset where the gate was
located at the top-center part of the handle.
618
STRESS PARALLEl TO ORIENTATION
STRESS PERPENDICULAR TO ORIENTATION

Figure 7-25. The effect of orientation on strength: the highest tensile strength is in the direction
parallel to the orientation.
100 .------A
+ B
~ C
•
80~--~--~--~---~
a 2 3 4
INJECTION TIME, SECONDS
100
~
en
L ! .q
~
VI 90
9
(!)
80
450 470 490
STOCK TEMPERATURE~F
100
~
:i 90
9
(!) A
80 160 180
80 100 120 140
MOLD 'rEMPERATURE~F
Figure 7-26. The effect of molding conditions on the gloss of an ABS plastic.
619
Direction of
Orientation
a
Direction of
Orientation
b
Figure 7·27. An example of locating a gate to obtain the required performance of a retainer
product that is subject to being flexed in service. a) Retainer edge gated; b) retainer center
gated; and c) left and center retainers (between fingers) that were edge gated, with the failed
retainer on the right which was center gated.
620
c
~5
u SI NGLE GATED NOTCHED
b4.5r--___ SPECIMENS
z
g;4
~
u 3 .5
z
3
-- -- --
--
0::
_---.e
--
L&.J
a.. 2 .5
en
o
z 2
:::l
"""""",,- DOUBLE GATED WELD LINE
o "," SPECIMENS
a.. 1 .5
b
o 1
u..
380 400 420 440 460
STOCK TEMPERATURE - 0 F
Figure 7-28. Izod impact strength of ABS plastic (1 x ! x 3 in. specimens).
621
I--~- DUCTILE ---.1

5.0
~
-
::z:
4.0
~
...... REMOLDED ALL
U)
CCI
..... SAMPLES AT 430°F
-
~
u..
3.0
::z:
=
w
~
c::I
Z
w
:::;)
~
1-- BRITTLE ~I
=
C[
I:
~
U)
w
~
~ 2.0 ::E
~ w
C[ ~
~
c::I
::IE z
2i
.....
0
1.0 ::IE
U)
CCI
C[
C
~
en
0
400 430 460 490 520 550 580
MEL T TEMPERATURE (OF)
Figure 7-29. Impact strength versus melt temperature in white ABS plastic.
Molding Techniques
In addition to conventional injection molding, specialized 1M techniques are used to meet
certain product requirements that result in cost reductions or having the necessary molding
capabilities to produce given products. Some examples are provided. See also at the end
of this chapter "Other Processes," on coining and using fusible cores, including the use
of injection molding. In addition there are also those methods involving molding with
rotation stretching and orienting techniques that differ from injection stretch blow molding
[12], continuous molding like producing Velcro strips [12], injection-molding metals,
liquid plastic injection molding, foam molding, structural sandwich molding, and parts
consolidation (see Fig. 7-30) and others [12].
Figure 7-30. Du Pont's Arylon polyarylate and Rynite TP-polyester resins eliminate parts and
simplify assembly of Xetec Corp. 's three-dimensional circuitboard for lighting ballasts. A
special two-shot molding process removes the need for metal fabrication and yields a low-cost,
reliable component for use in rapid-start fluorescent lighting ballasts.
Coinjection
Coinjection basically means that two or more different plastics are "laminated" together.
These plastics could be the same except for color. When different plastics are used, they
must be compatible in that they provide proper adhesion (if required), melt at approxi-
mately the same temperature, and so on (see Table 7-9). Two or more injection units are
required, with each material having its own injection unit. The materials can be injected
into specially designed molds-rotary, shuttle table, and the like [12].
The term co injection can denote different products, such as sandwich construction,
double-shot injection, multiple-shot injection, structural foam construction, two-color
molding, and inmolding. Whatever its designation, a sandwich configuration has been
made in which two or more plastics are "laminated" together to take advantage of the
different properties each plastic contributes to the structure.
This form of injection has been in use since the early 1940s. Many different advantages
exist. For example, 1) it combines the performance of materials; 2) it permits the use of
a low-cost plastic such as a regrind; 3) it provides a decorative "thin" surface of an
expensive plastic; 4) it includes reinforcements; 5) it permits the use of barrier plastics
(see Chapter 4), and more. Coinjection molding is being redefined today in light of the
approaches now available for molding such multicomponent parts as automotive taillights,
containers, business machine housings, and so on.
Figure 7·31. The three-channel coinjection system shown here simultaneously injects two
different plastic melts. Courtesy of Battenfeld of America.
There are three techniques offered for multiple-component injection, called the one-
channel, two-channel, and three-channel techniques (see Fig. 7·31 for the three-channel
type) [12].
Gas Injection
Parts can be molded by gas injection using injection-molding machines. This process is
most effective and economical when used for large parts. It offers a way to mold parts
with only 10 to 50 percent of the clamp tonnage that would be necessary in conventional
1M [12].
The technique-practiced in several variations, with some patented-involves the in-
jection of an inert gas, usually nitrogen, into the melt as it enters the mold. This is not
structural foam, as no foam core is produced; instead, the gas forms a series of inter-
connecting hollow channels in the thicker sections of the part. The gas pressure is
maintained through the cooling cycle. In effect, the gas packs the plastic into the mold
without a second-stage high-pressure packing in the cycle as used in 1M, which requires
high tonnage to mold large parts.
Molded-in stresses are minimal. The thick but hollow sections provide rigidity and do
not create sink or warpage problems. The cycle time is reduced because the thick sections
are hollow. As the gas is not mixed with the melt, there is no surface splay, which is
typical of low-pressure structural foam molding [12]. Gas injection is now being used
with commodity and engineering resins.
EXTRUSION
The extruder, which offers the advantages of a completely versatile processing technique,
is unsurpassed in economic importance by any other process. This continuously operating
process, with its relatively low cost of operation, is predominant in the manufacture of
shapes such as films, sheets, tapes, filaments, pipes, rods, in-line postforming, and others.
The basic processing concept is similar to that of injection molding (1M) in that material
passes from a hopper into a cylinder in which it is melted and dragged forward by the
movement of a screw. The screw compresses, melts, and homogenizes the material.
When the melt reaches the end of the cylinder, it usually is forced through a screen pack
prior to entering a die that gives the desired shape with no break in continuity (see Fig.
7-32) [10, 12,601-25].
Table 7-9. Compatibility of Materials for Coinjection
Acrylic Polytetra-
ester Ethyl Polymethyl- General- High- methylene Styrene
acryloni- Cellulose vinyl Nylon Nylon Poly- meth- Polyoxy- purpose Impact tereph- Rigid Soft Acryloni-
Materials ABS bile acetate acetate 6 616 camonate HDPE LOPE acrylate methylene PP PPO PS PS thalate PVC PVC bile
ABS + + + + + + + 0 +
Acrylic ester + + + 0 +
acrylonitrile
Cellulose acetate + +
Ethyl vinyl acetate + + + + + + + 0
Nylon 6 + +
Nylon 6/6 + +
Polycarbonate + + 0 +
HDPE + + + 0
LDPE + + + +
Polymethyl- + 0 + + +
methacrylate +
Polyoxy- +
methylene
PP + 0 + +
PPO + + +
General-purpose + + + +
PS
High-impact PS 0 0 0 + + +
Polytetra- + + +
methylene
terephthalate
Rigid PVC + + + + +
Soft PVC 0 0 + + + +
Styrene acrylonitrile + + + + + + +
+ = good adhesion. - = poor adhesion. 0 = no adhesion, blank indicates no recommendation (combination not yet tested). The addition of fillers or reinforcements leads to a deterioration of adhesion between
raw materials for skin and core.
a- Source: Battenfeld
~
\11
Hasin
Thermocouples
Screw
Compression
Section Breaker Plate
Figure 7·32. A cross-section of a single-screw extruder.
A major difference between extrusion and 1M is that the extruder processes plastics at
a lower pressure and operates continuously. Its pressure usually ranges from 1.4 to 10.4
MPa (200 to 1,500 psi) and could go to 34.5 or 69 MPa (5,000 or possibly 10,000 psi).
In 1M, pressures go from 14 to 210 MPa (2,000 to 30,000 psi). However, the most
important difference is that the 1M melt is not continuous; it experiences repeatable abrupt
changes when the melt is forced into a mold cavity. With these significant differences,
it is actually easier to theorize about extrusion and to process plastics through extruders,
as many more controls are required in 1M.
Good-quality plastic extrusions require homogeneity in terms of the melt-heat profile
and mix, accurate and sustained flow rates, a good die design, and accurately controlled
downstream equipment for cooling and handling the product. Four principal factors
determine a good die design: internal flow length, streamlining, the construction materials,
and uniformity of heat control. Heat profiles are preset via tight controls that incorporate
cooling systems in addition to heater bands. Barrels use forced air or water jackets. In
some machines water bubbler channels are located within the screws.
On leaving the extruder, the product is drawn by a pulling device, at which stage it
is subject to cooling, usually by water or blown air. This is an important aspect of
downstream control if tight dimensional requirements exist or conservation of plastics is
desired. Usually lines do not have adequate control of the pulling device. The processor's
target is to determine the tolerance required for the pull rate and to see that the device
meets the requirements. Even if tight dimensional requirements do not exist, the prob-
ability is that better control of the pull speed will permit tighter tolerances and reduce
the material output.
As the molecules of the melt flow are aligned in the direction of the output from the
die, the strength of the plastic is characteristically greater in that direction than at right
angles. Depending on the product's use, this mayor may not be favorable . The degree
of orientation can be controlled.
The success of any continuous extrusion process depends not only upon uniform quality
and conditioning of the raw materials but also upon the speed and continuity of the feed
of additives or regrind along with the virgin resin (upstream). Actually, only thermoplastics
go through extruders; markets have not developed to date for extruded thermosets. Vari-
ations in the bulk density of materials can exist in the hopper, requiring controllers such
as weight feeders and perhaps requiring some type of packing feed, such as rams, screw
packers, and so on.
In extrusion, as in all other processes, an extensive theoretical analysis has been applied
to facilitate understanding and maximize the manufacturing operation. However, the real
world must be understood and appreciated as well. The operator has to work within the
many limitations of the materials and equipment (the basic extruder and all auxiliary
upstream and downstream equipment). The interplay and interchange of process controls
can help to eliminate problems and aid operation with the variables that exist. The greatest
degree of instability is due to improper screw design, or using the wrong screw. Proper
instrumentation, particularly barrel heat, is important to a diagnosis of the problem.
For uniform and stable extrusion it is important to check periodically the drive system,
the take-up device, and other equipment, and compare it to its original performance. If
variations are excessive, all kinds of problems will develop in the extruded product. An
elaborate process-control system can help, but it is best to improve stability in all facets
of the extrusion line. Some examples of instabilities and problem areas include 1) non-
uniform plastics flow in the hopper; 2) troublesome bridging, with excessive barrel heat
that melts the solidified plastic in the hopper and feed section and stops the plastic flow;
3) variations in barrel heat, screw heat, screw speed, the screw power drive, die heat,
die head pressure, and the take-up device; 4) insufficient melting or mixing capacity; 5)
insufficient pressure-generating capacity; 6) wear or damage of the screw or barrel; 7)
melt fracture/sharkskin (see Chapter 2), and so on.
Finally, one must check the proper alignment of the extruder and the downstream
equipment. Proper alignment and isolation of the vibrators is a must for high-quality,
high-speed output.
Regardless of their particular designs, all extruders have the function of conveying
plastic and converting it into a melt. For this purpose, both single- and multiple-screw
extruders are suitable, but they all have individual characteristic features. Practical and
theoretical data show that each type has its place. The single-screw machine dominates.
However, other types are available, such as twin-screw extruders, which are often used
to achieve improved dispersing and mixing, as in the compounding of additives [10, 12].
Screen Packs
Melt from the screw is usually forced through a breaker plate with a screen pack. Extra
heat develops when melt goes through the screens, so some heat-sensitive materials cannot
use a screen pack. The function of a screen pack is initially to reduce the rotary motion
of the melt and remove large unmelted particles and other contaminants. This situation
can be related to improper screw design, a contaminated feedstock, poor control of the
regrind, and so on. Sometimes screen packs are used to control the operating pressure
of extruders. However, there are advantages in processing with matched and controlled
back pressure, operating within the required melt pressure, as this can facilitate mixing,
effectively balancing out the melt heat.
In operation a screen pack is backed up by a breaker plate that has a number of
passages, usually many round holes ranging from 1 to h in. in diameter. One side of the
plate is recessed to accommodate round discs of wire screen cloth, which make up the
screen pack (usually 40- to l00-mesh screen). Pressure controls should be used on both
sides of the breaker plate to ensure that the pressure on the melt stays within the required
limits. Based on the processing requirements, manual to highly sophisticated screen
changers are used.
Barrel and Screw Materials

The majority of barrels and screws are made from special steels, which are nitrided to a
minimum depth by special techniques. Low-alloy steels are sometimes used with wear-
resistant liners. Usually the wear on these bimetallic cylinders is almost three times that
of the others. In the processing of abrasive materials, feed sections are sometimes finished
in hard metal or other special materials and matched with the screws. If there is wear in
the extruder, the greatest damage is always on the screw. Often only a new screw is used
as a replacement, as it is assumed that the barrel is not damaged. However this assumption
is usually a fallacy. If the screw is worn out, the barrel has been affected to some extent
and may well need complete replacement.
The rate of wear is increased considerably when the feed contains fillers such as
titranium dioxide, glass fibers, and so on. There are many variables that cause damage
to the barrel and the screw. If a problem is likely to occur frequently, protect the screw
and consider using barrels with replaceable inner liners. The wear problem relates directly
to the overall performance of the extruder to the extent that it is impossible to produce
products that will remain within the tolerances required. (Note that what has been said
about barrels and screws here also applies to other processes like 1M and blow molding
that use screw plasticators.)
Energy Consumption
Like the output capacity, the energy efficiency of an extruder is dependent on the torque
available on the screw, screw RPM, heat control, and material being processed. Unfor-
tunately, costly energy losses can occur, ranging from 3 to 20 percent, due to various
factors, with the major loss occurring in the drive mechanism. Energy consumption is a
major factor in production costs, as well as all equipment efficiency. Many extruders, as
well as other equipment, are usually overpowered. This situation may be better than using
underpowered equipment, but processes should not waste energy, resulting in higher
product costs.
Gear Pumps
Gear pumps, also called melt or metering pumps, have been standard equipment for
decades in textile fiber production and postreactor polymer finishing. In the 1980s they
established themselves in all kinds of extrusion lines. They consist of a pump, a drive
for the pump, aJj.d pump controls located between the screen pack or screw and the die.
Two counter-rotating gears will transport a melt from the pump inlet (extruder output)
to the pump discharge outlet (die). Gear rotation creates a suction that draws the melt
into a gap between one tooth and the next. This continuous action from tooth to tooth
develops surface drag that resists flow, so some inlet pressure is required to fill the cavity.
Melt pumps are most appropriate when the screw and die characteristics combine to
give relatively poor pumping performance by the total system. This can happen when
die pressures are low but more often occurs when they are extremely high, from 35 to
55 MPa (5,000-8,000 psi), or when the melt viscosity is extremely low. When pumps
are used to increase the production rate by reducing the extruder head pressure without
a corresponding increase in the screw speed, the extrudate solids' content is often in-
creased. The result is an inferior product. This problem often necessitates additional
filtration, which serves only to increase pressure and may counteract many of the benefits
expected from the pump, as well as increasing the financial investment even further.
Depending on the screw design, the extruder often creates pulses, causing the production
rate to fluctuate. Some products usually cannot tolerate even minor fluctuations, and
a pump often can assist in removing these minor product nonuniformities. In general, a
pump can provide output uniformity of ±0.5 percent or better. Products include films
down to 0.75 mil thickness, precision medical tubing, HIPS with 1,600 kg/h (3,500 lb.l
hr.) output, fiber-optic sheathing, fibers, PET magnetic tape, PE cable jacketing (with
the weight/ft. variation reduced from 14 to 2.7 percent), and so on.
Pumps are very helpful to sheet extruders who also do in-house thermoforming, as
they often run up to 50 percent regrind mixes. This normally variable-particle-size mix
promotes surging and up to 2 percent gauge variation. Pumps practically eliminate the
problem and make cross-web gauge adjustments much easier. Pumps are recommended
in 1) most two-stage vented barrels where output has been a problem, such as ABS sheet;
2) extremely critical-tolerance extrusions, such as CATV cable, where slight cyclic vari-
ations can cause severe electrical problems; 3) coextrusion, where precise metering of
layers is necessary and low pressure differentials in the pump provide fairly linear outputs;
and 4) twin screw extruders, where pumps permit long wear life of bearings and other
components, thus helping to reduce their high operating costs.
Besides improving gauge uniformity, a pump can contribute to product quality by
reducing the resin's heat history. This heat reduction can help blown film extruders,
particularly those running high viscosity melts such as LLDPE and heat-sensitive melts
such as PVC. Heat drops of at least 20 to 30°F will occur. In PS foam sheet extrusion,
a cooling of 10 to 15°F occurs in the second extruder as well as a 60 percent reduction
in gauge variation by the relieving of backpressure. All melts require a minimum heat
and backpressure for effective processing.
Although gear pumps can eliminate or significantly improve many processing problems,
they cannot be considered a panacea. However, they are worth examining and could
boost productivity and profits significantly. Their major gains tend to be principally in
melt stability, temperature reduction in the melt, and increased throughput with tighter
tolerances for dimensions and weights.
Dies
The function of a die is to accept the available melt from an extruder and deliver it to
takeoff equipment as a shaped profile (film, sheet, pipe, filament, etc.) with minimum
deviation in cross-sectional dimensions and a uniform output by weight, at the fastest
possible rate. A well-designed die should permit color and compatible resin changes
quickly with little off-grade material. It will distribute the melt in the die flow channels
so that it exists with a uniform density and velocity (see Fig. 7-33) [10].
The flow rate is influenced by all the variables that can exist in preparing the melt
during extrusion-namely, die heat and pressure with time in the die. Unfortunately, in
spite of all the sophisticated polymer flow analysis and the rather mechanical computer-
aided design capabilities, it is very difficult to design a die. An empirical approach must
be used, as it is quite difficult to determine the optimum flow channel geometry from
engineering calculations. It is important to employ rheological flow properties and other
melt behavior (see Chapter 2) via the applicable CAD programs for the type of die
required. The most important ingredient is experience, which, for the novice, is properly
recorded in a computer program. Nevertheless, die design has remained more of an art
MANIFOLD CHAMBER , THAT CAN

CHOKE BAR INC TEAR -DROP SHAPE .
ADJUSTME
DIE BLADE
ADJUSTMENT
ADJUSTABLE
DIE BLADE ELiVERY
DIE BODY
CAST-IN HEATERS
Figure 7-33. A simplified schematic of an extruder sheet die with a choke bar, adjustable die
lip, and so on. Some dies, other than sheet dies, do not require these controls, but others may
require more of them. There are many different dies designed to meet different processing
requirements, such as spiral dies for blown film.
than any other aspect of process design. Design experience can work only if the operator
of the processing line has developed the important ability to debug [10].
A well-built die with adjustments-temperature changes, restricter/choker bars, valves
and other devices-may be used with a particular group of materials. Usually a die is
designed for a specific resin meeting its particular rheological behaviors (see Chapter 2).
To simplify the processing operation, the die design should consider certain factors, if
possible. The goals are to have the extrudate (product) of a uniform wall thickness
(otherwise the heat transfer problem is magnified); to minimize the use of hollow sections;
to minimize narrow or small channels; and to use generous radii on all comers, such as
a minimum of 0 .5 mm (0.02 in.). An "impossible" or difficult process can still be designed,
but it requires extensive experience (both practical and theoretical), with trial-and-error
runs, to make it practical. The design of the product should consider ease of processing
(see Figs. 7-34 through 7-38 and Table 7-10).
BASICS OF FLOW
The non-Newtonian behavior of a plastic (see Chapter 2) makes its flow through a die
somewhat complicated. One characteristic of plastic is that when a melt is extruded from
the die, there is some swelling (see Fig. 7-37). After exiting the die, it is usually stretched
or drawn down to a size equal to or smaller than the die opening. The dimensions are
then reduced proportionally so that in an ideal resin the drawn-down section is the same
as the original section, but smaller proportionally in each dimension. Because of the melt-
elasticity effects of the material, it does not draw down in a simple proportional manner;
thus, the drawdown process is a source of errors in the profile. Errors are significantly
reduced in a circular extrudate, such as wire coating. These errors must be corrected by
modifying the die and takeoff equipment (see Fig. 7-35).
There are substantial influences on a material created by the flow orientation of the
molecules, so there are different properties in the flow direction and perpendicular to the
flow. These differences have a significant effect on the performance of the part (see
Chapter 2).
POOR
~
BETTER
,/ Y L ~
I V v=::/ Igl~~
POOR BETTER
POOR BETTER
POOR
~ BETTER
.,
.11;.10 / ...
't1.'L (r,"
lJ-': -- :
POOR BEST
BEST
POOR BETTER
POOR BETTER IIEST
Figure 7-34. The influence of a part design on reducing extrusion process variables.
Another important characteristic of melts is that they are affected by the orifice shape
(Fig. 7-36). The effect it produces is related to the melt condition and the die design
(land length, etc.), but a slow cooling rate can have a significant influence, especially
with thick parts. Cooling is more rapid at the comers; in fact, a hot center section could
cause a part to "blow" outward or include visible or invisible vacuum bubbles. The
popular coat-hanger die, used for flat sheet and similar products, illustrates an important
principle in die design. The melt at the edges of the sheet must travel farther through the
die than the melt that goes through the center of the sheet. Thus, a diagonal melt channel
with a triangular dam in the center is used to restrict the direct flow to some degree. The
principle of built-in restrictions is used to adjust the flow in many dies. With blow molding
dies and profile dies, the openings require special attention to provide the proper product
shape (see Figs. 7-37 and 7-38).
Orowdown
from pull rolls
Orawdown
from pull rolis
Die
Figure 7-35. The effect of land length on swell.
00 O,e Shape Die Shope
~ L
00Part Sh.pe Part Shape
Product
. '~L:·:",-=---Ote~
@:>' ~~,/
Square 0.. Yields
o.slorted Sechon
Product
Figure 7-36. The effect of die orifice shape on the extrudate.
632
SLOW
COOL n {) FAST
HOT
a
DIE EXIT
SLOW
HEAT tl t) COLD
STRETCH
FAST
COOL
~ t> HOT
STRETCH
Figure 7·37. Examples of how temperature, pressure, and takeoff speed (time) variations can
potentially influence the shape of an extrudate.
Dimensions of die orifice

~--------1.378
Dimensions of final product

~-----------1.252in.---------~
Figure 7·38. Examples of changes in a PVC profile shape from the die orifice to the product
where no dimensions remained the same.
633
0-
""...
Table 7-10. Some Dimensional Tolerances for Plastic Profile Extrusions

Flexible Vinyl
Dimension Rigid Vinyl (PVC) Polystyrene ABS Polypropylene (PVC) Pol yethy lene
WaU thickness ± 8% ± 8% ± 8% ± 8% ±IO% ±IO%

Angles ±2° ±2° ±3° ±3° ±5° ±5°
Profile dimensions,
±mm(in.)
0-3 (0-'/,) 0.18 mm (0.007 in.) 0.18 mm (0.007 in.) 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) 0.30 mm (0.012 in.)
3-13 ('/,-'1,) 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) 0.30 mm (0.012 in.) 0.50 mm (0.020 in.) 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) 0.63 mm (0.025 in.)
13-25 ('/z-I) 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) 0.43 mm (0.017 in.) 0.63 mm (0.025 in.) 0.50 mm (0.020 in.) 0.50 mm (0.020 in.) 0.75 mm (0.030 in.)
25-38 (1-1'/,) 0.50 mm (0.020 in.) 0.63 mm (0.025 in.) 0.68 mm (0.027 in.) 0.68 mm (0.027 in.) 0.75 mm (0.030 in.) 0.90 mm (0.035 in.)
38-50 (1'/z-2) 0.63 mm (0.025 in.) 0.75 mm (0.030 in.) 0.90 mm (0.035 in.) 0.90 mm (0.035 in.) 0.90 mm (0.035 in.) 1.0 mm (0.040 in.)
50-75 (2-3) 0.75 mm (0.030 in.) 0.90 mm (0.035 in.) 0.94 mm (0.037 in.) 0.94 mm (0.037 in.) 1.0 mm (0.040 in.) 1.1 mm (0.045 in.)
Special Dies
Some special dies, shown in Figures 7-39 and 7-40, produce interesting flow patterns
and products, such as tubular to flat netting dies. For circular output a counterrotating
mandrel and orifice have semicircular-shaped slits through which the melt flow emerges.
If one part is held stationary, a rhomboid or elongated pattern is formed; if both parts
rotate, a true rhombic mesh is formed. When the slits overlap, a crossing point is formed
where the emerging threads are "welded." For flat netting, the slide is in opposite direc-
tions.
Coextrusion
Coextrusion provides multiple molten layers-usually using one or more extruders with
melts going through one die-that are bonded together. This technique permits using
melt heat to bond the various plastics (see Tables 7-11 and 7-12), or using the center
layer as an adhesive. Coextrusion is an economical competitor to conventional laminating
processes by virtue of its reduced materials-handling costs, raw materials costs, and
machine-time cost. Pinholing is also reduced with coextrusion, even when it uses one
extruder and divides the melt into at least a two-layer structure. Other gains include
elimination or reduction of delamination and air entrapment.
In the past, a processor desiring to enter the field had little choice of equipment, but
the increased interest in coextrusion has produced a proliferation of equipment. With
rapidly changing market conditions and the endless introduction of useful materials, the
design of machines has become much more involved. It is important that the processor
have flexibility in making selections, but not at the expense of performance, dependability,
or ease of operation. One should provide for the material or layer thickness necessary in
product changeover without allowing high scrap rates. The goal should be to incorporate
scrap regrind in the layered construction.
It is important to be able to control the individual layer distribution across the width
of the die. It is normal, as the viscosity ratio or thickness ratio of the polymers being
combined increases, for the individual layer distribution(s) of the composite film to become
displaced. Viscosity differences influence a reduction and saving of materials. A number
of techniques are available for coextrusion, some of them patented and available only
under license. Basically, three types exist: feedblock, multiple manifold, and a combi-
nation of these two (see Table 7-12).
Table 7-11. Examples of Compatibility Between Plastics for Coextrusion

LOPE HOPE PP Ionomer Nylon EVA
LOPE 3 3 2 3 3
HOPE 3 3 2 3 I 3
PP 2 2 3 2 I 3
Ionomer 3 3 2 3 3 3
Nylon 1 1 1 3 3 1
EVA 3 3 3 3 3
Code: I. Layers easy to separate.

2. Layers can be separated with moderate effort.
3. Layers difficult to separate.
----------
SPROC E OAIVE
~ ~
~./ r~
U
~
DRIVE CHAIN
Round pIaStlc neltN'IQ
A ::::::;:=========
1- -.- - - - -
:t C -------~--''--
0- - - - - - -
E ------------
Flal nettmg •. . •.•• W1Ih d"f rem po5lllDM 01 doe lops
o
DIE OPE ING
-:"'+-=;=*=~:'---~H--: WIRE FEED
S OT WIRE
A-
sfoPoF~s
INTERMITTENT ~
~
I · · · i~~-
.~
~
v~ lUbe thickness using ." Old IN'IQ 00IIer..... pet1cnted tubing pattern:
~ In etOa lINd lUbe die USIn!I bnIJ mandRIl die
Figure 7-39. Examples of special action dies that produce round and flat products.
636
Figure 7-40. Example of netting as it exits the die. This mesh, produced by extrusion from a
counter rotating die design, originally patented in 1956, followed by a postextrusion stretching
process, is available in almost every conceivable form.
Table 7-12. Comparison of Feedblock and Multimanifold Coextrusion Dies

Characteristic Feedblock Multimanifold
Basic difference Melt streams brought together outside Each melt stream has a separate
die body (between extruder and manifold; each polymer spreads
die) and flow through the die as independently of others; they
a composite meet at die pre-land to die exit
Cost Lower Higher
Operation Simplest
Number of layers Not restricted; seven- and eight-layer Generally restricted to three or four
systems are commercial layers
Complexity Simpler construction; no adjustments More complex
basically
Control flow Contains adjustable matching inserts, Has restrictor bar or flow dividers in
no restrictor bar each polymer channel; but with
blown film dies control is by
individual extruder speed or
gearboxes
Layer uniformity Individual layer thickness correction Restrictors and manifold can meet
of ± 10 percent ±5 percent
Thin skins Better on dies >40 in. Better on dies <40 in.
Viscosity range Usually limited to 2/1 or 3/1 viscosity Range usually much greater than 3/1
range of materials
Degradable core Usually better
material
Heat sensitivity More Less
Bonding Potentially better; layers are in contact
longer in die
637
Orientation
Orientation consists of a controlled system of stretching plastic molecules to improve
their strength, stiffness, optical, electrical, and other properties. This process, which has
been used for almost a century, became prominent during the 1930s for stretching fibers
up to ten times. Later it was adapted to stretching film and sheet and, more recently,
blow-molded containers. Many other products take advantage of its benefits for producing
tape, pipe, profile, and thermoformed parts, etc. (see Table 7-13). Practically all plastics
can undergo orientation, although certain types find it particularly advantageous (PET,
PP, PVC, PE, PS, PVDC, PVA, and PC). Of the 15 million tons of plastic film sales
annually worldwide, about 16 percent are sales of oriented material (see Chapter 2).
In extrusion the most important orienting processes are used for blown film, flat film
and sheet, and blow molding. During blown-film processing the blow-up ratio determines
the degree of circumferential orientation and the pull rate of the bubble determines
longitudinal orientation (see Figs. 7-41 through 7-43) [10]. The optimum stretching heat
for amorphous resins (PVC, etc.) is just above the glass transition temperature; for the
crystalline types (PET, PE, and so on) it is just below the melting point. During the
stretching process the structure changes because of crystallization, thus usually neces-
sitating an increase in heat if further deformation is planned. Afterward, the orientation
is "frozen in" by lowering the heat or, with crystalline types, set by increasing the
crystalline portion.
With orientation, the thickness is reduced and the surface enlarged. If film is longi-
tudinally stretched in the elastic state, its thickness and width are reduced in the same
ratio. If lateral contraction is prevented, stretching reduces the thickness only.
In orienting film or sheet the processor uses a tentering frame (typically used for many
decades in textile weaving), which is enclosed in a heat-controlled oven, with a very
Nip Rolls
ROll 01 FIlm
I
Idler Roll
Extruder
Figure 7-41. A schematic of a basic (vertical-up) blown film line. The hot-melt bubble exits the
die with an air tube in its center that provides internal air pressure to the bubble that is pulled by
the nip rolls via the bubble collapsing frame.
Table 7-13. Example of Orientation Used to Fabricate Different Types

of TP Film Tapes
Rate of
Ranges of Application Demands Made Stretching Thennoplastic
Carpet basic weave Low shrinkage 1:7 PP
High strength 1:5 PETP
Temperature stability
Specific splicing tendency
Matt surface
Tarpaulins High strength 1:7 PP
PE
Sacks High strength 1:7 PP
High friction value PE
Specific elongation
Weather resistant
Ropes High tensile strength 1:9 to 1:11 (15) PP
Specific elongation
Good tendency to splicing
Twine High tensile strength 1:9 to 1:11 PP
High knotting strength PPIPE
Separating weave High strength 1:7 PP
Filter weave Low shrinkage 1:7 PP
Abrasion resistant 1:5 PETP
Reinforcing weave Low shrinkage 1:7 PP
Specific elongation 1:5 PETP
Temperature resistance
Tapestry and home UV-resistance 1:7 PE
textiles Low static charge
Unifonn coloration
Textile-type handle
Outdoor carpets Low shrinkage 1:7 PP
Wear resistance
Weather resistance
Elastic recovery
Unifonn coloration 1:5 PETP
Defined splicing
Decorative tapes Effective surface 1:6 PP with
Low specific gravity blowing agent
Knitted tapes, sacks, and High knotting strength 1:6.5 PP
other packagings, Low splicing tendency PE
seed and harvest Suppleness
protective nets UV-resistance
Packaging tapes High strength 1:9 PP
Low splicing tendency 1:7 PETP
Fleeces Fiber properties 1:7 PP and blends
accurate and gentle air flow used to hold the oven at the required orienting heat (Fig. 7-
44). The frame has continuous speed control and diverging tracks with holding clamps.
As the clamps move apart at prescribed diverging angles the hot plastic is stretched in
the transverse direction, resulting in single orientation (0). To obtain bidirectional ori-
entation (BO) an inline series of heat-controlled rolls are located between the extruder
and tenter frame. The rotation of each succeeding roll is increased, based on the longi-
tudinal stretched properties desired.
Processing Lines
Each line has interrelating operations, as well as specific line operations, to simplify
processability. Usually the extruder is followed by some kind of cooling system to remove
heat at a controlled rate, to cause plastic solidification. It can be as simple a system as
air or water cooling, or a cooled roll contact can be used to accelerate the cooling process.
Some type of takeoff at the end of the line usually requires an accurate speed control to
ensure product precision and save on material costs by tightening thickness tolerances.
The simplest device might be a pair of pinch rolls or a pair of opposed belts (a caterpillar
takeoff) . A variable-speed drive is usually desired to give the required precision. Some
examples of different extrusion lines are shown in Figures 7-41 and 7-45 through 7-51
[10].
M .D.- Machine Direction
1M .0 .
Layflat
T.O.
......- T .D.- Transverse Direction
Width
_Main Nip Rolls

~----------------~-
Layflat
= Blow Ratio
Die Dia. (BR)
Bubble of Film
Figure 7-42. The tenninology and layout for blown film.

Balanced Shrink FIlm Typical Converter Film

1:1 DDR/BUR @ 1.5 MIL 4 :1 DDR/SUR @ 1.5 MIL
ILLUSTRATIO N THEORY THEORY ILLUSTRATION
4 :1 BUR
1.5 M IL .....-4-:-:-:-1-::D:-:::D:-:::R~
@ 60 FPM
Line Speed
4 :1 BUR
6 MIL ......---::-::-::--
@ 15 FPM 1:1 DDR ---::-2...."
:1-:S,..."U,...,,R,......._1 . 5 MIL
une Speed S:1 ODR @ 120 FPM
Line Speed
~
32" Dia. Bubble
2 :1 BUR 12 MIL
50" Layfla t
1:1DDR @ 15 FPM
Film
Frost Line ~.. ~.. Line Speed
Melt
I
16 " Dla Bubble

25" Layflat
BUR= Blow Up Ratio

DDR= Draw Down Ratio
FPM= Feet Per Minute
S" Dia . DIE

.024" DIE GAP
'" DIE LAND
15 FPM
Melt Velocity
Figure 7-43. Examples of unoriented and oriented blown film.
IN-LINE POSTFORMING
Information on the technique of forming is covered later in this chapter under "Forming."
In-line postforming, or postextrusion processing, refers to the special processing that may
be done to the extrudate, usually just after it emerges from the die but before the material
has a chance to cool.
When the material is worked in such a state it is known as in-line processing, as
opposed to cutting, forming, or other processing, which might be done on the cold
extrusion. In-line processing is usually done close to the extruder and is done automat-
ically, with little or no extra labor on the part of the machine operator. The extra
processing, which may involve shaping, cutting, re-forming, or a surface modification
of the extrudate, can considerably increase the value of the extrusion without materially
increasing its cost, but it may also be done to enable the use of a lower-cost die, as for
example flattening a tubular extrusion into an oval so that a much cheaper circular die
can be used.
8
OVEN
(a)
Tenllte I trength
Nonol lenled 5,000 psi
Oriented (machine direction) 4,000 psi
Oriented (transverse direction) 25,000 psi
DRAWDOWN
400"/. DIE SWELL L - - - - t
PULLER
(b)
Figure 7-44. Use of a tender frame to biorient film or sheet. In a), the feeder-roll speed to
puller-roll speed ratio can be set, such as 1 : 4, and simultaneously the ratio of width can be set,
as 1 : 4. However, the machined direction ratio is usually accomplished prior to the plastic's
entering the temperature-controlled oven that contains the tenter frame, by having it move
around heat-controlled rolls where the rotational speed of the rolls increases from one roll to the
next. Part b) is a schematic of the drawdown phenomenon with swell to produce orientation in
the machined (longitudinal) direction.
EXTRUDER TRIMMER
\ (SLITTER)
,
,, ~ "
/ RUBBER
POWERED ------ ' ) \-. (R C)
CARRIER ROLLS NIP 0 P IN H
, ROLL
./
STAINLESS-STEEL ,,
\
NIP (OR PINCH) \
,
\
---2 (o}mor~) ROLL (driv~n )- - -_. \

WATER - COOLED •
HIGHLY POLISHED f
CHILL ROLLS
Figure 7-45. Schematic of a chill-roll system for a flat-film extrusion line.
642
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lopt'S _ " ( (" ( (" ( ,,( ( " ( (" ( ( " ( ( ( <:: ( « ( granulate
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(a)
Figure 7-46. Top: An example of the downstream equipment used with the extruder. Bottom: The processing steps in the chill-roll process used
in an oriented film-tape line.
t
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t
Vacuum lank calibration of rigid pipe used with water baths (a. Pressure calibration of rigid pipe using plug insert with water
pipe die, b.vacuum with discs, c.heated zone water baths and spray cooling (a. pipe die, b.pressure calibration , c.water spray
d. caterpillar take·off puller) cooling , d. drag lugs on conveyor belt and e. caterpillar take·
all puller)
a b c d a b c d e
UU]II I til I \'Fg ~
~lmlTI ~ ~ i -IIT - - ri.; -; b

Differential pressure sizing for flexible tubing
DIfferentIal pressure SIzIng unll
Bleed Windup
Au xlhary untl
Cooling Tank
Extruder
To draIn
Pump
Figure 7-47. Examples of calibration systems for pipe and tube extrusion lines.
Hopper Dryer
Shear
Figure 7·48. A sheet line using a three-cooling-roll stand.
Haul-Off Unn
Cooling Tank
Figure 7-49. The important downstream equipment used in pipe and profile extrusion.
SAW, CUT, AND SHEAR PUNCH AND DRill EMBOSS PRINTING AND DECORATING
~w
01
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HOT STAMPI NG APPLY TAPE HEAT SEAL AND FORMING
ULTRASONIC WELDING
. 1. 0
WR~Jr-
t::j S~L WELD
Figure 7-50. The many off-line operations that are performed on extruded plastics.
645
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FINISHED-PARTS
COLLECTOR
CROSSHEAD
COATER
FEED ROLLS
Figure 7-51. A schematic of noncontinuous profiles that are being automatically coated with
plastics.
BLOW MOLDING
Blow molding (BM), the third most popular method of plastics processing, offers the
advantage of manufacturing molded parts economically, in unlimited quantities, with
little or virtually no finishing required. It is principally a mass-production method (see
Figs. 7-52 and 7-53). The surfaces ofthe moldings are as smooth and bright, or as grained
and engraved, as the surfaces of the mold cavity in which they were processed. Among
the special techniques available are stretch blow molding and coextrusion. One can
improve the cooling efficiency and reduce cycle time with gases (C02 , etc.). Other
developments include shuttle postcooling, insertion of printed film in the mold to avoid
the need for subsequent decorating, and so on.
Blow-molded parts demonstrate that, from the technical and cost standpoints, BM
offers a promising alternative to other processes, particularly injection molding and ther-
moforming. The technical evolution of BM, plus accompanying improvements and new
developments in plastics, has led to new BM parts (see Fig. 7-54). With the coextrusion
technology now established and the hardware in place, the variety of achievable properties
can readily be extended by the correct combination of different materials (see Fig. 7-55).
The potential for BM products includes much more than the simple bottles that have been
made for many decades. Now the expertise and economics of the method are such that
many ideas once deemed futuristic are much closer to realization. -
Blow molding offers a number of processing advantages, such as molding extremely
irregular (reentrant) curves, low stresses, the possibility of variable wall thicknesses, the
use of polymers with high chemical resistance, and favorable processing costs. Reentrant
curves are the most prominent features-so much so that it is difficult to find examples
that do not incorporate them (see Fig. 7-56) [11]. They combine aesthetics with strength
and cost benefits [1, 10-12, 62-65, 626-34].
A significant difference exists between BM and 1M. BM usually requires only .17 to
1.03 MPa (25 to 150 psi) pressures, with possibilities for certain resins of up to 1.38 to
2.07 MPa (200 to 300 psi). For 1M, the pressure is usually 13.8 to 137.8 MPa (2,000
to 20,000 psi), and in some cases up to 207 MPa (30,000 psi). The lower pressures
generally result in lower internal stresses in the solidified plastics and a more proportional
stress distribution. The result is improved resistance to all types of strain (tensile, impact,
bending, environmental, etc.).
As the final mold equipment for BM consists of female molds only, it is possible
simply by changing machine parts or melt conditions to vary the wall thickness and weight
of the finished part. If the exact thickness required in the finished product cannot be
accurately calculated in advance, this flexibility is a great advantage from the standpoint
of both time and cost. With BM it is possible to produce walls that are almost paper thin.
Such thicknesses cannot be achieved by conventional 1M but, with certain limitations,
can be produced by thermoforming. Both BM and 1M can be successfully used for very
thick walls. The final choice of process for a specific wall section is strongly influenced
by such factors as tolerances, reentrant curved shapes, and costs.
Blow molding can be used with plastics such as PE that have a much higher molecular
weight (MW) than is permissible in 1M (see Chapter 2 on MW). For this reason items
can be blown that utilize the higher permeability, oxidation resistance, UV resistance,
and so on of the high-MW plastics. This feature is important in providing resistance to
environmental stress cracking (see Chapter 4). This extra resistance is necessary for plastic
bottles used in contact with the many industrial chemicals that promote stress cracking.
With BM, the tight tolerances achievable with 1M are not obtainable. However, in
order to produce reentrant-curved or irregularly shaped 1M products, different parts can
be molded and in tum assembled (snap-fit, solvent-bonded, ultrasonically bonded, etc.).
In the BM of a completely irregular/complex product, even though the 1M tolerances
Figure 7-52. This diesel truck surge fuel tank (left), next to a stainless-steel tank, was
extrusion blow molded of glass-fiber-reinforced Du Pont Zytel nylon. The stainless-steel tank
cost more and required welding and assembly. The weight went from 10 to 4lbs. with the RP
nylon. A new corrugated wall design also minimizes deflection, resists harsh under-the-hood
temperatures and solvents, and has other advantages.
Figure 7-53. This Navistar International truck fascia is of multiple-extrusion blow-molded parts
made from Himont's HiFax polypropylene. The fascia parts, which range from 8 to 17 lbs. and
come in lengths from 24 in. to 6 ft., are molded on 50-lb. accumulator head capacity machines.
The ability to mold the PP in an integral color eliminates the need to paint.
Figure 7-54. This aquacycle, with its PP blow-molded wheels that incorporate paddles or fins
on their sides, operates most efficiently.
648
Body loyer
BondIng agrnl
/ / Borner layer
/ / Bonding ogenl
. V Body loyrr mel regnnd
Figure 7-55. Coextrusion blow molding can provide multiple layers, from two to at least six,
flash-free with easy, high-speed production.
Figure 7·56. A section of an HDPE blow-molded, double-waIled, integral handle for a

container lid.
649
Table 7-14. Manufacturing Cost Comparison of 16-oz. Blow Molded Bottles

Standard
Extrusion Stretch Blow Stretch
Blow-molding Molding PVC (2) Blow
2-Parison Single-parison Molding
Head 4-Fold Heads 4-Fold PET
1.000Machine cost
incl. head, molds, ancillaries
(lie. fee, stretch PVC and PET) $270,000 $450,000 $850,000
2.O--Hourly machine costs
Depre'n, 5 yr.
30 K hr, $/hr. $ 9.00 $ 14.85 $ 28.33
Financing cost,
5 yr. 12.5% 2.80 4.65 10.20
Labor, I man 13.00 13.00 13.00
Energy at $.06 per kWh 2.50 5.35 11.00
Floor space 1.50 2.00 4.00
Maintenance and consumable mtl. 2.25 3.75 4.50
Total hourly mc costs $ 31.05/hr. $ 43.60/hr. $ 71.03/hr.
3.O--Bottle specs.
hourly/annual prod.
3.1-16 oz. finish wt. (454 g)
-regular 37 g (1.3 oz)
-stretch PVC 20 g (0.7 oz)
-stretch PET 20 g (0.7 oz)
Cycle time/bottles per hour 8.4 sec.!I,714 7.5 sec.! 1,920 4,000
bottles per yr., millions 10,286 11,520 24,000
4.O--Annual costs
4.1-16 oz. (454 g)
Resin: -37 g
$.70/lb. ($70/0.45 kg $585,200
or $1.54 kg)
-20g $334,950
$.661lb ($1.46 kg) $634,360
-20g
$.60/lb ($1.32 kg)
Machine costs 186,300 261,600 426,180
total p.a. $771,500 $596,550 $1,060,540
Royalty (PET) 30,000
Du Pont-per year
Cost per thousand $ 75.00 $ 51.78 $ 45.44
Notes: 1. Figures are not to be considered as absolute costs, but rather reflect comparisons between various machine options.
2. All calculations are based upon 100 percent efficiency.
3. All bottle weights are finish weights (flash being considered 100 percent reusable).
cannot be equaled, the cost of the container is usually less (see Figs. 7-52-56). No
secondary operations such as assembly are required. Other advantages are also achieved,
such as significantly reducing (if not eliminating) leaks, reducing total production time,
and so forth.
Blow molding can be divided into three major processing categories: 1) extrusion BM
(EBM), which principally uses an unsupported parison; 2) injection BM (IBM), which
usually uses a preform supported by a metal core pin; and 3) stretch BM, for either EBM
or IBM, to obtain bioriented products, providing significantly improved cost-to-perfor-
mance advantages. Almost 75 percent of the BM processes are EBM, almost 25 percent
are IBM, and the other 1 percent or so use other techniques such as dip BM [12]. About
75 percent of all IBM products are bioriented. These BM processes offer different ad-
vantages in producing different types of products, based on the materials to be used, the
performance requirements, the production quantity, and costs.
Blow molding requires an understanding of every element of the process, starting with
the basic "extruder" used in conventional extrusion and 1M machines. (For information
on the machines used to plasticate/melt materials for BM, see the previous sections on
injection molding and extrusion.)
With EBM, the advantages include high rates of production, low tooling costs, in-
corporation of blown handleware, a wide selection of machine builders, and so on. The
disadvantages are a usually higher scrap rate, the use of recycled scrap, and limited wall
thickness control or resin distribution. Trimming can be accomplished in the mold for
certain types of molds, or secondary trimming operations may have to be included in the
production lines, and so forth.
With IBM the major advantages are that no flash or scrap occurs during processing,
it gives the best of all thickness and material distribution control, critical neck finishes
can be molded to a high accuracy, it provides the best surface finish, low-volume quantities
are economically feasible, and so on. The disadvantages are its high tooling costs, the
lack (to date) of blown handleware (there is only solid handleware), its being more or
less limited to relatively smaller blown parts (whereas EBM can easily blow extremely
large parts), and so forth. Similar comparisons exist with biaxially orienting EBM or
IBM. With respect to coextrusion, the two methods also have similar advantages and
disadvantages, but mainly major advantages. With IBM, for example, PET can be pro-
cessed (mono- or multilayer) and stretched into the popular two- and three-liter carbonated
beverage bottles. Table 7-14 provides a cost comparison of the different BM techniques
for PVC and PET, the plastics predominantly processed in BM.
EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING

In EBM, a parison (tubular type of hot melt) is formed by the extruder melt output (see
Fig. 7-57). Turning continuously, the screw feeds the melt through the die head, generally
as an endless parison directly through a die. A die head can have one or more openings,
so one or more pari sons can be extruded (see Fig. 7-59). The size of the part and the
amount of material needed to produce a part (shot size) dictate whether or not an accu-
mulator is required. The basic nonaccumulator machine offers a continuous flow of plastic
melt. With an accumulator the flow of the parison through the die is cyclic (see Fig. 7-
58). The connecting channels between the extruder and the accumulator, as well as the
accumulator itself, are designed to prevent restrictions that might impede the flow or
cause the melt to hang up. Flow paths should have low resistance to melt flow, to avoid
placing an unnecessary load on the extruder.
To ensure that the least heat history (residence time) is developed during processing,
the design of the accumulator should provide that the first melt in be the first to leave
when the ram empties the chamber; the aim should be to have the chamber totally emptied
on each stroke.
When the parison exits the die and reaches a preset length, a split cavity mold closes
around it and pinches one end of it. Usually a blow pin is located opposite the pinched
end of the "tube." Compressed air inflates the parison against the pinched end of the
A
1= 1=:11
f~ll~f t_ II _t
I I
lsi
I I
PRESS
I I
PLATEN I I
I I
DQO
\
[IJ~i ~
Par/son being extruded
D
par/son
u
Compressed air inflates 0
Blown container
being ejected
Figure 7-57. The basic extrusion blow-molding process. A = a parison (plastic tubular melt
leaving the extruder die) cutter; B = parison; C = the two blow-mold cavities, D = the blow
pin.
D,e position
Machine
interface Parlson
inputsl control
outputs Profile
control signal
Parison
Figure 7-58. A schematic of an accumulator head with a programmable process controller to

control such melt characteristics as the rate of melt flow to form a parison, the profiling
thickness of the parison as it extrudes from die, etc. The controller interrelates with the extruder
and molded product performance.
"tube." Compressed air inflates the parison against the female cavity of the mold surfaces.
Upon contact with the relatively cool mold surface, the blown parison cools and solidifies
to the part shape. Next the mold opens, ejects the part, then repeats the cycle by again
closing around the parison, shaping it, and so on.
Various techniques are used to introduce air. It can enter through the extrusion die
mandrel, through a blow pin over which the end of a parison has dropped (see Fig. 7-
57), or through blowing needles that pierce the parison. The wall distribution and thickness
of the blown part are usually controlled by parison programming, the blow ratio, and
part configuration.
Figure 7 -59. A multiple die head (three parisons) blow molding three containers simultaneously.
Melt Viscosity
Melt properties are of critical importance to BM, more so than for conventional extrusion.
To a large extent they determine the quality achieved. The melt viscosity decides whether
sagging or lengthening of a parison during extrusion can be compensated, particularly in
noncircular pari sons (see Fig. 7-60). Because engineering resins have so far been used
mainly with 1M, most processors attempt to use easy-flowing, low-molecular-weight 1M-
grade resins. But in BM, particularly EBM, the objective is very different; the melt should
be viscous and of high molecular weight (high melt strength) (see Chapter 2). This
requirement generally also ensures another important feature-better impact strength. The
melt viscosity should be nearly independent of the shear rate and the processing heat.
Parison Thickness Control

Electronic parison programming is an effective way to control material usage and improve
both quality and productivity. The most common method used is orifice modulation (see
0.850 1.750 0.950
1.600 1.800
0.800 1.700 0.900
WITHOUT DIE SHAPING
1.200 1.~ 1.150
1.500- 1-1.600
1.500 1.200
WITH DIE SHAPING
Figure 7-60. A noncircular blow-mold die, shown with and without a wall-thickness die shape
(the dimensions are in mm).
Fig. 7-59). The die is fitted with a hydrualic positioner that allows positioning of the
inside die diameter during the parison drop. The OD to ID relationship of the tapered
die orifice opening is varied in a programmed manner to increase or decrease the paris on
wall thickness.
In regard to parison control, a compromise is necessary between the desired net weight and
the need to maintain a sufficient safety margin over a set of minimum specifications, which
include minimum wall thickness, drop speed, drop strength, dimensional stability, and
fluctuations in net weight. Most of these parameters can be affected directly by the mold-
er's ability to control the parison wall thickness. The most common and practical way of doing
this has been to adjust the gap between the die and the mandrel (see Table 7-15).
Pinch-off
The pinch-off is a critical part of the EBM mold, where the parison is squeezed and
welded together, requiring good thermal conductivity for rapid cooling and good toughness
to ensure long production runs. The pinch-off must have structural soundness to withstand
the resin pressure and repeated closing cycles of the mold. It usually must push a small
amount of resin into the interior of the part to slightly thicken the weld area. It also
provides a cut through the parison to make a clean break later when flash is removed.
Table 7-15. Examples of Differently Performing Extrusion Blow Molding Dies

Type Die Feature Advantage/Disadvantage
Simple die Fixed die gap Simple; inexpensive; no

adjustment facility
Die profiling Pennanentiy profiled; preferred Fixed circumferential wall
in die land area thickness change; time-
consuming; complex
Die centering Can be pennanentiy shifted Compromise between required
laterally to correct parison drop path and equal wall
drop path thickness
Open-loop axial die gap Can be axially shifted during Equal circumferential wall
control extrusion thickness change possible;
no feedback
Servohydraulic closed-loop As above, with greater speed, Equal circumferential wall
axial die gap control accuracy, and flexibility thickness change possible,
with feedback
Stroke-dependent die profiling Pennanentiy ovalized die gap Fixed, unequal circumferential
wall thickness change
possible; affects entire
parison length
Die/mandrel adjustable Settable adjustment of die gap Settable, unequal
profiling profile circumferential wall
thickness change possible;
rapid optimization
Servohydraulic closed-loop Programmable ovalization and Programmable circumferential
radial die gap control shifting of die gap wall thickness change
possible, independent of
parison length
Most molds use a double-angle pinch-off with 45° angles and a 0.25 mm (0.010 in.)
land; see view (1) in Figure 7-61. When the blow part is large relative to the parison
diameter, the plastic will thin down and even leave holes on the weld line, requiring
pinch-off (2). Using shallow angles (15°) has a tendency to force the plastic to the inside
of the blown part, thereby increasing the thickness at the weld line. A pinch-off with
dam (3) also helps to solve problems. The flash pocket's depth is related to the pinch-
off and is very important for proper molding and automatic trimming.
A gross miscalculation of pocket depth (which must be learned through experience)
can cause severe problems. For example, if the pocket depth is too shallow the flash will
be squeezed with too much pressure, putting undue strain on the mold, mold pinch-off
areas, and machine-clamp press section. The molds will be held open, leaving a relatively
thick pinch-off that will be difficult to trim properly. If the pocket is too deep, the flash
will not contact the mold surface for proper cooling. In fact, between molding and
automatic trimming, heat from the uncooled flash will migrate into the cool pinch-off
and cause it to heat up and create unwanted problems like sticking to the trimmer. Or,
during trimming, it can stretch instead of breaking free.
Clamping
The improvements made in clamping units provide a great variety of movement and
action in the larger BM machines. Small machines still need certain improvements to
ensure good flash removal with low deformation of the clamping units. The most important
Figure 7·61. A few typical pinch-off double-angle designs.
development has been the use of proportional valves in hydraulic systems. With this
technology a machine runs more smoothly and more exactly, to permit a wide variety of
action in the mold, as well as accurate control of the closing speed (see Fig. 7-62).
The delayed closure action in the final phase of mold closing determines pinch-off
weld formation, and the reproducibility of this delayed closure phase ensures the uni-
formity of BM parts.
Shrinkage
The shrinkage behavior of different resins and the part geometry must be considered.
Generally, shrinkage is the difference between the dimension of the mold at room tem-
perature of 22°C (72°F) and the dimensions of the cold blown part, usually checked
twenty-four hours after production. The elapsed time is necessary to allow the part to
shrink. Trial and error determines what time period is required to ensure complete shrink-
age. The coefficients of expansion and different shrinkage behaviors depend on whether
the plastic materials are crystalline or amorphous (see Chapter 2).
Lengthwise shrinkage tends to be slightly greater than transverse shrinkage. Most
horizontal shrinkage occurs in the wall thickness rather than a body dimension. With PE,
higher shrinkage occurs with the higher-density polymers and thicker walls. Lengthwise
shrinkage is due to the greater crystallinity of the more linear types of plastics. Transverse
shrinkage is due to slower cooling rates, which result in more orderly crystalline growth.
UNILOY-Side Shift
Blow pin centered on mold
..
UNILOY-Side Shift
Blow pin centered on container neck
Figure 7-62. Mold movement can locate the blow pin in any horizontal position required.
Injection Blow Molding

Injection blow molding basically has three stages (see Fig. 7-63). In the first stage, hot
melt is injected through an injection molding machine nozzle into a manifold and into
one or more preformed cavities. An exact amount of resin is injected around core pins.
Hot liquid from a heat-control unit is directed by hoses through mold-heating channels
around the preform cavity; these channels have been predesigned to provide the correct
heat control on the melt within the mold cavity. The melt heat is decreased to the required
amount.
The two-part mold opens, and the core pins carry the hot plastic to the second-stage
blow-mold station. Upon the mold's closing, air is introduced via the core pin, and the
plastic blows out and contacts the mold cavity surface. Controlled chilled water circulates
through predesigned mold channels around the mold cavity (usually 4-21°C, 40-50°F),
and solidifies the hot plastic.
The two-part blow mold then opens and the core pin carries the complete blown
container to the third stage, which ejects the part. Ejection can be done by using a stripper
plate, air, a combination of stripper plate and air, robots, and so forth.
IBM can have four or more stations or stages. A station can be located between the
preform and blow-mold stages to provide extra heat conditioning time. A station between
the blow mold and ejection stages can provide additional cooling and such secondary
operations as hot stamping, labeling, and so on. A station between the ejection and
D c=:::{ll] )
Injecting preform Blow molding and ejection

Figure 7-63. The basic injection blow molding process.
preform stages can be used to detect if ejection has not occurred, to add an insert to the
core pin, and so forth.
There are several different IBM methods available, with different means of transporting
the core rods from one station to another. These methods include the shuttle, two-parison
rotary, axial movement, and rotary with three or more stations used in conventional 1M
clamping units. A variation of IBM is displacement BM or dip molding. Here a pre-
measured amount of hot melt is deposited into a cupel the shape of a preform. A core
rod is inserted into the cupel, displacing the melt and packing it into the neck finished
area. It then moves to a blow station, where it basically follows the procedure described
above. The advantages of IBM include the lower-cost machines and the fact that a nearly
stress-free bottle is blown.
Stretching and Orienting

High-speed EBM and IBM are taken an extra step in stretching or orienting. Figure
7-64 shows stretched IBM; with EBM the stretching action is similar to this, as it occurs
during compressed air inflation (see Fig. 7-57). In EBM the parison, which is mechanically
held at both ends, is stretched rather than just blown. Stretching can include the use of
an expanding rod within the IBM preform or an external gripper with EBM.
By biaxially stretching the extrudate before it is chilled, significant improvements can
be obtained in the finished containers. This technique allows the use of lower-material-
grade resins or thinner wall thicknesses, with no decrease in strength; both approaches
reduce material costs. Stretched BM gives many resins (mono- or bioriented) improved
physical and barrier properties. The process allows wall thicknesses to be more accurately
controlled and allows weights to be reduced.
ill
Inject preform Reheat preform
Stretch blow molding and

ejection
Figure 7·64. A schematic of stretch injection blow molding.
Design Guidelines
Basically, BM products should be designed with generous radii at their comers and edges.
Fillets and rounds should be employed wherever possible in comers, ribs, and edges (see
Fig. 7-65). Such parts will possess more uniform wall thickness and, as a result of more
uniform and faster cooling, internal stresses will be reduced. With all this action, various
techniques can also be used for strengthening parts:
Lower blow ratios, which make for thicker wall sections.

Flutes with concave ribbing, resulting in increased strength.
Horizontal ribs, adding strength without increasing wall thickness. They are superior to
vertical ribbing for drop impact and container-collapse resistance.
Because certain plastics, such as PET, must be cooled below their glass transition tem-
perature (see Chapter 2) before they can be removed from the mold, undercuts of
any significant depth will not strip from a mold. Moldings of PET can usually be
Figure 7-65. Automotive panels like these extrusion blow-molded ones have generous radii at
their corners and edges.
stripped from undercuts as deep as 0.010 inch per inch (0.003 mm/mm) of cavity
width, but probably not much greater. The maximum allowable undercut is influenced
by the design of the undercut and the usual factors such as the thickness of the
sidewall.
Diameter change applies to round containers and increases rigidity and strength by in-
creasing wall thickness at the reduced diameter or blowing radius. Increased per-
formance or stiffness is achieved using elementary strength of material theory with
shapes such as corrugation, 1- and T-shapes, and ribs.
Tapering imparts an angular support at its junction with a walled section differing in
shape or direction. Wall thickness also increases with the decreasing diameter and
blow ratio.
Tolerances
Lengthwise shrinkage in BM products tends to be slightly greater than transverse shrink-

age. Most of the horizontal shrinkage occurs in wall thickness rather than in body di-
mension. In the case of polyethylene, higher shrinkage occurs with the higher-density
polymers and thicker-walled products. The former is due to greater crystallinity of the
more linear polymer and the latter to the slower cooling rates that result in more orderly
crystalline growth.
Mold shrinkage is dependent on many factors, such as resin density, stock temperature,
mold temperature, part thickness, and blowing air pressure. Typical polyethylene blow
molding shrinkage is as follows:
Low-Density Polyethylene:
Thickness up to 0.075 in. 0.010-0.015 in.lin.
Thickness over 0.075 in. 0.015-0.030 in.lin.
High-Density Polyethylene:
Thickness up to 0.075 in. 0.020-0.035 in.lin.
Thickness over 0.075 in. 0.035-0.055 in.lin.
Once the operating conditions are established, tolerances of ± 5 percent may be ex-
pected.
The cavity defines the shape of the article. As with other molding processes, cavity
dimensions are enlarged slightly to compensate for resin shrinkage. For polyolefins,
particularly in the neck finish, slightly higher shrinkage rates are used for extrusion blow
molding than for injection blow molding. The amount for the body is 2 percent and is
as high as 3.5 percent for the neck finish. Rigid resins, however, remain about the same.
The most common special feature of the mold is the "quick change" volume control
insert. Rigid volume control is a must for certain products such as dairy containers.
Unfortunately, an HOPE container slowly shrinks and changes in size for many hours
after molding. Because of production "volume control" requirements some dairies fill
containers molded half an hour before and then switch to fill containers molded several
days before. Volume control inserts that displace the difference in size are added to the
mold (usually as a disk in the side wall) to ensure that volume and fill levels are the same
in both containers at the time of filling. The device works because HOPE shrinkage is
reduced to virtually zero for the life of the container when filled with milk or juice and
stored at cold temperatures. Several sizes are available to suit particular molding needs.
Sound product design is the first step in mold design: the mold maker is the last step.
The mold maker is a highly skilled craftsman whose judgment and ability are used to
duplicate the cavities, hand finish and fit the parts, engrave the lettering, and manufacture
the molds. The mold maker's commitment, attention to detail, and pride are as important
a contribution as the design itself.
Shrinkage may be reduced by raising the blowing pressure and lowering the temperature
of the mold. Rapid cooling is desired, but cooling too rapidly can cause surface imper-
fections, distortion, and frozen-in stresses. Raising the stock temperature, while it may
not appreciably affect outside dimensions, causes more of the shrinkage to occur in wall
thickness, because the higher melt temperatures lessen strain recovery and reduce blowing
stresses.
Shrinkage must be taken into consideration when designing a mold and, if necessary,
must be confirmed by data and measurements obtained from preliminary trials. Close
tolerances on the capacity of the blown item also influence mold construction. Where
multiple molds are required, capacity from one mold to another must be closely held. In
general, some of the casting processes have been more successful in reducing capacity
variation than in duplicating or hobbing. For final capacity adjustment, an inserted bottom
plate or other adjustable insert is advisable. By this method, slight changes can be made
on each mold insert without noticeable variation in finished parts.
Plastic will sometimes thin out at an insert or parting line. With some materials, like
low-density polyethylene, this is of little importance, but with high-density polyethylene
and similar materials it can be a serious problem. When inserts are used, they should be
fitted tightly. The parting-line miter should be as close as possible, and sufficient clamping
pressure should be provided to prevent partial opening of the dies. Solid molds have a
slight technical advantage over molds with inserts in these instances.
An interchangeable fit with other parts requires serious consideration in mold construc-
tion. This type of construction includes plug fits, screw- and snap-type caps, snap beads,
and so on. It is strongly advised to use inserts for the interchangeable portion. This would
allow for changes of inserts to accommodate different shrinkage conditions, different
materials, and the like. Inserts may be welded on or embedded during molding. Welded-
on parts must be melted onto the blow-molded article. Inserts that are to be embedded
must be anchored with the aid of undercuts, knurling, or tags. They may consist of metal
or other materials. For internal embedding they are placed on mandrels, for external
embedding, in retaining holes in the mold cavity, which should be in line with the mold's
closing movement.
Handles
Many designers are familiar with the fact that the extrusion blown process can include
a "blown" handle; a typical product is the HDPE milk bottle. What many do not recognize
is that the injection blown process can also readily include a handle that is not blown,
as shown in Figure 7-66.
This integral carrying handle was issued in a French patent granted to an Italian
company. This patent incorporates a traditional jug handle above the blown portion of
an injection blow-molded container, as for example a pitcher. The handle is molded as
part of the preform and is undisturbed when the container is blown. A direct extrapolation
to stretch blow-molding technology would incorporate the jug handle immediately below
the neck finish of an injection-molded preform. It would be necessary to mold such a
preform in a split mold that suits itself to production on certain rotary-type injection
stretch blow equipment.
Another approach to a carrying handle provides for gripping features being molded to
a ring or strap placed just below the neck finish. Various carrying handles are shown in
Figure 7-67. Such a preform does not require a split injection mold and adds only a
nominal amount to the clamp force and platen area of an injection-molded preform.
Attention would have to be given to the arrangement of the cavities in the injection mold,
with the possibility that the number of cavities could be restricted in some situations.
Such a handle would not affect bottle shape or height, which provides design freedom
for either aesthetic or functional purposes. Such a handle could be incorporated, for
instance, on a soft drink bottle without compromise to the strictly engineered shape.
An approach (one more of many that a designer could conceive) to producing an
integral pouring handle or strap is shown in Figure 7-67. There is an appendage in this
design to the preform below the neck finish, which can be attached at its lower end to
the blown portion of the container. The appendage may be a portion of an injection-
molded preform or it may be attached to the preform prior to stretch blow molding.
Attachment of the bottom end of the handle can be made in many different ways,
including welding, gluing, or use of a restraining means such as a wraparound label. The
lower end of the handle may be used as a part of the blow mold surface and, if suitably
Figure 7-66. An integral carrying handle for an injection blow-molded product. 1) The
precision "neck" mold, including a solid handle; 2) the preformed core and blow pin; 3) the
basic water-cooled bottle female mold; and 4) the injection nozzle of the injection-molding
machine.
configured, may produce a mechanical interlocking to the blown portion of the bottle.
The handle may be semielliptical in cross-section to conform comfortably to the hand.
Collapsibility Containers
An interesting and practical design involves a patented bellows-collapsible bottle produced
in conventional BM equipment by the Collapsible Bottle of America Co. These "foldable"
in contrast to "passive" bottles provide advantages and conveniences such as 1) reducing
storage, transportation, and disposal space; 2) prolonging product freshness by reducing
oxidation and loss of carbon dioxide; and 3) providing continuous surface access to foods
such as mayonnaise and jams. Best of all, they provide the consumer with a different,
futuristic, fascinating package. The marked advantages of the collapsible bottle over
conventional packages justify the product's trade name: "The Smart Bottle" (see Figs.
5-12 and 5-13).
Complex Irregular Shapes

As mentioned, BM products comprise more than the major market of relatively conven-
tional bottles. Complex, irregular shapes can be blown to meet different practical and
engineering structures, from small to large parts. For example, double-walled components,
Figure 7-67. Ring, strap, and integral pouring handles.
large insert moldings, and hollow-ribbed structures in products range from chairs to truck
parts (see Figs. 7-52-56, 7-65, 7-68, and Table 7-16).
All types of action, such as side motions, tapered slides, and unscrewing mechanisms
are used in blow molds (see Fig. 7-69). These actions have been used extensively for a
long time in injection molding [12]. Designs in them have many possibilities to develop
useful, complex parts [11]. Their geometry involves reverse folds or inwardly protruding
channels and narrow projections.
Blow molding offers designers innovations in high-performance parts. Effective design
requires new or at least different thinking on the part of the designer. To make the most
of this opportunity requires thinking in terms of both the overall finished parts and the
interdependence of the fabrication process and design. The closed hollow shape produced
can take many forms and can be used in many different ways, from a hollow container
to a satellite dish or dish panels for the larger dishes like the radomes in Chapter 3. One
hollow extruded parison form can produce several parts at once, similar to the way a
multicavity injection mold works [12]. Or multiple, single-walled parts can be made as
symmetric parts of a single molding.
Parts can be blow molded in one piece, whereas in injection molding two or more
parts must be welded together. Certain BM parts can also be lower in cost or provide
better performance. It is possible to produce a high-strength one-piece plastic with chem-
ical and temperature resistance that allows for containing high internal pressures at high
temperatures. Some examples of part made like this include under-the-hood items in
autos and paint oven environments.
Having lower molded-in stress means that large blow-molded panels are less likely to
warp. Hollow structures give better strength-to-weight ratios, while molded-in ribbing or
channels provide additional strength, with extremely complex shapes possible. BM also
allows for bold styling and aesthetic highlighting, which are not always economically
Observe proper blow

ratio for side dud
Slots are a
secondary aelion
Trim
I
Compressed flange for mig
Section through 0 hollow wall

----===--__ Single
piece
blow molded pori
Figure 7-68. An example of blow-molded spoiler air duct.
Figure 7,(,9. A mold used in extrusion blow molding a complex shape that includes a threaded
forming core. Shown are the three-part mold in the open and closed positions, with the blow pin
located in the top two sections of the mold.
possible with other processes. Smooth-lined styling lends itself well to BM, and surface
textures ranging from matt to a class A automotive finish are easily obtained. Molded-
in color can also result in significant savings in total finished part cost. Other examples
of high-performance, high-strength BM plastic parts are readily available to designers.
FORMING
Formed or shaped plastics provide a great variety of marketable products, in a wide size
range (see Fig. 7-70). Different techniques are used, with thermoforming being the most
productive and most diversified. Other techniques are basically similar to thermoforming
but usually use less heat than it requires and are more limited as to the type of plastic
Table 7-16. Hollow and Structural Blow-molded Shapes

Industry Application Required Properties
Automotive Spoilers Low temperature, impact, cost

Seat backs Heat distortion, strength/weight
Bumpers Low temperature, impact dimensional stability
Underhood tubing Chemical resistance, heat
Furniture Work stations Flame retardance, appearance
Hospital furniture Flame retardance, c1eanability
Office furniture Flame retardance, cost
Outdoor furniture Weatherability, cost
Appliance Air-handling equipment Flame retardance, hollow
Air-conditioning housings Heat distortion, cost
Business machine Housings Flame retardance, cost
Ductwork Cost
Construction Exterior panels Weatherability, cost
Leisure Flotation devices Low temperature, impact strength cost, weatherability
Marine buoys Low temperature, impact strength cost, weatherability
Sailboards Low temperature, impact strength cost, weatherability
Toys Low temperature, impact strength cost, weatherability
Canoes/kayaks Low temperature, impact strength cost, weatherability
Industrial Tool boxes, ice chests Low temperature, impact strength, cost
Trash containers, drums Low temperature, impact strength, cost
Hot-water tanks Low temperature, impact strength, cost
used; these processes include cold forming, stamping or compression forming, flow
molding, rubber pad molding, diaphragm forming, coining, forging, and so on. Formed
parts are used in many different applications and production lines (form, fill and seal,
etc.). Food, electronic devices, medical products, and other parts use continuous ther-
moforming operations at the end of high-speed production lines to reduce the handling
of products, provide hermetically sealed contents, reduce costs, and so forth [10-12, 62-
64, 651-62].
Thermoforming
Thermoforming usually consists of heating extruded thermoplastic sheet, film, and profile
to its softening heat, then forcing the hot, flexible material against the contours of a mold
by pneumatic means (differentials in air pressure are created by pulling a vacuum between
the plastic and the mold, or the pressure of compressed air is used to force the material
against the mold), mechanical means (plug, matched mold, etc.), or combinations of
pneumatic and mechanical means.
The process involves 1) heating the sheet (film, etc.) in a separate oven and then
transferring the hot sheet to a forming press, 2) using automatic machinery to combine
heating and forming in a single unit, or 3) a continuous operation feeding off a roll of
plastic or directly from the exit of an extruder die (postforming). Practically all the
materials used are extruded TPs; very small amounts may be calendered or cast. To date
few thermosets are used, as the markets have not developed for them. These TSs can be
either unreinforced or reinforced. Practically any TP can be used, but certain types are
easier to use, permitting deep draws without tearing or excessive thinning in certain areas
such as corners. The ease of forming depends on the materials' characteristics; it is
influenced by minimum and maximum thickness, pinholes, ability of the material to retain
heat profile gradients across the surface and the thickness, the controllability of applied
Figure 7·70. Here ABS 76 x 230 in. sheets are conveyed to an IR heating oven in back of a
console where the sheets are individually heated and formed into I5-ft. outboard-powered
runabouts. The entire automated process of conveying the sheet, heating, forming, and cooling
takes only ten minutes.
stress, the rate and depth of draw, the mold geometry, the stabilizing of uniaxial or
biaxial deformation, and, most important, minimizing the thickness variation of the sheet.
PS and other plastics with a high melt viscosity are particularly desirable. HIPS is an
example of a plastic with the special characteristic of being able to be stretched to over
100 times its original length. Table 7-17 lists some of these plastics and how they can
be formed. Coextruded sheets are used to meet different design requirements (see Fig.
7-71 through 7-73).
In many applications of conventional thermoforming, low-cost tooling is used compared
to that of other processes, particularly in cases of limited production or the forming of
large parts. Thermoforming of thin parts has an advantage over most other processes,
where very thin walls cannot be produced. An example of its use is in skin and blister
packaging.
To improve the strength or structural performance of formed plastics, the processor
can utilize design features such as corrugations, box shapes, and so on. These features
are easily incorporated with thermoforming. One example of minimizing the thickness
of a product and improving its strength is a formed drinking cup with a rolled edge
(which, incidentally, also eliminates cutting lips).
With most forming (not including bending) there can be up to 50 percent scrap trim
or web. This material could be wasted, but it is usually recycled and blended with virgin
resin. Individual sheet stock formed into round shapes could have 50 percent or more
scrap. With square forms, there could be up to 25 percent scrap.
The y;arious thermoforming techniques are generally described in terms of the means
Table 7-17. Thermoformed Plastics and Their Products

Polystyrene Various packaging applications, including transparent meat trays, trays for
cookie and candy boxes, blister packages
Polystyrene foam Meat trays, egg cartons, take-out food containers
Acrylic Signs and other outdoor applications like motorcycle windshields,
snowmobile hoods, and recreational-vehicle bubble tops
Rigid vinyls Lighting panels, signs, relief maps, bus-interior panels, dishes and trays for
chemicals, blister packages, automobile dashboards
Acrylonitrile butadiene Recreational-vehicle components, luggage, refrigerator liners, business-
styrene (ABS) machine housings
Cellulose acetate Blister packages, rigid containers, machine guards
Cellulose propionate Machine covers, safety goggles, signs, shipping trays, displays
Cellulose acetate butyrate Skylights, outdoor signs, pleasure-boat tops, toys
High-density polyethylene Camper tops, canoes, sleds
Nylon Reusable trays, outdoor signs, surgical equipment, meat trays
Polycarbonate Outdoor lighting, face shields, machine guards, aircraft panels and ducts,
signs
Polypropylene Truck-fender liners, drinking cups, juice and dairy-product containers and
lids, test-tube racks
used to form the sheet, such as bending, vacuum forming, pressure forming, plug-assist
forming, matched-mold forming, and so on. The different methods enable the processor
to form different-shaped products to meet various performance requirements. An eval-
uation of these methods shows that simple to complex shapes can be formed, with the
shape as well as the surface condition able to be accurately controlled outside, inside, or
on both sides. The basic concept of thermoforming is shown in Figure 7-74 (see Reference
10 for the different thermoforming techniques).
Other Forming Methods

Certain thermoplastics, when formed, requiring handling that is normally not available
with conventional thermoforming machines, so other processes of formation have evolved.
Most of these methods tend to reduce the amount of heat required or event eliminate it
entirely. One popular technique is high-pressure forming, which is like conventional
compression molding. The techniques that are used modify conventional metalworking
tools. They can be classified as 1) cold forming (performed at room temperature with
unheated tools), 2) solid-phase forming (plastic is heated to below its melting point and
then formed), and 3) compression molding of reinforced composite sheets (heat is used).
Other methods so used are classified as forging (which includes closed-die forming, open-
die forming, cold pressing, etc.), stamping, rubber pad or diaphragm forming, fluid
forming, coining, spinning, explosive forming, and so on.
Cold forming and solid-phase forming include the use of ABS/PC, PC, conventional
PP, and HMWHDPE. By using solid-phase forming, processors can make more efficient
use of ultrahigh molecular weight, high density plastics that are difficult or impossible
to process by other methods. Forming by these techniques can usually use existing
metalworking equipment, with minor modifications. Tooling is inexpensive, and pro-
duction rates can be high. Flash, trim, or weld lines can be eliminated by using some of
these processes.
Thermoplastic composites can be stamped to produce high-performance parts. Fiber
reinforcements can be used, including glass, graphite, aramid, and so on, in different
patterns (short fibers, woven, etc.). Products are molded in quick, high-productivity
UNIFORM BONO
THICKNESS
Figure 7-71. The bonding of two thennofonned parts from coextruded sheets here resulted in a
fuel tank. The tank's inside has a nylon surface to resist gasoline; the outside uses PP to provide
a combination of low cost and the required support strength.
CLEAR WHITE
\ .,.../
\
f ,
\
I
COLOR
Figure 7-72. A coextruded sheet for the production of a three-color thennofonned container
with an integrally hinged lid .
CLAMPSTRIP CLAMP STRIP

(RECLAIMABLE) (RECLAI MABLE)
I COLOR OR CLEAR
\
\I
\
\
COLOR OR CLEAR
Figure 7-73. The addition of a single-plastic clamping strip at each side of a coextruded sheet
permits scrap reclaim of the thennofonned trim waste.
I HEATER
)\«(\\\\( (1\
VACUUM ON
Figure 7-74. The basic concept in vacuum thennoforming.

669
processes, using less energy than that needed to manufacture comparable aluminum and
steel parts. Tooling costs decrease because of part consolidation. Stamping involves two
quite different forming processes: solid-state forming and flow molding, or fast-compres-
sion molding. Each has its advantages and disadvantages..
Postforming
A popular forming technique that has provided both performance and cost advantages,
principally for long production runs, is applied as the plastic sheet, film, or profile exits
an extruder. Upon leaving the die, and retaining heat, the plastic is continuously post-
formed.
With this type of in-line system the hot plastic is reduced only to the desired heat of
forming. All it may require is a fixed distance from the die opening. Cooling can be
accelerated with blown air, a water spray, a water bath, or some combination. Examples
of some postforming techniques are shown in Figures 7-75 through 7-79. This equipment,
like others, requires precision tooling with perfect registration.
REINFORCED PLASTICS/COMPOSITES
When methods of processing plastics are discussed, the category of reinforced plastics
or composites represents many different fabrication processes, some of which have been
covered already. Some of these processes are listed in Figure 7-80. A broad range of
properties exist for RPs (see, for instance, Table 7-18). As reviewed in the RP section
of Chapter 6, both TSs and TPs are used in RPs, thus providing it a broad range of
properties [1-21, 27-33, 62-70, 635-50, 663].
Choosing the optimum process encompasses a broad spectrum of possibilities. In some
situations only one process can be used, but generally there are options. Influencing
EMBOSSING ROLL EMBOSSING ROLL

EMBOSSED EMBOSSED
EXTRUSION EXTRUSION
\ ~
EXTRUDER Ole
BACKUP ROLL..-/"
EMBOSSING ROLL POSITIVE ROLL
~ ~
\
\
DEEPLY EMBOSSED
DEEPLY EMBOSSED
EXTRUSION
"NEGATIVE ROLL
EXTRUSION RUBBER BACKUP ROLL
Figure 7-75. In-line postforming with an extruder: embossing one or both sides with shallow or
deep patterns.
Table 7-18. An Overview of RP Properties and Processes
Thermal
Conductivity Heat
Tensile Tensile Flexural Compressive Impact Distortion Dielectric
Strength Modulus Strength Strength Strength 8m' at 1.8 MPa Strength
Reinforcement in.1h .
Process wt'll> MPa ksi GPa 10" psi MPa ksi MPa ksi J/m ft·lbr/ft W/m·K ft2 . "F 'C "F kV/em kV/in.
Spray(a) 30-50 glass-

polyester 60-120 ~18 5.5-12 0.8-1.8 110-190 16-28 100-170 15-25 210-640 48-144 0.17-0.23 1.2-1.6 175-205 350-400 80-160 200-400
Compression(a) 15-30 glass-SMC 55-140 8-20 11-17 1.6-2.5 120-210 18-30 100-210 15-30 430-1,150 96-264 0.1~.25 1.3-1.1 205-260 400-500 120-180 300-450
Compression(a) 25-50 glass
mat-polyester 170-210 25-30 6.2-14 0.~2.0 70-280 10-40 100-210 15-30 530-1,050 120-240 0.1~.26 1.3-1.8 175-205 350-400 120-240 300-600
Filament 30-80 glass-
winding(a) epoxy 550-1,700 80-250 28-62 4.0-9.0 690-1,850 100-270 310-480 45-70 2,150-3,200 480-720 0.27-0.33 1.~2.3 175-205 350-400 120-160 300-400
Pultrusion(b) 40-80 glass
mat-polyester 410-1,050 60-150 28-41 4.0-6.0 690-1,050 lOO-ISO 210-480 30-70 2,400-3,200 540-720 0.27-0.33 1.~2.3 205-260 400-500 80-160 200-400
Paltrusion(b) 30-50 glass
mat-polyester 80-210 12-30 6.~17 1.0-2.5 170-210 25-30 210-340 30-50 530-1,350 120-300 0.22-0.27 1.5-1.85 95-150 200-300 80-120 200-300
Pultrusion(c) 30-55 glass mat
and
roving-vinyl
ester resin 70-280 10-40 6.~21 1.0-3.0 100-280 15-40 140-340 20-50 270-1,600 60-360 0.22-0.33 1.5-2.3 175-230 350-450 80-130 200-325
Pultrusion(e) 30-55 glass mat
and roving-
polyester resin 50-240 7-35 5.5-17 0.8-2.5 70-210 10-30 100-280 15-40 210-1,350 48-300 0.22-0.33 1.5-2.3 175-205 350-400 80-120 200-300
C1\
"
-
EXTRUDATE
\
......, PORTS
VACUUM
./
/~UUM PLENUM
VACUUM
DRUM
DRUM SECTION
Figure 7·76. An in-line vacuum forming embossing roll with water-cooled temperature control.
PRESSURE·FORMING DIES
UPPER CONVEYOR
VACUUM·FORMING DIES
Figure 7·77. An in-line vacuum/pressure fonner for plastic sheet with matched, water-cooled,
forming molds on a continuous conveyor system. This system can be used with different
profiles, such as small and large tubes producing corrugated tube or pipe. Moving molds would
have corrugated tubular cavities with vacuum/pressure/water-cooling lines.
- - - ROTATING
MANDREL
Figure 7·78. An in-line coil former that can produce telephone cords, springs, and so on using
extruded round, square, hexagonal, and other shapes.
672
ROTATING RING
TWISTED
EXTRUSION
,
Figure 7-79. In-line fixed/rotating rings used to twist extrudate.
process selection are quantity, size, thickness, tolerances, the type of material, and
performance requirements (see Fig. 7-81). Regarding tolerances, as mentioned in other
chapters, resins with fillers or reinforcements are generally far more stable in meeting
tight tolerances. (In fact, the TSs, whether unreinforced or reinforced, are more dimen-
sionally stable than other resins.)
RP parts are fabricated by processes using pressures that range from contact (or no
pressure) through moderate 350 to 700 kPa (50-100 psi) on up to thousands of psi.
Temperatures can range from room temperature to the usual 121 to 315°C (250 to 600°F)
and on up, particularly for certain high-performance TPs. The time cycles can range from
seconds to minutes, hours, or even days.
Processing may involve equipment that is simple to operate or requires extensive
specialized equipment. Among the most common processes are contact molding methods
(hand lay-up, spray-up, use of a vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave, etc.), matched
mold methods (compression molding, transfer molding, resin transfer molding, injection
molding, compression-injection molding, stamping, etc.), and other methods (filament
winding, cold press molding, pultrusion, continuous laminating, centrifugal casting, en-
capSUlation, rotational molding, reaction injection molding, etc.). Tables 7-19 through
7-21 summarize some of these processes.
TYPE OF METHOD OF
REINFORCEMENT PROCESSING
Yarns/fabrics 0(00;=-------::::1,0 Hand lay-up
Roving (Cllrr-~~_-"'~""o() Spray-up
Chopped strands _~~......."V Vacuum-bag molding
Chopped strand mats, HSB ~~~~~~ Tooling
Chopped strand mats, LSB ~ Cold-press molding
(includes continuous- Casting
strand mat) Architectural paneling
Veil and surfacing mats Centrifugal casting
Sliver/woven roving Pressure bag molding
Mat and woven roving ~I.~....-"-' Premix - BMC
combinations Preform - SMC
Milled fiber Pultrusion
Glass beads and spheres Filament winding
Glass flake Injection molding
Rotational molding
Cold forming
Figure 7-80. Various reinforcements and processes used for manufacturing reinforced plastics
or composites.
Filament or
tape winding
150,000
·i
..:
1iG
c
.
~
1i
c
100,000
50,000
o~--~~--~----~----~
100 75 50 25 0
Percent reinforcement, by weight
Figure 7-81. An example showing the strength of RPs versus the amount of glass reinforcement
and the types of reinforcements.
Hand Lay-up
This method is the oldest, and in many ways the simplest and most versatile, process,
but it is slow and very labor intensive. It consists essentially of the hand tailoring and
placing of layers of (usually glass fiber) mat, fabric, or both on a one-piece mold and
simultaneously saturating the layers with a liquid TS resin (usually polyester). The as-
semblage is then cured, with or without heat, and commonly without pressure (see Fig.
7-82). Alternatively, preimpregnated B-staged, partially cured dry material such as SMC
may be used, but in this case heat is applied, with the probability of applying low pressure.
Fabrication begins with a pattern from which a mold is made. The mold may be of
any low-cost material, including wood, hard plaster or hydrostone, concrete, a metal such
as aluminum or steel, and glass-fiber-reinforced polyester or epoxy. If only a few parts
are to be made, a single mold will suffice; otherwise, multiple molds may be required.
If the volume is large enough and speed is important, heating elements such as lines for
steam or other fluids, or electrical heat units, may be incorporated. Automated equipment
may also be installed (see Fig. 7-83). The mold may be male (plug) or female (cavity),
depending upon which side of the formed part is to have the accurate configuration (the
other side will be rough).
Spray-up
An air spray gun includes a roller cutter that chops glass-fiber rovings to a controlled
length before they are blown in a random pattern onto a surface of the mold simultaneously
with a spray of catalyzed resin. The chopped fibers are coated with resin as they exit the
gun's nozzle. The resulting, rather fluffy, mass is consolidated with serrated rollers to
Table 7-19. Process Comparison of Various Reinforced Plastics Manufacturing Techniques*
Open Molding Compression Molding
Sheet Molding
Resin Transfer Molding Spray-up Hand Lay-up Cold Press Molding Mat-Preform Compound
Mold construction FRP, t spray metal, cast FRP, spray metal, cast Metal, shear edge High grade steel;
aluminum; gasket seal, aluminum, pinch shear edge
FRP
air vents, self-sealing (land)
injection port
Pressure feed pumping Lows pressure press, Hydraulic press, Hydraulic; as high
equipment req'd; mold capable of 50 psi normal range lIS 2,000 psi
halves clamped (hydraulic or of 100-500 psi (13.8 MPa)
(methods range from pneumatic (0.69--3.05 MPa)
Pressure None
clamp frame to mechanical); resin
pressure pod) dispensing equipment
not req' d but
recommended
Heated; normal Heated; normal

range of 225- range of 275-
Cure system Room temperature
325°F 350"F
(l07-163°C) (I 35-177°C)
Resin compounding High shear type

equipment Not needed High shear type
Reinforcement Continuous strand mat, Continuous Chopped strand Continuous strand mat, Continuous strand Continuous roving
preform, woven roving roving mat, woven preform, woven roving mat, preform, (specific
roving, cloth woven roving orientations for
higher
strength)
Part trim equipment With optimum shear edges, minor trimming

Yes only
Generally expected 3,000 1,000 3,000 150,000+ 150,000+

mold life (parts)
Q\
'I
·Courtesy Owens-Coming Corp.
"" tFRP = Fiberglass reinforced plastics.
Figure 7-82. An example of a hand lay-up RP process where a glass-fiber-reinforced TS
polyester resin boat structure has been cured and is being removed from its mold.
Figure 7-83. An automated-integrated RP lay-up process that uses TS-preimpregnated

reinforced sheets that are in the B-stage of curing.
676
Table 7-20. Comparison of Resin Transfer Molding, SMC Compression, and

Injection Molding
Process
SMC
RTM Compression Injection
Process operation:
Production requirement,
annual units per press 5,000-10,000 50,000 50,000
Capital investment Moderate High High
Labor cost High Moderate Moderate
Skill requirements Considerable Very low Lowest
Finishing Trim flash, etc. Very little Very little
Product:
Complexity Very complex Moderate Greatest
Size Very large parts Big flat parts Moderate
Tolerance Good Very good Very good
Surface appearance Gel coated Very good Very good
Voids/wrinkles Occasional Rarely Least
Reproducibility Skill dependent Very good Excellent
Cores/inserts Possible Very difficult Possible
Material usage:
Raw material, cost Lowest Highest High
Handling/applying Skill dependent Easy Automatic
Waste Up to 3 percent Very low Sprues, runners
Scrap Skill dependent Cuts reusable Low
Reinforcement Yes No No
flexibility
Mold:
Initial cost Moderate Very high Very high
Cycle life 3,000--4,000 parts Years Years
Preparation In factory Special mold-making shops
Maintenance In factory Special machine shops
squeeze out air and reduce or eliminate voids. As in hand lay-up, the first layer of a gel
coat may be applied over the mold, followed by successive passes of the sprayed-on
composite before a final gel coat is applied. If required, inserts and so on can be included
during the spraying operation.
Vacuum Bag
A molded part made by hand lay-up or spray-up is allowed to cure without the application
of external pressure. For many applications this approach is sufficient, but maximum
consolidation usually is not achieved with its use. There is some porosity, fibers may not
fit closely into internal comers with sharp radii but tend to spring back, and resin-rich
or resin-starved areas may occur because of drainage, even with thixotropic agents. With
moderate pressure these defects can be overcome, with an improvement in mechanical
properties and better quality control of parts.
One way to apply such moderate pressure is to enclose the "wet-liquid resin" composite
and mold in a flexible membrane or bag, and draw a vacuum inside the enclosure.
Atmospheric pressure on the outside then presses the bag or membrane uniformly against
the wet composite. Pressures commonly range from 69 to 283 kPa (10-14 psi).
Table 7-21. Guide to Compatibility of Materials and Processes

Thermosets Thermoplastics
'"
'0
<I': '"
:s!
><
.,
"3 0
u u ~ '"
::: 1:! j
..
~ ~
~ '" '" ~
e'"
ell I:Q ::: ;;, >. :::
.... .... ..s IQ
::: :::
~ c..
I
.,
~ .,
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., IQ iQ
8c.. '" .§. ., ~
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Process ~ t.l
0(
~
~ ~
>.
"0
~
ell
I:Q
0( i i i'"
Injection molding
Hand lay-up
Spray-up
Compression molding
Preform molding
Filament winding
Pultrusion
Resin transfer
molding
Reinforced reaction
injection molding
Pressure Bag
If more pressure is required than what is available with the bag vacuum system, a second
envelope can be placed around the whole assemblage and air pressure admitted between
the inner bag and outer envelope. This method is also called the vacuum-pressure bag
process.
Autoclave
Still higher pressures can be obtained by placing the vacuum assemblage in an autoclave.
Air or stream pressures of 690 to 1,380 kPa (100-200 psi) are commonly achieved. If
still higher pressures are required and the danger of extremely high air pressures is to be
avoided, a hydroclave may be used, employing water pressures as high as 6,900 kPa
(1,000 psi). The bag must be well sealed to prevent infiltration of high-pressure air,
steam, or water into the molded part. In these processes an initial vacuum mayor may
not be employed.
Pressure Bag Molding

In this process seamless containers, tanks, pipes, and other products can be made. A
preform is used that is made by a spray-up, a mat, or a combination of materials (using
a perforated screen to produce the preform). Only enough resin is included in the preform
to hold the fibers in place. Usually it amounts to about 0.5 percent by weight and is
compatible with the matrix resin.
An inflatable elastic pressure bag is positioned within the preform and the assembly
is put into a closed mold, which could be a drum, for instance. Resin is injected into the
preform and the pressure bag is inflated to about 345 kPa (50 psi). Heat is applied and
the part is cured within the mold. When cure is complete, the bag is deflated and pulled
through an opening at the end of the mold, and the part removed.
Compression and Transfer Molding

Compression and transfer molding (CM and TM) are the two main methods used to
produce molded parts from generally thermoset (TS) resins. Compression molding was
the major method of processing plastics during the first half of this century because of
the development of a phenolic resin (TS) in 1909 and its extensive use at that time.
By the 1940s this situation began to change with the development and use of thermoplastics
(TPs) in extrusion and injection molding (1M) processes. CM originally processed about
70 percent (by weight) of all plastics, but by the 1950s its share of total production was
below 25 percent, and now that figure is about 3 percent. This change does not mean
that CM is not a viable process; it just does not provide the much lower cost-to-performance
benefit of TPs, particularly at high production rates. In the early 1900s resins were almost
entirely TS (95 percent by weight), but that proportion had fallen to about 40 percent by
the mid-1940s and now is about 3 percent.
During this century, TSs have experienced an extremely low total growth rate, whereas
TPs have expanded at an unbelievably high rate. Regardless of the present situation, CM
and TM are still important, particularly in the production of certain low-cost parts as well
as heat-resistant and dimensionally precise parts. CM and TM are classified as high-
pressure processes, requiring 13.8--69 MPa (2,000 to 10,000 psi) molding pressures (see
Figs. 7-84 through 7-86). Some TSs, however, require only lower pressures of down to
345 kPa (50 psi) or even just contact (zero pressure).
Compression molding is the most common method of molding TSs. In this process,
material is compressed into the desired shape using a press containing a two-part closed
mold and is cured with heat and pressure. This process is not generally used with TPs.
Foam Reservoir Molding

This low pressure process, also known as elastic reservoir molding, consists of making
basically a sandwich of resin-impregnated open-celled flexible polyurethane foam between
the face layers of fibrous reinforcements. When this composite is placed in a mold and
squeezed, the foam is compressed, forcing the resin outward and into the reinforcement.
The elastic foam exerts sufficient pressure to force the resin-impregnated reinforcement
into contact with the mold surface.
Resin-Transfer Molding
Resin-transfer molding (RTM) is a closed-mold, low-pressure process in which a preplaced
dry reinforcement preform is impregnated with a liquid resin (usually polyesters, although
epoxies and phenolics may be used) in an injection or transfer process, through an opening
in the center of a mold. The preform is placed in the mold and the mold is closed. A
two-component resin system (including catalyst, hardener, etc.) is then mixed in a static
mixer and metered into the mold through a runner system. The air inside the closed mold
cavity is displaced by the advancing resin front and escapes through vents located at the
high points or the last areas of the mold to fill, as in injection molding. When the mold
has filled, the vents and resin inlets are closed. The resin within the mold then cures and
the part can be removed.
The advantages of RTM are that the molded part has two finished surfaces, and the
overall process may emit a lower level of styrene vapor if the polyester resin used contains
MOlD (HEATED)
MOlDCLOSEO
(a)
PRESS OPEN PRESS CLOSED MOlD (HEATED)
(b)
Figure 7-84. Schematics of a) compression molding and b) transfer molding.
rototable
insert - c::.:::J _ par t ing line
part - EJims,. . ,.Q will appear
L
on threads
mold ~
Centerline Parallel Cen te rline Perpendicular
to Mold Movement to Mold Movement
(a) (b)
L:f*LJ] L-Q-iJ
~
re
rotating
core
¢D
rotatoble C
stud inser t ~ -
c:=tl (c)
~ (d)
Figure 7-85. Examples of compression-molding threads in various positions.
680
Figure 7·86. This 4,OOO-ton compression press is here fabricating truck and coach hoods, as
well as fenders of glass-fiber-TS polyester. This view shows a hood that has been molded, with
its separately molded grill attached.
681
styrene. The mold, unlike a compression or TP stamping mold, is completely closed to

define stops prior to final part formation/curing. This procedure provides a more repro-
ducible part thickness and tends to minimize trimming and deflashing of the final part.
Reaction Injection Molding

RIM is very similar to RTM. In the reinforced RIM (RRIM) process a dry reinforcement
preform is placed in a closed mold. Next a reactive resin system is mixed under high
pressure in a specially designed mix head. Upon mixing, the reacting liquid flows at low
pressure through a runner system to fill the mold cavity, impregnating the reinforcement
in the process. Once the mold cavity is filled, the resin quickly completes its reaction.
The complete cycle time required to produce a molded part can be as little as one minute
(see Tables 7-22 and 7-23).
The advantages of RRIM are similar to those listed for RTM. However, RRIM uses
preforms that are less complex in construction and lower in reinforcement content than
those used in RTM. The RRIM resin systems currently available will build up viscosity
rapidly, resulting in a higher average viscosity during mold filling. This action follows
the initial filling with a low-viscosity resin.
Table 7-22. Property Comparison and Design Guidelines of Resin-Transfer

Molding versus Spray-up, Hand Lay-up, Mat/Preform, and SMC Molding
Design Resin-Transfer Sheet Molding
Parameter Molding Spray-up Hand Lay-up Mat/Preform Compound
Minimum inside
radius, in. (mm) '/4 (6.35) '/4 (6.35) '/4 (6.35) '/4 (6.35) '/'6 (1.59)
Molded-in holes No Large Large Yes Yes
In-mold trimming No No No Yes Yes
Core pull and slides Difficult Difficult Difficult No Yes
Undercuts Difficult Difficult Difficult No Yes
Minimum recommended 2 to 3 0 0 '/4 to 6-in. depth 1 to 3;
draft (deg.) above 6-in. depth 3, or as
required
Minimum practical 0.080 0.060 0.060 0.030 0.050
thickness, in. (mm) (2.0) (1.5) (1.5) (0.76) (1.3)
Maximum practical 0.500 No limit No limit 0.500 1
thickness, in. (mm) (12.7) (12.7) (25.4)
Normal thickness ±0.01O ±0.020 ±0.020 ±0.008 ±0.OO5
variation, in. (mm) ( ±0.25) ( ±0.50) ( ±0.50) ( ±0.2) ( ±O.l)
Maximum thickness buildup,
heavy buildup (ratio) 2 : I Any Any 2: I Any
Corrugated sections Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Metal inserts Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Bosses Difficult Yes Yes Difficult Yes
Ribs Difficult No No Yes Yes
Hat section Yes Yes Yes Difficult No
Raised numbers Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Finished surfaces 2 I I 2 2
Table 7-23. Cost Comparison of Resin-Transfer Molding versus

SMC Compression and Injection Molding
Process
RTM SMC Compression Injection
Process operation:
Production requirement, 5,000-10,000 50,000 50,000
annual units per press
Capital investment Moderate High High
Labor cost High Moderate Moderate
Skill requirements Considerable Very low Lowest
Finishing Trim flash, etc. Very little Very little
Product:
Complexity Very complex Moderate Greatest
Size Very large parts Big flat parts Moderate
Tolerance Good Very good Very good
Surface appearance Gel coated Very good Very good
Voids/wrinkles Occasional Rarely Least
Reproducibility Skill-dependent Very good Excellent
Cores/inserts Possible Very difficult Possible
Material usage:
Raw material, cost Lowest Highest High
Handling/applying Skill dependent Easy Automatic
Waste Up to 3 percent Very low Sprues, runners
Scrap Skill dependent Cuts reusable Low
Reinforcement flexibility Yes No No
Mold:
Initial cost Moderate Very high Very high
Cycle life 3,000-4,000 parts Years Years
Preparation In factory Special mold-making shops
Maintenance In factory Special machine shops
Stamping
In the stamping process, a reinforced thermoplastic sheet material is precut to the required
sizes. The precut sheet is preheated in an oven, the heat depending on the TP used (such
as PP or nylon, where the heat can range upward from 520°F or 600°F). Dielectric heat
is used to ensure that the heat is quick and, most important, to provide uniform heating
through the thickness and across the sheet. After heating, the sheet is quickly formed
into the desired shape in cooler matched-metal dies, using conventional stamping presses
or SMC-type compression presses. Stamping is a highly productive process capable of
forming complex shapes with the retention of the fiber orientation in particular locations
as required. The process can be adapted to a wide variety of configurations, from small
components to large box-shaped housings and from flat panels to thick, heavily ribbed
plfrts (see Figs. 7-87 and 7-88).
Pultrusion
In contrast to extrusion, in pultrusion a combination of liquid resin and continuous fibers
is pulled continuously through a heated die of the shape required for continuous profiles.
Shapes include structural i-beams, L-channels, tubes, angles, rods, sheets, and so on.
Figure 7-87. These roofing panels made from Azloy (GE Plastics' Azdel, a thennoplastic RP)
were featured on the GE Living Environmental Concept House seen in Chapter 1. These panels
were designed to provide the highest flame and fire protection listing given for roofing systems
as well as to allow easy installation and excellent weatherability.
The resins most commonly used are polyesters with fillers. Other resins, such as epoxies
and urethanes, are used where their properties are needed. Longitudinal fibers are generally
continuous rovings. Glass-fiber material (mat or woven) is added for cross-ply properties.
Filament Winding
In filament winding (FW), continuous filaments are wound onto a mandrel after passing
through a resin bath, unless preimpregnated (prepreg) filaments or tapes are used, which
eliminates the resin bath. The shape of the mandrel is the internal shape of the finished
part. The configuration of the winding depends upon the relative speed of rotation of the
mandrel and the rate of travel of the reinforcement-dispensing mechanism. The three
most common types are helical winding, in which the filaments are at a significant angle
with the axis of the mandrel (see Fig. 7-89); circumferential winding, in which the
filaments are wound like thread on a spool; and polar winding, in which the filaments
are nearly parallel to the axis of the mandrel, passing over its ends on each pass (see
Fig. 7-90) [13, 40].
Different configurations can be employed on successive passes and the orientation of
the filaments be tailored to the stresses set up in the part. For example, with pipe,
continuous helical winding can be employed on a segmental mandrel, an extruded mandrel,
1:00 - r - - - ; , - - - - - - - - - - - - r 300
AZDEL stamr1ng
12~ 250
100 200
7:0 150
100
50
Part<; Parts
pt'l hour _ _--.I per shift
rlt 80° Job per year
~ 'ff Ie II'll CY L---,---r---..-.---r----.-,----,-----' f hOLJsa n OS
20 40 60 80 100 120 1 40 160

Pa:-t r:yc:lp t1l11f' seconds
Figure 7-88. An example of TO stamping on GE's Azdel versus other processes in regard to
production cycle time as opposed to production rates based on single-cavity molds.
or on release film placed on a stationary mandrel. Other filament winders include braiding
machines, loop wrappers, small to large storage tank machines, rectangular box-frame
machines, and many different special fiber-placement machines with several degrees of
freedom for intricate shapes.
As filaments are continuous and tightly packed, they permit a high filament-to-resin
ratio. This capability often results in products having the highest strength-to-weight ratio
obtainable in any structures (see Fig. 7-91).
Even though most FW uses glass filaments, all types of filaments can be used. Pre-
cautions must be observed if superior properties are to be achieved. Glass fibers are
strong, but as glass they are subject to a severe loss in strength with surface abrasion.
They must be carefully handled and processed to avoid such deterioration. In a lay-up
for FW, as well as others, plastic abrasion-resistant fibers or (usually) film can be included.
This construction permits parts to operate in severe load environments, such as under
vibration, twisting, and so on, and eliminates or at least significantly reduces glass-to-
glass abrasion where a high fiber-to-resin ratio exists. Other types of fibers should be
studied to determine whether fiber damage can occur when the part is in service. Certain
fibers, with or without resins, might be brittle, and other problems could develop. The
designer of the part should have knowledge of the potential problems. If problems do
develop, steps can be taken during processing to overcome them. If unwanted porosity
occurs, for instance, liners (gel coatings, elastomeric materials, etc.) can be included
during FW.
Injection Molding
As explained in the previous major section on injection molding, most 1M parts are made
from TP, and some of TP uses milled glass fibers to improve part performance. Other
fibers have seen limited use to date. TS compounds usually include reinforcements.
Cycle 5 To Close ,.. Trovel
- Center LIne Ax,~
Dwell Area
Band Width
Impregnation Both
Carnage
Figure 7-89. A schematic showing helical filament winding.
Void Content
Voids are generally the result of the entrapment of air during construction of a lay-up,
particularly with the use of hand lay-up and low-pressure processing methods. It is possible
to have void contents of 1 to 3 percent. Depending on the application, voids can cause
a reduction in part performance, particularly in certain environments and after lengthy
outdoor exposures. If voids are undesirable, procedures can be used to reduce or eliminate
them, such as applying a vacuum during the process. Another preventive method is to
squeeze out air during lay-up by a roller or a spatula.
The following method can be used to estimate void content:
Percent voids = 100 - 100a (~ + ~ + ~)

where
a = specific gravity of product

b = specific gravity of fiberglass = 2.55
c = specific gravity of cured resin = range 1.18 to 1.24
d = resin content, by weight
e = glass content, by weight
f = filler content, by weight

g = specific gravity of filler
This method is not exact, because the assumption is made that the resin system has
the same density with reinforcement as it does in an unreinforced casting. The net result
is a possible overstatement of the void content. In addition to air entrapment, entrapment
of volatiles can occur with certain resins that release them during processing.
OTHER PROCESSES
Reaction Injection Molding
The RIM process involves the high-pressure impingement mixing of two or more reactive
liquid components and injection of the mixture into a closed mold at low pressures. Large
and thick parts can be molded using fast cycles with relatively low-cost materials. Its
low energy requirements with relatively low investment costs make RIM attractive [1-
21,664-73].
Different materials can be used such as nylon, polyester (TS), and epoxy, but TS
polyurethane (PUR) is predominantly used. Almost no other plastic has the range of
properties of PUR-a modulus of elasticity in bending of 200 to 1,400 MPa (29,000-
203,000 psi) and heat resistance from 90 to over 200°C (122-392°P), the higher values
are for chopped glass-tiber-reinforced RIM, or RRIM.
Table 7-24 compares PUR-RIM and injection moldings of unrein forced and glass-tiber-
reinforced thermoplastics in the production of parts with large surface areas. RIM is also
comparable to resin transfer molding (RTM) in regard to the process of TS resins and
the molding of large surface areas in that both processes offer the ability to tailor the
reinforcement to the application. RRIM generally delivers faster cycles than other pro-
cesses but needs much more expensive high-pressure dispensing equipment to ha.ldle the
fast-reacting resin systems.
Liquid Injection Molding

LIM has been in use longer than RIM, but the two processes are practically similar. The
advantages it offers in the automated low-pressure processing of (usually) thermoset
Table 7-24. Comparison of RIM and Injection Molding of Unreinforced and

Reinforced Plastics in the Production of Parts with Large Surface Areas
PUR-RIM Injection Molding
Plastic temperature, °C (OF) 40-60 (50-140) 200-300 (392-572)

Plastic viscosity, Pa . S 0.5-1.5 100-1,000
Injection pressure, bar (psi) 100-200 (1450-2900) 700-800 (10,100-11,600)
Injection time, s 0.5-1.5 5-8
Mold cavity pressure, bar (psi) 10-30 (l4~30) 300-700 (4400-10,200)
Gates 1 2-10
Clamping force, t 80-400 2500-10,000
Mold temperature, °C (OF) 50-70 (122-158) 50-80 (122-176)
Time in mold, s 20-30 30-80
Annealing 30 min. @ 120°C (248°F) Rarely
Wall/thickness ratio 110.8 110.3
Part thickness, typical maximum, cm (in.) 10 (3.9) 1 (0.4)
Shrinkage, %
Unreinforced 1.30-1.60 0.75-2.00
Reinforce-glass
parallel to fiber 0.25 0.20
vertical to fiber 1.20 0.40
Inserts Easy Costly
Sink marks around metal inserts Practically none Distinct
Mold prototype, months 3-5 (epoxy) 9-12 (steel)
Mold alterations Cost-effective Costly
TYPE Of WIIiOING CONSIOCRATIONS
Hoop or CIf(umlertntl.1 ttl " 1n1.f'i1: .. If Cot1'l~~le CO. ""t:: "11

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F ig . 11 ·51 Mec:hlnery reqUired tor diff,rlnt tvpe! of 'ilament Winding (Reprinted by permtuion hom Pt.UICI Dat", & Proc."mg Janulry
1965. CopV,.ghl 1965, L• • PUblishIng CorI>o","on, L.I)e'lvYltI., tiL)
Figure 7-90. Examples of different filament-winding patterns that can be used in designing to
meet different perfonnance requirements.
688
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ttlht f @' "fllCII mxhJnt!! IrqlJlltdi.
M,sc..'laneaus 'Of wccn:s.lul Ml"'f'nl "'''~If'l II '"1.1\1 ttl!!' MJ(hlnl! to IfPloducl! tT'IOltOl'lt af Ptill'td
fO~~blf !o hInd .... nd liolll\ no 1t1t .it,S 'IUndln ProCt,mnw-d mohons In Ifu"t
D"~f'll 01 'Ibfn. Oft ",.,l\drl'l ~rtMI'. ..~ts 'lUI)' bt .e(lul,HI.
689
Figure 7-91. A precision filament-wound solid-fuel rocket motor case.
resins-fast cycles, low labor cost, low capital investment, energy saving, and space
saving-may make LIM competitive to potting, encapsulating, compression transfer, and
injection molding, particularly when insert molding is required.
Foaming
Many different foamed plastic products are produced, and practically all the processes
reviewed in this book can be used to make them, particularly extrusion, calendering,
casting, RIM, and injection molding. Almost all plastics can be used to make these
cellular-core structures, which range from flexible to very rigid objects. Basically, the
resin is mixed with a blowing agent, which can be a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance
that imparts the cellular character to the product. Blowing agents are classified as either
physical or chemical [10].
Expandable Polystyrene
EPS molding illustrates the use of blowing agents. Resin beads containing a blowing
agent are supplied to the molder in solid form. Each about 0.1 to 0.3 mm in diameter,
these beads or spheres contain a small amount of a hydrocarbon liquid, usually pentane,
that is used as the blowing agent.
The process involves two major steps. The first consists of a preexpansion of the virgin
beads by heat (steam, hot air, radiant heat, or hot water). Steam is the most-used medium,
as it is the most practical and most economical.
The next step conveys these beads, usually through a transport tube by air, to the mold
cavity(s). The final expansion occurs in the mold, usually with steam heat, either by
having live steam go through perforations in the mold itself or by means of steam probes
that are withdrawn as the beads are expanding. During expansion the beads melt together,
adhering to each other and forming a relatively smooth skin, filling the cavity or cavities.
With small parts, multiple cavities can be used. After the heat cycles the cooling cycle
starts. Because the EPS is an excellent thermal insulator, it takes a relatively long time
to remove its heat prior to demolding, or the part will distort. Cooling is usually done
by directing a water spray on the mold. To facilitate removal, particularly for complex
shapes, mold-release agents are used.
An outstanding property of EPS is its extremely low density (when compared to other
processes), which-by alteration of the preforming treatment-can be varied according
to the end use. Other types of plastics are employed to produce expandable plastic foam
(EPF), including PE, PP, PMMA, and ethylene-styrene copolymers. They can use the
same equipment, with only slight modifications. These plastics have different properties
from those of PS and open up new markets; they provide improved sound insulation,
resistance to additional heat deformation, better recovery of shapes in moldings, and so
on.
Rotational Molding
Rotational molding is a simple, basic, four-step process that uses a thin-walled mold with
good heat-transfer characteristics. This closed mold requires an entrance for insertion of
plastic and, most important, the capability to be "opened" so that cured parts can be
removed. These requirements are no problem. Liquid or dry-powder plastic equal to the
weight of the final part is put into the mold, which rotates simultaneously about two axes
located perpendicular to each other. With slow rotation about each axis, the material
inside the mold tumbles to the bottom, creating a continuous path that covers all mold
surfaces equally.
The next step involves heating the mold while it is rotating. Molds can be heated by
a heated oven, a direct flame, a heat-transfer liquid (either in a jacket around the mold
or sprayed over the mold), or electric-resistance heaters placed around the mold. With
uniform heat transfer through the mold, the resin melts to build up a layer of molten
plastic on the mold's inside surface.
After the required heat-time cycle is completed, the mold is ready for cooling, which
is accomplished with the mold rotating continually. Cooling is usually done by air from
a high-velocity fan or by a fine water spray over the mold. After cooling, the final step
is to remove the solid hallow part and reload the mold with plastic [10].
This process is capable of molding small to large hollow items with uniform wall
thicknesses, using certain plastics. Its production rates, compared to those of other pro-
cesses, can be low. However, the total cost of equipment and the production time for
moderate-sized and, especially, large parts are also low. Large parts range up to 85,200
I (22,000 gal.) in size, with a wall thickness of 3.8 cm (1.5 in.). One tank used 2.4 t
(5,300 lb.) of XHDPE; the first charge was about 1.5 t (3,300 lb.), followed by .45 t
(1,000 lb.) and finally another .45 t (1,000 lb.).
Molds can be of any shape and can include corrugated or rib constructions to increase
their stability and stiffness (if not impossible, large, flat walls can be difficult). The
thickness of their walls is limited to allow heat penetration. Figure 7-92 is an example
of a mold shape with its rotating mechanism.
Figure 7-92. A mold and its rotating mechanism, as used in rotational molding.
Powder Coating
Powder coating is a solventless coating-a coating that is not dependent upon a sacrificial
medium such as a solvent, but is based on the performance constituents of solid TP or
TS resins. It can be a homogeneous blend of the plastic with fillers and additives in the
form of a dry, fine-particle-size compound similar to flour. The three basic methods are
the fluidized bed, electrostatic spray, and electrostatic fluidized bed processes.
The advantages of the process include its minimizing air pollution as well as water
contamination, and increased part performance when coated, resulting in cost savings.
This is basically a chemical coating, so it has many of the same problems as solution
painting. If not properly formulated, the coating may sag at high thicknesses, show poor
performance when not completely cured, reveal imperfections such as craters and pinholes,
and have poor hiding, with low film thickness.
Vinyl Dispersion
Vinyl dispersions are fluid suspensions of special fine-particle-size polyvinyl chloride
resins in plasticizing liquids. When the PVC is heated to about 148 to 180°C (300-355°F),
fusion or mutual solubilization of the resin and the plasticizer takes place. The dispersion
then turns into a homogeneous hot melt. When the melt is cooled below 50 to 60°C (122-
140°F), it becomes a tough vinyl product.
With vinyl dispersions the processor can use convenient liquid-handling techniques
such as spraying, pouring, spread coating, and dipping. This system permits products to
be made that would otherwise require costly and heavy melt-processing equipment.
The term plastisol is used to describe a vinyl dispersion that contains no volatile thinners
or diluents. Plastisols often contain stabilizers, fillers, and pigments, along with the
essential dispersion resin and the liquid plasticizer. All ingredients exhibit very low
volatility under processing and use conditions. Plastisols can be made into thick fused
sections with no concern for solvent or water blistering, as with solution or latex systems,
so they are described as being 100 percent solids.
It is convenient in some instances to extend the liquid phase of a dispersion with organic
volatiles, which are removed during fusion. The term organosol applies to these disper-
sions.
Casting
Sorne TPs and TSs begin as liquids that can be cast and polyrnerized into solids. In the
process various ornamental or utilitarian objects can be ernbedded in the plastic. By
definition, casting applies to the formation of an object by pouring a fluid rnonorner-
polyrner solution into an open rnold where it cornpletes its polyrnerization. Casting can
also lead to the formation of filrn or sheet, rnade by pouring the liquid resin onto a rnoving
belt or by precipitation in a chernical bath. Casting differs frorn rnany of the other
techniques described in this book in that it generally does not involve pressure or vacuurn
casting, although certain rnaterials and cornplex parts rnay require one or the other.
Calendering
The calendering process, used in the production of plastic filrns and sheets, converts
plastic into a rnelt and then passes the pastelike rnass through nips of a series of heated
and rotating speed-controlled rolls into webs of specific thickness and width. The web
rnay be polished or ernbossed, either rigid or flexible [10].
Coining
This process, which has been used at least since the early 1940s, cornbines the best of
injection rnolding and cornpression rnolding. The process is also called injection cornpres-
sion or injection starnping. Basically, it involves using an 1M rnachine to rnelt a plastic
(unreinforced or reinforced TP or TS) and direct a fixed amount of the rnelt into a
cornpression rnold. As shown in Figure 7-93, a cornpression rnold has a rnale plug that
fits into a fernale rnold.
When rnelt enters the rnold, it is not cornpletely closed. Thus, the rnelt literally flows
unrestricted in the cavity and is stress-free. After injection is cornpleted, the rnold is
closed, with the pressure on the rnelt rnade uniform. The result is practically a stress-
free solid part held to tight tolerances. This process can result in a faster rnolding cycle
than that of conventional cornpression or even injection rnolding. Its disadvantage is the
extra cost for the closing rnechanisrn and its control, which becornes insignificant when
all the performance requirements that are gained are evaluated.
Fusible-Core Technique
The basic fusible-core technique, a take-off of cored rnetal casting, rnakes it possible to
produce sirnple to very cornplex hollow structural products. It involves using a fusible
core inside the plastic part or structure. This core permits forming the desired plastic
shape. The core rnaterial is a type that will not collapse or change shape during a pressure-
ternperature-tirne processing cycle. Shape is not usually the problern, since the core
rnaterial is restricted.
The core rnaterial to be used depends on the actual processing requirernents, particularly
ternperature. It can range frorn a wax to different ratios of zinc-alurninurn eutectic rnixtures
(alloys) to special fusible eutectic alloys. The core rnaterial has to rnelt below the rnelt
ternperature of the plastic. These shaped cores are usually inserted in a rnold cavity where
it is retained by the rnold (such as is used with a rnold core puller) or by "spiders" (as
used in certain rnetal core supports for extrusion dies). After processing, the core rnaterial
InJ~ctlon CompreSSIon CO,"lnq
Prccornl"es"on
Figure 7-93. A schematic of the coining process, which combines injection molding and
compression molding.
is removed by heating it to its melt temperature. Release is via an existing opening or a
hole drilled through the plastic to the core.
This technique is used in such different processes as injection molding, compression
molding, and various RP methods. For example, during 1943-1944 the fusible-core
method (at that time called the lost wax method) was used with hand lay-up of glass-
fiber-reinforced TS polyester to fabricate box beams. These hexagonal beams were molded
with the RP material (in a resin impregnated or prepreg form) wrapped around an extruded
rectangular solid wax. In tum these wrapped beams were placed next to each other. They
could be shaped to meet required designs, such as an aircraft wing airfoil shape. This
lay-up would be sandwiched between formed plates, usually of aluminum, and the com-
plete fusible core-RP construction cured using external heat or by compounding a curing
agent in the resin. After curing, the individual beams would be subjected to sufficient
heat to melt and remove the wax from the RP. These RP boxes would be used as the
core for a sandwich construction utilizing RP for the sandwich skins (see Chapter 5 on
sandwich structures). Some of the original development in fabricating the original all-
plastic aircraft design concept used these fusible-core sandwich structures.
The fusible-core technique provides the designer with a different processing method
for each different shape. Some examples of recent products produced with it include the
tennis racket and automobile engine intake manifold. These designs permitted injection
molding in bent or curved shapes.
SELECTING PROCESSING
The processing infonnation presented in this and other chapters has provided a variety
of useful selection guides, particularly Tables 7-4-6 and 7-19-23 and Figures 7-2, 7-3,
and 7-88. The process selection guides in Tables 7-25 to 7-32 and Figures 7-94 to 7-97
provide additional different aspects to consider.
For any given part, the most important processing requirements should be detennined
based on the plastic to be processed, the quantity, and the dimensions of size and the
tolerances. Process selection is a critical step in product design. Failure to select a viable
process during the initial design stages can dramatically increase development costs and
timing. It is important to recognize that the process can have a significant effect on the
perfonnance of the finished part. The following examples of the considerations in choosing
a process are based on what has been reviewed throughout this book.
1. The nature of the process may have a profound influence on a product's mechanical
strength.
2. Excessive heat during processing can consume sacrificial heat stabilizers for certain
plastics, rendering stabilization levels insufficient to ensure long life at elevated tem-
peratures. Thennal degradation usually results in embrittlement (tests can be conducted
to detennine the remaining levels, as in Chapter 9).
3. The slow cooling of crystalline polymers, such as HDPE and PP, can allow large
crystal fonnations to develop. Such crystals embrittle the resin and make it prone to
stress cracking.
4. The rapid cooling of certain plastic parts can result in "frozen in" stresses and strains
(particularly with injection molding). The stresses may decay with time, in a visco-
elastic manner. However, they will act like any other sustained stress to aggravate
cracking or crazing in the presence of aggressive media and hostile environments like
UV radiation.
5. Annealing at temperatures below the Tg (glass transition temperature, see Chapter 2)
where material becomes leathery is not necessarily beneficial. For example, annealing
a PC greatly accelerates both its crazing and rupture under sustained loading. In
general, the annealing of plastics results in lowering its properties; however, its di-
mensional stability may be improved. Heating a material to above its Tg , however,
results in the relief of internal stresses.
6. Knit or weld lines fonn where the melt flow during processing meets after flowing
through separate gates in an injection mold or after being parted by either "spiders"
in an extruder die or bosses in an injection mold. Because the material is not well
mixed in the zone of the knit or weld line, the seam thus fonned can be weak or
brittle under long-tenn or impact loads. This problem can easily arise with fiber-
reinforced plastics, where 40 to 60 percent of their strength can be lost, since fibers
fail to knit together at their seams.
7. In RPs, insufficient compaction and consolidation of a composite before resin cure
will result in air pockets, incomplete wet-out and encapsulation of the fibers, and/or
insufficient fiber or unifonn fiber content. These deficiencies lead to loss of strength
and stiffness and susceptibility to deterioration by water and aggressive agents.
a.
~
a. Table 7-25. Basic Processing Methods as a Function of Part Design
Process
Wet lay-up
Blow Filament Matched Die Thermo- Transfer (Contact
Part Design Molding Casting Compression Extrusion Winding Injection Molding Rotational fonning Compression Molding)
Major shape Hollow Simple Moldable Constant Structure Pew Moldable Hollow Moldable Simple Moldable
characteristics bodies configurations in one cross section with surfaces limitations in one bodies in one configurations in one
plane profile of revolution plane plane plane
Limiting size factor Material Material Equipment Material Equipment Equipment Equipment Material Material Equipment Mold Size
Maximum thickness, >0.25 None 0.5 3 6 2 0.5 6 0.5
in. (mm) (6.4) (12.7) (150) (76) (150) (51) (12.7) (76) (150) (12.7)
Minimum inside 0.125 0.01-0.125 0.125 0.01-0.125 0.125 0.01-0.125 0.06 0.01-0.125 0.125 0.01-0.125 0.25
radius, io. (3.18) (0.25-3.18) (3.18) (0.25-3.18) (3.18) (0.25-3.18) (1.5) (0.25-3.18) (3.18) (0.25-3.18) (6.4)
(mm)
Minimum draft 0 0-1 >1 NR' 2-3 <I 0
(deg.)
Minimum thickness, 0.01 0.01-0.125 0.01-0.125 0.001 0.015 0.005 0.03 0.02 0.002 0.01-0.125 0.06
in. (mm) (0.25) (0.25-3.18) (0.25-3.18) (0.02) (0.38) (0.1) (0.8) (0.5) (0.05) (0.25-3.18) ( 1.5)
Threads Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Undercuts Yes Yes' NR' Yes NR' Yes' NR' Yes 3 Yes l NR' Yes
Inserts Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NR' Yes Yes
Built-in cores Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Molded-in holes Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Bosses Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fins or ribs Yes Yes Yes Yes No' Yes No· Yes Yes Yes Yes
Molded in designs Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
and nos.
Surface finish' 1-2 1-2 1-2 4-5 2-3 1-3 1-2 4-5
Overall dimensional 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.005 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.02
tolerance (in.!
in., plus or minus)
tSpeciai mold required.

2Not recommended.
30nly flexible material.
400ly direction of extrusion.
~Possible with special techniques.
6Fusing premix/yes.
'Rated I to 5 (1 = very smooth. 5 = rough).
PART TO BE FORMED
I
I
I I
LARGE PART SMALL PART
OVER 1 111ft LESS THAN 1 III ft
OVERS . . LESS THAN Sib
I I
I I
OVER 250°F UNDER 250°F OVER 250°F LESS THAN 250°F
THERMOSETS THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSETS THERMOPLASTICS
I I
I I I
I LARGE AREA I I LONG LENGTHS I HIGH-VOLUME I LOW-VOLUME HIGH-VOLUME LOW-VOLUME
I I I
LOW-PRESSURE THERMOFORM I EXTRUDE I COMPRESSION CASTING INJECTION MACHINE
LAMINATION FOAM TRANSFER MACHINING BLOW MOLD THERMOFORM
FILAMENT WINDING HEAT SEAL INJECTION LOW PRESSURE THERMOFORM COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION WELD LAMINATION LAY-UP EXTRUSION CASTING
HIGH-PRESSURE ROTOFORM PULTRUSION POST FORM ROTOFORM ROTOFORM
LAMINATION BLOW MOLD SPRAY-UP RIM FOAM
POST FORM ADHESIVE BOND RESIN TRANSFE R ADHESIVE BOND
ADHESIVE BOND STRUCTURAL
MACHINE FOAM
PULTRUSION RIM
Figure 7-94. Basic guide to process selection.
~
\Q
'I
~
~
=
REINfORCED PLASTICS PART TO BE PROCES5EO tTHERMOSeTl
I
LARGE PART SMALL PART
{OVER 3)1 5 FTt (UNDER 3)1 5 FT)
.---
STRENGTH PREDOMINANT COST PREDOMINANT STRENGTH PREDOMINANT COST PREDOMINANT
I I
$$-C$=J $ ~--$ c$S-~$
SPRAY UP VACUUM FILAMENT SPRAY UP CONTACT PRESSURE BMC&PREMIX· Si.1cr.1AT- FABRIC· MAT PREFORMS SMCMAT FABRIC
BAG WINDING I I BAG I PReFORM PREPREGS PREFORM PREPREGS
PUL TRUSION VACUUM RESIN
BAG TRANSFER
I
CONTACT AUTOCLAVE AUTOCLAVE CONTINUOUS MATCHED MATCHED TOOL
I I I I LAMINATION TOOL
I
RESIN PRESSURE RESIN
'-4ATCHEO TOOL I INJECTION
TRANSFER TRANSFER
BAG INJECTION
PUl TRUSION
SHAPE VOLUME SHAPE VOLUME
I I I
I s17~ 1 I ~';"';LEX 1 I L';" J HIGH L Sl7 LE I I COM;LEXl I~ ~-l

I
FIL4MENT PRESSURE CONTACT PRESSURE MAT PREFORM PREFORM COMPRESSION
WINDIHG BAG BAG I
I I
I FILAMENT FASRIC PREMIX MAT INJECTION
CONTACT AUTOCLAVE WINDING AUTOCLAVE PREP REGS
I I
I I I I I INJECTION PREFORMS
SPRAV uP MATCHE D TOOL VACUUM MATCHED COMPRESSION
BAG TOOLING
I I
I MATCHED CONTINUOUS
PUL TRUSION TOOLING LAMINATION
SPRAY UP
-BMC. PREMIX PREFORMS ANO PREPREGS ALL ~~ATCHED TOOL COMPRESSION MOLDING
Figure 7-95. Overall guide to reinforced TS plastics' process selection.

These examples show the kinds of alterations that the processing of plastics can have
on the performance of the product. As discussed throughout this book, the many different
plastics tend all to behave in different patterns, so where a particular problem could
develop with one material, it might have little or no effect on another, even if the base
resins are the same but contain different additives or reinforcements. Regardless, the
problems that might arise should be eliminated at the outset.
In some cases the designer will not have the ability to choose freely from all the design,
material, and process alternatives. For example, a design is often heavily constrained by
the need to fit an existing assembly, and the material and process may be determined
largely by the need to use existing facilities. However, to optimize results the designer
should establish the extent of any design freedom early in the design process and explore
the design, material, and process alternatives within these bounds. Before final selection
of the process, the entire process of production should be considered, including such
secondary operations as painting and decorating. Chapter 8 provides more information
on both the upstream and downstream auxiliary equipment that may have to be considered
in order to be efficient in regard to product performance and cost.
Shape
Both shape and design details are heavily process related. The ability to mold ribs, for
example, may depend on material flow during a process or on the flowability of a resin
reinforced with glass. The ability to produce hollow shapes depends on the ability to use
removable cores, including air, fusible or soluble solids, and even sand. Hollow shapes
can also be produced using cores that remain in the part, such as foam inserts in RTM
or metal inserts in 1M.
The geometric symmetry of a part can also influence process selection. For example,
an axis of symmetry in a long, narrow part may suggest selecting an extrusion or pultrusion
process. Similarly, the need for hollow sections in the part could suggest blow molding
or rotational molding. In order to handle materials that melt, flow, and solidify quickly,
it is necessary to use a mechanical process such as injection molding, which as a process
could still be limited by the time available with the particular machine in question to fill
the mold cavity before the melt solidifies; thus, high pressures are used to increase the
speed of mold filling [11].
Each process has certain characteristics that can be summarized by determining whether
1) its ribs and bosses are feasible, depending on whether one or both sides of the part
reproduce the tool (mold) surface; 2) the sequence of material injection or some other
process and tool closure allows of having deep vertical sections in the surface wall; 3)
the material's viscosity is high enough to allow the use of slides and cores in the tool
without their being gummed up with material flowing into the slide mechanism; 4) hollow
sections or containers are feasible; and, finally, 5) whether hollow or foam-filled box
sections can be produced to increase section stiffness.
Size
Part size is limited by a process's pressure and the available equipment, whereas the
ability to achieve specific shape and design detail is dependent on the way the process
operates. Generally, the lower the processing pressure, the larger the part that can be
produced. Other restrictions are the size of the equipment that is available, the length of
flow, and the material's reaction time. With most labor-intensive methods, such as hand
REINFORCEMENT TYPES:
F.lamenls. Rovings
Unidirectional
PROCESSES:
Fiber Pullrus.on. F.lament
Orientation W.nd.ng. RTM. RIM
REINFORCEMENT TYPES:
F.laments. Rovings.
Woven FabriCS. Braid.ng
Bidirectional PROCESSES:
Fiber F.lament Winding. Hand Layup.
Orientation Compress.on Mold.ng. Inleet.or.
Molding. Vacuum Bag. Stamp.ng.
Co.ning. Pultrusion
REINFORCEMENT TYPES
Chopped Strands.
M.lled Fibers. Mats
Multidirectional PROCESSES:
Fiber Hand Layup. Compress.on.
Orientation InJection. Spray· UP. Vacuum Bag.
Autoclave. RTM, RIM, Rotahonal.
Stamping. Autocalve. Co.n.ng
Figure 7-96. Guide to the directional properties of composites versus processes.
lay-up, slow-reacting TSs can be used and there is virtually no limit on size. With some
processes, size is limited only by the size of the equipment that is either available or can
be produced. A general guide to practical processing thickness limitations is (in in.):
injection molding, 0.02 to 0.5; extrusion, 0.001 to 1.0; blow molding, 0.003 to 0.2;
thermoforming, 0.002 to 1.0; compression molding, 0.05 to 4.0; and foam injection
molding of 0.1 to 5.0.
The functions and property characteristics of a part will be largely determined by the
performance requirements and material selected for fabrication. The basic requirement
of the process is its capability of handling a suitable material. For example, if a major
function requirement is for resistance to creep under high loads, it is probable that a long-
fiber RP will be necessary, which would immediately eliminate such processes as blow
molding and conventional injection molding.
Surface Finish
Another consideration is the ability of a material to provide a surface that is compatible
with the requirements of the application: a smooth finish, molded-in color, textured
surface, or other surface. The compatibility of the major processes with in-mold coating
and other insert-surfacing materials, and their compatibility with surface decoration sec-
ondary processes, could also be important.
It should be recognized that surface finish can be more than just a cosmetic standard-
it also affects part quality, mold cost, and delivery time. The surface can be used not
only to enhance clarity for the sake of appearance but to hide surface defects such as
sink marks. The Society of Plastics Engineers/Society of Plastics Industries standards
range from a No.1 mirror finish to a No.6 grit blast finish. A mold finish comparison
kit consisting of six hardened tool steel pieces and associated molded pieces is available
through SPE/SPI [12].
~-ROTOFORM
I
HI VOL LOW VOL HI VOL HI VOl LOVOl HI VOL LOVOL HI LO HI VOl LOVOL ELECTROFORMED
I I I I I I I I
AL I I I I
STEEL ) CAST AL STEEL AL AL STEEL AL WOOD CASTAL SHEET SPRAY METAL
( MACHINE I tMACH METAL
H088ED I I HOBBEDI I I I I
ELECTRO MACH. AL BoCu PLASTER elECTRO FORM PLASTER ELECTROFORM DIPPED METAL
FORM.
BACK·UP I I
KIRKSITE ELECTROFORM EPOXY· SILICONE
• BACK UP FIBERGLAS
I
FILLEDIRIM I I
PLASTIC
FILLED
EPOXY EPOXY I I
L..--r------!ELASTOMER
STEEL DIP METAL
PLASTIC
I PLASTER I
CASTAL I PLASTIC
I AL ITPOR TSI
I AL
MEHANITE I
I WOOD ELASTOMER
I PLASTIC
FILLED I
EPOXY STEEL
ELECTJOFORM
I I
SPRAYED elECTRO FORM
METAL
I
SPRAYED
METAL
I
ELASTOMER
...;:: Figure 7-97. Guide to tooling selection .
Various types of surface finishes are available for plastics and composite parts, such
as smooth, textured, molded-in color, and in-mold coating. A textured part surface can
be obtained through either a textured mold cavity or a postmold paint process. The former
method is the most commonly used. A wide variety of texture designs is available. The
surface smoothness, and to some degree the texture, of a plastic or composite is as
dependent on the materials used in it as on the surface of the cavity. For example, certain
textured surfaces can be obtained only if the proper steel or metal is used in the mold
cavity. Also, with any mold the proper cavity steel based on the plastic processed will
significantly reduce its wear and tear and extend its useful life [11, 12].
Cost
The production flexibility of the fabrication process is often the single most important
economic factor in a plastic part. The component's size, shape, complexity, and required
production rate can be primary determinants. As an example, small numbers of large
objects tend economically to favor casting, as well as the RP's hand lay-up or spray-up
process, with a minimal tooling cost and maximum freedom for design changes. Many
products favor injection and compression molding or long runs in extruders, with their
automation capabilities to minimize labor costs. Often the shape dictates the process,
such as centrifugal casting or filament winding being used for cylindrical parts, rotational
molding for complex hollow shapes or extremely large parts, and pultrusion for constant
cross-sections requiring extremely high strength and stiffness. These general examples
should be considered broadly, since individual processes can all be designed for a specific
product capability to meet performance requirements at the lowest cost.
A further important point is that major costs can be incurred in the operations required
after fabricating: trimming, finishing, joining, attaching hardware, and so on. Observing
the following design practices will help reduce costs and improve processing and per-
formance, whatever fabrication method is selected: 1) strive for the simplest shape and
form; 2) use the shape of the product to provide stiffness, reducing its required number
of stiffening ribs; 3) combine the parts into single moldings or extrusions as much as
possible, to minimize assembly time and eliminate designing fasteners and so on; 4) use
a uniform wall thickness wherever possible, and make changes in thickness gradually,
to reduce stress concentrations; 5) use shape to satisfy functional needs like slots for
hoisting, hand grips, and pouring; 6) provide the maximum radii that are consistent with
the functional requirements; and 7) keep tolerances as liberal as possible, but once in
production aim for tighter tolerances, to save plastic material and probably reduce pro-
duction cost.
Minimizing cost is generally an overriding goal in any application, whether a process
is being selected for a new product application or opportunities are being evaluated for
replacing existing materials. The major elements of cost include capital equipment, tool-
ing, labor, and inefficiencies such as scrap, repairs, waste, and machine downtime [12].
Each element must be evaluated before determining the most cost-effective process from
among the available alternatives. To a great extent, the selection of a process for a new
plastic or composite product will be dictated, or at least restricted by, the limitations
imposed by design and cost factors. These factors frequently coincide to indicate the
preferred processes. Some plastics will have a limited scope of processes available, but
others will be more flexible. And parts for limited production or small volumes may
require processes with low capital and tooling costs to make them economical.
Table 7-26. Specific Processing Methods as a Function of Part Design
Good
Finish, Varying
Vertical Spherical Box Slides/ Both Cross-
Process Ribs Bones Walls Shape Sections Cores Weldable Sides section
Thermoplastics
Injection Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Injection compression Y Y N N N Y Y Y Y
Hollow injection Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Foam injection Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Sandwich molding Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Compression Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Stamping N N N N N N Y Y N
Extrusion Y N N/A N Y N Y Y Y
Blow molding N N Y Y Y Y Y N N
Twin-sheet forming N N Y Y Y N Y N N
Twin-sheet stamping N N N N Y N Y Y N
Thermoforming N N Y N N Y Y N N
Filament winding Y N Y Y Y N Y N Y
Rotational casting N N Y Y N N Y N N
Thermosetting
Compression
Powder Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y
Sheet molding compound Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y
Cold-press molding N Y Y N N N N Y Y
Hot-press molding N Y Y N N N N Y Y
High-strength sheet
molding compound Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Prepreg N N Y N N N N Y Y
Vacuum bag N Y Y N Y N N N Y
Hand lay-up N Y Y N Y N N N Y
Injection
Powder Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y
Bulk molding compound Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y
ZMC Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y
Stamping N N Y N N N N Y N
Reaction injection molding Y Y N N Y N Y Y Y
Resin transfer molding, or
resinject Y N Y N Y N N Y Y
High-speed resin transfer
molding, or fast
resinject Y N Y N Y N N Y Y
Foam polyurethane Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Reinforced foam Y Y Y N Y N N Y Y
Filament winding Y N Y Y Y N N Y Y
Pultrusion Y N N/A N Y N N Y Y
Note: Y, yes; N, no; N/A, not applicable.
703
Table 7-27. Molding Process Guide to Plastic Materials*
.....
e
~
Struc- RP Dip
Material Injec- Compres- Trans- Cold tural Extru- Lami- Sheet Molding Fila- and Rota-
Family tion sion fer Casting Molding Coating Foam sion nating Forming FRP ment Slush Blow tional
ABS X X X X X
Acetal X X X X X X
Acrylic X X X X X X X
Allyl X X X X X X X
ASA X X X X
Cellulosic X X X X X X X X
Epoxy X X X X X X X
F1uoroplastic X X X X X X X X
Melamine-formaldehyde X X X X X X
Nylon X X X X X X X
Phenol-formaldehyde X X X X X X X
Poly (amide-imide) X X X X
Polyarylether X X
Polybutadiene X X X X
Polycarbonate X X X X X X X
Polyester (TP) X X X X X
Polyester-fiberglass X X X X X X X
(TS)
Polyethylene X X X X X X X X X
Polyimide X X X X(TP)
Polyphenylene oxide X X X X
Polyphenylene sulfide X X X
Polypropylene X X X X X X
Polystyrene X X X X X X
Polysulfone X X X X
Polyurethane (TS) (TP) X X X X X X X(TP) X X X X
SAN X X X X X X
Silicone X X X
Styrene butadiene X X X X
Urea formaldehyde X X
Vinyl X X X X X X X X X X
·Compounding pennits using other processes.

Table 7-28. General Information Relating Processes and Materials to
Properties of Plastics
Thermosets Properties Processes
Polyesters Simplest, most versatile, economical and most Compression molding

Properties shown widely used family of resins, having good Filament winding
also apply to electrical properties, good chemical Hand lay-up
some polyesters resistance, especially to acids Mat molding
formulated for Pressure bag molding
thermoplastic Continuous pultrusion
processing by Injection molding
injection molding Spray-up
Centrifugal casting
Cold molding
Comoform l
Encapsulation
Epoxies Excellent mechanical properties, dimensional Compression molding
stability, chemical resistance (especially Filament winding
alkalis), low water absorption, self- Hand lay-up
extinguishing (when halogenated), low Continuous pultrusion
shrinkage, good abrasion resistance, very Encapsulation
good adhesion properties Centrifugal casting
Phenolics Good acid resistance, good electrical properties Compression molding
(except arc resistance), high heat resistance Continuous laminating
Silicones Highest heat resistance, low water absorption, Compression molding
excellent dielectric properties, high arc Injection molding
resistance Encapsulation
Melamines Good heat resistance, high impact strength Compression molding
Diallyl phthalate Good electrical insulation, low water absorption Compression molding
Thermoplastics
Polystyrene Low cost, moderate heat distortion, good Injection molding

dimensional stability, good stiffness, impact Continuous laminating
strength
Nylon High heat distortion, low water absorption, low Injection molding
elongation, good impact strength, good tensile Blow molding,
and flexural strength Rotational molding
Polycarbonate Self-extinguishing, high dielectric strength, high Injection molding
mechanical properties
Styrene-acrylo-nitrile Good solvent resistance, good long-term strength, Injection molding
good appearance
Acrylics Good gloss, weather resistance, optical clarity, and Injection molding
color; excellent electrical properties Vacuum forming
Compression molding
Continuous laminating
Vinyls Excellent weatherability, superior electrical Injection molding
properties, excellent moisture and chemical Continuous laminating
resistance , self-extinguishing Rotational molding
Acetals Very high tensile strength and stiffness, Injection molding
exceptional dimensional stability, high
chemical and abrasion resistance, no known
room temperature solvent
Polyethylene Good toughness, light weight, low cost, good Injection molding
flexibility, good chemical resistance; can be Rotational molding
"welded" Blow molding
(conr'd)
705
Thermosets Properties Processes
Fluorocarbons Very high heat and chemical resistance, Injection molding

nonbuming, lowest coefficient of friction, Encapsulation
high dimensional stability Continuous pultrusion
Polyphenylene oxide Very tough engineering plastic, superior Injection molding
modified dimensional stability, low moisture
absorption, excellent chemical resistance
Polypropylene Excellent resistance to stress or flex cracking, very Injection molding
light weight, hard, scratch-resistant surface, Continuous laminating
can be electroplated; good chemical and heat Rotational molding
resistance; exceptional impact strength; good
optical qualities
Polysulfone Good transparency, high mechanical properties, Injection molding
heat resistance, electrical properties at high
temperatures; can be electroplated
'Comoform is an extension of the cold molding process which utilizes a thermoformed plastic skin to impart excellent surface to a cold molded
laminate.
Table 7-29. Economic Comparison of Three Different Processes

Production Sheet Molding
Considerations Structural Foam Injection Molding Compound
Typical minimum 250 (using multiple 1,000 to 1,500 500

number of parts a nozzle equip. with
vendor is likely to tools from other
quote on for a sources designed
single setup for the same
polymer and
ganged on the
platen)
Relative tooling cost, Lowest. Machined 20 percent more. 20 percent to 25
single cavity aluminum may be Hardened-steel percent more.
viable, depending tooling Compression-
on quantity molding steel
required tools
Average cycle times 2 to 3 minutes 40 to 50 seconds 11/2 to 3 minutes
for consistent part el4 in. nominal wall
reproduction thickness)
Is a multiple-cavity Yes Yes. Depends on size Not necessarily.
tooling approach and configuration, Secondary operations
possible to reduce although rapid may be too costly
piece costs? cycle time may and material flow
eliminate the too difficult
need.
Are secondary No No Yes, e.g., removing
operations material where a
required except to "window" is
remove sprue? required (often
done within the
molding cycle)
(cont'd)
706

Production Sheet Molding
Considerations Structural Foam Injection Molding Compound
Range of materials that Similar to Unlimited; cost Limited; higher cost

can be molded thermoplastic depends on
injection molding performance
requirements
Finishing costs for 40 to 60 cents per sq. None, if integrally None, if secondary
good cosmetic ft. of surface colored; 10-20 operations such as
appearance (depending on cents per sq. ft. if trimming are not
surface-swirl painted required.
conditions) Otherwise 20 to
30 cents per sq.
ft. of surface
In summary, when considering alternative processes for producing plastic and com-
posite products, the major concerns usually involve 1) limitations that may be imposed
by the material, because not all materials can be processed by all methods; 2) limitations
imposed by the design, such as the size, single-piece versus mUltiple-piece construction,
a closed or open shape, and the level of dimensional and tolerance accuracy required; 3)
the number of products required; and 4) the available capital equipment. Certain equipment
may already be available and in use, although it may not necessarily be the one needed
for the lowest production cost.
Table 7-30. Guide to Compatibility of Processes and Materials

Thermosets Thermoplastics
i ~0
~ i:Q~ ~ J 8 j I-<
If... ~
!
~
!I
C'-l ~
1
~
tl~ B tl., '"] ~ ~ B tl
;f i
'"
i i
~ "3
8
If -< ~ ~
.;
If If If
C'-l
i:Q ~
If
~
If
'"
~
;f
.;
If
-<
Injection molding
Hand lay-up
Spray-up
Compression
molding
Preform molding
Filament winding
Pultrusion
Resin transfer
molding
Reinforced reaction
injection molding
Table 7-31. Design Recommendations for Choosing an RP Process
Matched Die
Contact Premix! Molding
Molding, Pressure Filament Continuous Molding with Preform
Spray-up Bag Winding Pultrusion Compound or Mat
Minimum 1/4 % 'Is N.A.* 1/32 I/S

inside radius, in.
Molded-in holes Large Large N.R.* N.A. Yes Yes
Trimmed-in mold No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Built-in cores Yes Yes Yes N.A. Yes Yes
Undercuts Yes Yes No No Yes No
Minimum practical 0.060 0.060 0.010 0.037 0.060 0.030
thickness, in. (1.5) (1.5) (0.25) (0.94) (1.5) (0.76)
(mm)
Maximum practical 0.50 3 I I 0.25
thickness, in. (13) (25.4) (76.2) (25.4) (25.4) (6.4)
(mm)
Normal thickness ±0.020 ±0.020 ±0.01O ±0.OO5 ±0.OO2 ±0.OO8
variation, in. ' (±0.5l) ( ±0.5l) (±0.25) (±O.l) (±0.05) (±0.2)
(mm)
Maximum buildup As desired As desired As desired N.A. As desired 2 to I
of thickness maximum
Corrugated Yes Yes Circumferential In longitudinal Yes Yes
sections only direction
Metal inserts Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Surfacing mat Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Limiting size Mold size Bag size Lathe bed Pull capacity Press Press
factor length and capacity dimensions
swing
Metal edge Yes N.R. Yes No Yes Yes
stiffeners
Bosses Yes N.R. No No Yes Yes
Fins Yes Yes No N.R. Yes N.R.
Molded-in labels Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Raised numbers Yes Yes No No Yes Yes
Gel coat Yes Yes Yes No No Yes
surface
Shape limitations None Flexibility Surface Constant Moldable Moldable
of the bag of revolution cross-section
Translucency Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Finished surfaces One One One Two Two Two
Strength Random Orientation Depends on Directional Random Random
orientation of ply wind
Typical glass 30-45 45--60 50-75 30-60 25 30
percent by weight
'Note: N.A.: NOI applicable.

N.R.: Not recommended.
708
Table 7-32. Comparison of Structural Foam with Five Other Processes
Foam vs. Sheet Molding Foam vs. Hand Lay-up Foam vs. Injection
Foam vs. Sheet Metal Foam vs. Die Casting Compound Fiberglass Molding
1. Fabrication economy: I. Much lower tooling I. Uniform physical I. More consistent part (Many process similarities
less assembly time; costs properties throughout reproducti<>n exist)
tighter dimensional 2. Longer tool life, lower the part 2. Lower labor I. Flexibility for
tolerances; increased maintenance 2. Warping and sink 3. Simplified assembly functional engineering
product integrity; less 3. No trim dies required marks reduced or 4. Better dimensional 2. Better low- to medium-
final product-inspection 4. Lighter weight eliminated stability volume economics
time 5. Higher impact 3. No resin-rich areas to 5. More design freedom 3. Lower tooling costs
2. Fewer parts required resistance cause configuration 6. More uniform physical 4. Better large-part
for assembly 6. Better sound damping problems properties capability
3. Dent resistance 7. Better strength-to- 4. Higher impact 7. Better sound damping 5. Better sound damping
4. Elimination of oil weight resistance 6. Lower internal stresses
J canning 8. Better impact resistance 5. Greater inherent 7. Sink marks reduced or
5. Greater design freedom structural capabilities eliminated
6. Better sound damping 6. Lower shipping costs 8. Inherent structural
7. Reduced damage from 7. Large parts more strength
shipping economical
8. Reduced tooling costs 8. Lower tooling costs
for complex 9. Better sound damping
configurations
I. Smaller variety of I. No heat sink I. Increased finishing I. More prone to heat I. Poorer surface finish
finishes available, such capabilities costs (surface swirl) distortion 2. Application of cosmetic
as chrome or baked 2. No R.F.I. and 2. Heat distortion 2. Poorer economies of detail for appearance
enamel grounding capabilities 3. Thicker wall part size vs. quantity parts
.1 2. No R.F.1. and 3. Fewer available finishes 4. Lower physical 3. Thicker walls 3. Longer cycle time
grounding capabilities for cosmetic properties 4. Higher tooling costs 4. Thicker walls
] 3. Harder to retrofit to appearance 5. Possible internal voids 5. Poorer high-volume
frame or skins 4. Higher finishing costs economics
4. Thicker wall 5. Thicker walls 6. Less equipment
5. Higher tool costs than 6. Possible internal voids available for various
with brakeforming shot sizes
e~
.g .S
50+* 15 to 30 Up to 30 50+ 15 to 20t
·ti
"'''''
c:
]]g
~'"
-Even with limited quantities.
tDcpcnding on unit volume and part size.
~
Chapter 8
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT AND

SECONDARY OPERATIONS
Many different types of auxiliary equipment (AE) and secondary operations (SO) can be
used to maximize overall processing productivity and efficiency and reduce the fabricated
product cost (see Figs. 8-1 and 8-2). Their proper selection, use, and maintenance are
as important as the selection of the processing machines such as the injection molder or
extruder and they can cost more than the base machine. The processor must determine
what is needed, from upstream to downstream, based on what the equipment has to
accomplish, what controls are required, the ease of operation and maintenance, safety
devices, energy requirements, and compatibility with existing equipment wanted, and so
on. This chapter provides examples of this selection procedure and its importance in
evaluating all the equipment required in a processing line. Details on the equipment
available can be obtained from plastics industry trade publications, usually compiled in
annual (appendix) issues. These and other pertinent publications are included in the
Reference section at the end of this book. [2, 5-12, 674-94]. All this equipment has to
be properly interfaced to operate efficiently. In the past, most of the equipment did not
properly, or at least easily, interface mechanically and/or electronically. The term pro-
tocol, as it relates to an interface, means a set of rules governing the communication and
transfer of data between machines and equipment. The Society of the Plastics Industry's
Machinery Division formed a special committee in 1987 to develop its Communication
Protocol Standard Development Kit. (Other countries have protocols as well.) This kit
includes a complete reference manual and program simulation software. The SPI made
the kit available late in 1989 under a paid-license agreement to members for $2,500 and
nonmembers for $5,000.
The SPI kit covers the primary processing machine communication protocol with
chillers, blenders, dryers, water systems, discrete mold-temperature controllers, and the
like. The protocol provides for centralized setup and monitoring of auxiliaries by the
primary machine. The test simulation software that is a key part of the kit ensures uniform
interpretation of technical specifications. It is a combination of a detailed technical spec-
ification of hardware requirements such as the type of cable, the connector and electrical
interface, and software requirements. The kit protocol shows how electronic information
moves through the system.
The SPI standard references the standards of the Electronics Industry Association,
American National Standards Institute, and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
neers.
711
Imprln,.,
Figure 8-1. An injection-molding production line that starts upstream with materials being
delivered to the 1M machine and progresses through the downstream equipment where the
finished product (hangers) are leaving the plant. This flow diagram defines the manufacturing
sequence and capacity requirements.
Figure 8-2. Examples of auxiliary equipment in a production line that starts at the right end at
top and moves to the left end at bottom.
712
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT AND SECONDARY OPERATIONS 713
MATERIAL HANDLING
In most processes, for either small or large production runs, the cost of the plastics used
compared to the total cost of production in the plant may be at least 60 percent. The
proportion might be only 30 percent, but it is more likely to exceed 60 percent, so it is
important to handle material with care and to eliminate unnecessary production problems
and waste. Where small-quantity users or expensive engineering resins are concerned,
containers such as bags and gaylords (storage container holding 1,000 lb. of material)
are acceptable, but for large commercial and custom processors these delivery methods
are bulky and costly. Resin storage in this form is also expensive.
Any large-scale resin-handling system has three basic subsystems, for unloading, stor-
age, and transfer. For a complete system to work at peak efficiency, processors need to
write specifications that fully account for the unique requirements of each subsystem.
The least efficient component, no matter how inconsequential it may seem, will limit the
overall efficiency of the entire system.
Energy Conservation
Energy conservation is only one of many factors that should be considered in the selection
of an automated materials conveying system, as well as in all equipment used in the
processing line. Fortunately, any steps taken to save energy will also save money, in
most cases. The traditional arguments favoring the silo are its savings on resin costs,
labor savings through the elimination of handling bags and cartons, the savings of a costly
warehouse inside floor space, and energy savings. For example, if a plant used a large
quantity of resins and did not use silos, during the winter months bags or gaylords would
be delivered repeatedly through open delivery doors, and warm air would be lost.
With automatic delivery from silos, all resin-handling lines are kept as short as possible.
There is no reason for these lines to conform to the right angles of walls; they should
follow a straight line from the resin's source to where it has to be delivered. There are
graphs from systems suppliers that show the relationship between the lengths of conveyor
lines and the power requirements [12]. The graphs also show the horsepower required,
based on different factors such as the length and diameter of the delivery pipe, the position
of the pipe, the type of resin being conveying, the size of the hopper at the machine,
and the Ib.lhr. that can be delivered.
PARTS HANDLING
The logic and approach used in materials handling also apply to the use of handling
equipment to move processed parts. Parts-handling equipment (PHE) does not resemble
the humanoids of science fiction. Robots are blind, deaf, dumb, and limited to a few
preprogrammed motions, but in many production jobs that is all that is needed. They are
solutions looking for a problem. Most plants can use some degree of PHE, which can
substantially increase productivity.
The use of PHE can range from simple operations to rather complex ones with so-
phisticated computer controls. Although the concept of automatic operation is appealing,
its ultimate justification, as for material handling and process controls, must be made on
the basis of economics. At times it may provide the solution to handling a part that
otherwise would be damaged.
FINISHING AND DECORATING

The finishing of plastics includes different methods of adding either decorative or func-
tional surface effects to a plastic product (see Figs. 8-3 and 8-4 and Tables 8-1 and 8-
2). Plastics are unique in that color and decorative effects can be added to them prior to
and during processing. Two-or-more-color plastic parts are easily processed. Decorative
surface textures can be incorporated on the surface of practically any product during or
after processing. Decorative foils of plastic or aluminum or other materials placed on the
surface during injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, and so on can also improve
the performance of the plastic.
JOINING AND ASSEMBLING

Different methods are used for joining and assembling plastic products, as summarized
in Figures 8-5 and Tables 8-3 to 8-6. Information on assembly using methods such as
inserts, press fits, and snap fits, was provided in the "Structural Design Analysis" section
of Chapter 5; see also Chapter 11.
Adhesives and Solvents

There are many different adhesive systems used to join or assemble products. There are
solvent systems for most TPs, but not for thermosets. Monomeric or polymerizable
cements can be used for most TPs and TSs. There are certain plastics with outstanding
chemical resistance, such as the polyolefins, that preclude the use of many cements, but
they generally require some form of surface treatment prior to adhesion, such as flame
treatment.
Solvent bonds work because they react chemically with the plastic. However, they
literally destroy it, so it is important to limit such factors as the length of time and depth
of the plastic soak. The solvent could cause either immediate or delayed damage. If a
part contains excessive internal strains, the solvent could release the strains and cause
cracking, surface defects, and so on. (To evaluate a plastic's reaction with a solvent,
PART TO BE OECORATEO
I
I SURFACE PREPARA nON I
I
I I
FLASH BONO SURFACE INTEGRAL
REMOVAL PREPARATION COATING COATING
I I
TUMBLING SANDBLAST PAINTING COLOR CONCENTRATES
WHEE LABRATOR PLASMA ETCH OYE APPLICATION IN RESIN
HAND FILING SOLVENT METALLIZATION LIQUID ADDED AT
MACHINING ETCH by VACUUM and PRESS OR EXTRUDER
CHEMICAL ELECTROPLATING COLOR MIX IN TUMBLE
ETCH SILK SCREEN BARREL
TRANSFER
HOT STAMPING
and EMBOSSING
DECALS
IN-MOLD DECORATION
Figure 8·3. A guide to decorating selection.

Multiple-level paint and foil

1st color all over ( 1 st color all over
Foir--... ~nd Foi", ~nd

~ c:ol~r ~col~r
(
__
Masking step .030" x .030" Masking step .030" x .030"
Multiple decoration on flush surfaces Foil surface around raised clear area
Groove for foil stop-off: .060"w x .040"d. Clear rec!. window raised .060" Radiused edge and shallow
For paint mask: .030" x .030". above surrounding surface drop (18 ) to foil surf. prevents
Groove color is from base mat'!. foil wrinkles at corners
~
Bright metal frame or edge
2-pc: Separate metallized or plated
acrylic - 1st surf. clear~ ASS frame assembled by Molded-In letters for metallizing
ASS ~~ heat staking. (Leave
2nd surf paint or f o i l -I
clearance for gate removal.)
Two-piece assembly avoids higher cost of metallizing

mask and gives choice of other material for frame. For small letters: .025" x .025"
with .005" radius on internal edges
For large letters: .050"w x .030"d
l-pc acrylic
with .003-.004" crown on bottom
to increase brightness. Use 3-5 -
1st surf. Clear~st surf. metallize draft on groove walls.
2nd surf. paint o~aSking groove .050"w x .040"d

Figure 8-4. An example of the dimensions recommended for masking and stop-off grooves.
I PART TO BE ASSEMBLED I
I
I I
I THERMOSETS I ITHERMOPLASTICS I
I
I I I I
I HIGH VOLUME I I LIIWVOLUME I I HIGH VOLUME I I LllWVOLUME
I
I I I
SOLVENT BONDING
1
MOLOED-IN INSERTS GAS WELDING
I I
MECHANICAL FASTENERS ADHESIVE BONDING HOT TOOL WELDING ADHESIVE
ELECTROMAGNETIC. MECH FASTENERS ULTRASONIC WELDING ELECTRD-MAGNETIC
INDUCTION HEATING ADHESIVE BONDING • INDUCTION BONDING
OF ADHESIVE ELECTROMAGNETIC ULTRASONIC
ADHESIVE BONDING • INDUCTION BONDING HOT TOOL WELDING
(DRIFILM • WET) SPRING. VIBRATION SPIN WELDING
WELDING
DIELECTRIC HEAT
SEALING
Figure 8·5. A guide to part assembly selection.
after a part is processed it is immersed in a solvent to determine whether strain patterns

exist. The reaction with the solvent can be correlated with the processing versus part
performance. )
The solvent action described does not mean that adhesives are harmful; they have been
used successfully for over a century. But no matter what action is taken in joining (Table
8-3) or assembling (Table 8-4), the processor should determine whether there are limi-
tations to its use.
....
~
- Table 8-1. Printing and Decorating Systems (Courtesy of Plastics Technology)
The Process How It Works Equipment Applications Effect
Painting: Paint's sprayed by air or Spray guns, spray booths, Can be used on all materials Solids, multicolor, overall or
Conventional spray airless gun( s) for mask washers often (some require surface partial decoration,
functional or decorative required; conveying and treatment) . special effects sush as
coatings. Especially drying apparatus needed woodgraining possible.
good for large areas, for high production.
uneven surfaces, or
relief designs. Masking
used to achieve special
effects.
Electrostatic spray Charged particles are Spray gun, high-voltage All plastics can be Generally for one-color,
sprayed on power supply; pumps; decorated. Some work, overall coating.
electronically dryers. Pretreating not much, being done
conductive parts; station for parts (coated on powder coating of
process gives high paint or preheated to make plastics.
utilization; more conductive).
expensive than
conventional spray.
Wiping Paint is applied Standard spray-paint setup Can be used for most One color per pass;
conventionally, then with a wipe station materials. Products multicolors achieved in
paint is wiped off. Paint following. For low range from medical multistation units.
is either totally production, wipe can be containers to furniture.
removed, remaining manual. Very high-
only in recessed areas, speed, automated
or is partially removed equiment available.
for special effects such
as woodgraining.
Roller coating Raised surfaces can be Roller applicator, either Can be used for most Generally one-color
painted without manual or automatic. materials. painting, though
masking. Special effects Special paint feed multicolor possible with
like stripes. system required for side-by-side rollers.
automatic work.
Dryers.
Screen Printing Ink is applied to part Screens, fixture, squeegee, Most materials. Widely used Single or multiple colors
through a finely woven conveyorized press for bottles; also finds (one station per color).
screen. Screen is setup (for any kind of big applications in areas
masked in areas that volume). Dryers. like TV and computer
won't be painted. Manual screen printing dials.
Economical means for possible, for very low-
decorating flat or volume items.
curved surfaces,
especially in relatively
short runs.
Hot Stamping Involves transferring coating Rotary or reciprocating hot- Most thermoplastics can be Metallics, wood grains or
from a flexible foil to stamp press. Dies. printed; some multicolor, depending
the part by pressure and High-speed equipment thermosets. Handles on foil. Foil can be
heat. Impression is handles up to 6,000 flat, concave, or convex specially formulated
made by metal or partsIhr. surfaces, including (e.g., chemical
silicone die. Process is round or tubular shapes. resistance) .
dry.
Heat Transfers Similar to hot stamp but Ranges from relatively Can handle most Multicolor or single color;
preprinted coating (with simple to highly thermoplastics. A big metallics (not as good
a release paper backing) automated with multiple application area is as hot stamp).
is applied to part by stations for, say, front bottles. Fiat, concave or
heat and pressure. and back decoration. cylindrical surfaces.
Electroplating Gives a functional metallic Preplate etch and rinse Can handle special plating Very durable metallic
finish (matte or shiny) tanks; Koroseal-lined grades of ABS, PP, finishes.
via electrodeposition tanks for plating steps; polysulfone, filled
process. preplating and plating Noryl, filled polyesters,
chemicals; automated some nylons.
systems available.
Metallizing: Depositing, in a vacuum, a Metallizer, base, and Most plastics, especially PS, Metallic finish, generally
Vacuum thin layer of vaporized topcoating equipment acrylic, phenolics, PC, silver but can be others
metal (generally (spray, dip or flow), unplasticized PVC. (e.g., gold, copper).
aluminum) on a surface metallizing racks. Decorative finishes
prepared by a base (e.g., on toys), or
coat. functional (e.g., as a
conductive coating).
'I
...
'I (cont'd)
The Process How It Works Equipment Applications Effect
Cathode sputtering Unifonn metallic coatings by Discharge systems-to High-temperature materials. Metallic finish. Silver and
.....
using electrodes. provide close control of Unifonn, precise copper generally used.
==
- metal buildUp. coatings for applications Also gold, platinum,
like microminiature palladium.
circuits.
Spray Deposition of a metallic Activator, water-clean and Most plastics. For decorative Metallic (silver and bronze).
finish by chemical applicator guns; spray items.
reaction of water-based booths, top- and base-
solutions. coating equipment if
required.
Tamp Printing Special process using a soft Metal plate, squeegee to All plastics. Specially Single- or multicolor--one
transfer pad to pick up remove excess ink, recommended for odd- printing station per
image from etched plate conical-shaped transfer shaped or delicate parts color.
and tamping it onto a pad, indexing device to (e.g., drinking cups,
part. move parts into printing dolls' eyes).
area, dryers, depending
on type of operation.
In-the-Mold Decorating Film or foil inserted in mold Automatic or manual feed Most plastics, especially Single- or multicolor
is transferred to molten system for the transfers. polyolefins and decoration.
plastics as it enters the Static charge may be melamines. For parts
mold. Decoration required to hold foil in where decoration must
becomes integral part of mold. withstand extemely high
product. wear.
Flexography Printing of a surface directly Manual, semi- or automatic Most plastics. Used on such Single- or multicolor.
from a rubber or other press, dryers. areas as coding pipe
synthetic plate and extruded profiles.
Offset Printing Roll-transfer method of Ranges from low-cost hand Most plastics. Used in Multicolor print or
decrating. In most cases presses to very applications like coding decoration.
less expensive than expensive automated pipe.
other multicolor units. Drying,
printing methods. destaticizers, feeding
devices.
Valley Printing Uses embossing rollers to Embosser with inking Used largely with PVC, PE Generally two-color
print in depressed areas attachment or special for such areas as floor maximum.
of a product. package system. tiles, upholstery.
Labeling From simple paper labels to Equipment runs the gamut Can be used on all plastics. All sorts of colors and types.
multicolor decals and from hand dispensers to Used mostly for
new preprinted plastic relatively high-speed containers and for price
sleeve labels. machines. marking.
Table 8-2. Guide to Plastic-Decorating Methods (Courtesy of Plastics Technology)
Done in the Mold
Economics Aesthetics Product Design Chemistry Manufacturing Comments
Engraved Unit cost: low Limited Unrestricted Not critical No extra Best for simple lettering and
mold operations texture.
Labor cost: low
Investment: Good durability
moderate
In-mold label Unit cost: high Unlimited Somewhat Critical Longer molding Good for thermoplastics and
Labor cost: high restricted cycles thermosets. Automatic
loading equipment
becoming available.
Investment: none Good durability
to moderate
Inserted Unit cost: high Partially limited Restricted Not critical Longer molding Allows three-dimensional as
nameplates cycles well as special effects.
Labor cost: high
moderate
Two-shot Unit cost: high Limited Somewhat Not critical Two molding Good where maximum
molding Labor cost: high restricted operations abrasion resistance
necessary.
moderate to
high
(cont'd)
.........
'"
......
hi
0

Done after Molding
Applique Unit cost: high Somewhat Unrestricted Not critical Hand operation Allows unusual effects.
limited
Labor cost: high
moderate to
high
Electrostatic Unit cost: low to Limited Somewhat Critical Dry process, no tool contact
moderate restricted with product.
Labor cost: low
Investment: Moderate to
moderate to good
high durability
Flexographic Unit cost: low Somewhat Restricted Critical Automates well Wet process, tool contacts
Labor cost: low limited product. Sometimes
requires top coat.
Investment: Moderate
moderate to durability
high
Hand painting Unit cost: high Somewhat Unrestricted Critical Hand operation Wet process, tool contacts
limited product.
Labor cost: high
Investment: low Good durability
Heat transfer Unit cost: low to Unlimited Somewhat Critical Requires little Dry process, tool contacts
moderate restricted 1I00r space product.
Labor cost: low
to moderate
Investment: low Good durability Multicolor graphics.
to moderate
Hot stamping Unit cost: low Limited Somewhat Critical Requires little Dry process, tool contacts
restricted floor space product.
Labor cost: low
to moderate
Investment: low Good durability Produces bright metallics.
to moderate
Labeling Unit cost: low to Unlimited Somewhat Less critical Adaptable to Dry process, no tool contact
moderate restricted many with product at times.
Labor cost: low situations
to moderate
Investment: low Moderate to Multicolor graphics.
to high good
durability
Metallizing Unit cost: Limited Somewhat Critical Requires special Wet and dry process, no
moderate to restricted technological tool contact with
high know-how product.
Labor cost:
moderate to
high
Investment: high Good durability Produces bright metallics.
Nameplates Unit cost: high Unlimited Somewhat Less critical Adaptable to Dry process, tool contacts
Labor cost: restricted many product.
moderate to situations
high
Investment: low Good durability Multicolor graphics.
to moderate
Offset Unit cost: low Unlimited Restricted Critical Automates well Wet process, tool contacts
product.
Labor cost:
moderate
Investment: high Moderate to Multicolor graphics.
good
durability
(cont'd)
'I
N
...
~
hi
hi

Done after Molding
Offset Unit cost: low Limited Unrestricted Critical Requires little Wet process, tool contacts
intaglio floor space product.
Labor cost:
moderate
Investment: Moderate to New process.
moderate good
durability
Silk screening Unit cost: Somewhat Somewhat Critical Flexible Wet process, tool contacts
moderate limited restricted operation product.
Labor cost:
moderate
moderate
Spray Unit cost: Limited Unrestricted Critical Requires much Wet process, no tool
moderate floor space contact with product.
Labor cost:
moderate
moderate to
high
Woodgraining Unit cost: high Specialized Specialized Critical Mostly hand Wet process, tool contacts
operated products.
Labor cost: high
moderate to
high
Table 8-3. Reference Chart to Help in Selecting the Proper Method of Fastening
Thermoplastic Materials
Spin and
Mechanical Vibration Thermal Ultrasonic Induction
Thennoplastics Fasteners Adhesives Welding Welding Welding Welding Remarks
ABS G G G G G G Body type adhesive

Recommended
Acetal E P G G G G Surface treatment
for adhesives
Acrylic G G F-G G G G Body type adhesive
Recommended
Nylon G P G G G G
Polycarbonate G G G G G G
Polyester TP G F G G G G
Polyethylene P NR G G G-P G Surface treatment
for adhesives
Polypropylene P P E G G-P G Surface treatment
for adhesives
Polystyrene F G E G E-P G Impact grades
difficult to bond
Polysulfone G G G E E G
Polyurethane TP NR G NR NR NR G
PPO modified G G E G G G
PVC rigid F G F G F G
E = Excellent, G = Good, F = Fair, P = Poor, NR = Not recommended.
Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding is an economical method for joining small- to medium-sized plastic
parts of the same or similar plastics. Certain polymers may not weld if they contain
specific fillers, such as particularly glass fibers if they are of a high concentration. This
technique is rapid and can be fully automated. Welding occurs when high-frequency (20-
40 kHz) vibrational energy is directed to the interface between the two parts, creating
localized molecular expansion causing the plastic to melt. Pressure is maintained between
Table 8-4. Reference Chart to Help in Selecting the Proper Method of Fastening
Thermoset Plastic Materials
Spin and
Mechanical Vibration Thermal Ultrasonic Induction
Thennosets Fasteners Adhesives Welding Welding Welding Welding Remarks
Alkyds G G NR NR NR NR
DAP G G NR NR NR NR
Epoxies G E NR NR NR NR
Melamine F G NR NR NR NR Material notch
sensitive
Phenolics G E NR NR NR NR
Polyester G E NR NR NR NR
Polyurethane G E NR NR NR NR
Silicones F G NR NR NR NR
Ureas F G NR NR NR NR Material notch
sensitive
E=Exce11ent. G=Good, F=Fair, P=Poor, NR=Not recommended.

'I
~
""
Table 8-5. Percent Tensile Strength Retention with Different Welding Techniques
Original
Tensile Hot-Air Friction Hot-Plate Dielectric Solvent Adhesive Polymerization
Strength (psi)* Welding Welding Welding Welding Welding Bonding Welding
Thennosetting plastics
Epoxy 7,000-13,000 10-15 10-15 50-80 60-100
Melamine 7,000-13,000 50-80 60-100
Phenolic 6,000-9,000 50-80 60-100
Polyester 6,000-13,000 50-80 60-100
Thennoplastics
Acrylonitrile butadiene 2,400-9,000 50-70 50-70 50-70 50-80 30-60 40-60
styrene
Acetal 8,000-10,000 20-30 50-70 20-30
Cellulose acetate 2,400-8,500 60-75 65-80 65-80 90-100 50--60
Cellulose acetate 3,000-7,000 60-75 65-80 65-80 90-100 50-80
butyrate
Ethyl cellulose 2,000-8,000 50-70 50-70 50-70 80-90 50-80
Methyl methacrylate 8,000-11,000 30-70 30-50 20-50 40-60 40-60 60-90
Nylon 7,000-12,000 50-70 50-70 50-70 20-40
Polycarbonate 8,000-9,500 35-50 40-50 40-50 40-60 5-15
Polyethylene 800-6,000 60-80 70-90 60-80 10-30
Polypropylene 3,000-6,000 60-80 70-90 60-80 20-40
Polystyrene 3,500-8,000 20-50 30-60 20-50 25-50 20-50
Polystyrene acrylonitrile 8,000-11,000 20-60 20-50 20-50 30-50 25--60 20-50
Polyvinyl chloride 5,000-9,000 60-70 50-70 60-70 60-70 50-70 50-70
Saran 3,000-5,000 60-70 50-70 60-70 60-70 50-70 50-70
"To convert psi to Pascals, multiply by 6,895.
Table 8-6. Materials for Plastics Hardware

Application
Hinges
Knuckle
Material Snap-in Snap-on Clasp Drive-pin and pin Ball-grip Integral
ABS j j j j j
Acetal j j j j j
Acrylic j j
Cellulosic j
Fluorocarbon j j
Polycarbonate j j j j j
Polyethylene j j j j
Polyamide j j j j j
Polypropylene j j j
Polystyrene j j
Polyurethane j
Vinyl j j j j
the two parts after vibration stops, and the melted polymer immediately solidifies. The
entire welding process nonnally takes place in less than two seconds. It has high strength,
which sometimes approaches the strength of the base material, if the joint design is correct
and the equipment is properly set. If it is not properly bonded, poor bonds can be created
or nonair-tight contact occurs. Table 8-7 shows the types of welds that can be made.
Vibration Welding
In vibration welding, two plastic parts are rubbed together in either linear or angular
displacement, producing frictional heat that results in a melt at the interface of the two
parts. Different bonding joints can be used to eliminate having flash that is visible at the
joints; basically, recesses within the bond exist. The vibration is in the fonn of high-
amplitude, low-frequency, reciprocating motion. With circular parts a rotary motion is
used. When the vibration stops, the melt cools and the parts become pennanentIy welded
in the alignment that is held. Typical frequencies are 120 and 240 Hz, with amplitudes
range from 0.10 to 0.20 in. of linear displacement.
Vibration welding, like ultrasonic welding, produces high-strength joints for materials
that can be melted. However, it is much better suited to large parts and irregular joint
interfaces. Moisture in materials does not usually have an adverse effect on the weld as
it does with ultrasonics.
Spin Welding
Spin welding is just a special fonn of vibration welding. Because it is such a popular
technique, it is considered a special assembly method.
Radio Frequency Welding

With this type of process, welding occurs from the heat created by the application of a
strong radio frequency (RF) field to the selected joint region on those plastics that are
Table 8-7. Plastics' Characteristics with Regard to Different Types of
Ultrasonic Welding Applications
Welding
Percent of
Weld Staking and Near Far
Material Strength* Spot Weld Inserting Swaging Fieldt Fieldt
General-purpose plastics
ABS 95-100+ E E G E G
Polystyrene unfilled 95-100+ E E F E E
Structural foam 90--100 1 E E F G P
(styrene)
Rubber modified 95-100 E E G E G-P
Glass filled 95-100+ E E F E E
(up to 30%)
SAN 95-100+ E E F E E
Engineering plastics
ABS 95-100+ E E G E G
ABS/polycarbonate 95-100+ 2 E E G E G
alloy (Cycoloy
8(0)
ABS/PVC alloy 95-100+ E E G G F
(Cycovin)
Acetal 65-703 G E P G G
Acrylics 95-100+ 4 G E P E G
Acrylic 95-100 E E G E G
multipolymer
(XT-polymer)
Acrylic/PVC alloy 95-100+ E E G G F
(Kydex)
ASA 95-100+ E E G E G
Methylpentene 90--100+ E E G G F
Modified phenylene 95-100+ E E F-P G E-G
oxide (Noryl)
Nylon 90-100+ 2 E E F-P G F
Polyesters 90-100+ G G F G F
(thermoplastic)
Phenoxy 90-100 G E G G G-F
Polyarylsulfone 95-100+ G E G E G
Polycarbonate 95-100+ 2 E E G-F E E
Polyimide 80-90 F G P G F
Polyphenylene 95-100+ E G F-P G G-F
oxide
Polysulfone 95-100+ 2 E E F G G-F
High-volume, low-cost applications
Butyrates 90-100 G G-F G P P
Cellulosics 90--100 G G-F G P P
Polyethylene 90--100 E E G G-P F-P
Polypropylene 90--100 E E G G-P F-P
Structural foam 85-100 E E F G F-P
(polyolefin)
Vinyls 40-100 G G-F G F-P F-P
Code: E = Excellent, G = Good, F = Fair, P = Poor.

·Weld strengths are based on destructive testing. 100+% results indicate that parent material of plastic part gave way while weld remained
intact.
tNear field welding refers to joint 1/4 in. or less from area of hom contact: far field welding to joint more than 1/4 in. from contact area.
IHigh-density foams weld best.
2Moisture will inhibit welds.
'Requires high energy and long ultrasonic exposure because of low coefficient of friction.
'Cast grades are more difficult to weld due to high molecular weight.
726
not transparent to RF. The RF is usually applied by a specially formed metal die in the
shape of the joint desired, which also applies the clamping pressure needed to complete
the weld after the plastic melts. This is a fast process that is sensitive to heat buildup.
This type of welding, usually referred to as heat sealing, is widely used with flexible
TP films and sheets such as plasticized PVC and PUR. It can also be used to join film
to plastic molded parts.
Heat Welding
Many TPs can be heat welded. However, as with other welding techniques, certain fillers
or too much of a particular filler, could prevent good bonding. There are nevertheless,
certain fillers that can improve bonding action. Heat welds can also be used with friction
or spin welding of TP joints.
Electromagnetic and Induction Welding

This type of welding uses a radio frequency magnetic field to excite fine, magnetically
sensitive particles that are either metallic or ceramic. The particles can be embedded in
a preform, filament ribbon, adhesive, coextruded film, molding compound, and other
materials. The most common is to include an extra part such as a preform containing the
magnetically active particles. The preform is placed at the joint's interface and exposed
to an electromagnetic field. Then electromagnetically induced heat is conducted from the
particles through the preform and to the part joint as the parts are pressed together.
Summary
These and various other joining and assembly methods are used. As noted, certain plastics
can be solvent bonded or heat bonded, with or without fillers and reinforcements. One
problem that can develop after production starts is to change a plastic's composition but
continue using the same basic polymer. This action may be taken to improve performance
or cost. The assumption could be made that the joining action would be the same. It
might indeed, but without checking this could be disastrous. For example, with a higher
percentage of calcium carbonate or glass fibers (additives that are basically not affected
by solvents or heat), there would be no joining capability. Thus, it is important to check
out the performance of any new material.
MACHINING
Each type of plastic has its own unique properties and machining characteristics, which
are far different from those of the metallic or nonmetallic materials familiar to many
processors. TPs are relatively resilient compared to metals and require special cutting
procedures. Even within a family of plastics (PE, PC, PPS, etc.), the cutting characteristics
will change, depending on the fillers and reinforcements.
Elastic recovery occurs in plastics both during and after machining, so provision must
be made in tools' geometry for sufficient clearance to allow for it. This is so because of
the expansion of compressed material due to elastic recovery (see Chapter 2). This causes
increased friction between the recovered cut surface and the cutting surface of the tool.
In addition to generating heat, this abrasion affects tool wear. Elastic recovery also
explains why, without proper precautions, drilled or tapped holes in plastics are often
tapered or become smaller than the diameter of the drills used to make them.
As heat conductivity in plastics is very slow, essentially all the cutting heat generated
will be absorbed by the cutting tool. The small amount of heat conducted into the plastic
cannot be transferred to the core of the shape, which causes the heat of the surface area
to rise significantly. This heat must be kept to a minimum or be removed by a coolant
to ensure a proper cut.
For many commodity TP resins the softening, deformation, and degradation heats are
relatively low. Gumming, discoloration, poor tolerance control, and poor finish are apt
to occur if frictional heat is generated and allowed to build up. Engineered TP resins
such as nylon and TFE-fluoroplastic have relatively high melting or softening points.
Thus, they have less tendency to become gummed, melted, or crazed in machining than
do plastics with lower melting points. Heat buildup is more critical in the plastics with
lower melting points. Thermoset resins generally have the fewest problems of any plastics
during machining.
Cutting Guidelines
The properties of plastics must be considered in specifying the best speeds, feeds, depths
of cuts, tool materials, tool geometries, and cutting fluids. Machining data are available
from machinery handbooks as well as the plastic material and cutting machinery suppliers.
Note that some plastics may be cut at higher speeds with no appreciable loss of tool life,
but higher speeds usually result in thermal problems, especially with the commodity
resins.
The guidelines for tool geometry start by reducing frictional drag and heat. It is desirable
to have honed or polished surfaces on the tool where it comes in contact with the work.
The geometries of the tools should be such that they generate continuous-type chips. In
general, large rake angles will serve this purpose because of the force directions resulting
from these angles. Care must be exercised to keep rake angles from being so large that
the brittle fracture of workpieces results and chips become discontinuous.
Drill geometry should be made to differ from that used for metals by employing wide,
polished flutes combined with low helix angles, to help eliminate the packing of chips,
which causes overheating. Also, the normally 118-degree point angle is generally modified
to 70 to 120 degrees.
Round saws should be hollow ground, with burrs from sharpening removed by stoning,
and handsaws and jigsaws should have enough set to give adequate clearance to the back
of the blade. This set should be greater than is usual for cutting steel. It is always better
to relieve the feed pressure near the end of a cut to avoid chipping.
The proper rate of feed is important and, because most sawing operations are hand
fed, experience is required to determine the best rate. Attempts to· force the feed will
result in heating of the blade, gumming of the plastic, loading of the saw teeth, and an
excessively rough cut. Chrome plating the blade reduces friction and tends to give better
cuts. Above all, the saw-whether band or circular-must be kept sharp. Circular saws
n
are usually from to i in. thick. The width of bandsaws is usually f« to ! in.
Both TP and TS resins can be sawed by using cutoff machines with abrasive wheels.
This equipment is used to cut rods, pipes, L-beams, and so on. With appropriate wheels,
properly used, clean cuts can be made. If necessary, water is used to prevent overheating.
Practically all cutting and machining operations can be performed on plastics if it is
kept in mind that their properties vary from soft and flexible to hard and brittle, that
some are weak and others strong, some soften upon heating and others do not, and that
they may contain a wide variety of additives that will affect their machining characteristics.
The cutting and rake angles, relative rates of cutting speed and feed, types of cutting
edges from plain metal to diamond saws, various coolants, and other factors affecting
machining must be adjusted to the particular plastic. When it is properly carried out with
appropriate tools, machining can be readily accomplished.
Chapter 9
TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL
The demand for quality products, and the competition this creates, requires designers to
build in quality early in the design cycle. The available conventional, and particularly
computer-aided, testing helps designers meet this important challenge. Throughout this
book, many different tests have been presented (see the Index, under "Test Methods,"
for these tests). This action was necessary to have the properties they represent properly
defined and applied in their respective areas of design interest. This chapter is an overview
to help the designer, processor, material supplier, customer, and others understand how
to evaluate tests. The individuals required to conduct tests should review the applicable
and required specifications or standards to ensure that procedures and test equipment are
being properly used. It is of special importance to make sure that the most up-to-date
procedures are being observed [1-14, 35, 355, 432, 695-750].
Designers and processors should keep quality under control and demand having con-
sistent materials that can be used with a minimum of uncertainty. Plant quality control
(QC) is as important to the end result as selecting the best processing conditions with
the correct grade of plastic, in terms of both properties and appearance. After the correct
plastic has been chosen, probably its bleeding, reprocessing, and storage stages of op-
eration need to be frequently or even continuously updated. The processor should set up
specific measurements of quality to prevent substandard products from reaching the end
user. How deeply one gets involved depends on the performance requirements. If all that
is required is to weigh the part, that is all that one does.
Testing and QC are the most discussed but often the least understood facets of business
and manufacturing. Many companies spend a high percentage of each sales dollar on
QC. Usually it involves the inspection of components and parts as they complete different
phases of processing. Parts that are within specifications proceed, whereas those that are
out of spec are either repaired or scrapped. The workers who made the out-of-spec parts
are notified that they produced defective parts and that they should correct their mistakes.
The most important testing is that done on the finished part. In tum, tests done on
materials and during processing must all be related to the final part performance. Un-
fortunately, there is no single set of rules designating which tests are to be conducted in
order to manufacture a part repeatedly with zero defects. The tests depend on the required
performance. For example, if a part is to operate where any type of failure could be
catastrophic to life, then extensive-and usually expensive-testing is necessary.
The approach just outlined is after-the-fact QC in that all defects caught in this manner
will already be present in the part being processed. This type of QC will usually catch
731
defects, and it is necessary, but it does little to correct basic problems in production.
One of the problems with add-on QC of this type is that it constitutes one of the least
cost-effective ways of obtaining a high-quality part. Quality must be built into a product
from the beginning; it cannot be inspected into the process. The closest add-on, after-
the-fact quality control can come to improving the quality built into a part is to point out
processing, material, and designed-in defects to the departments or persons responsible
for them. The object instead should be to control quality before a part becomes defective.
There are many different approaches to setting up QC. For example, mechanical
properties can be considered the most important of all, and there are many factors that
determine the mechanical behavior of plastics. As seen throughout this book, the factors
that influence meeting the design requirements of properties include the resin composition
(fillers, molecular weight distribution, morphology, etc.), the processing method and
machine controls, the capability of auxiliary equipment, and part performance require-
ments. Considering what the critical areas of a process are, one can understand that
sometimes a test or measurement of resin viscosity is all that is needed.
BASIC VERSUS COMPLEX TESTS

Choosing and testing a plastic when only a few existed that could be used for specific
products would prove relatively simple if the selection were limited, but the variety of
plastics has proliferated. Today's plastics are also more complex, complicating not only
the choice but the necessary tests. Fillers and additives can drastically change the resin's
basic characteristics, blurring the line between commodity and engineering resins. Entirely
new resins have been introduced with exoteric molecular structures. Therefore, resin
suppliers now have many more sophisticated tests to determine which resin best suits a
product or fabricating process.
Material suppliers and developers routinely measure such complex properties as mo-
lecular weight and its distribution, stereochemistry, crystallinity and crystalline lattice
geometry, and detailed fracture characteristics (see Chapter 2). They use complex, spe-
cialized tests such as gel permeation chromatography [12], wide- and narrow-angle x-
ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and high-temperature pressurized solvent
reaction tests to develop new polymers and plastics applications. For the product designer,
however, a few basic tests will help determine which plastic is best for a given product.
SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS

The industry specifications and standards are regularly updated to aid processors in
controlling quality and to meet safety requirements, and thus they will prove useful to
anyone who must choose tests and QC procedures. For example, the ASTM, UL, and
DIN (see below) tests are among the most important ones. Organizations involved in
preparing or coordinating specifications, regulations, and standards include the following:
ASTM. American Society for Testing and Materials.

UL. Underwriters Laboratories.
DIN. Deutsches Instut, Normung, Germany.
ACS. American Chemical Society.
AMS. Aerospace Material Specification of the Society for Automotive Engineers (SAE).
ANSI. American National Standards Institute.
ASCE. American Society of Chemical Engineers.
TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL 733
ASM. American Society of Metals.

ASME. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
AWS. American Welding Society.
BMI. Battele Memorial Institute.
BSI. British Standards Institute.
CPSC. Consumer Product Safety Commission.
CSA. Canadian Standards Association.
DOD. Department of Defense.
DODISS. Department of Defense Index & Specifications & Standards.
DOT. Department of Transportation.
EIA. Electronic Industry Association.
EPA. Environmental Protection Agency.
FMRC. Factory Mutual Research Corporation.
FDA. Food and Drug Administration.
FMVSS. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.
FTC. Federal Trade Commission.
IAPMO. International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical Officials.
IEC. International Electrotechnical Commission.
IEEE. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
IFf. Industrial Fasteners Institute.
IPC. Institute of Printed Circuits.
ISA. Instrument Society of America.
ISO. International Organization for Standardization.
JIS. Japanese Industrial Standards.
MIL-HDBK. Military Handbook.
NADC. Naval Air Development.
NACE. National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
NAHB. National Association of Home Builders.
NEMA. National Electrical Manufacturers' Association.
NFPA. National Fire Protection Association.
NIST. National Institute of Standards & Technology (previously the National Bureau of
Standards).
NIOSH. National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health.
NIST. National Institute of Standard Testing.
NPFC. Naval Publications & Forms Center.
NSF. National Sanitation Foundation.
OFR: Office of the Federal Register.
OSHA. Occupational Safety & Health Administration.
PLASTEC. Plastics Technical Evaluation Center of DOD.
PPI. Plastics Pipe Institute of the Society of the Plastics Industry.
QPL. Qualified Products List.
SAE. Society of Automotive Engineers.
SPE. Society of Plastics Engineers.
SPI. Society of the Plastics Industry.
STP. Special Technical Publications of the ASTM.
TAPPI. Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry.
These test procedures and standards are subject to change, so it is essential to keep up
to date. It may be possible to obtain the latest issue on a specific test (such as a simple
tensile test or a molecular weight test) by contacting the organization that previously
issued it. For example, the ASTM issues new annual standards that include all changes.
The Annual Books of ASTM Standards contain more than seven thousand standards
published in sixty-six volumes [695] that include different materials and products. There
are basically four volumes on plastics: 08.01-Plastics I; 08.02-Plastics II; 08.03-
Plastics III, and 08.04-Plastic Pipe and Building Products. Other volumes include
information on plastics and composites. The complete ASTM index lists under different
categories the standards for the different products, types of tests (by environment, chemical
resistance, etc.), a statistical analyses of different test data, and so on.
The ASTM issues other useful information for the designer, included in its Special
Technical Publications (STPs). The STPs are not concerned with ASTM standards. Some
examples of STPs are STP 701, "Wear Tests for Plastics: Selection and Use," R. Bayer,
ed., 1980, 106 pages; STP 736, "Physical Testing of Plastics," R. Evans, ed., 1981,
142 pages; STP 816, "Behavior of Polymeric Materials in Fire," E. L. Schaffer, ed.,
1983, 121 pages; STP 846, "Quality Assurance of Polymer Materials and Products,"
Green, Miller and Turner, ed., 1985, 142· pages; and STP 936, "Instrumental Impact
Testing of Plastics and Composite Materials," S. L. Kessler, ed. 376 pages.
ORIENTATION AND WELD LINES

The preceding chapters, particularly Chapters 2, 3-5, and 7, have reviewed molecular
orientation and weld lines, also called knit lines. This melt flow can be deliberate or
undesirable. During processing, such as by injection molding and extrusion, orientation
or weld lines can occur. Products can be drawn in one direction (uniaxially) or in opposed
directions (biaxially). Weld lines can form during molding when hot melts meet in a
cavity because of flow patterns caused by the cavity configuration or when there are two
or more gates. With extrusion dies, such as those with "spiders" that hold a center metal
core, as in certain pipe dies, the hot melt that is separated momentarily produces a weld
line in the direction of the extrudate and machine direction. The result could be a poor
bond at weld lines, dimensional changes, aesthetic damages, a reduction of mechanical
properties, and other such conditions.
To illustrate the influence of processing on mechanical properties, the test specimens
in Figure 9-1 can be analyzed and related to what can happen in a fabricated product. It
shows three sets of injection-molded specimens where the same plastic is processed in
all specimens. There are three sets of similar specimens: a tensile one on top, a notched
Izod impact one on the right side, and a flexural one on the left. The top set has a single
gate for each specimen, the center set has double gates that are opposite each other for
each specimen, and the bottom set has fan gates on the side of each specimen. The
highest mechanical properties come with the top set of specimens, because of its melt
orientation being in the most beneficial direction. The bottom set of specimens, with its
flow direction being limited insofar as the test method is concerned, results in lower test
data performance. With the double-gated specimens (the center set) weld lines develop
in the critical testing area that usually results in this set's having the lowest performance
of any of the specimens in this figure. Fabricating techniques can be used to reduce the
potential problems in a product. However, the approach used in designing the product
and its mold or die is most important to target, to eliminate unwanted orientation or weld
lines. If potential problems exist, the design can incorporate the necessary changes, or
make them later. This approach is no different from that of designing with other materials
like steel, aluminum, or glass.
Figures 9-1. Injection-molded test specimens that can be related to orientation and weld lines.
TYPES OF TESTS
The details of procedures and the like for all types of tests-physical, mechanical,
chemical, optical, insulation, electrical, and so on-are reviewed in the different spec-
ifications such as the ASTM standards. These procedures explain the reasons for a test,
how to conduct it, how to determine the results, and sometimes provide information on
long-term test results such as fatigue, creep, and so on. With all the available tests,
confusion could exist in deciding which ones to conduct if experience in them does not
exist. To eliminate confusion it is important to determine what could occur on a product
that would be damaging. Here basic logic has to be used-examine the tests that incor-
porate and evaluate the potential damage. Examples of th~se tests are presented in Tables
9-1 to 9-7.
THERMOANAL YTICAL TESTS

Thermoanalytical (TA) methods characterize a system in terms of the temperature de-
pendency of its thermodynamic properties and the physiochemical reaction kinetics of
TPs and TSs. The techniques reviewed here include only differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), thermomechanical analysis (TMA), and dy-
Table 9-1. ASTM Test Methods by Subject
ASTM
No. Subject
Mechanical Testing
D638 Tensile Properties of Plastics
D 695 Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics
D 2344 Apparent Horizontal Shear Strength of Reinforced Plastics by Short Beam Method
D 3039 Tensile Properties of Oriented Fiber Composites
D 3518 In-plane Shear Stress-Strain Response of Unidirectional Reinforced Plastics
D 732 In-plane Shear
D 785 Rockwell Hardness
D790 Flexural Properties of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials
D 953 Bearing Strength
D 2344 Short Beam Shear
D 3410 Test for Compressive Properties of Oriented Fiber Composites
Fatigue
D 3479 Tension-Tension Fatigue of Oriented Fiber Resin Matrix Composites
D 671 Flexural Fatigue of Plastics by Constant-Amplitude-of-Force
Impact
D 256 Impact Resistance of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials
D 1822 Tensile-Impact Energy to Break Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials
D 3029 Impact Resistance of Rigid Plastic Sheeting or Parts by Means of Tup (Falling Weight)
Creep
D 2990 Tensile, Compressive, and Flexural Creep and Creep-Rupture of Plastics
D 2991 Stress Relaxation of Plastics
Physical Properties
D 570 Water Absorption
D 792 Specific Gravity and Density of Plastics by Displacement
D 1505 Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique
D 2734 Void Content of Reinforced Plastics
D 3355 Fiber Content of Undirectional Fiber/Polymer Composites
Thermal Properties
D 648 Deflection Temperature of Plastics under Flexural Load (HOT)
D 746 Brittleness Temperature
D 3417 Heats of Fusion and Crystallization
D 3418 Transition Temperatures
Thermal Expansion
D 696 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion of Plastics
E 228 Linear Thermal Expansion of Rigid Solids with a Vitreous Silica Dilatometer
Thermal Conductivity
Cll7 Steady-State Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Guarded Hot Plate
Electrical Properties
D 149 Dielectric Breakdown Voltage and Dielectric Strength of Electrical Insulating Materials at
Commercial Power Frequencies
D 257 Electrical Resistance
D 495 Arc Resistance
D 150 A-C Loss Characteristics and Permittivity (Dielectric Constant) of Solid Electrical
Insulating Materials
(cont'd)
736

ASTM
No. Subject
Wear Resistance
D 673 Mar Resistance of Plastics
D 1242 Resistance of Plastic Materials to Abrasion
Chemical Resistance
C 581 Chemical Resistance of Thennosetting Resins Used in Glass Fiber Reinforced Structures
D 543 Resistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents
Flammability Tests
D635 Rate of Burning
D 2843 Smoke Density
D 2863 Oxygen Index
E662 Smoke Emission
Weatherability Tests
D 1499 Operating Light- and Water-Exposure Apparatus (Carbon-Arc Type) for Exposure of
Plastics
D 2565 Operating Xenon-Arc Type (Water-Cooled) Light- and Water-Exposure Apparatus for
Exposure of Plastics
D 4141 Conducting Accelerated Outdoor Exposure Testing of Coatings
E 838 Performing Accelerated Outdoor Weathering Using Concentrated Natural Sunlight
G 23 Operating Light-Exposure Apparatus (Carbon-Arc Type) With and Without Water for
Exposure of Nonmetallic Materials
G 26 Operating Light-Exposure Apparatus (Xenon-Arc Type) With and Without Water for
G 53 Operating Light- and Water-Exposure Apparatus (Fluorescent UV-Condensation Type) for
namic mechanical analysis (DMA). Others are also available that are useful in the pro-
cessing plant (see Figs. 9-2 and 9-3).
Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) directly measures the heat flow to a sample as
a function of temperature. A sample of the material weighing 5 to 10 g (18-36 oz.) is
placed on a sample pan and heated in a time- and temperature-controlled manner. The
temperature usually is increased linearly at a predetermined rate. The DSC method is
used to determine specific heats (see Fig. 9-4), glass transition temperatures (see Fig 9-
5), melting points (see Fig. 9-6), and melting profiles, percent crystallinity, degree of
cure, purity, thermal properties of heat-seal packaging and hot-melt adhesives, effec-
tiveness of plasticizers, effects of additives and fillers (see Fig. 9-7), and thermal history.
DSC is also used to determine the percentage of crystallization (see Fig. 9-6). A
significant consideration in using polyolefins is their susceptibility to crystallization. The
molder needs to know how rapidly material crystallizes as it is cooled. A comparison of
materials from different lots will indicate whether they will crystallize in the same manner
under the same molding conditions. (Polyolefins are provided in both nucleated and
nonnucleated grades. A nucleating agent is added to a material to increase the material's
rate of crystallization, a factor bearing on the performance of parts molded from that
material.)
Table 9-2. ASTM Test Methods in Alphabetical Order
ASTM Test
Property Method
Apparent density D 1895

Free flowing Method A
Nonpouring Method B
Bulk factor D 1895
Specific gravity D 792
Method A or B
Density D 1505
Mold shrinkage D 955
Flow temperature D 569
Rossi-Peakes Procedure A
Melt-flow rate, thermoplastics D 1238
Molding index D 731
Dielectric constant; dissipation factor D 150
at 60 Hz, I kHz, I MHz
Volume resistivity I min at 500 v D 257
Arc resistance D 495
high voltage, low current Stainless-steel electrodes
Dielectric strength D 149
Short time Sec. 6.1.1
Step by step Sec. 6.1.3
Tensile strength D 638
Elongation D 638
Modulus of elasticity, tensile D 638
Flexural strength D790
Tangent modulus of elasticity, flexural D790
Compressive strength D 695
Modulus of elasticity, compressive D 695
Impact resistance, Izod D 256
Method A
Notch sensitivity D 256
Method D
Hardness, durometer D 2240
Hardness, Rockwell D785
Procedure A
Haze D 1003
Luminous transmittance D 1003
Index of refraction D 542
Water absorption D 570
24-hr. immersion Sec. 6.1
Long-term immersion Sec. 6.4
Brittleness temperature D 746
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion D696
Deflection temperature D 648
Vicat softening point D 1525
Flammability D635
Oxygen index D 2863
Deformation under load D621
Rigid plastics Method A
Nonrigid plastics Method B
Dynamic mechanical properties D2236
Logarithmic decrement
Elastic shear modulus
Creep D2990
Creep rupture D2990
738
Table 9-3. ASTM Test Methods by Material
Sleeving, Tubes, Sheets, and Rods Molding and Embedding Compounds
0229 Rigid sheet and plate materials 0700 Phenolic molding compounds
0348 Laminated tubes 0704 Melamine-fonnaldehyde molding
0349 Laminated round rods compounds
0350 Flexible treated sleeving 0705 Urea-fonnaldehyde molding
0709 Laminated thennosetting materials compounds
0876 Nonrigid vinyl chloride polymer tubing 0729 Vinylidene chloride molding
01202 Cellulose acetate sheet and film compounds
01675 TFE-ftuorocarbon tubing D 1430 Polychlorotriftuoroethylene plastic
01710 TFE-ftuorocarbon rod (PCTFE)
o 2671 Heat-shrinkable tubing 01636 Allyl molding compounds
03394 Insulating board 01674 Polymerizable embedding compounds
Table 9-4. Military Specifications for Materials

Specification
Material Description Number
Thennoplastic
Polysulfone MIL-P-46120B
Polyamide-imide MIL-P-46179A
Polyetheretherketone MIL-P-46183
Polyether-imide MIL-P-46184
Polyether sulfone MIL-P-46185
Thennoset
Resin, polyester, low-pressure laminating MIL-R-7575C
Resin, phenolic, laminating MIL-R-9299C
Resin-epoxy, low-pressure laminating MIL-R-9300B
Resin solution, silicone, low-pressure laminating MIL-R-25506C
Resin, polyimide, heat resistant, laminating MIL-R-83330
Table 9-5. An Example of UL Standards for Materials

Number Title
UL94 Tests for Flammability of Plastic Materials for Parts in Devices and Applications
UL 746A Polymeric Materials-Short Tenn Property Evaluations
UL 746B Polymeric Materials-Long Tenn Property Evaluations
UL 746C Polymeric Materials-Use in Electrical Equipment Evaluations
UL 7460 Polymeric Materials-Fabricated Parts
UL 746E Polymeric Materials-Industrial Laminates, Filament Wound Tubing, Vulcanized Fibre,
and Materials Used in Printed Wiring Board
739
Table 9-6. Examples of Aerospace Material Specifications for Materials

Number Tide
AMS 3628C Plastic Extrusion and Moldings, PolycaIbonate, Gene{lli Purpose

AMS 36468 Polychiorotriftuoroethylene (PCTFE) Sheet, Molded, Unplasticized
AMS 36560 Polytetraftuoroethylene Extrusions, Nonnal Strength, as Sintered, Radiographically
Inspected
AMS 3684A Resin, Polyimide, Seal~-High Temperature Resistant, 315·C, or 600"F, Unfilled
AMS 3709A Syntactic Foam Tiles
AMS 3756 Polytetraftuoroethylene Moldings, Glass Fiber Filled 75 PTFE Resin, 25 Glass, as
Sintered
DSC is a very useful technique for monitoring the level of antioxidant in, for example,
polyolefins such as polypropylene. One of the materials most susceptible to oxidation,
polypropylene experiences some brittleness and cracking, with the amount depending
partly on the end use of the molded part. Antioxidants are added to extend the service
life and protect the material during the molding operation, but they are sacrifically oxidized
to protect the polymer during molding. Once the antioxidants have been depleted, the
material is again vulnerable to oxidation. The end user of the part needs the antioxidant
protection, however, and will not be well served if the antioxidant is used up during the
molding operation. Therefore, the molder needs to ensure that sufficient antioxidant is
in the raw material before processing and that enough antioxidant remains in the material
after molding to meet the customer's needs.
Thermogravimetric Analysis
This method measures the weight of a substance heated at a controlled rate as a function
of time or temperature. To perform the test, a sample is hung from a balance and heated
in the small furnace on the TGA unit according to a predetennined temperature program.
As all materials ultimately decompose on heating, and the decomposition temperature is
a characteristic property of each material, TGA is an excellent technique for the char-
acterization and quality control of materials (see Figs. 9-8 and 9-9).
Table 9-7. ASTM D 4000-type Material Specifications

Plastic Material ASTM Standard
Phenolic 04617
Polyamide (nylon) 04066
Polycarbonate 03935
Polyoxymethylene (acetal) 04181
Polyphenylene sulfide 04067
Polypropylene 04101
Polystyrene 04549
Styrene-acrylonitrile 04203
Thennoplastic elastomer, ether-ester 04550
Thennoplastic polyester (general) 04507
Styrene-maleic anhydride 04634
Thennoplastic elastomer-styrenic 04774
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 04673
Sample log-in terminal Report management terminal
LI MSnOOO
Printer
550 Program Program 550

development Ana lyuf;lIl disciplines development
term inal dala stations term inal
Gas UV N IS sPeCtroseopy
chromatography
1:15 3600
Liquid Fluorescence sPeCtroscopy

chromatography
1:15 3600
I nfrared SPeCtroscopy
3600 3600
Thermal analysIs Elemental analysis
3600 3600
Manual data entry
Figure 9-2. Examples of plastics identification in a computer-aided chemistry laboratory.

Courtesy Perkin-Elmer Corp.
DSC TG
-0-
: 1/
MEASURES MEASURES WEIGHT MEASURES DIMENSIONAL

CHANGES ATTENDING' CHANGES ATTENDING.
• SPECIFIC HEAT • REACTION • THERMAL EXPANSION
• HEATS OF TRANSITION • DETERIORATION • CONTRACTION
• ONSET TEMPERATURES • DEHYDRATION • SOFTENING (PENETRATION)
• RATES OF REACTION • EVAPORATION • STRETCHING (EXTENSION)
• PURITY
Figure 9-3. Examples of thermal analysis test methods. Courtesy Perkin-Elmer Corp.
741
Range 5 mcal/sec
Heating rate: 20°C/min
Weight: 11.52 mg
,...-.-.~\
..J----
PMMA
\ ___ ."..T. = 110°C
~
i (
g \
Endothermic \
i
:I: 150 II Basel i ne
t 1\\
I t...lr..-
~ 150
T(OC)
Figure 9-4. The results of using DSC to determine the heat capacity of PMMA near the glass
transition temperature (Tg ).
Range: 5 mcal/sec
Heating rate: 20°C/min
Polycarbonate
t
Endothermic
60
Figure 9-5. DSC here identifies the glass transition temperature (Tg) for the amorphous plastics
PC, PMMA, and PS, indicating a minimum temperature for processing these plastics.
Range: 10 mcal/sec
Heating rate: lOoC/min
u Weight: 7.1 mg
S!
=iij t
E Endothermic
! .. 54.5 cal/gm
~ % Crystallinity = 68.4 cal/gm X 100%
~
~ =79.7%
...
'"
~ Area = ~Hf = 54.5 cal/gm
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

T (oC)
Figure 9-6. Here DSC determines the melting point and percent crystallinity of HDPE.
742
Endothermic
u
w
en
::J LOPE I
/i~ t
Exothermic
«
u
:E ~-----~ ~\-------- Melting of lOPE
LOPE +/
blowing
agent
~----~~----~------~------~--~
20 60 100 140 lao 220
T(Oeg C)
Differential scanning calorimetry is used for determining

the effects of additives and fillers from a process and
quality-control point of view. The above graph
characterizes LOPE foam.
Figure 9·7. DSC has related here the effects of additives and fillers that can be used in quality
control, in this case for an LDPE foam.
TGA
fiberglass reinforced nylon
l00r-~~==~======~~==
2% Moisture
75
..
~ 50
80% Nylon
~
25
Heating rate: BO°C/min.
Atmosphere: Air
lB% Fiberglass
O~ ______~______~____~·~______~
o 250 500 750 1000
T(OC)
Figure 9·8. The TGA process determines the amount of glass-fiber reinforcement in nylon.
The properties measured by TGA include thermal decomposition temperatures, relative

thermal stability, chemical composition, and the effectiveness of flame retardants. TGA
also is commonly used to determine the filler content of many thermoplastics.
A typical application of TGA is its use in compositional analysis. For example, a
particular polyethylene part contained carbon black and a mineral filler. The electrical
properties were important in the use of this product and could be affected by the carbon-
black content. TGA was used to determine the carbon-black and mineral-filler content
for various lots, which were considered either acceptable or unacceptable. The samples
Heating rate: 40· C.lmin.

A tmosphere: air
1001----..........
75
50
i'* 25 0.5% residue from

flame retardant
~ OL--_.....L-_----1.:~~...._ _
, /....._ _L
o 200 400 600 800 1000
T rC.)
Figure 9-9. Characterizing the flame retardant in polypropylene by using TGA.
were heated in nitrogen to volatilize the PE, leaving carbon black and a mineral-filler
residue. The carbon content was then determined by switching to an air environment to
bum off the carbon black. The weight loss was a direct measure of the carbon-black
content.
Thermomechanical Analysis
This system measures dimensional changes as a function of temperature. The dimensional
behavior of a material can be determined precisely and rapidly with small samples in any
form-powder, pellet, film, fiber, or as a molded part. The parameters measured by
thermomechanical analysis are the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, the glass-
transition temperature (see Figs. 9-10 and 9-11), softening characteristics, and the degree
of cure. Other applications of TMA include the taking of compliance and modulus
measurements and the determination of deflection temperature under load.
Tensile-elongation properties and the melt index can be determined by using small
samples such as those cut directly from a part. Part uniformity can be determ~ned by
using samples taken from several areas of the molded part. Samples also can be taken
from an area where failure has occurred or continues to occur. This permits comparisons
of material properties in a failed area with properties measured either at an unfailed section
or from a sample of new material. Samples may also be taken from within a material
blend, to ensure that a uniform blend is being supplied. The results of such testing can
be used either for evaluation of part failure or in the acceptance testing of incoming
materials or parts.
In basic mechanical testing, the mechanical characteristics that can be tested include
expansion, penetration, extension, flexure, and compressive compliance. Photoelastic-
stress analysis allows the stress distribution to be visually displayed, and strain gauging
allows the stress distribution to be approximated. Residual stress, also known as molded-
in stress, can be measured by a variety of techniques.
Heating rate: 10 C./min.
0
Range: 0.1 mm.

t Mode: expansion
.~ Load: zero
c
!
an
~188°C.
I I I I I
o 50 100 150 200 250
T rc.)
Figure '·10. TMA is here used to determine the coefficient of expansion and the glass-
transition tempemture (Tg) of an epoxy-graphite fiber composite.
Temperature, 0 F
355 375 395 415 435 455 475
-
500
225 D C /
400
r
E
E /
Tgj
~
CD
300
C>
C
."
.&.
U
) "re.
C
o
~ 200
CD
E CTE.5783 x 10-'/,
is
:.s--
- i,.-"
224
'I1'
100
(Start of both runs) 2OO"C V.-4"""
"I 221 CTE='"
180 OJ' CTE = SO.6 ( 10- I /K
o
175 185 195 205 215 225 235 245
Temperature, DC
Figure '·11. The TMA of oriented plastic's coefficient of thermal expansion.
745
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

The dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) procedure measures the viscoelastic properties
(modulus and damping) of a material as functions of time and temperature. The material
is deformed under a periodic resonant stress at a low rate of strain. Microprocessor data-
reduction techniques then provide graphical and tabular outputs of these properties as
functions of time or temperature. The values determined, and the modulus and damping
data, aid in establishing realistic structural design criteria. The speed of analysis provides
high throughput and low labor cost. Precise temperature control can be used to simulate
processing conditions. The breadth of material types range from rubbery to very high
stiffness. The data obtained correlate both the structure-property and property-processing
characteristics.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
In the familiar form of testing known as destructive testing, the original configuration of
a specimen is changed, distorted, or even destroyed for the sake of obtaining such
information as the amount of force that the specimen can withstand before it exceeds its
elastic limit and permanently distorts (usually called the yield strength) or the amount of
force needed to break it (the tensile strength). The data collected in this instance are
quantitative and could be used to design structural parts that would withstand a certain
oscillating load or heavy traffic usage. However, one could not use the tested specimen
in the part. One would have to use another specimen and hope that it would behave
exactly the same as the one that was tested [10-12].
Nondestructive testing (NDT), on the other hand, examines a specimen without im-
pairing its ultimate usefulness. It does not distort the test specimen's configuration but
provides a different type of data. NDT allows suppositions about the shape, severity,
extent, configuration, distribution, and location of such internal and subsurface defects
as voids and pores, shrinkage, cracks, and the like.
Most materials contain some flaws, which mayor may not be cause for concern. Flaws
that grow under operating stresses can lead to structural or component failure, whereas
other flaws may present no safety or operating hazards. Nondestructive evaluation provides
a means for detecting, locating, and characterizing flaws in all types of materials, while
the component or structure is in service if necessary, and often before the flaw is large
enough to be detected by more conventional means. The following is a brief guide to
nondestructive evaluation methods [12].
Radiography
Radiography is the most frequently used nondestructive test method. X rays and gamma
rays passing through a structure are absorbed distinctively by flaws or inconsistencies in
the material so that cracks, voids, porosity, dimensional changes, and inclusions can be
viewed on the resulting radiograph.
Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy records spectral absorptions in the infrared region using py-
rolysis, transmission, and surface-reflectance techniques. Exposing the sample to light in
the infrared range and recording the absorption pattern yield a "fingerprint" of the material.
Infrared spectroscopy is used for identification of plastics and elastomers, polymer blends,
additives, surface coatings, thickness (see Fig. 9-12), and chemical alteration of surfaces
[10-12].
This is one of the most common analytical techniques used with plastics. The easy
operation and availability of this type of equipment have contributed to its popularity.
Although the infrared spectrum characterizes the entire molecule, certain groups of atoms
give rise to absorption bands at or near the same frequency, regardless of the rest of the
molecule's structure. The persistence of these characteristic absorption bands permits
identification of specific atomic groupings within the molecular structure of a sample.
X-ray Spectroscopy
This method identifies crystalline compounds by the characteristic X-ray spectrums pro-
duced when a sample is irradiated with a beam of sufficiently short-wave-Iength X
radiation. Diffraction techniques produce a fingerprint of the atomic and molecular struc-
ture of a compound and are used for identification. Fluorescence techniques are used for
quantitative elemental analysis.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Proton magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy characterizes compounds by the number,
nature, and environment of the hydrogen atoms present in the molecule. Identification is
possible because of the characteristic absorptions of radio-frequency radiation in a mag-
IR·Source
Chopper Molor
I
I
I
I
I
I
...I,
II
Beam I
Selector ~ _
Dividing
Mirrors
Figure 9-12. This infrared system determines wall thickness by measuring how much IR
radiation passes through the wall of the container.
netic field as a result of the magnetic properties of nuclei. NMR techniques are used to
solve problems of crystallinity, polymer configuration, and chain structure.
Ultrasonics
In ultrasonic testing the sound waves from a high-frequency ultrasonic transducer are
beamed into a material. Discontinuities in the material interrupt the sound beam and
reflect energy back to the transducer, providing data that can be used to detect and
characterize flaws.
When an electromagnetic field is introduced into an electrical conductor, eddy currents
flow in the material. Any variations in material conductivity due to cracks, voids, or
thickness changes can alter the path of the eddy current. Probes are used to detect the
current movement and thus describe the flaws.
When flaws or cracks grow, minute amounts of elastic energy are released that propagate
in the material as an acoustic wave. Sensors placed on the surface of the material can
detect these waves, providing information about the location and rate of flaw growth .
•
These principles form the basis for the acoustic emission test method.
Although they have been commercially available for the past twenty-five years or so,
ultrasonic detectors never really caught on as a diagnostic or maintenance tool. The
biggest problem with ultrasonic detectors was their inability to produce measurements as
accurately or consistently as could many competing devices used for nondestructive
testing. The advent of microprocessing is dramatically improving the ability of ultrasonics
to detect the wall thickness of metals and plastics, to determine particle dispersion in
suspensions, and to detect potential leakage and faulty parts.
Liquid Penetrants
The liquid penetrant method is used to identify surface flaws and cracks. Special low-
viscosity fluids containing a dye will penetrate into a flaw or crack when placed on the
surface of a part. When the surface is washed, the residual penetrants contained in the
part reveal the presence of flaws.
Acoustics
In acoustic holography, computer reconstruction provides a means for storing and inte-
grating several holographic images. A reconstructed stored image is a three-dimensional
picture that can be electronically rotated and viewed in any image plane. The image
provides full characterization and detail of buried flaws.
Photoelastic Stress Analysis

Photoelastic stress analysis helps a processor determine why a part broke and how to
prevent similar failures in the future. Parts ranging in size from structural composites to
tiny thermoplastic heart valves can all be tested easily. The test method is also a valuable
tool for predicting where prototype parts may fail, such as in poorly designed features
like comers, ribs, or holes. Likewise susceptible are parts with improper processing
conditions, including poor mold design or an inconsistent mold temperature.
Photoelastic analysis, one or several related testing techniques, is easy to use and
usually a more economical and positive method than computer analysis. From the in-
formation it provides, the test can lead to better-designed, lower-cost products. Tradi-
tionally used to test the integrity of metal parts, photoelastic analysis is now being used
to physically test thermoplastics as well as thermosets. For transparent plastics, the analysis
can be made directly on the plastic. For nontransparent plastics, a transparent coating is
used. Actual parts and representative models can be tested by a simple procedure. The
former may be stressed under actual use conditions, whereas models are tested under
simulated conditions.
Although theoretical analytical methods such as finite element analysis (see Chapter
5) offer a chance to solve complex stress problems, there are many causes of strain in
parts that cannot be reliably tested by these expensive computer-oriented techniques. For
instance, strains arising from the assembly of components and those caused during pro-
cessing are extremely difficult problems to analyze without physically testing the part.
Photoelastic analysis is more than just another pretty experimental stress test (see Figs.
9-13 and 9-14). When examined under a polariscope, the colorful interference pattern
can be used to survey stress distribution and the degree of strain. This analysis ultimately
helps pinpoint which manufacturing function-design, processing conditions, or assembly
techniques-led to part failure or might do so in the future. Interference patterns for
coatings and models are analyzed in the same way. The photoelastic color sequence shows
stress distribution in the part. In order of increasing stress the sequence is black, gray,
yellow, red, blue-green, yellow, red, and green. Black and gray areas show low strains,
whereas a continued repetition of red and green color bands indicates extremely high
concentrations of stress. An area of uniform color is under a uniform stress.
The degree of strain is indicated by a fringe order, which is simply a collection of
black bands appearing in close proximity to each other between colors in the stress pattern.
As the stress configuration increases, so does the number of black bands in a fringe order.
Vision Systems Inspections

There are many opportunities for automatic vision systems in controlling quality and
productivity of molded containers, such as inspection, gauging flaw detection, verification,
counting, character reading, identification, sorting, robot guidance, location analysis, and
adaptive control. The inspection covers the feed rate of materials into equipment, parison
shape/drop distance, preform shape/neck geometry/molded-in specks or flaws, container
shape/neck geometry/size, and so on.
As an example, equipment is available to detect minute flaws at line speeds of up to
51,000 preforms/hr. (see Fig. 9-15) for an on-line Qualiplus system diagram to check
PET injection blow mold (Chapter 7) bottle preforms' neck geometry and specks or flaws
at rates up to 850/min. The system inspects each product with video cameras containing
180,000 photoelectric cells, using stroboscopic lighting to eliminate motion blur. The
image is then analyzed by a gray-scale image processor that recognizes 256 different
shades of gray and compares it to a standard image preset by the user. The system
reportedly can detect flaws as small as 0.04 mm (oh of a sq. in.).
Figure 9-13. The photoelastic stress pattern for these two parts molded during the same
production run shows that the processing conditions changed, resulting in failure of the top
hinge (right), because of stress concentration.
~~~Aln
-!JUlY
Figure 9-14. Photoelasticimetry as an aid to the design of a load involved comparing the stress
pattern with the preengineered load requirements. This example shows a spring element.
Microtoming and Optical Analysis

Quality control of plastic molded parts can use optical techniques. In this procedure thin
slices of the material are cut from the part and microscopically examined under polarized
light transmitted through the sample. Study of the microstructure by this technique enables
rapid examination of quality-affecting properties. This kind of approach can provide the
molder with information for failure analysis, part and mold design, and processing op-
timization [12].
Thin sectioning and microscopy are old techniques, having been applied to biological
samples for many years. Furthermore, metallurgists have used similar techniques in the
microstructural analysis of metals to determine their physical and mechanical properties
and to aid in failure analysis.
Microtoming enables slices of plastic to be cut from opaque parts. These slices are so
thin (under 30 !Lm) that light may be transmitted through them. The sample can then be
analyzed under a microscope. Another useful technique is to use the microtome to slice
down through a specimen until the specific level to be examined is reached. This method
reveals a series of sequential levels, each smooth enough for viewing without need for
polishing. The usual method is to cut, mount, and polish. When a series of cuts is needed,
Preform
".-
Stroboscope
Flaw detector
Figure 9-15. This on-line inspection system from Qualipus (Stamford, Conn.) uses high-
resolution video cameras to detect flaws at speeds of 51,000 preforms/hr. These PET injection-
blow-molded bottle preforms are checked for both neck geometry and molded-in specks or flaws
at rates up to 850 preforms/min.
it becomes necessary to regrind and repolish. The microtome technique eliminates these
tedious steps.
An attractive aspect of the microtome analysis procedure is the speed with which results
can be obtained. Generally, the sample can be rough cut from the product with a hacksaw
and secured in a microtome vise, although in some cases it is necessary first to embed
the sample in a block of epoxy. The slicing is a simple procedure. usually slices 8 to 15
fLm thick will be produced. These are mounted on a microscope slide using mounting
cement and a cover plate.
Polymers are often categorized as either amorphous or crystalline (see Chapter 2).
Some can exist in either or both forms, and so it is common to discuss the degree of
crystallinity when referring to the microstructure of a part. Often the effects of molding
are clearly exhibited by observing the transition from the amorphous skin of a part to the
crystalline core.
Much of the analysis of plastics' microstructures is fairly straightforward. It is easy to
tell whether you are dealing with a crystalline or an amorphous material by observing
the sample using polarized light. Amorphous areas appear black, but crystalline areas
can be clearly examined. The explanation for this effect is that in the case of crystalline
polymers the molecules crystallize and fold together in a uniformly ordered manner,
whereas the amorphous polymers do not produce crystallites and occur randomly posi-
tioned. Thus, under polarized lighting crystalline materials exhibit multicolored patterns,
whereas amorphous materials appear black. In this way the crystalline microstructure can
be examined. Features of the crystalline polymers are readily discernible, whereas those
of the amorphous polymers are not.
It is interesting to notice differences in the crystalline structure found with different
materials. A comparison was made between a nylon 6/6 micrograph and that produced
from one of acetal homopolymer. The acetal has a characteristic structure very different
from the square crystallites seen in the structure of the nylon. This difference is related
to the propensity of nylon to supercool to a greater extent than most crystalline materials,
whereas acetals crystallize much more rapidly.
Optical techniques can be used for both quality control and failure analysis. Stress
concentration can for a variety of reasons be a principal failure mode. One of these reasons
relates to the use of contaminated or mixed materials, which may be caused by the
presence of foreign materials or improper machine cleaning. Incorrect regrinding pro-
cedures, improper dry coloring methods, and the use of the wrong pigment are additional
causes of this condition. Stress concentrations that resu.t from material contamination
can be detected by observing the break area by reflected light. Particle size and dispersion
can be found by examination under transmitted polarized light. Using polarized light it
is possible with crystalline materials to identify residual stresses caused by incorrect melt
flow and sharp comers emanating from poor part design. Impact, bending, and other
physical stresses imparted to the part during service can also be identified.
Generally, it is necessary to know whether or not you are dealing with a stressed-in-
service part. Then it is possible to determine whether residual stresses resulted from
service or occurred in molding. Stresses imposed in the molding process usually appear
as regular patterns in the flow line direction, whereas those that result from imposed
stresses created in service tend to exhibit semicircular arc-shaped configurations. Another
source of stress involves the use of the microtome itself, since with some materials
induced stresses are not difficult to create. These are usually found along the edges of
the sample, where frequently the microstructure becomes smeared. Fortunately, stress
caused by the microtome is not difficult to detect when viewing the specimen.
Optical examination of the microstructure will determine whether or not correct mold
temperatures were used in the production of parts from crystalline or partially crystalline
polymers. With these thermoplastics the degree of crystallinity achieved depends on the
temperature of the mold and the melt and the time that the pressure on the melt is
maintained.
In the case of acetal, the use of a cold mold results in fast dissipation of heat from the
melt into the mold wall. Consequently, the threshold limit for the formation of crystal-
lization nuclei is quickly reached and a skin is formed on the parts that has an amorphous
appearance but is actually crystalline, although to a much lower extent than the spherulitic
region that is formed below the skin. The thickness to the "amorphous" zone is dependent
on the mold and melt temperatures and other factors.
From the micrographs it is possible to judge the extent of what might be loosely
described as the amorphous skin, the transcrystalline zone, and the spherulitic core. From
their relative proportions it is not only possible to estimate the processing conditions that
were employed to produce the parts, but also to predict part performance. Particles may
remain unmelted within the molten mass of plastic. These particles inhibit the formation
of crystallization nuclei. Since the thermal conductivity of plastics is poor, the length of
time for the material to cool controls to a large extent the length of the molding cycle.
Reducing melt temperature to shorten cycles and increase production reduces the quality
of the product. Mold temperature, melt temperature, and screw operation all interact to
influence part quality.
Computer Image Processor

An important aspect of the machine vision system, image processing, is performed by a
computerized unit called the vision engine. Many of these units have been designed for
specific types of analysis, as for example gauging or pattern recognition.
Many applications are highly data intensive and, with certain types of image-capturing
devices, could require a high order of computing power. Many of the applications-
specialized processors use special techniques to simplify the analysis problem and reduce
the data-processing load. For any given application, therefore, it is important to match
the characteristics of the vision engine to the specific needs of the job.
Machine vision systems can be classified as configurable, task-specific, or custom
(dedicated). Configurable systems are basically nonspecialized systems that can be adapted
for a specific application. They can be converted to other uses if the original application
terminates.
Task-specific equipment performs a single function, such as measuring dimensions.
While it can accommodate to a variety of objects, measurement is all it can do. Some
task-specific systems, however, use configurable vision engines. In these installations it
is the peripheral equipment-the camera-mounting arrangement, lighting, part fixturing,
and material-handling devices-that makes the system task specific. As with the gener-
ically configurable systems, the vision engines in the task-specific types can be used in
other applications consistent with their performance envelope.
Customized, dedicated systems are analogous to fixed automation: the system becomes
obsolete when the application disappears. Only the individual components may be reused.
COMPUTER TESTING
Although both designing and testing have sophisticated software to assist them, these
areas have remained largely isolated from one another. However, increases in hardware
power and availability of special software have now linked the two disciplines. Programs
are available allowing design to take advantage of test data so that testing can benefit
from design data.
Software to link designing and testing comes from several sources. Some vendors of
CAD software offer test data analysis modules so that information can be easily exchanged
and compared. And suppliers of finite-element-analysis and modal-analysis software are
creating ways to use the other's data in their programs. Modal-testing software typically
will allow designers to test prototype changes in a computer, once the original prototyping
is done. A computer solution could take as little as thirty seconds, whereas modifying
an actual physical prototype might take as long as a week.
QUALITY AUDITING
Some organizations have a documented quality assurance program that includes an audit
program. A quality assurance program usually contains three tiers of documentation: the
quality assurance manual, system-level procedures, and instructions. The purpose of an

audit program is to evaluate the existence and adequacy of the QA program and ensure
that the manufacturer's operations are in compliance with it.
Putting a program in writing does not ensure that it will be followed, nor does it, in
and of itself, provide the feedback necessary to correct and update programs and processes.
The audit fills both these gaps. By monitoring product, process, and system, and by
rating performance against a predetermined scale the auditor determines the need for
corrective measures.
RELIABILITY AND QUALITY CONTROL

Reliability is the probability that a product will perform satisfactorily for a specified time
under the stated operating conditions. This implies probability, duration, and a specifi-
cation of what is considered satisfactory performance, which necessarily incorporates the
use environment. By comparison, quality control is the determination, by measurements,
that production materials and processes are within the specified tolerances. Reliability is
a design function, quality control a manufacturing function. Both are essential to satis-
factory product performance.
Basic to any design is an accurate understanding of what is desired. Because cost
increases with reliability, good design and engineering mandate that only the necessary
level of reliability be specified. This requires rigorous analysis of user needs so that a
quantitative performance specification can be developed. Performance specifications state
what is needed to satisfy the system requirements. They include the environment of use,
performance requirements, and the stipulated reliability.
FAILURE ANALYSIS
Product design or the establishing of QC control bases involves a postmortem examination
of the failure itself, utilizing every means at the designer's disposal. In such situations
the designer must be systematic in exploring and evaluating all the possibilities. Failure
analysis procedures for unreinforced metal and plastic parts have been developed since
at least the early 1940s. Their predictable behavior in failure modes thus makes the
establishment of cause fairly straightforward.
It is generally accepted that the sources of fracture can be grouped into three basic
categories: 1) design deficiencies or material misapplications includes poor assessment
of service conditions, selection of inadequate material, poor design details, oversimpli-
fication of load and load paths, or inadequate attention to environmental stresses; 2)
manufacturing or process discrepancies occur in spite of the fact that fabricating processes
should be controlled by precise specifications, but out-of-compliance conditions can occur.
Typically, problems could occur because of incomplete cure, voids, use of incorrect
materials, contaminants, or cure at improper temperature; and 3) unexpected service
conditions that refer to load; environmental and damage conditions beyond those rea-
sonably anticipated in the design.
RP/composites generally do not fail in the same way. The methodology for analyzing
failure in composite parts used in structural applications can be rather complex. For one
thing, fracture may occur from a multitude of diverse causes, and more than one cause
may contribute to the failure. However, procedures have continually been developed and
updated for failure analysis since the 1940s [1, 5-14, 27-34, 62-68].
Table 9-8. Example of ASTM Test Methods Applicable to RP/Composites

ASTM 0494, "Acetone Extraction of Phenolic Molded or Laminated Products"
ASTM 01867, "Copper-Clad Thermosetting Laminates for Printed Wiring"
ASTM 01823, "Etching and Cleaning Copper-Clad Electrical Insulating Materials and Thermosetting
Laminates for Electrical Testing"
ASTM 02861, "Flexible Composites of Copper Foil with Dielectric Film or Treated Fabrics"
ASTM D709, "Laminated Thermosetting Materials"
ASTM D1532, "Polyester Glass-Mat Sheet Laminate"
ASTM C582, "Reinforced Plastic Laminates for Self-Supporting Structures for Use in a Chemical
Environment"
ASTM D3039, "Tensile Properties of Oriented Fiber Composites"
ASTM D2408, "Woven Glass Fabric, Cleaned and After-Finished with Amino-Silane Type Finishes, for
Plastic Laminates"
ASTM D241O, "Woven Glass Fabric, Cleaned and After-Finished with Chrome Complexes, for Plastic
Laminates"
ASTM D2660, "Woven Glass Fabric, Cleaned and After-Finished with Acrylic"
SELECTING TESTS
As explained, there is no single set of rules designating what tests are to be conducted.
Tests depend on required performance (as explained in the beginning of this chapter).
Guides to selection of test methods have been reviewed (see Tables 9-1 to 9-7). Table
9-8 reviews tests for RP/composites.
QUALITY AND CONTROL

Quality in products begins with good design, which in tum allows for simplifying selection
of tests. Unfortunately, so often product design projects start with little appreciation for
a good problem statement, an identification of requirements and objectives, and a rea-
sonable schedule that includes all company functions involved. Most of all, what is
usually lacking is a complete understanding of the end-user of the product, system, and/or
environmental design being considered. The FALLO approach, as summarized in Figure
1-3, includes this type of quality and control.
Chapter 10
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
With the help of computer technology, the designer has the capability of managing the
enormous number of design, material, and process applications available when designing
with plastics and reinforced plastics (composites). In the past, the designer more often
than not had to limit the material, process, and design choices to those that were familiar.
However, the computer now provides a means of developing a number of design concepts,
quickly evaluating them against established functional and performance criteria in a wide
range of materials and processes, and making the necessary design modifications.
This approach provides finished drawings and specifications that can be furnished with
increased accuracy and confidence, usually in less time than before. In addition, the
computer provides many other advantages. If one dimension is changed that affects many
others, all the dimensions will be changed automatically by the computer at the same
time the initial change is made.
It is of course possible that entering the initial three-dimensional geometry for various
design concepts into a computer can be more time consuming than developing concept
sketches with conventional long-hand methods. However, subsequent revisions and anal-
yses of that geometry can be performed many times faster on computer than manually.
It is the concept of database sharing that has made Computer-Aided Design (CAD) a
tremendous time- and work-saving tool for the designer. In the past, the evaluation of
design concepts to determine their viability was a rather long, tedious task. Now, by
utilizing a CAD system the three-dimensional geometry initially entered can be redefined,
manipulated, and edited quickly. Other actions can also be taken easily and quickly, such
as applying finite element analysis and testing and making economical analyses for various
plastic materials and processes [1-13, 56-66, 374-84, 414, 419-31, 751-806].
For example, three-dimensional wire-frame models can be constructed to help visualize
the product and serve as a framework for other modeling programs. (More .details on
wire frame and other modeling techniques are presented later in this chapter.) These wire-
frame models, which are constructed in three dimensions, can normally be viewed in
orthographic, isometric, or perspective views, often at the same time. Changing one view
alters all the other ones. Wire frames are easily modified, and many design variations
can be constructed in a relatively short time.
With a wire-frame model a designer can blend one shape into another while holding
specific parameters. Thus, a wall section or volume of a product can be held constant
while the shape changes incrementally over a given number of repetitions. This CAD
approach often yields a potential configuration that would not have been possible to arrive
757
at with time-consuming manual methods. This capability of repositioning products or the

parts of an assembly is a great aid in refining and checking certain operations and functional
uses of the product.
Parts can be lined up on a common center and clearances be edited and verified from
the available databases (see Appendix D). Many hours of cumbersome materials selection
and cumbersome calculations can thus be eliminated. Moving parts can be incrementally
or dynamically rotated about an axis and interferences be checked at each position. Color
technology is a further benefit to the checking process, particularly in mechanical load
profiles, the plastic melt temperature during processing, mechanical or geometric profiles,
and others. For example, interferences can be more readily found when each part or
position is in a different color.
Another important capability of the CAD system is in the manufacturing of molds or
dies to produce the designed product. A database can be copied for numerically controlled
tool paths already scaled for shrink factors, to enable the mold or die designer to prepare
a preliminary or production mold or die design.
MOLD DESIGN
Because of the complexity of examining all the possible variations of technique, style,
and approach in plastic-product design, let us focus on an illustration of how to apply
Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) to the product
mold design process. This illustration is pertinent to producing a final designed product
that is to be injection molded. The approach here can be used as a guide in fabricating
designed products by other processes that use some type of tool such as extrusion dies,
blow molds, compression molds, and others. This illustration assumes that the product
design has already been established and optimized for structural integrity, wall thickness,
and cosmetic appeal. The task at hand is then to produce an optimum mold for a given
level of production volume and to produce parts at an optimum quality level. CAD/CAM
can be applied by the mold design and production teams in order to deliver successfully
the molded product at the lowest possible cost and with the shortest possible lead time.
In order to provide a better understanding of how to utilize fully the unique features
of CAD/CAM systems in the mold design process, this section discusses the differences
between a manual method of designing molds and the corresponding method using CAD/CAM
technology. The flow charts showing this comparison are provided in Figures 10-1 and
10-2. Close examination of these charts indicates that a considerable difference exists in
both the design methodology and the engineering emphasis for molds designed with and
without the benefits of CAD/CAM technology. In general, molds that are manually
designed depend heavily on the experience of the mold designer and have a strong
emphasis on paper as the communications and driver medium for subsequent manufac-
turing operations. These molds also rely on a number of iterations after the mold is built
to achieve the product function and fine tune the performance of the mold. In the CAD/CAM
approach, the product model database serves as the communications and manufacturing
driver medium, analysis programs augment the mold designer's experience, iteration is
conducted more in the design phase prior to cutting cavity steel, and there are generally
fewer molding trials.
CAD/CAM for Mold Design

Without going further into the details of how CAD/CAM software is being applied to
mold-design applications, it is appropriate to discuss what benefits can be derived from
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN 759
--
Figure 10-1. A flowchart of conventional moldmaking activities.
successful application of the technology. Those firms and individuals who have invested
time and money in learning and implementing CAD/CAM systems have identified the
following primary benefits of their use:
Productivity improvement
Quality enhancement
Turnaround time improvements
More effective utilization of scarce resources
Each of these primary benefits is now further described in detail [10-12].
Productivity
Many types of productivity benefits have been documented and verified that result from
CAD/CAM being effectively applied to plastic design tasks. The first benefit is an actual
A£VI8E
Figure 10-2. A flowchart of moldmaking activities using CAD/CAM.
increase in the productivity of the mold design itself. CAD/CAM software provides the
basic tools to provide productivity increases from a low ratio of 2 to 1 up to firms with
specific applications demonstrating lO-to-1 increases or more. Much of the achievable
benefit depends on the degree of commonality or standardization present in the type of
molds or parts that a particular firm designs. In this respect the CAD/CAM technique
known as group technology can be of great benefit in the capture of similar part designs.
This technique shows great promise as a tool to enhance the overall productivity of the
design process. Other tools such as finite element modeling can help to reduce the amount
of prototyping and testing required to design plastic products successfully. Other software
capabilities such as the creation of shaded images allow the aesthetic appeal of a product
to be evaluated without requiring the construction of physical models or prototype molded

parts.
A second productivity benefit is obtained in mold manufacture. CAD/CAM technology
facilitates the use of numerically controlled (NC) machining technology in the fabrication
of the molds themselves. As such, much more of the mold can be cut in single setups
on a single machining center. In tum, this reduces the number and complexity of manual
setup operations so that more time is spent "making chips." Additionally, the ability to
build three-dimensional product models in the database and to automatically generate
tool paths from these models reduces the amount of effort spent in defining section views,
calculating pickup points, and the like. The availability of graphic tool-path generation
and verification eliminates the manual data-entry steps and proofing cuts previously
required on the shop floor. The availability of communications software for the direct
numerical control (DNC) of machine tools eliminates the time-consuming and error-prone
process of punching paper tape to drive the machine tools in the shop.
An additional productivity benefit is a reduction in the amount of time required for
mold start-up, a substantial cost element of running a molding plant. Quite often, man-
agement either overlooks or chooses to accept this cost element as a fact of life. In fact,
the debug and fine-tuning time for a mold can be greatly reduced by effective utilization
of CAD/CAM. It has been demonstrated that analysis programs can be of great assistance
in enhancing the quality of first-time mold designs. Additionally, they provide a great
means to define the molding "process window," or extremes of acceptable process con-
ditions, before the mold is put on the production floor. These factors result in a better
use of molding press time and less disruption of production activities in the molding
plant. Molders have reported differences of as much as 10 to 1 in start-up time, which
they have attributed to the better accuracy and quality of molds designed and constructed
using CAD/CAM.
The last great area of productivity improvement is the one with the greatest financial
payback-the part production environment. Integration of analysis tools into the design
process provides much of this production benefit. One major plastics product manufacturer
reported a 20 percent improvement in the cooling time requirements for 80 percent of
the molds that were analyzed. High-production molds have in fact yielded cost savings
in excess of $100,000 per year by the application of cooling analysis techniques. Flow-
analysis techniques provide the benefits of being able to safely design runner systems of
smaller diameters. They also allow the design of unbalanced runners while avoiding the
problems of overpacking, and at the same time provide molds with higher production
yields. All these results yield substantial reductions in material usage and manufacturing
costs. Economic analysis tools allow true optimization of the molding operation within
a real-world operating environment. Trade-offs can thus be evaluated between real-world
variables such as the number of cavities to build versus press size and capability, product
tolerance requirements, and product quality requirements. The result is a minimization
of the total cost per piece at a given production volume level.
Quality
The quality benefits of CAD/CAM are perhaps the most underrated of all the benefits.
Drawings produced by CAD/CAM systems from three-dimensional models have been
shown to be of a consistently higher quality than those produced manUally. Dimensions
are totally defined by the geometry in the database, and as such are never incorrect.
Tolerance stack-ups and other tolerance-related issues can also be calculated by the
CAD/CAM system, resulting in far fewer tolerancing errors. Complex geometries such
as sculptured surfaces and blending radii are totally described in the database and thus
not subject to ambiguities in drawing interpretation.
Another of the means of enhancing quality is in the mold designs and molds themselves,
by reducing the number of errors caused by redefinition of the product geometry. This
geometry is transferred first to the shrink-corrected geometry, then to the cavity and core
details, and finally to the machined components. Each of these steps is driven directly
from the original product model, with little possibility for error other than that which is
operator induced. Even the probability of operator error is reduced, as many of the tedious
tasks of redefinition have been eliminated, with the result that the operator does a more
consistent job.
The accuracy of the mold cavity and core with respect to the product model is also a
great aid in yielding quality enhancements. By utilizing NC in moldmaking and eliminating
dependence on second- and third-generation tool-making aids such as die models, the
conformance of the mold core and cavity to the product requirements is virtually guar-
anteed. The limits of accuracy obtainable are often those of the NC machine tool plus
the error created by hand finishing operations.
The accuracy of parts is another quality aspect to be considered. Many of the analysis
packages promote a better understanding of molding process parameters and the inter-
relationships between process variables. This contributes to a better ability to control
previously mysterious phenomena such as warpage by better process control and cooling
system design.
The final quality benefit is that of reproducibility. This includes reproducibility from
cavity to cavity and mold to mold. Additionally, if cavities are severely damaged and
require newly built cavities from new shop setups, the use of NC will result in cavities
closer to the originals than those constructed manually. The ultimate result of the pre-
viously mentioned benefits is more consistent product quality.
Turnaround Time
Companies that are designing and using plastic products in today's fiercely competitive
business environment are sorely aware of the time it takes to design, manufacture, and
debug the tooling for injection-molded products. The ability of CAD/CAM to speed up
the plastic part and mold design process, the mold manufacturing process, and the start-
up and debugging process makes it a great aid in solving these age-old lead-time problems.
Teamed with other prototype moldmaking techniques, CAD/CAM is helping to revolu-
tionize the plastics product development cycle. Plastic products are now designed, ana-
lyzed, and evaluated for both technical and economic feasibility entirely without paper
or physical models. Prototype molds, when required, are now turned out in one fourth
to one half the time of their production counterparts, resulting in greater degrees of
product design quality from the testing of molded rather than machined prototypes.
Additionally, lead times for production molds are being pared down by many of the same
techniques, resulting in more effective utilization of assets such as cash and inventory.
Resource Utilization
The final benefit of CAD/CAM for moldmaking· is that it allows the effe~tive utilization
of scarce resources, especially skilled labor. It is well known that while the usage of
plastics materials is increasing at a steady rate, the population of skilled moldmakers is
on the decline. This creates a problem for those firms intending to continue manufacturing
injection molds, either as a primary business or as a part of a larger business. Since
sociological changes are reducing the skilled moldmaker labor pool available for em-
ployment, a new means to continue mold production without dependence on that skilled
labor base must be developed. CAD/CAM provides the opportunity to reduce the elements
of moldmaking that require high skill levels, thereby enabling skilled moldmakers to be
used on tasks that cannot be accomplished by any other means. It is possible, and indeed
probable, that the use of CAD/CAM for the repetitive and routine tasks of moldmaking
will enhance the quality of work life for skilled moldmakers by providing more challenge
and job satisfaction.
CAD/CAM MODELING
Having seen the major benefits of CAD/CAM for plastic design applications, it is ap-
propriate to discuss the technology by which these benefits may be gained. In the normal
engineering environment, products and mold designs are usually presented as a series of
orthographic projections in the form of engineering drawings. These projections allow
for representing a three-dimensional world as if it had been photographed and reduced
to a planar image. To define on a drawing that we are working with orthographic views
of the product lets the mind synthesize a three-dimensional image of the product. In many
cases, however, orthographic images fall short of the mark in their ability to describe a
complex geometry. This necessitates the creation of auxiliary and section views of the
product in order to communicate the geometric description accurately.
The methodology behind producing product designs and mold designs via CAD/CAM
technology is analogous to that in the normal method, except that the description of the
product or mold is contained in a product model database. The product model differs
from a drawing in that the model is generally a three-dimensional representation of the
real-world object. This representation can completely describe that object without auxiliary
views or supplementary information. In this sense the product model fulfills the require-
ments of a classic definition of a model. A model has been defined as a representation
to show the structure of something; an image to be reproduced in more durable material;
a pattern or mode of structure or formation. By these definitions one can anticipate that
while moldmaking has always relied on the production of wood patterns, die models, or
other tool-making aids to be able to accurately reproduce the geometry defined via paper
media, CAD/CAM technology is eliminating many of those requirements. It is therefore
appropriate to include in this discussion on CAD/CAM how the concept of a product
model applies to the area of mold design. It is best to begin with a basic discussion of
the types of modeling tools available today and how these can be used to construct the
databases used in product and mold designs.
In order to construct an effective database it is important to note that it must integrate
and consolidate all the information requirements used by engineering and manufacturing
operations subsequent to the initial product or mold design. This is a sizable task, which
is why database integrity and completeness should be a major concern to CAD/CAM
system purchasers and users. Consider a few of the many application areas using such a
database:
Engineering functions
Design
Drafting
Analysis
Technical publications
Manufacturing functions
Machine control applications
Robotic applications
Tool and mold design applications
Quality management applications
Communication with other business functions
Materials management (bills of material)
Cost estimating
A graphic representation of these relationships of sharing a common database is depicted

in Figures 10-3 and 10-4. As can be imagined, in order to drive the number of applications
areas previously discussed, an extremely robust database must be constructed and main-
tained. The comprehensiveness of the database is one of the primary differences between
CAD/CAM systems today. Each application that reuses this database recognizes the
benefits of improved productivity and qUality. This is attributable to the fact that the
already existing information in the product model does not need to be redefined, which
would present the chance of introducing errors.
Many will probably be asking at this point, "Aren't there a number of 2-D CAD/CAM
systems on the market today, and if so why aren't they being discussed?" The answer is
that certainly systems are being sold that are called CAD/CAM systems and basically
satisfy the need for automating the drafting function. However, they also fall short of
being able to satisfy the information requirements of the previously listed functions. This
applies particularly to the area of mold design, where the problems of clearly representing
complex surface geometries and other spatial relationships lead to the conclusion that 2-
D systems are not adequate to reap fully all the benefits that CAD/CAM has to offer.
The three-dimensional product model provides the means by which many of these
benefits can be obtained. The 3-D model clearly depicts all the spatial relationships
between the items of interest in the product model. Terms such as blend to suit, which
were prevalent on the drawings of the past, are now replaced by exact and reproducible
mathematical descriptions of the surface curvatures desired. This has led to a new era in
TH CAD/CA DATABASE
ENGI EERI G APPLICATIONS
r-
Figure 10-3. The engineering functions that use a product-model database.
Figure 10.4. The manufacturing functions using the same product-model database as the
engineering functions.
quality and dependability of product representation made possible now by these 3-0
modeling approaches.
Modeling Methods Applied to Part and Mold Design

These are currently three predominant methods of building 3-0 models of products and
storing them in a database, each with its own costs and benefits. The following overview
of each of these modeling techniques summarizes the benefits and costs associated with
each technique. It is interesting to note that because major changes in the power of
computing hardware and software are occurring rapidly, these costs and benefits are
appropriate only to today's "snapshot" of the state of the art in CAD/CAM. As this
evolutionary process continues, it wiU bring other benefits not yet imaginable, along with
a hardware base whose cost-to-performance ratio makes realization of these benefits easier
to achieve.
The three major methods of modeling in common use today are wire frame modeling,
surface modeling, and solids modeling. Each of these modeling methods and its potential
application to mold design will be discussed in detail [11,12].
Wire-Frame Modeling
Wire-frame modeling is the simplest of the CAD/CAM modeling methods. With this
technique the product model is constructed as a collection of geometric entities. Typical
ones used in wire-frame construction are points, lines, arcs, b-splines, strings, and the
like. The wire-frame method of modeling is similar to orthographic projection drawing
in that each of the lines and other entities represents edges of the physical surfaces of
the product. Unlike orthographic projection, however, the three-dimensional database
allows the graphic display devices (terminals) of the CAD/CAM system, such as the one
depicted in Figure 10-5 to automatically display isometric views of the product from any
perspective the user desires, thus communicating the three-dimensional nature of the
product. In these views of the object, lines and such are connected at their ends, thus
portraying the appearance of a frame built of wire elements, hence the term wire-frame
modeling.
Figure 10-5. A typical CAD/CAM system's components, including the workshop (foreground),
central processing (background. right), and plotter (background. left).
The simplicity of this modeling method also implies simplicity in the database, thus
resulting in superior system performance. The computing power required and storage
requirements are minimal. Manipulation of the geometry to display different views is
relatively fast and easy, owing to the small number of data elements that require math-
ematical transposition. The major disadvantage of this approach is that all the entities to
describe the geometry are simultaneously displayed.
For products with complicated geometries, this may result in many lines being visible
on the screen at the same time, often resulting in a complex, confusing screen image.
Hidden lines cannot be removed unless a surface or plane bounded by a the wire-frame
geometry is described to the computer. This then allows it to determine which entities
are behind that surface and therefore invisible. Additional CAD/CAM features and tech-
niques are described later in this chapter to assist in organizing wife-frame entity infor-
mation more effectively.
The wire-frame modeling approach is best applied to rectilinear objects without complex
surface geometries. This applies to a reasonable portion of plastic products, especially
those that are more functional than aesthetic in nature. Such products might include gears,
cams, brackets, and other nonappearance-type items. In mold design this applies to objects
such as mold bases, cavity blocks, and leader pins. The surfaces of these objects are flat
or circular and generally need no subsequent manufacturing operations. Hence, addition
of surface information to the database description of these items only adds to storage
space requirements, without producing any tangible benefit.
Wire-frame modeling is also useful for describing mold features that require relatively
simple manufacturing operations, such as drilling and pocket and profile machining.
Machining of this type is referred to as "two and one-half axis" machining. Machine cuts
are made at positions or contours relative to the X and Y axes and at a fixed position
relative to the Z axis. Since a contour relative to the Z axis is not being machined, it is
counted as only a half axis. Wire-frame geometry suffices to describe clearly the cutter
Figure 10-6. A mold base modeled in wire-frame geometry.
path boundary as a series of two-dimensional curves. The cutter's depth can be established
from the distance between two curves known to be parallel (e.g., the top and bottom of
a pocket).
An example of wire-frame geometry is shown in Figure 10-6, where a standard mold
base is described by a collection of wire-frame entities. Since these entities are not
ambiguous, positions such as the ends of the lines or the centers of the circles may later
be used in the construction of additional geometry or for machining operations. Figures
10-7 through 10-12 provide examples of more-complex wire-frame geometries [10-12].
Surface Modeling
The next modeling method is surface modeling, a technique that can describe the total
outer boundary of a part. Surface modeling differs from wire-frame modeling in that not
only does it allow one to describe the edges of the geometry to be represented, but also
all of the faces. A surface model is used to represent all the outside faces or boundaries
of the product. By using such a model ambiguities in the wire-frame approach are
immediately eliminated. With a surface model every point on a product's surface is
definable, either by explicit coordinates of a key point or by interpolation using an explicit
set of parametric equations to specify the points between the key points. Most of today's
surface-modeling methods use a number of key points at prescribed intervals to bound
or define the surface.
Through these points a curve is fitted, in the same way that a french curve is used on
a drawing board to fit a curve through a number of random points. As the CAD/CAM
system must use a precise set of mathematical equations to define such a curve, this
method makes every point along the length of the curve definable. Imagining these curves
as a type of spatial grid, by understanding the mathematical base upon which the set of
curves was built, makes it possible to identify uniquely any point on the surface by
interpolation using the same set of mathematics used in the construction of the curves
Figure 10-7. An example of designing a bottle with three-dimensional OAD analysis.
Infonnation on the bottle's design is stored in the CAD system's computer and with the
applicable software can immediately provide all the types of infonnation needed such as its
volume, weight, and head space.
Figure 10-8. For evaluating the depth of a fonn, 3-D wire frames tend to communicate more
realistically than artists' renderings or traditional 2-D drawings. The 3-D wire-fonn system can
be converted into two- or four-dimensional view by just touching appropriate computer keys.
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Figure 10·9. An example of using two lines ("the axis" and "the curve") to create a 3-D wire
frame.
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Figure 10·10. In this example a wire fonn is converted to a four-perspective
orthographic/isometric drawing.
Figure 10-11. An example of a complex shoe shape depicted in a 3-D wire-frame system.
769
Figure 10-12. An example of developing a wire-frame system to depict the image in the mold
cavity. It is generated by CAD/CAM using data on the dimensions of a bottle and includes other
information stored in the data bank (or incorporated at the time the image is displayed): the
shrinkage characteristics of the plastic based on how it is affected by the blow-molding process,
the temperature/pressure/time cycle of the melt, the die or mold materials of construction, and
so on.
themselves. Surface modeling is therefore particularly appropriate when complex 3-D

geometries need to be described without any ambiguities.
Many plastic products fall into a category of this type. Enclosures, covers, and consumer
items often require not only a basic function to be provided but considerable aesthetic
appeal to enhance market attractiveness. CAD/CAM and surface modeling provide the
means not only to define a surface but also to evaluate the aesthetic appeal of the product
and directly control the finished product by an unambiguous description of all surface
curvatures and radii.
The practical implications of surface modeling in mold manufacturing are manifold.
First, since every point on the surface may be explicitly defined, it is possible to create
a tbree- to five-axis tool path for a milling machine, to follow the surface contour. This
is of great practical significance in the area of mold design. Because it can generate tbree-
axis contour tool paths, surface modeling is particularly appropriate for describing the
geometries of cavities and cores within the mold. Other benefits include the ability to
calculate angles of incidence and angles of refraction for light rays, which allow for
computing shaded images. These in tum greatly enhance the ability of humans to com-
prehend the surface geometry. An example of shaded imagery is illustrated in Figures
10-13 and 10-14, which show a surface-modeled plastic molding (a cover for an auto-
mobile ignition computer) as a surface model. Figure 10-13 shows the primary construction
of the surfaces, which are displayed for speed and efficiency reasons as sort of a wire-
frame representation. Stretching between the wires, however, like canvas on an airplane
wing, is a mathematically defined surface geometry. The existence of this geometry
allows us to display the same product in a shaded image, as in Figure 10-14. The shaded
image is preferable to the wire frame in terms of ease of comprehension of the geometry
of the product as well as its aesthetic appeal.
A moment's reflection about the concept of a surface should make it clear that it has
Figure 10-13. A plastic molding, an automobile ignition computer housing, and modeled-in
surfaces.
no inside or outside. It is merely a spatial curve of zero thickness. This is another primary
reason why surface is so important in mold design. Assuming that the product designer
does an effective job of defining a product model using the surface-modeling technique,
the CAD/CAM system can mathematically adjust this surface to account for the effects
of a plastic material's shrinkage. The resultant surface model (after accounting for shrink-
age) is both the surface of the part and the surface of the mold. Since this surface is
totally described at every point, we can select a distance between successive cuts from
a ball type and mill, then calculate a tool path that always keeps the cutter tangent to the
surface.
The final benefit of the surface model is that it allows mass-related properties to be
computed for the product model (e.g. volume, surface area, and moments of inertia),
and also allows section views to be automatically generated. This is due to the fact that
the intersection of a cutting plane with the surface can be calculated with certainty,
resulting in another curve that becomes the section view.
Because of these benefits, surface modeling is quickly becoming the workhorse of the
CAD/CAM field for describing geometries typical of those of molded products. There is
a cost that accompanies the benefits of surface modeling, however. The system now
requires far more computing resources than those required by wire-frame modeling tech-
niques, in the form both of computing power and database storage space. These needs
are created by the necessity for more complex computations for such operations as
automatically intersecting, trimming, and filleting entire surfaces. The state of the art
allows users to do this type of construction interactively, using the wire-frame types of
displays shown in Figure 10-13. As computing power and speed increase, however, it
will become possible to do surface manipulation with the shaded image types of displays
shown in Figure 10-14, which will greatly enhance the user friendliness of CAD/CAM
systems.
Figure 10-14. A shaded-image representation of the same ignition housing shown in Figure
10-13.
Solids Modeling
The concept of solids modeling has become the ultimate in the modeling of real objects
today. The solids model takes the concept of the surface model one step further in that
it assures that the product being modeled is valid and realizable. A solids model of the
product may be created in a variety of methods, such as the Boolean addition and
subtraction of primitive shapes. These geometric primitives would include such objects
as cubes, spheres, and cylinders. Other solids-modeling techniques include the sweeping
of 2-D profiles through space, and even the possibility of "sewing" together the edges
of surface models.
Through a solids model the mass and boundaries of a product are represented in totally
defined terms. An example of solids modeling is shown in Figure 10-15, in which not
only the geometry and surface boundaries are known, but the mass properties of the
object are instantly available upon the creation of the model. In surface modeling the
system cannot distinguish between the inside and the outside of the product being modeled.
In solids modeling, the system recognizes the difference, and during construction it can
avoid possible inconsistencies using surface mathematics. One example of such incon-
sistencies is the renowned Mobius strip, in which a surface turns over on itself. An
additional benefit of solids modeling is that the mass properties of the product are generally
available immediately from the database.
The key concept of the solids model states that every point in space can be determined
to be either inside or outside the object being modeled. Whereas surface models define
every point on a surface itself, solids models can determine every point within a solid
object. It is this characteristic that brings about a great interest in solids modeling. This
technique enables one to determine solutions to some complex problems of practical
interest, such as automatic interference checking. With such a set of important benefits,
solids modeling may appear quite attractive. However, these benefits are not without their
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properties.
price. Interactive solids modeling demands a great deal of computing power to accom-
modate the practical designs of today. In many instances it is perceived to be too slow
for widespread application.
In many cases, solids models are based on the addition and subtraction of simple
primitive geometric shapes that are easily defined. Although this speeds up the design
process, it is inadequate to describe solid objects of a class defined by sculptured surfaces.
Given these circumstances, the additional benefits gained by using solids modeling in
plastic part and mold design applications are often outweighed by the costs of the additional
time and computing power required to accomplish the task. Remember that hardware and
software technologies are changing so rapidly today that solids modeling may not require
such a drastic trade-off in the very near future.
ADDITIONAL CAD/CAM FEATURES USED IN PLASTIC PART

AND MOLD DESIGN
Group Technology
Group technology is a technique by which parts may be characterized and classified into
parts having similar geometric features. Once a part is classified, a code number is assigned
to it. The numbers within the code-numbering system each have a significance related
to a description of the product.
Once a database of designs is encoded, when the requirement for a new design is
introduced the existing database may be searched for exact or close matches of a part
description, which is provided by the significant code number. This tool prevents acci-
dental duplication of existing parts and encourages using existing parts that are close to
the design needs. Not only are design costs reduced by this method, since existing designs
need only be "edited" to produce new designs, but substantial manufacturing costs may
be saved as well. Parts can sometimes be "made from" existing parts by the addition of
a machining or assembly operation, at a lower cost than manufacturing the new part from
scratch. Further, it is often feasible to install interchangeable inserts in the existing part
mold and thus allow a single mold to produce two or more similar components. Manu-
facturing process information may be similarly retrieved by a group technology code
number, so that group technology may sometimes be thought of as an artificial experience
tool.
Finite Element Modeling

Finite element modeling is a technique whereby a material continuum is divided into a
number of patches, or "finite elements," and the appropriate engineering theory is applied
to solve a variety of problems. The initial (and probably still dominant) use of finite
element modeling was for the solution of structural engineering problems. The technique
is currently being applied by a number of companies and research institutions in the
design of plastic products. CAD/CAM systems provide the means to create a "mesh" of
finite elements directly from a product model database, by automatic and semiautomatic
means.
The model described by the mesh is then analyzed and the results displayed, if desired,
by graphic means. A mesh and the corresponding analysis results are shown in Figures
10-16 and 10-17. For structural designing with plastic materials several unique require-
ments exist. Because plastic materials may have nonlinear and anisotropic material prop-
Figure 10-16. A typical finite element mesh displays the distortion caused by mechanical loads
and predicted by analysis.
Figure 10-17. The maximum principal stress values in each element, as predicted by analysis
and displayed graphically.
erties, finite element programs for the analysis of polymer structures should possess the
ability to characterize material nonlinearities and anisotropy. Additionally, materials that
are reinforced by glass or other types of fibers will be influenced by the degree and
direction of fiber orientation in the molded product. Several research institutions are
currently working on computer programs to predict this orientation in molded parts.
Finite element modeling is receiving increasing interest in plastics not only for structural
design purposes but in the area of predicting plastic flow and heat transfer as well. Figures
10-18 and 10-19 show the finite element mesh and resulting pressure distribution for a
bottom view of the computer housing previously described in the discussion on surface
modeling. In this case the isobar pattern helps identify the total pressure required to fill
the part, as well as the uniformity of pressure distribution and the location of the weld
lines formed by flow around the holes in the part. The combination of ease of modeling
provided by CAD/CAM systems and easier-to-use finite element systems will help to
cause this computer-aided engineering tool to proliferate in years to come.
Figure 10-18. A finite-element mesh applied to the ignition computer housing shown in Figure
10-13 and 10-14.
Digitizing
Thus far we have discussed the methods used to define a product's or mold's geometry
from scratch or from a designer's concept. In many cases other work may have been
done that can expedite the creation of a database for the product. Traditional methods
for product design and development have often involved the use of an appearance model
or pattern where consumer testing or industrial design personnel may approve the ap-
pearance or functionality of the product prior to engineering detail design work. The
ability to reach out and touch a physical model may be indispensable for certain design
environments. If such a model exists, there is a strong possibility that it may be used as
a medium to expediently create a product model database and thus capture many of the
benefits of CAD/CAM technology.
ISOBARS AlCJlUI
Figure 10-19. The results of flow-analysis predicting the isobars, or lines of constant pressure,
at the instant of complete mold filling.
Digitizing describes the technique by which a physical model is re-created in digital

form by in some way scanning the physical model and building a database of points
through which lines and curves are later constructed. This technique may be used in either
a 2-D or a 3-D digitizing mode. In the 2-D mode a set of 2-D models, such as drawing
Mylars, are placed on the table of a digitizing board or tablet. A number of points are
created by using a tool positioned over the model at various locations. Then a pulse is
sent to the computer, which records lhe X and Y coordinates of the device at that instant.
This 2-D digitizing is useful when the input model or master exists in the form of a 2-
D pattern.
If a substantial number of 2-D curves are available at varying Z depths, a 3-D model
can be created by curve fitting the points along the Z direction (axis) simultaneously with
the X and Y directions. The most common way to create a digitized model for 3-D objects
is from a 3-D model. In this method a measurement device such as a coordinate measuring
machine is programmed to traverse to known X and Y locations, and the Z height of the
model is measured and recorded at those locations. This series of points is then fitted
with smooth curves such as b-splines, which are then used to develop surfaces like b-
surfaces.
Although this method of geometry creation seems relatively straightforward, it is not
without problems or pitfalls. The first consideration is whether the accuracy of the model
and the digitizing method being used suffice for the application. If it is not sufficient, a
more precise method of creating the geometry must be pursued. Additionally, digitizing
works best for surfaces or geometries of relatively slowly changing curvatures. This
means that geometries such as sharp comers or crease lines may cause problems. If a
geometry such as a sharp crease in the product model exists, care must be taken to place
a series of points on that crease and to stop the crease at the crease line. This is due to
the mathematics of fitting curves through a series of points and the fact that the mathe-
matical methods used do not handle drastic curvature changes between points very well.
The only alternative is to increase the point density of the surface being modeled, but
this enlarges the size of the database, causing a slowing of the CAD/CAM system's
response. The digitizing method may be successfully applied, however, if the user is
careful in the method of creating geometry and has a reasonable understanding of how
the CAD/CAM system being used fits curves through points.
Other Features
Other design features may now be summarized, such as layering [12]. Layering is a
method by which the display of selected geometric entities may be turned on or off at
the discretion of the user. The drawingboard analogy to layering is the overlaying of
multiple tracings or Mylar sheets during the design process, to build up assembly layouts
from a series of detail drawings.
Most CAD/CAM systems support a feature of creation of groups of geometric entities
that may be selected or manipulated together. The concept of a pattern is similar to that
of a group, with one important exception; the entities used to construct a pattern may
not be selected or changed once the pattern is created. With large-scale geometry ma-
nipUlation the system allows large blocks of geometric entities to be copied and moved
to new positions or to be rotated or mirrored about an axis.
The concept of a local coordinates or construction plane is one that makes modeling
in 3-D convenient. This feature allows the user to set an absolute coordinate system and
build a model relative to that system. Because the computer can solve mathematical
------ -
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Figure 10-20. The model and drawing concept, the model here being a 3-D representation. This
drawing documents the model through a series of two-dimensional views.
equations quickly, a new coordinate system can be established at each location and
orientation wanted within the model. A number of CAD/CAM systems today support the
concept of model and drawing modes of geometry creation. Doing so allows those
companies that require the output of paper drawings to create them (see Fig. 10-20) while
still maintaining the same high integrity of the designed product model database. The
verification of geometric relationships system permits any relationship between two geo-
metric entities in the database to be quickly established by the computer. This means that
rather than having to scale a drawing or insert a dimension in the database, a function
exists that allows the designer to understand the distances and angles between the geometry
existing in the database [12].
When automatic dimensioning and automatic tolerance analysis database systems are
used, this allows the designer to select tolerances on the drawing and let the system
calculate a statistically derived sum of those tolerances. The minimum and maximum
dimensions will be obtained as a result of the tolerances applied. Other features used in
plastic product and tooling design are available.
PROCESS-ANALYSIS TOOLS
Recent years have seen a tremendous growth in the nUQ1ber of software products available
to serve the needs of manufacturing functions. The products that have evolved over this
period are tools that serve to replace the rules of thumb of the past with analytical analyses
based upon sound theoretical principles. These products combine the benefits of relative
ease of use with the speed of the computer, resulting in tools that can be cost-effectively
applied to a large number of problems. Over the last decades, specific software products
have arisen to serve the needs of the injection-molding industry. These tools are most
effectively applied prior to construction of the mold, but they can be applied after the
fact to solve process-related problems.
Three types of analysis tools have emerged recently and are providing major benefits
to molders. The types of analyses commercially available fall into three categories:
1. Flow analyses
2. Cooling analyses
3. Economic and plant-operating analyses
In general, these analysis tools fall under the domain of computer-aided engineering
(CAE). The key word there is aided. Analysis tools in no way replace skill or education
in the basics of plastic material properties, mold design, or processing. What analyses
do is supplement the knowledge of trained individuals, making them more productive
and more accurate in their predictions.
The basic methodology behind CAE technique is that a design or process is proposed
as the first step. The designer then constructs a model or representation of the specific
design, using a prescribed method. The computer is then used to rapidly evaluate the
results of both the input conditions and the model that the designer has described. The
output conditions are listed by the computer, and the designer evaluates the consistency
of results with his experience, then determines how the design must be modified to
achieve acceptable results. The process is repeated until a successful design is achieved.
In this manner the computer aids the designer by calculating results much more rapidly
and with greater precision than is humanly possible. The skill and experience of the
designer are still reflected in the final results.
The CAE technique can be effectively applied, as an example, in the injection-molding
field to
1. Maximize the probability of first -time plastic part or mold functionality.

2. Solve process problems such as warping, dimensional inconsistency, and long cycle
times.
3. Reduce molding costs such as mold start-up costs, part-molding costs, material costs,
mold rework costs, and scrap and regrind costs.
Two major types of analyses are discussed below-flow analysis and cooling analysis.
It is important to review the literature, as more and more products are being introduced
to serve the needs of the molding industry each year. The use of these CAE tools will
assure that mold design and part processing can be accomplished with the greatest possible
speed and effectiveness [11,12].
Melt-Flow Analysis
Over the last decade the field of flow analysis has gained increasing importance in injection
molding. Flow analysis has provided rational solutions to many of the hard-to-understand
effects that cause problems in the injection-molding process. These effects have included
warping, molded-in stress, excessive fill pressures, part flashing, and others. The inter-
relationships between part design and molding process parameters that cause problems
of this nature were not well understood in the industry. Practical experience was often
insufficient to identify potential problems, and too limited to have encountered the full
range of molding problems that can be addressed by such techniques as flow analysis.
Hence, much prototyping and mold fine tuning was necessary before successful molded-
product results would be achieved.
Computerized flow analysis has emerged as a powerful tool to aid in the implementation
of applying injection molding as the production process of choice to a widening spectrum
of products. The ability of modem digital computers to perform complex calculations in
short periods of time has been the breakthrough that made flow analysis a tool applicable
to increasing numbers of new parts (see Figs. 10-21 and 10-22). Furthermore, technology
advances in computer hardware have allowed these flow models to increase in their
sophistication and accuracy while at the same time bringing the cost of the analyses into
Figure 10-21. How to describe a part to a computer is summarized here. The user's major task
is to accurately describe the geometry of the part to be molded so that the programs can analyze
the melt flow through the mold cavity. Simple parts present no problem, and sometimes the flow
length and part weight are all that are needed to balance the runner and gate system. For complex
parts, such as this surrounding for a headlight, a lay-flat graphic approach is used. The part is
first "flattened" to create a 2-D graphic representation. Then a series of circular-flow fronts is
drawn, sectioning the mold. These reflect the radial flow of the melt from the gate and could be
thought of as fronts for successively larger short shots.
Figure 10-22. Computer graphics can display a flow pattern as isobars (lines of equal pressure)
like these against an isometric representation of the part being formed within the mold.
779
a range at which they can be applied to a large number of new designs. The flow-analysis
tools can be successfully applied and utilized by three different groups in the product
development process: the product designer, the mold designer, and, finally, the injection
molder.
Product Designers
Product designers can apply flow analysis to many questions like the following:
Will the part fill at all? This age-old question concerns many designers, especially
those who design large injection-molded components such as covers, enclosures, furniture,
and the like. The relationships among material structural properties, cosmetic properties,
and processing properties are generally hazy in the designer's mind, and flow analysis
provides a way to evaluate different materials in the design stage and to evaluate the
processing-related characteristics in a scientific manner.
What is the minimum practical wall thickness for the part? This question is a primary
consideration for the cost of the molded product. The ability to use thin walls on the
product results in obvious savings in material, which many times comprises more than
40 percent of the finished-product cost. A less obvious advantage, however, is the overall
benefit in cycle time for the product that comes from using thinner walls. The cooling
time of an injection-molded part is known to be a function of the square of the wall
thickness of the part, so reductions in wall thickness have a substantial impact on the
cycle time of the molded product. This is of great benefit in increasing the productivity
of the molding plant and thus is ultimately reflected in product costs.
Can gates be located acceptably? The ability of plastic materials to be formed into
attractively styled shapes has long been recognized. This has led to an increasing use of
plastic materials for applications requiring high degrees of aesthetic appeal. The proper
use of flow-analysis tools can help assure product designers that sufficient latitude exists
in the design to allow gates to be positioned to protect the aesthetic properties of the
design, while at the same time allowing production of the item at reasonable cost.
Mold-Cooling Analysis
Prior to the introduction of computer modeling tools, the cooling of injection-mold cavities
was a complex and often misunderstood phenomenon. The placement of cooling lines in
the mold was often the last portion of the design to be considered, resulting in many
molds that ran at low levels of productivity and producing molded parts of questionable
qUality. Modem techniques that allow the evaluation of a proposed cooling system design
prior to construction of the mold are allowing mold designers to evaluate thoroughly the
quality of their designs and revise them to achieve more efficient and balanced cooling
ofthe mold (see Fig. 10-23). These techniques are generating large savings in cycle time,
parts cost, and tryout and tuning time for new molds.
The importance of proper cooling system design can be summarized in two major areas
of interest to the plastics industry: quality and productivity. Quality has become a major
area of emphasis in the industry over the last few years. The quality of the product that
can be produced from an injection mold can be directly attributed to three factors: the
accuracy of fabrication of the mold cavity and core, the repeatability of the molding
machine used, and the correct design of the mold to produce the part. Part of the correct
design of the mold will be a cooling system that will extract heat from the melt in the
mold cavity at the maximum rate possible, uniformly throughout the mold.
MOLD MATERIAL DATA BANK PLASTIC MATERIALS DATA BANK

Select cavity and core matenal codes for ~- Select matenal code for thermal properties
thermal properlles data data
- MOLDCOOL FILE
Enter data on all aspects of the part, mOld,
and processing condition ~
DESIGN PROGRAM
(Cooling System Capacity) Computes the
total heat load from parameters that pertain
to mold cooling outlined in the MOLDCOOL
FILE Gives a listing of common channel
diameters, effecllve length, depth and Pitch
COOLING LINE DATA FILE to match heat load with coohng capacity
L
Describes and dimensions all coolant-
~ handhng components in each mold plate,
core and cavity (channels, bends, baffles,
~
bubblers, etc,) PROPOSED COOLING LAYOUT
+
Done by designer manually from output
supplied by DESIGN PROGRAM
CIRCUIT PROGRAM
Organizes the cooling channels into circuits
f-.-. to insure equal pressure drop and
temperature rise to promote even-balanced AUXILIARY PROGRAMS:
cooling
+
CURE: Calculates theoretical coohng time
for part to target design efforts and check
analysis results
OPTIMIZATION PROGRAM (2) EQUI~: Matches optimum condillons with
Specifies coolant inlet temperature proper auxiliary equipment specifications to
~ pressure, and flow rate to obtain specified ensure the best use of capital and energy
mold surface temperature (or part HELP: Summons assistance from
temperature). Calculates cooling time for Application Engineenng-answers are never
cycle determination more than 24 hours away
1 MOLDCOOL-FAST
BaSIC, fast-running program for quick
results
2 MOLDCOOL-OPTIMUM
Same output as MOLDCOOL FAST, but
uses more sophisticated, two dimensional
finite-<lifference analysis for more accurate
surface temperature calculators
Figure 10-23. A mold-cooling analysis diagram used in a CAD system--the Moldcool program
by Moldflow Australia Pty" Ltd,
Several molding quality problems can be avoided if uniform cooling is designed into
the mold, Warpage of the molded part is one problem whose roots may lie in the proper
design of the cooling system for the mold. Another cooling problem that can be related
to cooling system design is the homogeneity of properties in parts molded from crystalline
resins. The morphology of the crystal structure developed in the molded part is strongly
dependent on the material's temperature history and cooling times. Minor changes in
these variables can lead to major changes in crystal formation and thus in the mechanical
properties of the molded product. Thus, molds with uneven cooling profiles may produce
parts with unacceptable mechanical properties, possibly resulting in premature mechanical
failure of the molded product.
The second major benefit of effective cooling system design is the impact on produc-
tivity. Molds that can be designed for optimal cooling will produce parts in the shortest
possible cycle time. This results in a direct cost saving of several types. It has been shown
many times that large energy savings on injection-molding equipment can be gained by
decreasing cycle time. Additionally, effective cooling system design can result in the use
of higher coolant temperatures, which imply less chiller capacity requirements or less
plant water usage. There are also capital equipment savings accompanying these benefits.
Capital outlays for new equipment can be minimized once shorter cycle times reflect
themselves in higher plant capacity without an increase in the number of molding ma-
chines. Likewise, maximizing the cooling-water temperature needed to cool the mold
results in a reduction in chiller requirements and a corresponding savings in equipment
costs.
In examining the problem of the cooling of plastic parts being formed by injection
molding, it is possible to separate the problem into three distinct elements:
1. Cooling of the melt

2. Conduction from the melt to the waterline
3. Convection cooling by the waterline
These elements must be considered in combination in order to understand the cooling

performance of the mold. Improper mold design may result in a high thermal resistance
that will lead to the quality and productivity problems previously mentioned.
The preceding overview provides strong arguments for careful consideration of the
cooling system design for injection molds. In short, the successful application of cooling
analysis tools can result in higher quality in the molded product as well as lower operating
and production costs for the molder [11, 12].
DESIGN DATABASES
The Database Concept
One of the key factors required to implement a CAD/CAM program that will allow
increased productivity is the effective use of a database, especially design databases (see
Appendix D). A design database typically contains graphics, plastic materials information,
parts or components that are frequently used in mold designs, as well as standard design
methods to be applied to new designs. There are at least two methods to create a design
database, both of which are described below. Before these methods are described, it is
necessary first to clarify the exact meaning of database. A database can be defined as
one of the largest elements in a hierarchy of information structure. In order to illustrate
this concept, consider the following types of information elements, ranked in order of
their increasing information content:
Data item. A single unit or specific piece of information. If we were to consider using
a line as an illustration, a data item about a line might be the X coordinate of one
of the ends of the line itself.
Data record. A collection of data items in a logical sequence. Again using the illustration
of the line, the data record of the line might contain the X, Y, and Z coordinates of
both ends of the line.
Data file. A collection of data records, generally organized around some common attribute.
Once again, a number of lines can be organized into a data file that describes the
geometry of a specific standard part.
Database. A collection of files, again usually organized around some common attribute
or organized for a specific purpose. Continuing with this example, a number of data
files that describe standard components can be further organized into a database that
describes all the standard mold bases available from a particular manufacturer.
To further clarify the concept of a data hierarchy, whose highest tier is the database,
an analogy of a paper file system is presented in Figure 10-24. In this analogy the data
item is a specific line contained on a page of paper. The data record is the page of paper
containing many data items. The next level of the hierarchy is the data file, which
corresponds to the many sheets of paper contained in a file folder. The last tier of this
structure is the database, which corresponds to the entire filing cabinet.
Graphics Databases
The concept of a graphics database is essential to understanding the nature of a CAD/CAM
system. Such a system takes all the design information that would normally reside on a
piece of paper and builds that information into files to create the database. Each graphic
entity, such as lines, arcs, circles, points and surfaces, is represented by a number of
data items. These items are further collected in a data record and a number of these
records are then collected into a file, which generally describes a molded part or the mold
itself.
A number of these files may then be grouped together to form the database. In the
same concept of a hierarchy of information we may consider one of the key tools for
boosting the productivity of design, the library of parts. This tool is a database of geometry,
which is recalled and used as quickly as the computer can associate it with the particular
design in question. A library of parts is particularly useful when items such as injection
molds are to be created from standard components.
Defining the Library Database

The simplest method of creating a database is by combining a collection of part files. To
do so a designer will generate all the parts required on a CAD/CAM system, then store
them in a logical catalog structure so that they may be easily retrieved at a later date.
PAPER SYSTEM
DOCUMENT
---------r--
I fI LI NG CABINET
-- FILE
RECORD
FILE
DATA BASE
Figure 10-24. An analogy of the database concept.
Most CAD/CAM software packages support a command that allows a part currently
existing in the database to be inserted into the part being designed. Additionally, many
software packages support a method of preparing parts in a figure of associated graphics,
rather than a collection of discrete entities, which speeds up the operation of inserting
previously defined geometry into a new design. The major benefit of this overall technique
is that once the part is created it never needs to be redefined and can be used over and
over again.
Unfortunately, there are also several disadvantages to this technique. The first constraint
is that the parts must not change, or the geometry will require editing after insertion.
Depending on the particular type of system, this may present problems, as some systems
do not support the editing of graphics figures described in the last paragraph. Second, if
there is a large number of unique combinations of geometry (i.e., for mold bases), an
extremely large database will be required. This implies that a large amount of work will
be required to create each component, in addition to large amounts of storage being
needed to keep the database on line. Since on-line storage is relatively expensive, another
computer program, called a database management system, is usually employed. Such a
system (see Appendix D) will provide the convenience and economics of storage off line
but allow rapid retrieval of the components desired. One means to eliminate the problems
caused by databases of parts files is to use what is known as graphics language program-
ming.
The concept of a graphics language program is that a computer program builds the
required geometry only when it is needed; through interactive programming it allows the
operator to intervene and change the geometry as required. The language in which this
program is written is called a graphics language, since the language facilitates the creation
of graphic entities automatically. An example of the use of such a program might be
given by the need for graphics for a standard ejector pin. This pin could be available in
a number of different lengths but must be cut to a specific length to be properly installed
in the mold. A graphics language program can then be written to prompt the user for the
required diameter, length, and location of an ejector pin to be installed. The system will
then read a data file of the corresponding head diameter and thickness and create the
geometry and display the graphics to describe the part completely.
The advantage of the graphics programming technique is that it drastically reduces the
amount of on-line storage space required to support large libraries of common geometry.
Additionally, by allowing operator intervention we may now build standard parts with
unique characteristics, such as ejector pins "cut to length." Variable parameters such as
A and B plate thicknesses and the desired locating rings or sprue bushings can be
interactively entered at the program run time, creating any of many unique mold bases.
Design standards can also be incorporated into the graphics programs, thus decreasing
the probability of designer errors and promoting standardization in both the design and
manufacturing operations. An example of design standards might be the uniform recessing
of screw heads in a design, which would allow cutting tools to be set once and would
help identify potential interferences caused by the shop's inadvertently counterboring too
deeply.
The major disadvantage of the graphics programming technique is that the speed of
inserting new geometry in the design is generally slower than an "insert part type"
command. Depending on the complexity of the geometry and the software in question,
this mayor may not be a disadvantage. In general, the user needs to assess this performance
issue for his particular application with the specific software package available on his
system. It suffices to say, however, that graphics programming for families of parts
applications like component libraries has shown itself to be an extremely beneficial feature
of CAD/CAM systems. Users considering the potential purchase or effective usage of
these systems should give graphics programming languages and their ease of use careful
consideration in their implementation activities.
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
Until now we have been discussing CAD/CAM and the various state-of-the-art techniques
for its application in the field of mold design. Before closing, it might be appropriate to
discuss briefly how CAD/CAM is changing in relation to computer-integrated manufac-
turing (CIM). When addressing the field of computer-aided manufacturing today most
speak solely of numerical control as the means of utilization of the product model database.
Obviously, the field of manufacturing is composed of many processes that do not rely
on numerical control as their means of control.
Computer-integrated manufacturing is the natural evolution of CAM into serving an
ever-widening scope of manufacturing processes. The unique element of CIM, however,
is that it tends to integrate or tie together all the manufacturing processes into one coherent
unit, all of which share a common database. CIM involves the appropriate combination
of hardware and software that allows the manufacturing processes and functions to draw
information from, and contribute information to, the database. This information is shared
by all the respective functions, including the business ones, as a primary business-
information system. As illustrated in Figure 10-25, the CAD/CAM system can be en-
visioned as a central hub of primary information such as the product model and its
attributes, and secondarily derived information such as toolpaths, bills of materials, and
so on. Just as in the manual method of doing business the engineering information stored
in a database begins the product delivery cycle, this basic information about the geometry
and attributes of the product is transferred and reused by many subsequent business
functions, such as materials planning and manufacturing engineering. We are moving
toward the realization of CIM when we will be able to pass information efficiently to
and from each of the manufacturing functions to the database.
MYTHS AND FACTS

Recognizing that, as with all products and actions in this world nothing is prefect, there
are always new developments that make life easier by taking an asymptotic approach to
perfection. First of all it is best to do away with some of the myths about computers.
The computer will not design a part, not make critical design decisions, and not produce
the end product at the touch of a button. What the computer will do is make the designer's
life easier and more productive. The designer now no doubt has a 32-bit computer right
at his or her fingertips and is no longer limited to paper, pencils, calculators, and the
like.
Designers can now design, if willing, by starting to think in three dimensions. They
can view a product from any angle and display many views at once. For some it may
have been painful to draw an attractive isometric view, but the computer handles this
with ease. Designers can now zoom to any degree of depth in a graphic and work on a
very small portion of a part until the desired result is achieved. Much more, like panning,
can be performed. And document tracking is now handled by proven database management
software packages.
Some of the most important capabilities that CAD/CAM has to offer the designer
Figure 10-26. Summary of the design analysis capability available through computer-aided
software that is used to reduce the new designed product lead time.
are a vast amount of software and databases available on the same computer that is
running graphics processors. This consolidation is a great advantage to the designer
who realizes it. All the geometric data that in the past had to be determined and punched
in are now right there in the designer's 3-D database so eloquently called the model.
With the correct processors, any type of numerical-solution program can be utilized,
and with the correct postprocessors the results displayed will immediately come back
on the graphics screen.
Powerful finite element analysis programs like MSC Nastran, Ansys, Superb, and
Moldflow can now be fully analyzed, with more new types becoming available almost
daily. Programming-experienced designers can, using a systems graphics language, de-
velop their own applications software to do any specialized task for the design at hand.
Again, the geometric database is there for the taking. For the aggressive designer, CAD/CAM
means a whole new realm of better and more accurate ways of completing a successful
design project (see Fig. 10-26).
CAPABILITY AND TRAINING

The decisive step in switching to CAD/CAM is the choice of a suitable CAD/CAM
system. In spite of recognizable endeavors at standardization in the area of interfaces,
there remains a diversity of systems, which is more likely to deter than to motivate. In
addition, there is a large number of unfamiliar terms that are often used as casually as
if they were an integral part of our language.
Many computer system and software suppliers provide advice on specific applications.
Task 17
Planning
Time savings from CAE due to:
Design Bener conceptual work
concept Geometry avail. from earlier steps
Basic productivity gain
Fast response to changes
Model-build Fewer revisions
Reduced parallel path activity
Test
Oesign-
Phase 1
Build tooling-
Phase 1
Oesign-
Phase 2
Build tooling-
Phase 2
Start
production
Figure 10-25. Infonnation that can be generated, stored, and maintained on a CAD/CAM
system.
This is especially important if the areas of design, work planning, and production are
still relatively unstructured. Working with CAD/CAM compels one to follow an orderly
approach with systematic action. For computer-aided management, the drawings to data
files must be clearly numbered and designated. In many organizations, the support group
needed for this purpose must still be created before the new system can gain access.
An adequate number of personnel with practical experience should be available for a
well-planned entry into computerized technology. The method of working with CAD/CAM
means that the areas of design, work planning, production, and quality assurance must
move closely together to have the proper interface. It is recommended that the specialists
selected for training in CAD/CAM possess wide knowledge in these fields. It is not
surprising that the computer and its peripherals head almost every designer's or engineer's
list of "tool's I cannot do without." However, it is possible that fewer than 20 percent
of design engineers are in fact truly computerized [751].
The uncertainty caused by inadequate training and the expectations placed on CAD/CAM
systems, which as a result are not fulfilled, bears no relation to the savings made in
training costs. Only if sufficient time and facilities are provided to training purposes can
the hoped-for results be attained.
Working with CAD/CAM requires experience, but it creates flexibility. The goal of
simplification and flexibility in design necessitates adopting standard procedures and
automatic routines, where possible, by the computer systems. Anyone who works quickly
and efficiently at the design stage can also commence earlier with such different programs
as testing (see Chapter 9) of the product and will thus have more time available for
modifications and corrections.
In summary, the design and processing of free-form surfaces are scarcely possible
without the use of the computer. Three-dimensional designing has been greatly simplified
by the use of high-performance software in conjunction with highly developed monitors.
Complex 3-D shapes can now be viewed from any direction, turned, mirrored, and cut.
In addition, there are numerous design aids such as for the joining of surfaces by tangential
junctions, surface generation according to mathematical functions, joining with a constant
or variable radius, generating wall thicknesses by offset, and. many other useful and
practical design aids.
Chapter 11
DESIGN FEATURES THAT INFLUENCE

PERFORMANCE
BASIC DETRACTORS AND CONSTRAINTS

In Chapters 3 through 5, 7, and 8 in particular some of the design problems of plastics
were discussed. This chapter provides more detail on this important subject. Even though
some of the analyses here will pertain to a specific process, many will relate to other
processes, so it is best to review them all. Also, most of the characteristics of plastics
that detract from their effectiveness refer to injection molding and provide guidelines for
all the processes. Although it is not actually the product designer's job to do so, the
designer should have some idea of where problems can develop, based on how a mold
or die is designed and manufactured [1, 2, 5-14, 21-32,40-42,45-46,50,55-68, 166,
208,225,253,409,478,498,564-70,593,637,674,807-15].
The successful design and fabrication of good plastic products requires a combination
of sound judgment and experience. Designing good products requires a knowledge of
plastics that includes their advantages and disadvantages and some familiarity with pro-
cessing methods. Until the designer becomes familiar with processing, a fabricator must
be taken into the designer's confidence early in development and consulted frequently
during those early days. The fabricator and mold or die designer should advise the product
designer on materials behavior and how to simplify processing. The designer should not
become restricted by understanding only one process, particularly just a certain narrow
aspect of it (see Chapter 7) [10-14, 32, 33, 40-42].
One of the earliest steps in product design is to establish the configuration of the parts
that will form the basis on which strength calculations will be made and a suitable material
selected to meet the anticipated requirements. During the sketching and drawing phase
of working with shapes and cross-sections there are certain design features with plastics
that have to be kept in mind to avoid degradation of the properties. Such features may
be called property detractors or constraints. Most of them are responsible for the unwanted
internal stresses that can reduce the available stress level for load-bearing purposes. Other
features, which are covered in this chapter, may be classified as precautionary measures
that may influence the favorable performance of a part if they are properly incorporated
[4-6].
Although there is no limit theoretically to the shapes that can be created, practical
considerations must be met. These relate not only to part design but also to mold or die
design, since these must be considered one entity in the total creation of a usable,
789
economically feasible part. In the sections that follow, various phases considered important
in the creation of such parts are examined for their contribution to and effect on design
and function.
Prior to designing a part, the designer should understand such basic factors as those
summarized in Table 11-1 and Figure II-I. Success with plastics, or any other material,
for that matter, is directly related to observing design details. For example, something
as simple as a stiffening rib is different for an injection molded or structural foam part,
even though both parts may be molded from the same plastic (see Fig. 11-1). However,
a stiffening rib that is to be molded in a low-mold-shrink, amorphous TP will differ from
a high-mold-shrinkage, crystalline TP rib, even though both plastics are just injection
molded (see Chapter 2). Ribs molded in RP/composite plastics have their own distinct
requirements (see Chapter 5). Hollow stiffening ribs of the type produced by thermo-
forming, blow, or rotational molding have the same function, but they are designed to
be totally different [807].
The important factors to consider in designing can be categorized as follows: part
thickness, tolerances, ribs, bosses and studs, radii and fillets, draft or taper, holes, threads,
color, surface finish and gloss level, decorating operations, the parting line, gate locations,
molded or extruded part shrinkage, assembly techniques, mold or die design, production
volume, the tooling and other equipment amortization period, as well as the plastic and
process selected. The order that these factors follow can vary, depending on the product
to be designed and the designer's familiarity with particular materials and processes.
Preparing a complete list of design constraints is a crucial first step in plastic part
design; failure to take this step can lead to costly errors. For example, a designer might
have an expensive injection mold prepared, designed for a specific material's shrink
value, only to discover belatedly that the initial material chosen did not meet some
overlooked design constraint. Flammability, glass-fiber fillers to provide a higher mod-
ulus, and other requirements are best considered before a tool is made. Otherwise, the
designer may have the difficult if not impossible task of finding a plastic that does meet
all the design constraints, including the important appropriate shrink value for the existing
mold. Such desperation in the last stages of a design project can and should be avoided.
As emphasized from one end of this book to the other, it is vital to set up complete
checklist of product requirements, to preclude the possibility that a critical requirement
may be overlooked initially. Recognize that the "impossible" as well as the "approaches"
(~an moIdetI
SHe
TW:T :olLJF
I"lee 100 molded ermofermed.
ASS llIew & ro 0 lana! mo(ded
1.01.'_ .750 or 5W
Figure 11-1. An example of how different plastics and molding processes can affect the design
details of a stiffening rib.
DESIGN FEATURES THAT INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE 791
to be avoided can in most cases still produce excellent products; however it is easier to
take the direction with the least number of problems.
Tolerances and Shrinkages

Two different forms of shrinkage must be considered when designing to meet tolerances:
the initial shrinkage that occurs while a part is cooling, called the mold or die shrinkage,
and that which occurs after as many as twenty-four hours, called the after-shrinkage or
after-swell. Some plastics are more stable than others after aging, regardless of their
initial shrinkage. In many cases low shrinkage may indicate greater stability. As noted
earlier, some plastics have zero shrinkage, with others having little or a high degree of
shrinkage; see Chapters 3 to 7.
Large, unpredictable shrinkages can make close-tolerance designing almost impossible,
so these must be indicated on the drawings. If it has been determined in advance that a
part must be postcured, stress relieved, or baked, allowance must be made for probable
additional shrinkage. These requirements must be specified on the drawings.
Especially for long runs, mold or die design is an important factor. The metals that
will be used, particularly in mold cavities, and the forces required will largely be deter-
mined by the complexity of the product design. This complexity will, of course, dictate
in tum the intricacy of the tool design that will eventually be used. In general, pack
hardening, oil hardening, and prehardened steels are used, with materials such as beryllium
copper and electroformed cavities finding use in applications for specialized purposes
[10-12]. Chrome plating is frequently used to protect parts from the corrosive effect of
volatiles present in some materials. Plating not only produces high luster and prevents
tool staining but also eliminates the sticking of parts on removal from a mold or die.
However, plating will only duplicate an existing surface, so the tool itself must be highly
polished before being plated. The intricacy required in tool design, and the commensurate
costs, may be leading factors when choosing a plastic.
If the material must flow around pins, spiders, and projections, it must have suitable
flow properties and weld properly, leaving only minimal flow marks (see Chapter 7).
Thus, the availability of the proper material becomes an important consideration.
Residual Stresses
Such processing-induced residual stresses that influence properties as mechanical, phys-
ical, environmental, and aesthetic factors (which also exist in other materials like metals
and ceramics) can have favorable or unfavorable effects, depending on the application
of the load with respect to the direction of the stresses or orientation. For example, at
room temperature an unoriented PS is a brittle, glassy, amorphous polymer, whereas a
uniaxial oriented PS is highly anisotropic. High tensile strength, elongation, and resistance
to environmental stress crazing and cracking are achieved in the direction of orientation.
However, an oriented PS is weaker and more susceptible to stress crazing in its transverse
direction than is an unoriented PS. A biaxially oriented PS is strong and tough in all
directions [12, 19,42,201,225].
Residual stresses and molecular orientation play an important role in the toughness
enhancement of cold-worked plastics, because toughness is primarily based on the me-
chanics of craze formation and shear band (crazes and flaws) formation. The shear bands
determine the fracture mode and toughness of a polymer when subjected to impact loads.
The amount of energy dissipated will depend on whether the material surrounding the
'I Table 11-1. Design Guides for Processes versus Product Requirements*
I.C
N
Compression Molding
Injection Spray-up
Sheet Bulk Molding Cold and
Molding Molding ~form (Thermo- ~ss Hand
Compound Compound Molding plastics) Molding Lay-up
Minimum inside 1/16" 1/16" 11\1" 1'16" I,. I,.

radius, in _ (mm) c;) (1.59) (1.59) (3 . 18) ( 1.59) (6.35) (6.35)
Molded-in holes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Large

~J
Trimmed in mold ~ Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
Core pull & slides ( ~I/ Yes Ycs No Yes No No
Undercuts II Ir./ Yes Yes No Yes No Yes
Minimum recommended I,. to 6" (6.35-152 mm) depth: 1 to 300 20

draft, in.r
0"
t \jJ 6" (152 mm) dcpth and ovc.r: JO or as required 30
Minimum practical _050" .060" .030" 0.35" .OBO" .060"

thickness, in. (mm) (1.3) (1.5) (0.76) (0.89) (2.0) ( 1.5)
-r
to
Maximum practical I" I" .250" .500" .500"
No limit
thickness, in . (mm) Q (25.4) (25.4) (6.35) (12.7) (12.7)
flaws deforms plastically. For toughness enhancement the residual stresses play an im-
portant role in the suppression of craze formation, by avoiding the stress state that promotes
brittle fracture.
The term residual stresses identifies the system of stresses that are in effect locked
into a part, even without external forces acting on it. For instance, minute stresses may
be induced in a material by nonuniform heating and cooling. The production of residual
stresses is usually the result of nonhomogeneous plastic deformation occurring during
thermal and mechanical actions, arising from changes in either volume or shape. Thermal
treatments like quenching (rapid cooling) and annealing (slow cooling) introduce changes
in physical and mechanical properties. For example, with sheet plastic the stresses created
by quenching are the result of uneven cooling, when the surfaces cool faster than the
core. This produces nonuniform volume changes and properties throughout the thickness.
The compressive stresses on the surfaces of the quenched plastic produce tensile stresses
in the core, which maintain the equilibrium of the forces.
Cold Working
Generally, a variety of mechanical deformation processes cause the nonuniform defor-
mation that results in the formation of residual stresses. This nonhomogeneous deformation
in a material is produced by the material's parameters-largely its process parameters,
such as the tool geometry and frictional characteristics. For example, the rolling of a
strip can be accomplished by using squeeze rolls. In the rolling process, parameters with
a small roll diameter and little reduction produce deformation penetration that is shallow
and close to the surface, whereas the interior of the strip remains almost undeformed.
After the removal of the deformation forces and a complete elastic recovery, this condition
produces compressive residual stresses at the surface and tensile residual stresses in the
core.
The logic of this situation is that the surface material is forced to elongate more than
the relatively rigid core permits. When there is a large diameter and much reduction, the
deformation penetration occurs deeper in the core and there is a tendency for the plastic
to lag at the surface, the result of friction at the material-to-tool interface. Thus, the cold
working processes like rolling, drawing, extrusion, and forging produce residual stresses
along with their molecular orientation [509].
Generally, the more discussed and technically reviewed residual stresses are in injection-
molded parts. Their presence can often be detected qualitatively by immersing TP parts
in appropriate stress-cracking solutions for a short time, then observing the crazing caused
by surface tensile residual stresses (see Chapter 4). Such methods are ineffective for a
part with compressive or insufficient tensile stresses on its surface. To determine their
magnitude includes the layer removal technique of microtoming (see Chapter 9).
Stress Concentrations
Sharp comers should always be avoided in designing, particularly when working with
TP injection-molded parts. Although sharp-cornered designs are common with certain
sheet metal and machined parts, good design practice in any material dictates the use of
generous radii, to reduce stress concentrations. Reinforced plastics and composites and
metal parts will often tolerate sharp comers, because the stresses at their comers are low
compared to the strength of the material or because localized yielding redistributes the
load. However, neither of these factors should be relied upon in TP molded parts. Sharp
comers, particularly the inside comers, can cause severe molded-in stresses as a material
shrinks onto the comer, as well as poor flow patterns, reduced mechanical properties,
and increased tool wear.
The elementary formulas used in design are based on structural members having a
more or less constant cross-section, or at least only a gradual change of contour, but
these conditions are seldom found in practice. The presence of shoulders, bosses, grooves,
holes, threads, and comers results in modifying the simple stress distribution and in
localized, higher stresses. This localization, known as the stress concentration factor, is
defined as K = maximum stress divided by nominal stress. Localized high stresses must
in most cases be determined experimentally rather than theoretically. The photoelastic
technique is one of the more effective methods used to do this. To interpret a photoelastic
diagram qualitatively it is sufficient to know that the number of fringes (the density of
lines) is proportional to the absolute stress level.
Basically, in the vicinity of a sharp comer all fringes converge toward the apex. Having
a high density of lines at this point indicates the presence of high stress level. At a
rounded comer there will be considerably less concentration. Besides the molding prob-
lems, sharp comers often cause premature failure because ofthe stress concentration. To
avoid these problems, inside comer radii should be equal to one-half the nominal wall
thickness, with a 0.020 in. radius considered as a minimum for parts subjected to stress
and a 0.005 in. minimum for the stress-free regions of a part. Having inside radii less
than 0.005 in. is not recommended for most materials. Outside comers should have a
radius equal to the inside comer plus the wall's thickness.
Figure 11-2 illustrates quantitatively the effect of fillet radius (r) on stress concentration
factor (K). Assume that a force or load is being exerted on the cantilevered section shown.
As the radius is increased, with all other dimensions remaining constant, r/t increases
LOAD
"c~r !~
.-
~ 3.0
a:
e
()
~ 2.5
<:
0
j:::
<:(
g:
~ 2.0
()
~
()
CJ)
CJ)
r=V2 t
GOOD DESIGN STANDARD
UJ 1.5
g:
CJ)
1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5
RATIO, ~
t
Figure n-2. The effect of the fillet radius on the stress-concentration factor. To find the stress
from having a small radius, multiply the calculated bending stress by K.
proportionally and the stress-concentration factor decreases, as shown by the curve. The
K factor can be reduced by 50 percent, from 3.0 to 1.5, by increasing the rlt sixfold,
from 0.1 to 0.5. This curve shows how readily the K factor can be reduced by using a
large fillet radius. A fillet with an optimal design is obtained with an rlt of 0.5. A further
increase in the radius reduces the stress concentration by a marginal amount. Stress
concentration factors on the same order of magnitude have also been determined for
grooves, notches, holes, screw threads, bosses, and ribs [810].
INJECTION MOLDING
Design Concepts
In designing a totally new product or redesigning an existing one to improve the product,
bring about cost savings, or some combination of these or other reasons, consideration
should be given to the key advantages of injection molding (1M). These advantages
include the ability to produce finished, multifunctional, or complex molded parts accu-
rately and repeatedly in a single, highly automated operation (see Chapter 7). While
keeping this in mind during the initial planning stage, one should also be aware of the
general design considerations presented in this section [1, 2,5-12,40-46,50-70, 86,
231,409,564,569,593, 807].
Many parts of an injection mold will influence the final product's performance, di-
mensions, and other characteristics. These mold parts include the cavity shape, gating,
parting line, vents, undercuts, ribs, hinges, and so on (see Table 11-2). The mold designer
must take all these factors into account. At times, to provide the best design the product
designer, processor, and mold designer may want to jointly review where compromises
can be made to simplify meeting product requirements. With all this interaction, it should
be clear why it takes a certain amount of time to ready a mold for production.
Thus, in the design of any 1M part there are certain desirable goals that the designer
should use. In meeting them, problems can unfortunately develop. For example, the most
Table 11-2. Functions of an Injection Mold

Mold Component Function Perfonned
Mold base Hold cavity (cavities) in fixed, correct position relative to machine
nozzle
Guide pins Maintain proper alignment of the two halves of a mold
Sprue bushing (sprue) Provide means of entry into mold interior
Runners Convey molten plastic from sprue to cavities
Gates Control flow into cavities
Cavity (female) and Control size, shape, and surface texture of molded article
force (male)
Water channels Control temperature of mold surfaces, to chill plastic to rigid state
Side (actuated by cams, Fonn side holes, slots, undercuts, threaded sections
gears, or hydraulic
cylinders)
Vents Allow escape of trapped air and gas
Ejector mechanism (pins, Eject rigid molded article from cavity or force
blades, stripper
plate)
Ejector return pins Return ejector pins to retraced position as mold closes for next cycle
common mold design errors of a sort that can be eliminated usually occur in the following
areas:
Thick/thin sections, transitions, warp, and stress

Multiple gates and weld lines
Wrong gate locations
Inadequate provision for cavity air venting
Parts too thin to mold properly, as diaphragms
Parts too thick to mold properly
Plastic flow path too long and tortuous
Runners too small
Gates too small
Poor temperature control
Runner too long
Part symmetry vs. gate symmetry
Orientation of polymer melt in flow direction
Hiding gate stubs
Stress relief for interference fits
Living hinges
Slender handles and bails
Thread inserts
Creep or fatigue over long-time stress (extremely important)
As seen in previous chapters, different plastics have different melt and flow charac-
teristics. What is used in a mold design for a specific material may thus require a
completely different type of mold for another material. These two materials might, for
instance, have the same polymer but use different proportions of additives and reinforce-
ments. This situation is no different than that of other materials like steel, wood, ceramics,
and aluminum.
It is important to recognize that the drawing of a plastic product will not specifically
spell out the way many of its details will be carried out in the mold design. Some features
adversely affect the strength and quality of the molded product. In most cases, these
problem details can be modified by the designer to minimize their adverse effects on the
properties of the part [12, 46].
What follows is a general summary of how to reduce problems to tolerable limits.
First, inside sharp comers should normally be shown as two intersecting straight lines,
without specific indication as to the functional requirement or degree of sharpness. Inside
square comers are stress-concentration areas, quite similar to a notch in a test bar. The
Izod impact strength of notched and unnotched test bars shows the relative impact strength
of each material at the two conditions.
Thus, for example, polycarbonate has an impact strength of the notched Hn. test bar
of 12 to 16 ft.-Ib.lin. of notch, whereas the same bar unnotched does not fail the test.
Polypropylene has an impact strength 30 times greater in the unnotched than the notched
bar. Nylon shows a drastic increase in impact strength as the radius increases from
sharpness to A R. A similar trend exists for most other materials. These examples point
out that brittleness increases with the decreasing of a radius in a comer. Visually, a radius
of 0.020 in. on a plastic part may be considered sharp, with an influence on strength that
is much more favorable than a radius of 0.004 in. To the moldmaker, a sharp comer is
usually easier to produce, but in the plastic part it is a source of brittleness and, in most
cases, is highly undesirable. Inside sharp comers on plastic-part drawings are a frequent
occurrence. It is the mold designer's responsibility to call attention to such strength
degradation and invite appropriate corrective measures.
Second, varying wall thicknesses from thick and thin sections in a part will lead to
problems in molding. Having a uniform wall throughout a part gives it good strength and
appearance. Thick and thin sections will have molded-in stresses, different rates of
shrinkage (causing warpage), and possibly void formation in the thick portion. Since the
parts in a mold solidify from their outer surfaces toward the center, sinks will tend to
form on the surface of a thick portion. When thick (h in. and over) and thin (1 in. or
less) portions are unavoidable, the transition should be gradual and coring should be
utilized whenever possible.
Third, sinks are not only the result of the causes listed above but also occur whenever
supporting or reinforcing ribs, flanges, or similar features are used in an attempt to provide
functional service without changing the basic wall thickness of a product. If the appearance
of a sink on the surface is objectionable, the ribs and transition radius should be pro-
portioned so that their contribution to the sink is minimal. Figure 11-3 is a guide to the
dimensioning of ribs.
Fourth, molded-in metal parts should be avoided whenever alternate methods will
accomplish the desired objectives. If it is essential to incorporate such inserts, they should
be shaped so that they will present no sharp inside comers to the plastic. The effect of
the sharp edges of a metal insert would be the same as explained in the first point above,
namely, brittleness and stress concentration. The cross-section that surrounds a metal
insert should be heavy enough that it will not crack upon cooling. A method of minimizing
cracking around the insert is to heat the metal insert prior to mold insertion to a temperature
of 250 to 300°F so that it will tend to thermoform the plastic into its finished shape. The
thickness of the plastic enclosure will vary from material to material. A reasonable guide
is to have the thickness 1.75 to 2 times the size of the insert diameter.
Fifth, most plastic parts are used in conjunction with other materials. If the use tem-
perature is other than room temperature, certain compensatory steps must be taken to
avoid problems arising from the difference in the thermal coefficients of expansion of
the different materials. Many plastic materials expand about ten times as much as steel.
Thus, careful analysis of the conditions under which the metallic materials are coemployed
for functional uses is called for. In the automotive industry many long plastic parts are
used in conjunction with metal frames. If proper compensation is not made for the
.--,---------~--~--------~
,---
T
-'R :.025-.045
APER-~tlMIN.
Figure 11-3. Rib and wall dimensioning.

difference in thermal coefficients of the materials, buckling or looseness may result,

causing noise or a poor appearance.
Finally, plastic threads have a very limited strength and may be further degraded if
the thread form is not properly shaped. The V-shaped portion at the outside of a female
thread will present a sharp inside comer that will act as a stress concentrator and thereby
weaken the threaded cross-section. A rounded form that can be readily incorporated in
a molding insert will appreciably improve the strength over a V-shaped form. When self-
tapping, thread-cutting, or thread-form screws are used, their holding power can be
increased if either the screws or plastic parts are heated to a temperature of 180 to 200°F
at joining time. This will provide thermoforming action to some degree and keep the
stress level caused by the joining action at a low point.
These possible sources of problems in a molded part should be marked on the part
drawing and explained to the product designer for corrective action or creating an aware-
ness of possible product defects from design limitations. This is a necessary step in the
chain of events in which the aim is to produce a tool that will provide parts for a good
working product. Even if the mold's design, workmanship, and operation are carried out
to the highest degree of quality, they cannot overcome a built-in weakness of product
design.
Sharp Corners
When a part drawing does not show a radius, the tendency is for the toolmaker (while
making a mold) to leave the intersecting machined or ground surfaces as they are generated
by the machine tool. The result is a sharp comer on the molded part. Such sharp comers
on the insides of parts are the most frequent property detractors.
The material data sheet should show the difference in impact strength between notched
and unnotched test bars. In some materials this ratio is 1 to 30, but in others there is also
a decided reduction in the strength of the notched bars. Some show no strength reduction,
however. In a shaped product an inside sharp comer is an indication that a certain specified
tough material acts in a brittle manner. Sharp comers become stress concentrators.
The stress-concentration factor increases as the ratio of the radius R to the part thickness
T decreases. An RIT of 0.6 is favorable, and an increase in this value will be of some
limited benefit. If certain other details in this problem are properly counteracted, that will
help in reducing stress concentration. In Figure 11-4, we can see that a concentric radius,
in addition to eliminating the outside sharp comer, can play an important part in holding
down the value of the stress concentration.
Poor Good
R, (min) = 0.020 in.
Figure 11·4. An inside comer.

The ASTM Izod impact strength of nylon with various notch radii is shown in Figure
11-5. Thus, we see that with a radius of 0.005 in. the impact strength is about 1.3 ft.-
lb'/in., with an R of 0.020 in. it is 4.5 ft.-Ib'/in., and with an R of 0.040 in. it is 12 ft.-
lb./in. In most cases a radius of 0.020 in. can be considered a sharp comer as far as end
use is concerned, a size that is a decided improvement over a 0 to 5 mil radius; therefore,
it should be considered a minimum requirement and be so specified. If this radius of
0.020 in. causes interference, a comer such as shown in Figure 11-6 should be considered.
The recommended radius not only reduces the brittleness effect but also provides a
streamlined flow path for the plastic in the mold. The radiused comer of the metal in the
mold reduces the possibility of its breakdown and thus eliminates a potential repair need.
Too large a radius is also undesirable because it wastes material, may cause sink marks,
and may even contribute to stresses, from having excessive variations in thickness.
0.040
-:
c: .......
0.020 ...........
'"
::I ./
"
ro
a:
/
...u0
~
Z 0.005
0.001
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
Izod Impact Strength (ft-Ib/in,l

Figure 11-5. A radius of notched Izod impact strength for nylon.
Radius just large enough

to provide clearance over
sharp corner.
Figure 11-6. A clearance radius for a sharp corner.

1-1/2 t
I 1-1/2 t
f-L-L-L-+-t~
Figure 11·7. A solid-steel gear.
t = Thickness through
pitch line
I I
Root
diameter
Figure 11·8. A plastic design of the steel gear shown in Figure 11-7.
Uniform Wall Thickness

Wall requirements are usually governed by the load, the support needs for other com-
ponents, attachment bosses, and other protruding sections.
Designing a part to meet all these requirements while still producing a reasonably
uniform wall will greatly benefit its durability. A uniform wall thickness will minimize
stresses, differences in shrinkage, possible void formation, and sinks on the surface; it
also usually contributes to material saving and economy in production.
Most of the features for which heavy sections are intended can be modified by means
of ribbing, coring, and shaping of the cross-section to provide equivalent strength, rigidity,
and performance. Figure 11-7 shows a small gear manufactured from metal bar stock.
The same gear converted to a molded plastic would be designed as shown in Figure 11-
8. This plastic gear design, compared to copying the metal gear, saves material, eliminates
stresses from having thick and thin sections, provides uniform shrinkage in teeth and the
remainder of the gear, avoids the danger of warpage, with its thin web and tooth base
prevents bubble formation and potential weak spots, and, having no sink in the middle
of the thickness, provides a fun load-carrying capacity for the teeth.
Poor
A, 'K: ____________, A, = A, + ,
\
LeRl /
\
Ribs
I
J/'-_J-.- ---/
"Poor" "Good"
No Yes
Figure 11-9. Poor and better design features.
Figure 11-9 illustrates both well and poorly designed cross-sections.

If a case exists where some thickness variation is unavoidable, the transition should
be gradual, to prevent sharp changes in temperature during solidification.
Wall Thickness Tolerance

When relatively deep parts are being designed, a tolerance for the wall thickness on the
order of ±O.OO5 in. is usually given. What this tolerance should mean is that a product
will be acceptable when made with this tolerance, but that the wall thickness must be
uniform throughout the circumference.
If we analyze the molding condition of such a part and assume that one side is made
to minimum specifications and the opposite to maximum specifications, we find the
following taking place: the resistance to plastic flow decreases with the third power of
the thickness, which means that the thick side will be filled first, while the thin side will
fill from all sides, instead of the gate side alone. This type of filling creates a pocket on
the thin side and compresses the air and gases to such a point that the rising temperature
caused by compression causes the material to be charred while the pocket is filling up.
The charred material will create porosity, a weak area, and an electrically defective
surface. Furthermore, the filling of the thick side ahead of the thin side creates a pressure
imbalance generated by the 5 to 10 tons/sq. in. injection pressure that can cause the core
to deflect toward the thin side, further aggravating the difference in wall thickness. This
pressure imbalance will contribute to mold damage and make part production difficult if
not impossible. We may conclude that the wall uniformity throughout the circumference
must be within narrow limits, such as ± 0.002 in., whereas the thickness in general may
vary from the specified value by ±0.005 in.
Flow Patterns
Ultimately, part quality can be considered a direct outcome of a plastic melt's flow
behavior in its mold cavity or cavities. Excessive restrictions and obstructions to the flow
of material spell trouble in injection molding. Some examples of reduced-flow problems
are illustrated in Figures 11-10 through 11-18.
POOR DESIGN
Good
Figure 11-10. A nominal thickness maintained throughout a part can simplify its melt flow.
Good design has a minimum exterior radius of Ii times the wall thickness and a minimum of !
its thickness, which maintains uniform section thickness.
' " Poor Flow
Sharp angle Increases stress. InhIbIts

ma/enaillow Matenal must be forced /0 smaller area
Poor
DeSIgn
~GOodFIOW
Good I
Generous radius relIeves stress. promotes
~ma/eriaillow
DeSIgn L-____________________ ~
~I
Ma/eflalllows smoothly to larger area
Figure 11-11. Approaches to consider when making changes in wall thicknesses.

~HJPl
Heavy port cross section Ports cored, cross section
i Undesirable) (Preferred)
Figure H-ll. Parts having heavy cross-sections are subject to longer cycles and cures,
laminations or skins, blisters, warpage, and increased fabricating costs.
Figure H-13. When molding an RP, thin sections sometimes lose strength, because fibers do
not flow into a narrow space unless a suitable moldable material is used.
Figure H-14. Avoid having uneven sections, which cause distortion, warpage, cracks, sinks,
and strains because of differences in shrinkage from one section to another. Where this situation
exists or at least usually exists the problem is normally eliminated by changing the process
controls which in tum usually requires a longer cycle time.
!~~e~
Q I .
Uniform
walls
W:' ,
Heavy
Thin
~Thin ~OIlS Heavy
not
critical
uestlonable Incorrect Correct Center gate preferred
Figure H-IS. The design of wall sections contributes to flow patterns and can be controlled to
obtain the best end-product results.
804
I -to. 100 in.

JJ!:i'~
~"k J.IOO in. Sink mark
Figure 11-16. The thicknesses of adjacent walls and ribs should be about 60 percent of the
thickness of the main bodies to reduce the possibility of sink marks and promote better flow.
Figure 11-17. Sharp comers, straight sides, and improper venting impede flow, resulting in
strains and possible cracks. Optimum flow requires using maximum radii at comers, reasonable
inside and outside tapers, as well as proper vents at mold-parting lines, pockets, and blind
holes.
Sinks
Figure 11-18. A crude but effective method for locating sink marks and designing them "out"
of plastics parts is in effect to "roll a ball" down the wall's thickness; if it permits a sink, the
part will be marked.
Parting Lines
Parting lines (PLs) on the surface of a molded product, which are produced by the parting
line of the mold, can often be concealed on a thin, inconspicuous edge of the part. Doing
so preserves the good appearance of the molding and in most cases eliminates the need
for any finishing. Figures 11-19 through 11-26 show parting-line locations on various
part configurations.
NOT THIS,
- PARIiNC liNt
_o~"'IN' ON' - 8
--u:u- PARTINC LINE
NOT TH IS THIS
Figure 11-19. Examples of parting line locations. The extreme right diagram shows that having
sharp comers could cause poor dimensional control or possibly nonflat surfaces with inadequate
mold cooling.
~
P,-L
~~
~L ~L '1.
~L p.
Flat porting preferred Step porting lines 7L
Figure 11-20. Consider the parting lines when designing parts that may require odd or different
radii, contours, and stepped parting lines.
~ )I
Purling line m.smolch
Bobbing cross sections
Figure 11-21. Excessive wear on mold parting lines can create a mismatch on a molded part
that will appear greatly exaggerated (a 0.0003 in. mismatch can appear to be 0.020 in.) or can
create burrs from 0.001 to as much as 0.010 in.
806
~r
~; [[[ [[
Figure 11-22. An example of a series of possibilities for designed mismatches.
Imperfect airgnment Designed mismatch Designed bead mismatch

Figure 11-23. A mismatch in alignment of two molded parts (such as a box and cover) usually
is traceable to part warpage or difference in shrinkage; the misalignment at the parting line
appears to be improved when a bead or a designed mismatch is utilized.
Solid bond Knurl
Figure 11-24. Allowing parting-line flash in gear teeth and on knurled parts requires expensive
deflashing operations. To prevent flash, add a shroud to the gear or a solid band or bead to the
knurl at the mold-parting line.
'7L
Figure 11-25. Four possibilities for locating parting lines on assembly parts, boxes, and covers
while yet maintaining good aesthetics.
807
-PL
y~j-PL.U:hM'a,e
f=-T~
"tSh,i"'a,e ~
DtShri kag .
Maid cavity and pin Mold force

Figure 11-26. The dimensions and tolerances given for parting lines should include on the final
dimensions allowances for potential flashing conditions. All molds for TPs or TSs can open and
flash to some extent, depending on the mold design and construction, the melt pressure, the
mold-clamping force, and the type of material. For example, if the flash is 0.003 in. at the
mold-parting lines, part dimensions A, B, C, D, and E will increase 0.003 in. (left diagram).
The drawing at the right shows how to estimate mold components.
Gate Sizes and Locations

Because of high melt pressure, the area near a gate is highly stressed, both by the frictional
heat generated at the gate and the high velocities of the flowing material. Using a small
gate is desirable for separating the part from the feed line, but not for a part with low
stresses. Gates are usually two thirds of a part's thickness. If they are that large or larger
it will reduce frictional heat, permit lower velocities, and allow the application of higher
pressures for increasing the density of the material in the cavity. The product designer
should caution the tool designer to keep the gate area away from load-bearing surfaces
and to make the gate size such that it will improve the quality of the product. Some
examples regarding the design of gates are given in Figures 11-27 through 11-32 [12].
Three -plate mold Edge gate Center gate

(ce nter gate I
Figure 11-27. Injection molds are especially suitable for producing parts to meet different mold
styles, as shown in these three examples.
Figure 11-28. Examples of some melt flows using too small a gate. The melt should fill the
cavity uniformly.
tb2Z1F
Edge gate V Ring gate
n
Center gate
V' 6
Tunnel gllte
Disk gate
m
Leg gate
Figure 11-29. Among the various methods available for gating are edge, ring, center, tunnel,
disc, and leg gates. Consider the material and design factors before selecting the type of gate.
Figure 11-30. Gate breaking and clipping are low-cost removal methods when the part design
permits locating a recessed gate in a hidden area, as in this handle. This type of problem is
eliminated by using hot runner molds for TPs and cold runner molds for TSs.
Hot runner gates
Top view
Figure 11-31. In molding a large, flat TP surface using hot or insulated runners, having one or
more small gates can help reduce warpages. One way to camouflage the resulting gate scars is
to use the bull's-eye design shown (with hot runners no gate problem develops).
Gale ground Broken Gale cui or broken Sheared gale

Figure 11-32. Some gates must simply be cut, sheared with fixtures, ground, or finished, but
those broken off from the parts to save finishing costs could have their recesses or protrusions
remain.
809
Tapers of Draft Angles

It is desirable for any vertical wall of a molded product to have an amount of draft that
will permit its easy removal from a mold. Figures 11-33 and 11-34 show two basic
conditions in which draft is a consideration. The first example is the most desirable
application of the draft angle. The amount of draft may vary from 1 degree up to several
degrees, depending on what the circumstances permit. A fair average may be from l
degree to 1 degree. When a small angle such as 1 degree is used, the outside surface-
the mold surface producing it-will require a high directional finish, to facilitate removal
from the mold.
In the other example, as shown in Figure 11-34, there is a separating inside wall that
should generally be perpendicular to the base. The draft in this case should be on the
low side (1 degree) so that additional material usage is small, the possibility of having
voids close to the base is avoided, and increased cycle time in manufacturing is minimized.
Here again the vertical molding surfaces will demand a much higher surface finish, with
polishing lines in the direction of part withdrawal. On shallow walls the draft angle can
be considerably larger, since the influence of the enumerated drawbacks will be minor.
The designer should be cognizant of the need for drafts on vertical walls. If problems
are encountered during the removal of parts, stresses can result, the shape of the product
can be distorted and surface imperfections be introduced.
Some examples of different approaches to the design of drafts are shown in Figures
Angle not limited -
Figure 11-33. External wall taper.
Angle less than 10

Figure 11-34. Internal wall taper.
11-35 through 11-38. One of the difficulties when applying draft to a part is the creation
of heavy walls. The potential problem of removal can be remedied by the using parallel
drafts on walls, as shown in Figure 11-38, where the walls are kept uniform. A guide
to determining the amount of dimensional change required due to the draft angle is given
in Figure 11-39 .
.090· .070· 100· · "- .• " .080·
Co"tcl I nCOII'tt:1
Figure 11-35. An example of side-wall taper for long-draw products .
.070"
.080· 080·
Dlfftcult Slmplr
Figure 11-36. An example of designs for long-draw products. The left view has little clearance,
but the right side is simplified by the clearance allowed by the walls' taper.
DRAFT
Figure 11·37. An example of using mUltiple drafts to permit ease of part removal.
O/MfNSION
OIFFHI£NCE
Figure 11-38. Using parallel drafts with heavy walls.
"J lAI· lAo liz • I" 2" 3" 4·

.'
.~
I" ~: 0 .0022 0.0044 0.0081 0.0175 0.0349 0 .0524 0.0699

~
..
"~
~.
~ 40
~ ,
~ 0.0350 0.0698 0 .10A8 0.1398

2" 0.0044 0.0088 0.0174
,
....
,
.~
3" 0.0066 0.0132 0.02fi1 0.0525 0.10A1 0 .1512 0 .2091

f<:'! l- 80
I:
;:'
4" ~ ....- ·i,.....:1 0.0088 0.0176 0.03A8 0.0700 0.1390 0.2096 0 .2796
• 4· en
a:
..,
1&.1
5" 0.0110 0.0220 0.0A35 0.0875 0 .1745 0 .2620 0.3495 ~ 120 I-
2
...J
...J
6" 0·.0132 0.0264 0.0522 0.1050 0.2094 0 .3144 0.41M
- 160
7"
....
~
0.015A 0 .0308 0.0609 0.1225 0.24043 0.3668 0.4893
,
~.
r.-: 0.5592 ~ 200
8" 0 .0176 0 .0352 0.0696 0 .1400 0.2792 0.4192
~
'1
~::..
9" 0 .0198 0 .0396 0.0183 0 .1575 0.3141 0 .4716 0.6291
.'
~ 1·
240
~ ~;-: 0.6990
10· 0.0220 0.0440 0.0870 0.1750 0 .3490 0 .5240
Figure 11-39. The relation of the degree of taper per side to the dimension in in.lin.
812
Weld Lines
With molded parts that include openings (holes), problems develop. In the process of
filling a cavity the flowing plastic is obstructed by the core, splits its stream, and surrounds
the core. The split stream then reunites and continues flowing until the cavity is filled.
The rejoining of the split streams forms a weld line that lacks the strength properties that
exist in an area without a weld line because the flowing material tends to wipe air,
moisture, and lubricant into the area where the joining of the stream takes place and
introduces foreign substances into the welding surface. Furthermore, since the plastic
material has lost some of its heat, the temperature for self-welding is not conducive to
the most favorable results. A surface that is to be subjected to loadbearing should not
contain weld lines. If this is not possible, the allowable working stress should be reduced
by at least 15 percent. Some examples of different aspects pertaining to weld lines are
shown in Figure 11-40.
...........
L "--0------·I~~eld
(
I I
~'> ~ -
I " I
.. ~..::---
~- ______'
\ ' ... -..... I
'-----~. " ,
... ~
I
Flow oround rl bs Flow oround holes Flo w at gate
Not this This
G
( I
) ..
~ Weldlme
Opposite flow fronts produce a weld line

that could also contain entrapped air.
-~::::-t:~Y:;.:.u::L lnSlde or
outs Ide
center
gOle
Direct flow in one direction to avoid undesirable welds.
Figure 11·40. Some examples of flow patterns to consider during the design stage to eliminate
or at least minimize weld lines to obtain maximum strength.
Vents, Trapped Air, and Ejectors

Vents can be used to release air entrapped in cavities as well as moisture and gases
formed from melts that were not previously removed during processing (see Chapters 7
and 8). Vents and ejectors may be considered when designing such parts, as shown in
Figures 11-41 through 11-46.
yents required
,Plastic
F~P/ZZ/
vent
.~ ~-out and/ Kick-out and/
/
Kick-out or vent pins or vent ~ Kick-out
stnpper sleeve
Vents
Figure 11-41. Parting lines can provide venting, but in deep pockets kick-out pins or vent pins
incorporated into a mold can vent or remove air or gas.
Knockoutand~:
__
vent blade
,--
Plastic
Edge!
gate section
Figure 11-42. Center-gate this type of part, if possible. If aesthetics prevent this approach and
edge gating is requested, the material will flow around the edge and to the thin top section last.
Thus, air-and any gas that may be present because of melt-will be trapped in the top, which
may not be acceptable.
Trapped gas causes

burn spot in center
Heavy
wall
I
,/
J---~--~
....i I - - -
Edge
,/
,/
,/
gate
Figure 11-43. Here the melt flow passes through heavy sections first, pushing air and gases into
the topmost thin sections, where they become trapped. This design should either be center gated
at its top, use thinner walls, or be designed, if possible.
UnevenWolI
Section
Correct Incorrect
POINTOF
II I
II!OLD WEAR I j
fS (J \..._----
GAS POCKETS ,,/ BETTER DESIGN
BLISTERS
Figure 11·44. These cross-sectional views show the results of uniform versus nonuniform wall
thicknesses in eliminating air and gas entrapment.
Figure 11·45. To aid in eliminating air and gas entrapment, aim to reduce heavy or thick
sections like those on the left of each pair.
Figure 11·46. Gates and ejector pins create marks and blemishes. Parts drawings should
indicate surfaces that can be marred without creating problems, to aid in properly locating gates
and ejector pins.
815
Undercuts
Undercuts, whether external or internal, should be avoided if possible. In cases where it
is essential to incorporate them in part design, a great many can be realized by appropriate
mold design in which either sliding components on tapered surfaces or split cavity cam
actions will produce the needed undercut. This obviously means increased tool cost, in
the neighborhood of some 15 to 30 percent.
Some conditions will, however, permit incorporating undercuts with conventional strip-
ping of the part from the mold. Certain precautions are necessary in order to attain
satisfactory results. First, the protruding depth of the undercut should be two thirds of
the wall thickness or less. Second, the edge of the mold against which the part is ejected
should be radiused to prevent shearing action. Finally, the part being removed should be
hot enough to permit easy stretching and return to its original shape after removal from
the mold (see Figures 11-47 through II-54).
How easily the task can be accomplished depends on the material's elasticity and
springback. Many threaded plastic caps are stripped from the cores instead of being
unscrewed. Coarse threads with the crest of the core thread rounded and a material with
good elongation and ability to spring back make it feasible to apply conventional part
stripping. The undercut problem can be solved by the cooperation of the designer, mold-
maker, and processor, since each product configuration presents different possibilities.
PL-
ndercut
Port cross section Cam cross Molded part

section
Figure 11-47. A split mold with mold sliding-cam actions for outside undercuts will show
seams in the molded part that may be objectionable. They can be partially hidden by locating
them in the least-conspicuous areas when designing the molds.
A
Bf[Y rffP
.
: :: ~der cu t formed
"Id pin
Force
and
-PL
cavity
PL- eams cutoff .............
Port cross sections
Figure 11-48. Inside undercuts can be made with removable wedges or ejector pins and ejector
wedges, but seams will still show. The left view shows undercuts molded with removable
wedges, the right view the mold knockout pin positioned through the permissible opening in the
part and cavity cutoff approaches.
Figure 11-49. The mold for external undercuts to retain part in the required female cavity prior
to ejection. When they are required to be retained on a male cavity undercuts are on the male
plug.
Figure 11-50. An example of an undercut made possible by using an ejector pin.
Under cuI
~~
- -
Molded
port
Figure 11-51. The goal should be to avoid undercuts wherever possible, especially in small
holes and on projections. With rigid plastics, undercuts usually require complex, more expensive
molds and particularly molding operations. However, with flexible types of plastics stripping the
mold will permit ease of removal from the mold. This action can be used with rigid plastics
when it is practical to remove a part while the plastic is still soft, just prior to when the part
should be removed. When certain parts that we removed at an earlier stage, cooling fixtures may
be applicable.
817
", "Porting Iin~
I ""- ", ", ", n",essift1/~d by
I"""'"" spIll co,tily
.... .....
",>- - Exler-nol
.... undercuts
Figure 11·52. External undercuts with this split-mold design eliminate the undercut problem but
develop a parting line.
CORE & CAVITY "KISS-OFF"

CREA TlNG OPENING IN SIDE WALL
USUALL Y REQUIRES
J
5° DRAFT MINIMUM
DIRECTION OF MOLD TRAVEL

INJECTION MOLDED
PLASTIC PART
SIDE WALL OPENING UNDERCUT
HINGED DOOR
WITH MOLDED-IN
"THRU-HOLE" UNDERCUT
CORE AND CA VITY
CORE EXTENDS KISS-OFF
THROUGH OPENING
IN PART ---+-2IiO~FW;::.e:;:4- LOCKING TAB ALTERNATE CORING
FROM BOTH SIDES
CREA TED THRU
HOLE FOR HINGE PIN
...
DIRECTION OF MOLD TRAVEL
LOCKING TAB UNDERCUT
Figure 11·53. Creating undercuts with simple tooling.

818
I
+--1
Figure 11-54. Avoiding an undercut.
Blind Holes
In regard to molding products that include holes, it is important to ensure that sufficient
material surrounds the holes and melt flows properly. Some examples of approaches and
problems that can develop are to be seen in Figures 11-55 through 11-62 [2].
A core pin forming blind holes is subjected to the bending forces that exist in the
cavity, due to the high melt pressures. Calculations can be made for each case by
establishing the core pin diameter, its length, and the anticipated pressure conditions in
the cavity. From technical handbooks we know that a pin supported on one end only will
deflect forty-eight times as much as one supported on both ends. This suggests that the
depth of hole in relation to diameter should be small, in order to maintain a straight hole.
Sometimes a deep, small-diameter hole is needed, as in pen and pencil bodies. In this
case the plastic flow is arranged to hit the free end of the core from four to six evenly
spaced gates that will cause a centering action, and the plastic will continue flowing over
the diameter in an umbrellalike pattern to balance the pressure forces on the core. When
this type of flow pattern is impractical, an alternative may be a through hole or tube
formation combined with a postmolding sealing or closing operation by spinning or
ultrasonic welding.
At the other extreme, consider a 1 in. diameter core exposed to a pressure of 4,000
psi with an allowance for deflection of 0.0001 in. and see how deep a blind hole can be
molded under these conditions.
Mold port way and

complete with drill
Mold
Figure 11-55. Holes impractical to mold must be drilled, but they must not be so close to edges
or comers that cracks result. A small-diameter hole is difficult to drill along its intended
direction to any great depth, so the most practical approach in many products is to mold it part
way, then drill it the remainder of the distance.
According to engineering handbooks the deflection, a, may be used to calculate this

depth, I, as follows:
wP 1,000r
a=-=
8EI 8 x 30,000,000 x 0.049 x 0.0039
Trd 4
I = 64 = 0.049d4
~ = 0.0625 x 0.0625 = 0.0039

where W = total load
= psi x d x I (projected area of pin)
= 4,000 x t x I = 10001
I = length of pin; d = diameter of pin
a = deflection = 1110,000
_1_ _ _ 1,OOOr _ d fl . n
10,000 - a - 8 x 30,000,000 x 0.049 x 0.0039 - e echo
r = 0.0045864
I = 0.26" or slightly over diameter size
If a hole deeper than 0.26 in. is needed, we can calculate the amount of deflection
that will be present and whether the calculated deflection will produce an opening of the
necessary tolerance, as well as the kind of stress that will be generated in the pin, along
with its corresponding life expectancy. Let us now assume that the desired depth of hole
is i in.
The deflection is then calculated as follows:
wP 1,000r
a =-=
8EI 8 x 30,000,000 X 0.049 X 0.0039
14 = 0.0198
0.0198 .
a =- - = 0 .00043" deflection
45,864
The maximum stress, S, is found by
S = WI = 1,000f = 1,000 x 0.1406

2Z 2 X 0.006125 2 x 0.006125
Z = 0.098d 2 = 0.006125
S = 11 ,480 psi
These results indicate that a hole with 0.0004 in. variation may be satisfactory, and if
the pin is made of a springlike material, properly heat treated, it should last a long time.
-/"
4
Figure 11·56. A basic guide for good blind-hole design.
Mo td cross sect ion

Port cross section
;jcf,,;;~
Port cross section Mold pin could bp.nd
Figure 11·57. When holes are too near an edge or comer, material may not "weld" properly
around mold pins. Also, the flow of the melt can bend mold pins for blind holes when their
length exceeds a diameter of 2! times and when holes are to be long with small diameters, even
if these are anchored at both ends.
Suitable hole
location
Figure 11·58. When delicate parts are molded, mold designs should provide for proper hole
locations and for replaceable blades and members in wall sections.
Square holes where possible

ClCJCJOD
ClCJCJCJD Mold
Molded part
Figure 11·59. Whenever possible with close-tolerance parts, consider the potential of using a
laminated type of mold.
821
NOT THIS THIS
Figure 11-60. Methods for molding holes or openings in side walls without undercutting mold
movement. Courtesy E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
NOT THIS THIS NOT THIS THIS

Figure 11-61. Whenever possible, chamfering should be used on open holes, because it reduces
or eliminates the potential for rough molded comers, cracks, and the like.
near
edge
PL-
PL-"----
Figure 11-62. Avoid part cross-sections that are so thin that they will be prone to cracking,
sharp edges that will chip or break, and holes near enough the edges to cause them to chip.
Sections should also not be so thin that melt will flow and weld in their thin edges. Certain
plastics are prone to this type of action.
822
Bosses
Bosses and other projections from the nominal wall are commonly found in injection-
molded plastic parts. These often serve as mounting or fastening points. Figure 11-63
shows some typical boss designs, along with common problems. As with rib design,
avoiding overly thick wall sections is important, to minimize the chance of appearance
or molding problems. When bosses are designed to accommodate self-tapping screws,
the inside diameter and wall thickness must be controlled to avoid excessive buildup of
hoop stresses in the boss. Ribs are frequently used in conjunction with bosses when
lateral forces are expected. Special care must be used with tapered pipe threads, since
they can create a wedging action on the boss. If there is a choice, the male rather than
the female pipe thread should be the one molded into the plastic [2].
POOR
- BETTER BETTER
CORE FROM
BELOW-
(PARALLEL
DRAFT)
POOR BETTER BETTER
'ht
USE GUSSETS RA THER THAN

VERY THICK BOSSES WHEN
RESISTANCE TO LOADING
CONNECTING BOSSES TO IS REQUIRED
OUTSIDE WALLS WITH RIBS
Figure 11-63. Design guides for molding bosses.
Coring
The tenn coring in injection molding refers to the addition of steel to the mold for the
purpose of eliminating plastic material in that area. Usually, coring is necessary to create
a pocket or opening in the part, or simply for the purpose of reducing an overly heavy
wall section (see Fig. 11-64). For simplicity and economy in injection molds, cores should
be parallel to the line of draw of the mold. Cores placed in any other direction usually
create the need for some type of side action (either a cam or hydraulic cylinder) or
manually loaded and unloaded loose cores [2].
Blind holes in molded plastic parts are created by a core supported by only one side
of the mold. The length of the core and depth of the hole are limited by the ability of
the core to withstand the bending forces produced by the flowing plastic without excessive
deflection. For this reason, the depth of a blind hole should not exceed three times its
diameter or minimum cross-sectional dimension. For small blind holes with a minimum
dimension below tin., the Ud ratio should be kept to two. With through holes the cores
can be longer, since they are supported by the opposite side of the mold cavity. Sometimes
the cores can be split between the two sides and interlocked when the mold is closed,
allowing for the creation of long through holes. With through holes, the overall length
of a given-size core can generally be twice as long as that of a blind hole. Sometimes,
even longer cores are necessary. The tool can be designed to balance the hydraulic pressure
on the core pin, thus limiting the deflection.
Internal Plastic Threads

The strength of plastic threads is limited, and when molded in a part involving either an
unscrewing device or a rounded shape of thread-similar to bottle-cap threads-they can
be stripped from the core. Screw threads, when needed, should be of the coarse type and
have the outside of the thread rounded so as not to present a sharp V to the plastic, which
can produce a notch effect.
POOR DESIGN SUGGESTED AL TERNA TlVES

SINK MARKS
~
WARPAGE
POOR RECTANGULAR MA TCH OUTSIDE

PART WITH ROUND HOLES CONFIGURA TlON TO INSIDE
CORES
Figure 11-64. Examples of coring in injection molds.

If a self-threading screw can be substituted, it will not only appreciably decrease

mold maintenance and mold cost but most likely, with proper type selection, also give
better holding power. A screw that has a thin thread with relatively deep flights can
give high holding power. If the screw or plastic is preheated to about 121°C (250"F),
a condition of thermoforming in combination with material displacement will exist,
thereby improving the holding power. When male plastic threads are being considered,
the coarser threads are again preferred, and the root of the thread should be rounded
to prevent the notch effect (see Figs. 11-65 and 11-66).
Molded-in Inserts
If metal inserts are to be molded into a plastic product, their shape would present no
sharp edges to the plastic, since the effect of the edges would be similar to that of a
notch. A knurled insert should have the sharp point smoothed, again to avoid the notch
effect. The practice of molding inserts in place is usually employed to provide good
holding power for plastic products, but there are drawbacks to this method: it is dangerous
to have an operator place an arm between the mold halves while the electrical power to
the machine is turned on. It normally takes a pin to support the insert, and since this pin
Initially Countersink Mold or machine

_--r~
<""<"'<,........'<""<""''"''''''~~ countersink
Pa rt ---t."'<"o:l~
Tapped Molded threads

Figure 11-65. Holes having molded-in threads or ones that are to receive tapped threads should
have molded-in countersinks to avoid chipping and burrs. If a threaded pin is being used to
mold threads in a through hole, the lead thread on the mold pin should have a pilot thread for
support.
Threads
TX
I
I
t
ReqUires special
mold design Preferred design (X=X)
Figure 11·66. Automatic unscrewing is expensive when molding, unless the plastic part is
designed to prevent turning during the unscrewing cycle. Where thread strength is a
requirement, fine threads should not be molded, particularly in RPs and .composites where the
threads could be mainly resin and thus very brittle. However, with proper molding procedures,
based on type of compound or composite used and the design of the mold being gained through
experience, no problem should develop.
is small in relation to the cored hole for the insert, it is easily bent or sheared under the
influence of injection pressure. Should the insert fallout of position, there is danger of
mold damage. Also, the hand placement of inserts contributes to cycle variation and with
it potentially product quality degradation. Some of these problems can be overcome
by higher mold expenditures, as for example shuttling cavities (see Figs. 11-67 through
11-80 and Table 11-3) [2].
On the other hand, the desired results in fastening can be attained by other means, as
for example by coring holes in the part that will permit ultrasonic welding of inserts in
place, coring a hole in the part that will be of a size when the part is removed from the
mold that will permit a slight press fit plus a gain in the holding power from postmolding
shrinkage, or coring a hole in the part that will permit dropping the insert and providing
a retaining shoulder by spinning or ultrasonic forming.
All these. assembly methods require the same time to perform as placing inserts in the
mold, but they also lower machine time. There are probably several other means of
accomplishing the desired result that depend on the circumstances at hand. In any event,
molded-in inserts, in the long run, usually prove costlier and so should be avoided.
Table 11-3. Suggested Minimum Wall Thicknesses for Inserts of Various

Diameters, in. (mm)
Diameter of Inserts, in .
.125 .250 .375 .500 .750 1.00

Plastic Material (3.17) (6.35) (9.52) (12.7) (19.0) (25.4)
ABS .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7) .750 (19.0) 1.00 (25.4)
Acetal .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7)
Acrylics .093 (2.36) .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7)
Cellulosics .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7) .750 (19.0) 1.00 (25.4)
Ethylene vinyl acetate .040 (1.02) .085 (2.16) N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.
F.E.P. (fluorocarbon) .025 (0.64) .060 (1.52) N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.
Nylon .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7) .750 (19.0) 1.00 (25.4)
Noryl (modified PPO) .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7)
Polyallomers .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7) .750 (19.0) 1.00 (25.4)
Polycarbonate .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7)
Polyethylene (H.D.) .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7) .750 (19.0) 1.00 (25.4)
Polypropylene .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .500 (12.7) .750 (19.0) 1.00 (25.4)
Polystyrene Not Recommended
Polysulfone Not Recommended
Surlyn (ionomer) .062 (1.57) .093 (2.36) .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .312 (7.92)
Phenolic G.P. .093 (2.36) .156 (3.96) .187 (4.75) .218 (5.53) .312 (7.92) .343 (8.71)
Phenolic .078 (1.98) .140 (3.56) .156 (3.96) .203 (5.16) .281 (7.14) .312 (7.92)
(medium impact)
Phenolic (high impact) .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17) .140 (3.56) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .281 (7.13)
Urea .093 (2.36) .156 (3.96) .187 (4.75) .218 (5.53) .312 (7.92) .343 (8.71)
Melamine .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .218 (5.53) .312 (7.92) .343 (8.71) .375 (9.52)
Epoxy .020 (0.51) .030 (0.76) .040 (1.02) .050 (1.27) .060 (1.52) .070 (1.78)
Alkyd .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .187 (4.75) .312 (7.92) .343 (8.71) .375 (9.52)
Diallyl phthalate .12~ (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .312 (7.92) .343 (8.71) .375 (9.52)
Polyester (premix) .093 (2.36) .125 (3.17) .140 (3.56) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .281 (7.14)
Polyester T.P. .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17) .187 (4.75) .250 (6.35) .375 (9.52) .375 (9.52)
PUSH-IN TYPE INSERTS
ADVANTAGES - SPEED AND LOW EQUIPMENT COSI
DISADVANTAGES - HIGH INDUCED STRESS AND ONLY
FAIR HOLDING POWER.
SELF-THREADING INSERTS
ADVANTAGE - INSTALLED WITH MINIMAL EQUIPMENI
DISADVANTAGES - SLOW AND THEY CAN CREATE HIGH

STRESSES.
• I
EXPANSION TYPE INSERTS
ADVANTAGE - NO INSTAllATION EQUIPMENI
DISADVANTAGES - LOWER PERFORMANCE AND
MODERATELY HIGH INDUCED
STRESS.
i
Figure 11-67. Examples of common threads metal inserts.
Before After
Figure 11-68. The technique of using hot-roll plastic over inserts to obtain strengthened
anchorages.
827
ft
-k-Insert hole
T.l.R.0.003m
Insert Mold pin
Figure 11·69. Either inside or outside diameters can be used to hold inserts in place during
molding. Tight tolerance (± 0.001 in. with a maximum TIR of 0.003 in.) are required.
Inserts
Inserf assembly Insert assembly

Figure 11·70. Assembling inserts after molding prevents problems such as potential melt flow
over metal surfaces during molding and the scratching of plated inserts during any required
deflashing. Pressed-in inserts require holes sized for proper fits.
~
!O'OOlin. ,-+0.001 in.
Insert Insert I
Plastic Plostic I
Supported ot 0.0. Supported at 0.0. Supported at 1.0.

Figure 11·71. Generally, through inserts must be molded ±O.OOI in. of length to ensure their
making contact with both mold surfaces.
Assembly
~ ~
Shoul~dr
, Knurl
. Groove ~~
!-Incorrect-! +-1---
Figure 11·72. Knurls and grooves can serve to anchor inserts in molded products. They should
be flush with the top surface or in contact with an assembling member to prevent their jacking
out.
828
...,....-- Recessed shoulder
Blind
hole
insert
Figure 11-73. During molding, any loose steel inserts falling into the molds will damage their
cavities, but brass or soft metals like aluminum will usually crush, with minimal or no damage
to the mold. The flow of plastic into the interior of an insert is impeded by using a blind-hole
insert and a shoulder (about if x if in.) around the insert opening.
Molded in place Hole molded or drilled

Figure 11-74. Some of the methods of assembling inserts include mechanical pushing and sonic
pushing, or allowing hot plastic to shrink around the insert.
Plastic material Some materials

may craze
with this type
insert
Normal shrinkage Low shrinkage
Figure 11-75. Plastic generally shrinks away from metal when it is molded inside a metal
insert. Both the insert's structure and the type of plastic used will determine the amount of
shrinkage.
Insert~ Inserts
)
~PIQSlie
~::.~
tparts
t:, Plastic
Figure 11-76. Metal stamping and inserts of various shapes are usable in many ways. To
prevent cracking and crazing during aging under use surround all inserts with reasonably thick
plastic walls. Thin walls can crack and too-thin walls can also show sink marks.
829
Irregularly shaped inserts
~------~ r---------,
Plastic Plastic
Figure 11·77. Irregularly shaped inserts protruding from the plastic complicate mold
construction and add costly deftashing operations to the product.
Low shrinkage
I r -- ---:;- -- i. possible crocks
11... _____ .. '- _____II
ond warpage
~I~r~-~~~-~-~-~-~-~-~-~-I=I~"""Insert
I L... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .)1 Medium shrinkage
Full shrinkage
desirable
--------------, conditions
Figure 11·78. When using metal embedments, the dimensions and tolerances of the plastic
parts will be difficult to estimate, because metal tends to prevent plastic from shrinkage. The
insert structure influences the final dimensions by controlling the movement of the plastic during
aging, setting up stresses that can cause cracks and warpage.
wJl:'DUring molding After shrinklnQ

Figure 11·79. Molded materials with high shrinkage values during cooling will shrink below
the metal inserts, allowing the insert ends to extend beyond the part.
ULTRASONIC
TYPE STUD TYPE
INSERTS ULTRASONIC
INSERT
Figure 11·80. These examples of ultrasonic inserts, designed for excellent performance, result
in fast action with very little induced stress.
830
1/32"(0.8mm)
Edge
Easily
,Broken
Incorrect
1/32" (0.8mm)
1/32" (0.8 mm)

Figure 11·81. Thread design guides. Courtesy E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
iT
Type 23
(ANSI T)
Type 25
(ANStBT)
Type with cutting

edge on point
(Hi·Lo)
Figure 11·82. Examples of self-threading screws.
Screws
For mechanical assemblies using screws (see Figs. 11-81 through 11-83), they can be
detached indefinitely, with the exception of self-tapping screws, which can be loosened
and retightened only a limited number of times. The best guideline for the designer is to
prefer any assembly design that converts eventual tensile loads to compression loads. For
those plastics that are subject to crazing or stress cracking, compression loads tend to
reduce this problem. When feasible, use metal-to-metal force-locking connections, par-
ticularly with many of the TPs, to release plastics significantly from stresses. The forces
that can be applied with a single small screw can be surprisingly high. As in metals,
consider the use of torque-limiting wrenches in designs where the degree of loading is
critical.
External and internal threads can be molded economically in plastic parts (see Fig. 11-
81). Screw threads produced by the mold itself using rotating cores, split inserts, or
collapsible cores [12] will eliminate the normally expensive postmolding threading op-
erations. Coarse threads can be molded easier than fine ones, so threads less than 32-
pitch should be avoided. American Standard screw threads should be designed and molded
carefully. If the threads end up forming notches, a reduction in impact strength and
ultimate elongation under tensile stress can be significant, depending on the type of plastic
used. With certain applications and materials, trapezoidal and knuckle threads are better.
831
Generally, the length of thread used should be more than 1.5 times the diameter, the
section thickness around the hole more than 0.6 times the diameter. Avoid having feather
edges, and limit tightening with the bolt shoulder.
Bottle caps made from different plastics are extensively used. Some closures are of
the simple cork type, but most are of the screw type. Strong, accurate threads can be
molded, which represent undercuts. Simple designs should be used when permitted, such
as wide-pitch threads. The thread should be designed to start about if in. from the end
of the face perpendicular to the axis of the thread. It is usually practical to mold up to
32 threads per in.; more than this number can give certain molders trouble.
Self-threading screws are an economical means of securing separable plastic joints.
They can be either thread cutting or thread forming (see Fig. 11-82). To select the correct
self-threading screw, the designer should know which plastic will be used and what its
mechanical properties are, particularly its modulus of elasticity. These self-threading
screws are driven into the molded part, eliminating the need for a molded-in thread or a
secondary tapping operation. They differ in their thread spacing and body design. Thread-
Table 11-4. Simplified Example of the Effect of Rib and Cross-section Changes
Cross Section Maximun Maximum
Area, Stress, Deflection,
square inches psi inches
Geometry (mm2 ) (mPa) (mm)
09.1 mm)
f-- 0 75----11
.L 0.0600 6800 0.694
T
~ (46.9)
(38.7) 07.6)
ORIGINAL SECT/ON
0080
(2.0)
~T
0040 '
---+-I '..- ,I
1
04,00 0.0615
(39.7)
2258
05.6)
0.026
(0.66)
ORIGINAL SECTION
WITH RIB
~0'75-il
~ 0.1793
015.7)
2258
05.6)
0.026
(0.66)
THICK SECTION
0.239
forming screws, which provide the highest stripping torques, have less tendency to damage
threads in repeated assembly operations than do other types. The thread-forming screw
displaces material as it is being installed in the receiving hole. This type of screw induces
high stress levels in the plastic part, so it is not recommended for use with certain plastics
such as those with a low modulus, unless careful procedures are used in forming the
threads.
Screws or threaded bolts with nuts require through-going holes but provide an easy
assembly system. As shown in Figure 11-83, washers are recommended to distribute the
load upon a larger area, wherever feasible or required. If a screw is tightened too far,
excessive bending or tensile stresses will easily be created, possibly causing cracking
based on stress-to-failure data curves. A change in design or the use of a spacer can
convert tensile into compressive stresses. Different screw- and bolt-heads can be used,
but flat-underside types of heads are best.
Ribs
If there is sufficient space, the use of ribs is a practical, economic means of increasing
the structural integrity of plastic parts without creating thick walls (see Chapter 3). Ribs
are provided for spacing purposes, to support components, and for other uses. Table 11-
4 shows a summary of the results of using a rib design.
Although the use of ribs gives the designer great latitude in efficiently tailoring the
structural response of a plastic part, ribbing can result in warping and appearance prob-
lems. In general, experienced design engineers do not use ribs if there is doubt as to
whether they are structurally necessary. Adding ribs after the tool is built is usually simple
and relatively inexpensive since it involves removing steel.
There are certain basic rib-design guidelines that should be followed (see Fig. 11-84).
The most general is to make the rib thickness at its base equal to one-half the adjacent
wall's thickness. With ribs opposite appearance areas, the width should be kept as thin
as possible. In areas where structure is more important than appearance, or with very
low shrinkage materials, ribs are often 75 or even 100 percent of the outside wall's
thickness. As can be seen in Figure 11-85, a goal in rib design is to prevent the formation
of a heavy mass of material that can result in a sink, void, distortion, long cycle time,
or any combination of these problems.
Figure 11-83. Examples of screw and bolt assemblies with the better designs on the right side.
DbJbJbJ
gggg
gggg
188BB
Figure 11-84. An example of a guideline in ribbing-a bidirectional ribbing (right) can reduce
or eliminate sagging or bending; a circular or diagonal ribbing (left) reduces or eliminates
twisting.
All ribs should have a minimum of lO of draft per side and a minimum radius of 0.005
inches at the base. Generally, the draft and thickness requirements will limit the height
of the rib. Therefore, multiple, evenly spaced ribs are preferred to single, large ribs.
Wherever possible, ribs should be smoothly connected to other structural features such
as bosses, side walls, and component-mounting pads. Ribs need not be constant in height
or width and are often matched to the stress distribution in the part.
The first step in designing a rib is to determine the dimensional limitations, followed
by establishing what shape the rib will have to be to realize a part with good strength
and satisfactory appearance that can be produced economically. Figure 11-86 shows
proportional dimensions of rib versus thickness. This arrangement will minimize voids
(sinks), stresses, and shrinkage variations, and lends itself to trouble-free molding.
If performance calculations indicate wall thicknesses well above those recommended
for a particular material, one of the solutions to the problem is to achieve equivalent
cross-sectional properties by ribbing. Heavy walls will cause a reduction in properties
caused by poor heat conductivity during molding, thus creating temperature gradients
throughout the cross-section, with resultant stresses. Cycle times are usually exceptionally
long, another cause of stress. Also, close-tolerance dimensions are difficult to maintain,
material is wasted, quality is degraded, and cost is increased. Solid plastic wall thicknesses
for most materials should be below 0.2 in., preferably around 0.125 in., in the interest
of avoiding these pitfalls. In most cases ribbing will provide a satisfactory solution; in
others reinforced material may have to be considered.
An example of how ribbing can provide the necessary equivalent moment of inertia
and section modulus follows.
A flat plastic bar I! in. wide, i in. thick, and 10 in. long, supported at both ends and
loaded at the center, was calculated to provide a specified deflection and stress level under
a given load. The favorable material thickness of this plastic is 0.150 in., and its rib
proportions would be as in Figure 11-86.
Using judgment as a guide, it would appear that the Ii in. width would require about
two ribs. So, as a starting point, let us calculate the equivalent cross-sectional data as if
we were dealing with two T-sections.
According to standard engineering handbooks (under "Stress and Deflection in Beams,"
"Moments of Inertia," etc.), resistance to stress is expressed by the moment of inertia,
and the resistance to deflection by the section modulus. By finding a cross-section with
the two factors equivalent, we can assure equal or better performance in the ribbed design
compared to the thick wall without ribs.
The stress = WlI4Z and the deflection = W[2/48EI, where W = load, I = length of
beam, Z = section modulus, E = modulus of elasticity, and I = moment of inertia.
For the flat bar I = bd3/12, b = Ii, d = i; or I = (1.5 X 0.375 3)/12 = 0.0066 for
the rectangular bar. The section modulus is
I 0.0066
Z = - = - - = 0.0352
Y 0.1875
The moment of inertia of aT-section is
where b = 0.75, s = 0.15, h = 0.6, t = 0.8, T = 0.1, d = 0.75, A = area = bs

+ h(T + t)/2. Therefore,
y = d - [3bs 2 + 3ht(d + s) + I(T - t)(h + 3s)]/6A
where y is the distance from the neutral point to the extreme fiber. Substituting the values
into the formulas we have
A = (0.75 x 0.15) + 0.6(0.1 2+ 0.08) = 0.1665
y = 0.75 - {(3 x 0.75 X 0.15 2) + [3 x 0.6 x 0.08(0.75 + 0.15)]
+ 0.6(0.10 - 0.08)(0.6 + 0.45)}/(6 x 0.1665)

_ 0 _ 0.0506 + 0.1296 + 0.0126
- .75 0.999
= 0.75 - 0.193 = 0.557

I = n[(4 x 0.75 x 0.153 ) + 0.63{(3 x 0.08) + 0.1}]
- 0.1665(0.75 - 0.557 - 0.15)2
= n[O.0102 + 0.073] - 0.1665 x 0.00185
= 0.00693 - 0.00031 = 0.00662
Z = 0.00662 = 0.0119
0.557
Two of the T-sections would provide a higher moment of inertia and decreased section
modulus than a sandwich structure. When placed on the end, the two ribs would make
a channel that would give a moment of inertia of 0.018 and a section modulus of 0.035,
~ ~VOIO
~ SIN RIS TOO THICK
OT~Y'IB
BEST USE A 0 GER

DEEPER RIB
BtiTTtiR
----f 11 MIHIMVM
~ VSIi MVLTIP!.£ RIBS
~ CORti fHIC FIlS

FROM BACK
BETTER DES I GN
Figure 11-85. Examples of rib design characteristics.
2/3 t
Figure 11-86. Rib proportion versus thickness.
values that are more than adequate for the purpose (see Fig. 11-87). It should be noted
that the two-rib construction forming a channel would require only 70 percent of the
material used in a solid bar (see Fig. 11-88).
Other means of stiffening surfaces can also be used, if appearance permits, where areas
can be domed and corrugated. The basic goal in any action that leads to greater rigidity
is to specify a practical wall thickness that will optimize strength and processing and thus
DESIGN fEATURES THAT INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE 837
Force
0.375 in. Rectangular bar, 0375 in. X 1.5 in .
•- - - - - 1 0 i n . - - - - . , J
1
Figure 11·87. A single-rib shape with good moldability that gives a section modulus and
moment of inertia equivalent to a rectangular bar.
result in high-quality products. In addition to ribs, other features protruding from a wall,
such as bosses or tubular shapes, should be treated similarly as far as transition radius,
taper, and minimal material usage are concerned. The same principles are involved.
Identical ill effects can be expected unless the recommended practices are incorporated.
Geometric Structural Reinforcements

Besides ribs, there are other methods of improving section properties (see Chapter 5).
Many of these can often be designed into functional or appearance features for the product.
Basically, to increase load-carrying ability or stiffness it is necessary to increase either
the properties of the plastic material or the section properties of the structure. Improving
the material can be beneficial in certain cases by changing the grade or type, compounding
or alloying, and incorporating fillers or fiber reinforcements (see Chapters 2-7). In regard
to the structure, increasing the section properties (namely the moment of inertia and the
section modulus) is usually required. As previously described, thickening wall sections
will often prove a practical means of increasing section properties, but there can certainly
be economic limitations in terms of material usage and molding cycles. Some typical
0.75 in.
t.----l.22 i n . - - -
0.14 in.
1----1.5 in.-----.J
Figure 11·88. A two-rib shape with good moldability that gives a section modulus and moment
of inertia equivalent to a rectangular bar.
examples of these structures and potential problems to consider are shown in Figures 11-
89 through 11-91 [2].
Some geometric shapes that provide the designer with alternate methods of increasing
part supports include gussets, corrugating, and doming (see Chapter 5). Gussets are
supporting structures for either the edge of a part or bosses. The design guidelines for
gusset thicknesses, spacing, and taper or draft are the same as for ribs. The dimensions
given in Figure 11-91 for height, length, and spacing are the lowest acceptable dimensions
for good gusset design.
Corrugating and doming provide the designer increased part performance without hav-
ing to add ribs. Of these two methods, corrugating is the more effective. The alternative
to corrugating is doming (see Fig. 11-89). When a part is domed, its wall is molded in
a convex shape. In some cases this method may be preferred to corrugating for aesthetic
purposes. From a structural standpoint, through, doming does not offer the reinforcement
rigidity of corrugating.
Snap Joints
A snap joint is economical in two respects: it allows the structural member to be molded
simultaneously with the molded part, and it allows rationalizing the assembly, compared
with such other joining processes as screws. Table 11-5 provides a comparison of its
advantages and disadvantages. The design guidelines that should be taken into consid-
eration for obtaining the desired functions are described in Chapter 5 [409]. Some ex-
amples of the various types and their design considerations are shown in Figures 11-92
through 11-94.
HAT SECTION
CROWNING
CORRUGA T/ON
METAL BI-DIRECTIONAL
REINFORCEMENT DOMING
CORRUGATION
Figure 11-89. Examples of geometric structural reinforcement techniques.

Oil canning effect; left view is with even wall and other view shows redesigned
double-tapered wall.
_JI
GATE
- [--+--" --+--I----1111
11.0--
...I~----Dia - - -....-11
Long, flat part (top) could tend to warp; add ribs to correct problem.
Warpage allowance and direction should be shown on the design drawing so

that cooling fixtures, type plastic and molding techniques may be determined to
achieve optimum performance in the molded part.
Warpage allowance~,~
~ ~:~
"Indicate warpage direction"
Figure 11-90. Examples of potential problems with different shapes.
A "c ,75 to 1T
B ,,' Not less than 2T
C " DIctated by
Structural ReqUIrements
T Wall ThIckness
Figure 11-91. Guidelines for designing a gusset.
839
The geometry for snap joints should be chosen in such a manner that excessive increases
in stress do not occur (see Chapter 5). The arrangement of the undercut should be chosen
in such a manner that deformations of the molded part from shrinkage, distortion, unilateral
heating, and loading do not disturb its functioning. The following guidelines are rec-
ommended regarding the position of the snap joint to the in gate and the choice of the
wall thicknesses in the area of flow to the place of joining: I) there should be no binding
seams at critical points; 2) avoid binding seams created by stagnation of the melt during
filling; 3) the molecules and the filler should be oriented in the direction of stress; and
4) any uneven distribution of the filler should not occur at high-stress points.
(a) Snap-in fit (b) Snap-on fit
(c) Separable snap joints for box cover
(d) Cap with two cantilever and two rigid lugs
(e) Discontinuous annular snap joint (I) Detachable and non-detachable snaps
1. h = 0.00 75d if (~ ~ 1.2)
2. h = d (0.0024~ + 0.005) if (~:::1.2)
I
/,.
I
/ - ",
-1-
1\\
,
..............
{ \
\ ' / h
'- I /
....... ~ --- detachable non-detachable
Figure 11·92. Examples of different snap-fit designs.

Table 11-5. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Snap Joints

Advantages Disadvantages
Can be easily integrated into the structural The fixing of the joined parts is weaker than in
member welding, bonding, and screw joining
Compact, space-saving form The conduct of force at the joining place is lesser
Takes over other functions like bearing, spring than in areal joining (bonding, welding)
cushioning, fixing Effects of processing on the properties of the snap
Higher forces can also be transmitted with proper joints (orientation of the molecules and of the
designing filler, distribution of the filler, binding seams,
Small number of individual parts shrinkage, surface, roughness and structure)
Assembly of a construction system with little Narrow tolerances are required in complicated
expenditure of production facilities and time applications (in plastics, this is associated in
some cases with considerable expenditure)
Inftuence of environmental effects (for example,
distortion due to temperature differences) on
the functioning
Difficulties with a continuous loading of the snap
joint
The stressing and joining forces should not act in the same direction if the joint has
to absorb larger forces. Ann brackets should possibly be used to prevent the hook from
escaping after joining. When there is a fracture of the snap hook as a result of overloading
during the joining operation the cross-section should not be increased, but the hook should
be designed to be more flexible. On account of the frictional forces and stresses that
appear at the point of joining, the angle of joining should be chosen to be not larger than
60 degrees [811].
Integral Hinges
Hinge dimensions for lids, boxes, caps, and many other products have by now been well
established (see Chapter 5). Figure 11-95 shows the successful dimensions of a living
hinge. They depend on the design shape but also on ensuring that during the molding
operation its melt flow is through the hinge (perpendicular to the hinge's bending action)
so that its molecules stretch to give a strong, pliable hinging section. Generally, in order
to ensure proper hinge action it is flexed immediately after the part is molded while it is
still hot, using mechanical action in the mold or flexing it manually. It is important to
locate gates in the proper position in relationship to the thickness and flow pattern of the
melt so that the melt flows properly through the hinge. An example of a poor flow
condition is to have gates on opposite sides of a hinge, so that a weld line forms within
the hinge, causing it to fail upon its first being bent.
Some examples of a few of the thousands of successful living binge applications are
shown in Figure 11-96. Others include dual-flap cap closures, lifting cap tabs, diaphragm
valve flex hinges, and so on.
Mold Actions
Molds can be designed to produce products that permit molding from very simple shapes
to extremely complex ones. The complex shapes can include practically all those actions
reviewed in this section that have been classified as being poor or difficult to mold. In
Sealing rib
Tamper seal
Figure 11-93. Section of a linerless cap with a tamperproof seal.
Siandard / lhreads
disengage when
threads dr Ive Sn ap Cap seals.
Snap Cap
miGplace , J.
r / 5nap lin &
, 1 en reengage
10 dllve cap
do Io n Ilghler
I' / '\
A A
Y
"
Figure 11-94. This nonbackoff cap, or NBO, from Sunbeam goes on like a screw cap and seals
like a snap cap to provide a liquid-tight closure. These caps are injection molded from Marlex
polypropylene supplied by the Phillips Chemical Co. Although conventional screw caps are easy
to use, they can work loose or back off during shipping and handling. Although snap caps
sometimes are difficult to operate, they provide a positive seal-the cap is either open or closed.
Stiffen n9
shoulder 0.060 0.005 to 0.015 os
Web lond necessary for stiffness
of hinge OC110n or for
mold·fill requIrements
0.030 +
Thickness approxlrnotely
equal ta sidewalls
All dimension, are in inches
Figure 11-95. An example of basic PP integral hinge design where the plastic melt flow in a
one-way direction is from the thick section through the tin section of the hinge. This melt flow
through the tin section causes a degree of molecular orientation that is directly related to its
performance as a hinge . (All dimensions are in inches .)
842
a simple mold design, which is basically defined as when the mold separates into two or
more sections, the part can be removed. In order for this to be done, certain geometric
considerations must be met. First, the part should have no undercut sections that will
lock if it is pulled from the mold.
If shape is essential to function, a much more complicated mold is required where a
portion of the mold is retracted to permit the undercut to be removed. This complicates
the molding procedure and the mold, which may result in higher costs as well as a poorer
quality part. The part will usually have some surfaces that are nearly parallel and per-
pendicular to the opening surface of the mold (the parting line), and pulling the part
against these parallel surfaces could result in sticking and drag that would make removal
difficult and damage the product.
The product designer should restrict the number of undercuts to a minimum and consider
carefully whether any undercuts in the design will present major problems in mold design.
Moldings made from flexible plastic with small undercuts often allow forced mold release;
that is, during the mold opening the molding distorts sufficiently, because of its flexibility,
to jump free of the undercut. This method is not recommended without experience. In
such cases a certain degree of deformation may have to be accepted. Generously rounded
comers are a must if this method of mold release is to be used.
For rigid plastics and large undercuts, use must be made of movable or rotating side
cores, which then obviously influence mold constructions. Screw threads are an example
of an undercut frequently met. To eliminate undercuts, consider tapering a wall so that
a sliding shutoff can be used (see Fig. 11-97).
Molded parts with undercuts (Le., articles that cannot be released in the direction of
the mold opening) require molds with more than one parting line. For such articles various
(1) Self-hinged spray closure (2) Box lid hinge (3) Single flap cal hinge closure
with snap spud
ThicllRes$
6({C land length

Finger recess
land length Lower hinge

To Thickness RatiD
At least 3 TD 1
(4) Action of package design combining a hinge with snap fits.

HlIIClCAVITT I
,..,....,.,.,~
-;="
Figure 11-96. Some examples of living hinges.

Sliding Shu 011
Opening
Par ling
L,ne
Figure 11-97. Eliminate an undercut, requiring side cores, by using a sliding shutoff system.
Figure 11-98. A schematic of a mold with mechanically actuated side cores.

methods have been developed that may be operated manually, mechanically, hydrauli-
cally, pneumatically, or electromechanically:
Molds with side cores (Figs. 11-98 through 11-101)

Molds with wedges (Figs. 11-100 and 11-101)
Molds with rotating cores (Figs. 11-102 and 11-103)
Molds with loose cores or inserts (Fig. 11-48)
The choice of method, or of a combination of these methods, is not only governed by

the shape of the article and the properties of the polymer (its flexibility, rigidity, shrinkage,
etc.) but also by the standards of quality to be met by the article. For articles with an
external screw thread, for instance, either the first method or the third can be used.
However, if the first is used, the mold parting line shows, which may be undesirable for
aesthetic or design reasons. The method used should depend entirely on the circumstances
of the article.
EXTRUSION
Basically, the size of the die orifice controls the thickness, width, and shape of any
extruded part dimension. In general, it is developed oversize to allow for the drawing
and shrinkage that occur during conveyor cooling operations. The rate of takeoff also
has significant influences on dimensions and shapes. This action, called drawdown, can
also influence keeping the extrudate straight and properly shaped, as well as permitting
size adjustments. The drawdown ratio (see Chapter 7) is the ratio of orifice die size at
the exit to the final profile size.
End cor
Figure 11·99. A schematic of a mold with side core action, a battery case molded of PP.
Figure 11·100. These cavity blocks for PVC pipe elbows use CSM414 prehardened stainless
steel. Courtesy Crucible Specialty Metals Division of Colt Industries, Syracuse, NY.
The range of extrudable profiles is practically unlimited, but to realize a full, practical
design with economic potential, particular attention must be given to factors like wall
thickness, hollows and cores, legs and projections, comers and radii, and so on. The
most important consideration in profile design is the balancing of various wall thicknesses.
A profile with a uniform wall thickness throughout its cross·section is the easiest to
produce. Having uneven walls will cause material flow variations between the large and
small portions of the profile. Also, thinner sections cool faster, causing bowing or warpage
toward the heavy side. To compensate, it is necessary to provide external cooling for the
bulkier sections and, usually, some special orifice die design in which the land lengths
(distances along metal surfaces) are changed significantly in respect to their cross-sectional
openings. This usually requires additional costs, equipment, and reduced extrusion speed,
resulting in higher production costs [1, 5, 6-10, 25, 36-42, 46, 50-53, 62-65, 458,
459,601-16, 807-12].
Tolerances
The penalty for having an unbalanced wall is the reduction of tolerance control. Tolerance
limits are usually doubled. Also, with certain plastics it is more difficult to process them,
Figure 11·101. A mold with wedge side core action.
Figure 11·102. A mold with a rotating core that operates during mold opening and closing. The
drive gear rotates via the worm shaft, which in turn transmits the rotation to the geared core.
The core then unscrews the threaded, molded part.
Figure 11-103. Cores can be positioned in rows, as this cutaway view of a closed-mold frame
indicates. Each core resides within a gear that, when engaged by one of the parallel racks,
causes the core to rotate and unscrew the molded caps. Courtesy Newark Die.
Figure 11-104. Sink marks can be eliminated by creating a design, a rib, or serrations.
such as those with low melt strength. Although the balanced wall is the ideal, having it
is not always possible. Simply recognize that the unbalanced wall can be extruded.
As discussed in the previous section on injection molding, a sink mark almost always
occurs in extrusion on a flat surface that is opposite to and adjoining a leg or rib, because
of unbalanced heat removal or similar factors. As with injection molding, sink marks
can be concealed by adding a design feature, such as a series of serrations on the area
where they occur (see Fig. 11-104).
Figures 11-105 through 11-109 provide design features in extrusion that influence
product perfonnance. The guiding principle should be to keep it simple whenever possible
[41].
BLOW MOLDING
Blow molding, discussed in detail in Chapter 7, provides designers with the capability
to make products ranging from the simple to complex three-dimensional shapes. The BM
process is especially amenable to the designer's goal of consolidating as much function
as possible into a single part. Some of the features that can be incorporated include
threads, inserts, fasteners, hinges, and others somewhat similar to those covered under
injection molding. Hinges include the different mechanical types as well as integral hinges
[5,7,8-11, 14,26,40-43,50-53, 111,213,626-34,784,807,809,813,814].
@ @
b.
@
c. d.
e.
Figure 11·105. Examples of die designs to produce different profiles. a) The method of
balancing flow to produce this shape requires having a short land where the thin leg is extruded.
This design provides the same rate of flow for the thin section as for the heavy one. b) This die
for making square extrusions uses convex sides on the die opening so that straight sides are
formed upon melt exiting; the comers have a slight radius to help obtain smooth comers. The
rear and sectional views show how part of the die has been machined away to provide short
lands at the comers to balance the melt flow. c) In this die for a P shape, the hole in the P is
formed by a pin mounted on the die bridge. The rate of flow in thick and thin sections is
balanced by the shoulder dam behind the small-diameter section of the pin. The pin can be
positioned along its axis to adjust the rate of flow to meet the melt characteristics. d) In this die
to extrude a rather complicated, nonuniform shape, a dam or baffle plate restricts the flow at the
heavy section of the extrudate to obtain uniform flow for all sections. The melt flows between
the die plate and the dam to fill the heavy section. The clearance between the dam and the die
plate can be adjusted as required for different plastics with different melt behaviors. e) In this
die for extruding a quarter-round profile the die opening has convex sides to give straight sides
on the right-angled portion, and the comers have a slight radius to aid in obtaining smooth
comers on the extrusion.
848
Figure 11-106. Typical examples of balanced-wall extruded profiles.
~ c
o
Figure 11-107. Examples of successful profile shapes with unbalanced walls: a) a rigid PVC
shoe; b) an ABS house-trailer trim section; c) a flexible PVC armrest for a bus; and d) a rigid
PVC insulator for an electrical bus bar.
To produce a hinge during extrusion blow molding (see Figs. 11-110 and 111) the
hinge is formed perpendicular to the parison flow from the die. With injection blow
molding, the hinge is perpendicular to the melt flow in the preform mold. Here are some
guidelines to mold living hinges with polypropylene (other plastics are similar but may
require their own specific dimensions dependent upon their particular viscoelastic char-
acteristics) :
1. The land of the hinge should be at least 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) wide for a proper flow
pattern and at least wide enough so that when the part is bent in service it will not
develop strains; too short a land length will cause the hinge to have limited flex life.
2. The minimum plastic thickness or pinch-off gap at the center of the hinge should be
0.25 to 0.38 mm thick (0.010 to 0.015 in.) and 0.5 mm wide (0.020 in.)
a.
REPLACEMENT SEAL
b. RIGIO VINYL
Jt\. ,'.) ...
REPLACEME T SEAL
~'
.'.
/
c. RIGIO VI NYL
Figure 11·108. Design tips for coextrusion: a) A dual extrusion for a modular cabinet wall
panel; b) if the flexible sealing portion wears out from abrasion, a replacement flexible insert
can be slid into the slot in a rigid portion; c) a cross-section of a dual extrusion (a ball-return
trough for a billiard table); d) a bowling-ball return trough made from a 6-in.-diameter extruded
tube with one or more layers. The tube is slit while still workable and guided over a forming
die; e) typical dual extrusions of rigid and flexible PVCs; f) typical extrusions of rigid and
flexible PVCs showing different applications; g) a cross-section of a window frame with a metal
embedment; h) nonbondable plastic can be joined by keying or fitting; i) noncircular hollows are
easier to form if each part of the surrounding wall is made from the same family of plastic. A)
the rigid PVC base will remain flat and not bulge; B) the air pressure inside the hollow will
cause the flexible base section to bulge; j) different applications for metal-embedment
extrusions.
850
L FLEXIBLE VINYL
RIGID VINYL
/
~~~~~~~~
0. EDGE
PROTECTOR
.....
0: .• .'. SEAL AND
.:::. CAP
PROTECTIVE
BUMPER
e. f.
FLEXIBLE
VINYL ~
Ift~':'=2:;;=?;~;;:i='~1 WINDOW
FRAME
g.
Y.,,,, :R"" "'"
NONBONDABLE DUAL EXTRUSIONS
ENE
h. POLYETHYLENE
METAL- EMBEPMENT
EXTRUSIONS
.-1111111( STORM-WINDOW
FRAME
EASY
TUBULAR
EXTRUSIONS
DIFFICULT
I.
j.
851
a.
~ A B
A NO GREATER
THAN B
AVOID A HOLLOW
WITHIN A HOLLOW
SHARP
AS TYPICAL PREFERRED
b. F OUTSIDE
RADIUS HAS
SAME CENTER
AS INSIDE
RADIUS
SHARP AS FOR 0.020' TO

c. PRACT I CAL 0.040' WALL
Figure 11·109. Design tips for extruded profiles: a) hollow sections; b) recommended minimum
radii for outside corners; c) recommended minimum radii for inside corners.
3. When the plastic melt flows across the small hinge gap, frictional heat will be gen-
erated. There should be sufficient cooling of the mold around the hinge area.
4. With an injection blow, the hinge gap is a difficult area to flow across. Therefore,
the gate should be placed so that the molten plastic can flow perpendicular to the
hinge, to ensure a good fill. If the melt flows along the length of the hinge, there is
bound to be a short shot or cold weld at the hinge.
5. Shoulders and lips should be included in the two mating parts to help alignment.
6. The finished piece should be flexed immediately upon its ejection from the mold,
while the heat from the mold is still in it. A flex angle between 90 and 1800 is
recommended. The flexing action can stretch the hinge area by 200 percent or more;
thus, the initial 0.25 to 0.38 mm thickness (0.10 to 0.015 in.) will be thinned down
to less than 0.13 mm (0.005 in.). This elongation aligns the plastic's molecules and
increases its tensile strength from 34 X 106 to 552 X 106 Pa (5,000 to 80,000 psi).
An extrusion-blown hinge can be compared to a stamping. Hot- and cold-stamped

hinges are made by compressing a sheet of material down to the desired thickness (about
0.25 mm, or 0.010 in.). Stamped hinges are less durable in flexing but strong in tearing.
Even though blow molding provides the capability of providing multiple parts combined
into one, by including hinges the designer has an added feature. The ability to produce
many articulated parts in one shot opens new design possibilities. Because this hinge is
practically free, the cost of these products is just the cost of the material and the molding.
HUlCle
Panson
Figure 11-110. An example of an extrusion blow-molded container with a living hinge in the
as-molded position.
a.
b.
Figure 11-111. A molded living hinge in the as-molded position (a) and a flexed position (b)
with the dimensions in inches.
853
THERMOFORMING
Designers should follow the inherent nature of thermoforming (see Chapter 5), which
basically uses flat panels instead of the solid, enclosed, boxlike, cylindrical, rodlike, or
structural shapes of other processes [5, 7, 8, 10, 14,40-43,50-53, 213, 651-62]. They
should be aware of and observe the material's depth-of-draw limitations, which can vary
depending on the type of TP, the thickness tolerance of the sheet, and the degree of
pinhole freedom it enjoys. Generally, for straight vacuum forming into a female mold,
the depth-to-width ratio should not exceed 0.5 : 1. For drape forming over a male mold,
this ratio should not exceed 1 : 1. For parts to be used with the plug-assist, slip-ring, or
one of the reverse-draw methods, the ratio can exceed 1 : 1 and perhaps even reach 2 :
1 under normal circumstances [10, 40, 41]. However, shallow drafts are in general more
readily formed than deep ones and result in more uniform wall thicknesses.
Undercuts and reentrant shapes are possible in many designs. They require movable
or collapsible mold members, but with small undercuts they can often be sprung from a
female mold while the formed part is still warm. This type of action works best when
the plastic has some flexibility, as do the TPEs, or is very thin. Guidelines for the maximum
amounts of undercutting that can be stripped from a mold are as follows: 0.04 in. for
acrylics, PCs, and other rigid plastics; 0.060 in. for PEs, ABSs, and PAs; and 0.100 in.
for flexible plastics such as the PVCs.
When female tooling is split to permit the removal of parts with undercuts, a parting
line of the split halves becomes visible on the formed part. If this is objectionable, the
designer can sometimes incorporate the parting line in the decoration of the part or at
some natural line on the part.
Sharp comers should never be specified, since they hamper the flow of material into
the mold's comers. This results in excessive thinning of the materials and causes con-
centrations of stress. A minimum radius of two times the stock's thickness is recom-
mended. It is also more desirable from several standpoints to have large, flowing curves
in a thermoformed part than to have squared comers or rectangular shapes. The best parts
have smooth, natural curves and drawn sections that are spherical or nearly so in shape.
Their walls will be more uniform, they will be more rigid, their surfaces will be less apt
to show tool marks, and their tooling and molds will be lower in cost. Notches or square
holes should be avoided when punching formed parts. Round holes are preferred to oval
ones for minimizing stress buildup.
Some draft is required in side walls to facilitate the easy removal of the part from the
mold. Female molds require less draft since parts tend to pull away from mold walls as
they shrink during cooling. With female tooling, for most plastics the draft on each side
wall should be at least! degree. For male tooling, it should be 1 degree (see Fig. 11-
112).
Metal inserts are usually not feasible, because thin walls are not sufficiently strong to
hold inserts, particularly if thermal expansion and contraction take place. Figure 11-113
shows a method of holding metal fittings. It may be desirable to increase the stiffness of
thermoformed parts. Many such parts are panel shaped and made of thin walls, so they
may lack rigidity. Corrugations, which if used are preferable in two directions, or an
embossed pattern can add to their rigidity (see Chapter 5). With short-run production it
may be more economical just to use thicker sheet plastic to gain stiffness. If the function
of the part permits, use curved, dished, or domed surfaces to gain stiffness (see Fig. 11-
89).
When thermoformed parts are stacked, without controlled spacing, they will jam to-
~ Draft angle 1/4 min. for female tooling;

11_10
0
iOOdraft
min. for mole tooling
1~r>;::.:.!'"
Not this This
R = 2 T or greater
Figure 11-112. An example of the draft required in side walls to facilitate the easy removal of
a thermoformed part from the mold.
JU Metal insert
Thermoformed
plastic sheet
Not this This

Figure 11-113. A recommended method for holding metal fittings in thermoformed parts.
Figure 11-114. An example of how to stack thermoformed parts using a boss design to avoid
the jamming of parts.
gether, which could cause sufficient stress to cause parts to split. To avoid jamming and
control the space between parts, a stacking boss or shoulder system can be used (see Fig.
11-114). Within this stacking area the plastic must be sufficiently rigid to prevent the
deflection of bosses that would cause jamming. The height of the bosses is generally
greater than their vertical cross-sections at the point of least taper; otherwise the tapered
walls will interfere before the stacking sections can engage. There also other designs that
can be used to eliminate jamming.
Tolerances
Thermoformed parts lack the dimensional accuracy of injection- and compression-molded
parts. With its low pressure, thermoforming reduces the degree to which the sheet being
formed is forced to conform to the mold. Sheet variations, mainly in their thickness and
degree of existing pinholes, affect the final accuracy of the part. This is particularly true
because tooling is generally one sided. The objective should be to use sheet with tight
thickness controls that is pinhole free, rather than just to determine its weight (some
fabricators "buy" by the lower-cost method, where weight is the controlling factor).
Parts are affected dimensionally by the difference between their forming temperature
and their product-use temperature. Thus, a plastic's coefficient of thermal expansion and
contraction has a significant effect (see Chapter 2). The tooling generally used is inex-
pensive. High-precision tooling is usually not produced.
The pressure, time, and temperature variations that can exist will affect the final part
dimensions. Of these factors, evenness in heating the sheet before forming is usually the
most important control. An allowance must also be made for postforming shrinkage (as
previously reviewed; see especially Chapter 7). Molds should be designed oversize so
that when shrinkage is complete the part dimensions will be correct to within the design
tolerances.
It should be noted that with really precise tooling accuracy is much more prevalent,
especially with matched male and female molds and careful control of temperature, time,
and pressure. The dimensional tolerances with the more conventional single-mold system
are generally ±0.6 percent (±0.35 percent for close tolerances) with female molds,
±0.5 percent (±0.3 percent close) with male molds under 3 ft., ±0.8 percent (±0.4
percent close) with male molds over 3 ft., and ± 30 percent (± 10 percent close) for wall
thicknesses.
REINFORCED PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES

The approach of a designer planning an RP/composite part should be to determine from
its size, shape, performance requirements, and quantity to be produced which method
should be utilized (see Chapter 7). This basic approach is important, because design
principles will vary considerably with the fabricating method. For example, there are
limitations on the depth of draw obtainable with sheet-molding compound (SMC) that
do not apply to preforms. Whenever possible, the product should be designed with a
specific process in mind. It is also important to show the preliminary design to prospective
fabricators. As noted on various occasions throughout this book, it is always sound advice
to consult the prospective fabricator when using any extrusion or other process, but this
is especially true in the case ofRP/C parts, since a wide variety of manufacturing processes
exists [1-21, 26-33, 40-43, 46, 50-53, 81, 149-55,483-508,590,636-50,814,815].
When designing, a number of variables must be kept in mind. For example, the strength
values for high-impact compounds containing long glass fibers generally remain high
when they are compression molded. However, these values may drop as much as 50
percent upon being injection or transfer molded, because in these processes the fiber
lengths are reduced, causing only the shortest fibers to flow with the resin into thin,
intricate sections. Thus, these sections become weaker per unit of thickness than do the
thicker sections.
With certain parts the geometric design may offset any advantage to be gained by
compression molding. There are products with thin, complex shapes that could use less-
expensive compounds and produce stronger parts by injection molding. Such an 1M part
would have improved density and uniform fiber distribution to offset its other problems.
Figures 11-115 through 11-128 [2] and Tables 11-6 and 11-7 provide guidelines for RP/C
molding by the compression, transfer, matched-die, and stamping techniques.
Semi-posItive or
londed type
Figure 11-115. Examples of the three basic types of closed compression molds principally used
with TSs to provide for fabricating parts ranging from thin to thick or very heavy.
Pot tronsfet
Figure 11-116. Three basic types of transfer molds for TSs to fabricate parts with complicated
shapes, inserts, and small-diameter holes.
§~§~;§;*l Nominal
TPanel thickness
t
Die draw angle
! Stop block
Mold
L",,,m"m
3' draft angle
core
Figure 11-117. A guide to trimming or shearing the edges of parts that are compression
molded.
Mold cavity t
Die
t
Die draw angle
~
draw
angle
Shear~--------------------~ ~
edge
Figure 11-118. Matched mold shear edges. The better design is to use the lower angle (left).
857
Core
L-_---' L Knlfe.edge
of 1001 sleel
Figure 11-119. An example of a knife shear edge.
PREFORM MAT PREMIX SHEET MOLD I NG

COMPOUND .L
I J
1 "'-1---'3 1- l J
A • , T
- 0.030-0. 25 ..J 0.070"1.0· T 0.050 -1.00..3
WAU THICKNESS WALL THICKNESS WA LL THICKNESS
B 1....- - - - . . / 1 I I 1 ( -1.
- 1---1 !.OO5-J 1----1 :.oosJ ~ !:.005::f
to.OO3-0.005IM/IN. !0.010 IN./IN. O.OOBIN/IN.
. NOT ACROSS NOT ACROSS NOT ACROSS
PARTING LINES PARTING LI NES PARTING LINES
TOLERANCES TOLERANCES TOLERANCES
C\\,?""u,
- ~N. RAD. b"'N. RA1 ~N
\\"., ..; J\\ -nl'.?·UI
RAD.
CORNER RADIUS CORNER RADIUS CORNER RADIUS
6
LI BERAL RADII
6
LI BERAL RADII
6
U BERAL RAD II
b NOT ADVISABLE
6 NOT ADVISABLE
6
NOT ADVISABLE
Figure 11-120. Comparative infonnation on the matched·die molding of preform mat, premix
compound, and sheet-molding compound. a) waIl thickness; b) tolerances; c) comer radius; d)
radii.
858
A:1r" £ ..!!. 10' 15
FLANGE ., t
ff'~FSET
O~LANGE
Figure 11·121. Flanges used in premix molding. Left: An offset flange is used to increase
stiffness. Right: The steps that can be taken to reduce warpage in long flanges. The C and D
views show the preferred construction and design.
®b 6
PREFORw MAT llim SHEET MQLQltHi
~ CON':UNO
. ..
---.!. :-MIN
\
1° ,
.., .
..:~
FOR PARTS OVER DEPTH MIN. DEPTH MIN .

18 INCHES DEEP OF DRAFT OF DRAFT
USE 2 _30
,.
DRAW DRAW
3- 0 · 1" 1;3- 10
3-18 6. 3°
18· 2·!
DRAFT DRAFT DRAFT
® Q
t--A--i I-- A ---I t--A~
IJ ~ 1] Q !J
I-- 8 ---l 1--8 ---l I - - 8--1
~~~ {1 ~~~ ~~ ~.Aj

A •PART DIM A ' PART DIM . A:PART DIM .
S = MOLD DIM. S = MOLD DIM. B-MOLD DIM.
0.001 I Nil N. 0 .003 IN/IN. 0.003 I N./I N.
STEEL MOLD STEEL MOLD STEEL MOLD
0.002 I N./I N. 0.002 I N./ I N. 0.002 IN.!I N.
ALUMINUM MOLD ALUMINUM MOLD ALUMINUM MOLD
SHRINKAGE SHRINKAGE SHRINKAGE
@I}B __ A(l ~ __ A,l ,[8 Al

} -- 1
TA -THIC I( NESS
T TA=THICKNESS T T
A -THICKNESS
T
OF WALL OF WALL OF WALL
8 -1.5-A (PLENUM 8=2-A 8 ' 3. A
PREFORM)
S - 2"A DIRECTED
FISER PREFORM
THICKNESS
I
VARIATION IN WALL VARIATION IN WALL
THICKNESS
VARIATION IN WAll
THICKNESS
Figure 11·122. Comparative information on the matched-die molding of preform mat, premix
compound, and sheet-molding compound.
859
BETTER BEST AcA
Figure 11-123. A flange mounting construction. The flange mounting hole to be mounted on a
flexible gasket should be in compression whenever possible.
HOLE MAX. BLIND MAX . THRU

DIA. HOLE DEPTH HOLE DEPTH
INCH INCH INCH
_c. 25_
FHgg=
0 .750
50 .f 5 -
{~~ 2. -
I
.175 .875 2.
. OC 3 .DOC 4
DEPT H '--_ _- " " ' - T ........_.-I--,.1O.l:I.

-( 50
1.00
~5OC
6.000
5.
6.0
-
DEPTH
Figure 11-124. Recommended hole sizes for through and blind holes in premix compression
molding.
HOLE MIN DISTANCE MIN. DISTANCE

DIA. FROM EDGE FROM EACH
(INCH) (I NCH\ OTHER (I NCH)
0.125 0.187 0.187
0.250 0.250 0.187
0.312 0.312 0.250
0.375 0.375 0.281
10..500 1..5OC 0.375
0.750 0.500 0..562
1.000 0.500 0.750
Figure 11-125. Recommended distances between holes and distances of holes from side walls
in premix molding.
860
PUNCH AND BLANK PIE puNCHEP HOLES puNCHEP HOLES
o
--I I-DIA NO LESS THAN T
©
®
i
t::1:$I::r-=~=~ T
T
t
HOLE PUNCHED
-i0l-OIAGONAL NO LESS BEYOND ALLOWED
51 ::::===t THAN T TH I CKNESS
@
o NO CLOSER
.1..
®
I~q THAN~ (CAN BE SANDED OFF.
HOLE PUNCHED PART WAY
A SHAVING PIE
,xT
@ !$¥I @it
"*" THROUGH
- "'-----
tL:t ~ 0 AT LEAST
LAMINATE
45
CIRCULAR 1·V~}g-, x / PLUS 10""
SHAVING
KNIFE IxT..l ® AVOID ERRATIC SHAPED
HOLES
I"""I3T""""1b"""""j'T"""@r= T
T
Figure 11-126. Some guidelines on die punching: a) the design of a punching and blanking die;
b) a shaving die. Punched holes in laminated stock have limited sizes, compared to the thickness
of the laminate shown in c), d), and e); f) a hole punched beyond the allowable thickness; g) a
hole punched partway through; h) erratically shaped holes like these should be avoided.
PREfORM MAT ~ SHEET MOLDIN G
4fNO
~OLDED HOLES
~S
~
MOLDED HOLES
~
~YES
MOLDED HOLES
~
~.o ~ ~£S
UNDERCUTS UNDERCUTS
YES
UNDERCUTS
00
@METALINSERTS
NO ~
METAL INSERTS
YES OOYES
METAL INSERTS
@~~ ~ES /A.;e

• YES
BOSSES BOSSES BOSSES
I ~YGIdff!YES
®~
~n." RIBS
NO
RIBS RIBS
PERCENT FIBER PERCENT FIB ER I PERCENT FI BER

GLASS BY WT. GLASS BY WT. GLASS BY WT.
® 25 -50 15-35 15 - 30
Figure 11-127. Comparative information on the matched-die compression molding of preform

mat, premix compound, and sheet molding compound.
861
BOLTS RIVETS SCREWS STAPlES
GOOD GOOD NOT GOOD
GOOO
NOT GOOD BETTEA
~ ,PrJ·
NOT GOOD lETTER
NOT~ .~
.. f PlAIN LAP JOINT
OFFSET LAP JOINT
ANGLE LAP JOINT
FLANGE ANGLE LAP

JOINT
CLdJ I
BUTT JOINT WITH
BAC K UP PLATE
END CAP JOINT
Figure 11-128. Reinforced plastic parts can be fastened together by mechanical fasteners and
adhesive bonding.
Table 11-6. Thermosetting Resins Used in Laminated Products

Property Phenolics Melamine Polyester Epoxy Silicones
Specific gravity 1.3 1.48 1.3 1.25 1.3

Cost or price Low Medium Low Medium-high High
Heat resistance Excellent Excellent Good Fair Excellent
Physical properties Good Good Good Good Fair
Electrical properties Excellent Excellent Good Excellent Excellent
Water resistance Good Fair Good Excellent Good
Machining qualities Fair to good Fair to good Fair to good Good Good
Molding pressures Low to high High Low Low to medium Low to high
Molding qualities Excellent Good Excellent Fair Good
Advantages Good all-around Good all-around Many types Shrinkage nil Heat resistance
properties properties and properties
862
Table 11-7. Standard Tolerances for Punched Holes and Slots, inches (mm)
Maximum Punching Tolerances on Sheet Stock
Distance Between Holes

Material
Thickness Under 2" 2" to 3" 3" to 4" 4" to S" Size of Slot or Overall
in inches (mm) (SI mm) (SI-76) (76-102) 002-127) Diameter of Holes Dimensions
Under .062" 0.6) ±.003 (±O.OS) ±.004 (±0.1O) ±.OOS (±0.13) ±.006 (±O.IS) ± .001S (± 0.03S) ± .00S (± 0.20)
.062" to .093" 0.6-2.4) ±.OOS (±0.13) ±.006 (±O.IS) ± .007 (±O.IS) ± .00S (± 0.20) ± .003 (± 0.076) ± .010 (±0.25)
.093" to .12S" ±.006 (±O.IS) ±.007 (±O.IS) ±.OOS (±0.20) ±.009 (±0.23) ± .00S (± 0.137) ± .01S (± 0.3S)
(2.4-3.17)
i
w
Tolerances
Tolerances can vary depending on the location of the parting line and the depth of flash.
As a rule, a mold should be laid out to give the best overall tolerances. Therefore, the
parting line should not be shown on the part drawing. When this is possible, it will give
the mold designer freedom of choice for the best producibility. If a dimension is extremely
critical or other requirements could limit the location of the parting line, these factors
should be noted on the drawing as a guide to the mold designer (of course the ideal
product designer would also be capable of designing the mold).
Alternatively, if a part is designed with a clearly defined parting line, dimensions
should be shown that will not be affected by the flash, particularly in working with TS
materials. This calculation could be appreciable, depending on the mold type, amount
of wear, and so on. Figure 11-129 shows two methods of dimensioning, one that is
affected by the flash thickness in four dimensions, the other in only two. It is also important
to note that flash can affect dimensions in one plane but not in another, as shown in
Figure 11-130. This figure also illustrates how the dimensions controlled by the cavity
can remain unaffected by thick flash, whereas the dimensions controlled by a plunger
can be seriously affected. Tables 11-8 and 11-9 provide guidelines on wall thickness,
punched holes, and slots for specific RP/Cs.
Pusslbie Flash
Recommended Dimensioning
Figure 11-129. An approach to use in dimensioning a part to meet optimum tolerances.
Figure 11-130. An example of how dimensioning can be affected by flash.

Table 11-8. Tolerance Guide for Wall Thicknesses in

High-Pressure Molding Processes
Material in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Thermoplastics:
Acetal .015 (0.38) .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17)
ABS .030 (0.76) .090 (2.3) .125 (3.17)
Acrylic .025 (0.64) .093 (2.4) .250 (6.35)
Cellulosics .025 (0.64) .075 (1.9) .187 (4.75)
FEP fluoroplastic .010 (0.25) .035 (0.89) .500 (12.7)
Polyamide .015 (0.38) .062 (1.57) .125 (3.17)
Polycarbonate .040 (1.02) .093 (2.4) .375 (9.52)
Polyethylene (L.D.) .020 (0.51) .062 (1.57) .250 (6.35)
Polyethylene (H.D.) .035 (0.89) .062 (1.57) .250 (6.35)
Polypropylene .025 (0.64) .080 (2.0) .300 (7.62)
Polysulfone .040 (1.02) .100 (2.54) .375 (9.52)
Modified PPO .030 (0.76) .080 (2.0) .375 (9.52)
Polystyrene .030 (0.76) .062 (1.57) .250 (6.35)
SAN .030 (0.76) .062 (1.57) .250 (6.35)
PVC-rigid .040 (1.02) .093 (2.4) .375 (9.52)
Thermosets:
Polyester premix, chopped glass .040 (1.02) .070 (1.78) 1.00 (25.4)
Alkyd-glass filled .040 (1.02) .125 (3.17) .500 (12.7)
Alkyd-mineral filled .040 (1.02) .187 (4.75) .375 (9.52)
Diallyl phthalate .040 (1.02) .187 (4.75) .375 (9.52)
Epoxy-glass filled .030 (0.76) .125 (3.17) 1.00 (25.4)
Melamine-<:ellulose filled .035 (0.89) .100 (2.54) .187 (4.75)
Urea-cellulose filled .035 (0.89) .100 (2.54) .187 (4.75)
Phenolic-general purpose .050 (1.27) .125 (3.17) 1.00 (25.4)
Phenolic-flock filled .050 (1.27) .125 (3.17) 1.00 (25.4)
Phenolic-glass filled .030 (0.76) .093 (2.4) .750 (19.0)
Phenolic-fabric filled .062 (1.57) .187 (4.75) .375 (9.52)
Phenolic-mineral filled .125 (3.18) .187 (4.75) 1.00 (25.4)
Silicone glass .050 (1.27) .125 (3.17) .250 (6.35)
ROTATIONAL MOLDING
Rotational molding, which uses single or multiple arms to hold the molds, is appropriate
to different sizes and shapes of parts such as tanks or containers ranging from small
squeeze bulbs of vinyl plastisol to large storage tanks (see Chapter 7). This technique
can produce uniform wall thicknesses even when the part has a deep draw off the parting
line or small radii. The liquid or powdered plastic used in this method flows freely into
comers or other deep draws upon the mold's being rotated and is then fused by heat
passing through the mold's wall [5, 10, 40-43, 50-53, 111].
This process is particularly suited economically to producing small production runs
and large-sized parts, because molds are not subjected to pressure during molding and
relatively inexpensive thin sheet metal molds can thus be used, if the part's shape allows.
Lightweight cast aluminum and electroformed or vaporformed nickel molds, which are
light in weight and low in cost, can also be used. Large rotational molding machines can
be built economically, because they can use inexpensive, gas-fired, hot-air ovens and a
relatively lightweight mold-rotating mechanism.
!
Table 11.9. Standard Tolerance Guide for Punched Holes and Slots in High-Pressure Laminated Grades of Sheet Stock,
Rods, and Tubes, as Classified by the National Electrical Manufacturers' Association (NEMA)
Tensile Strength
Continuous P.S.I. (MPa)
Base Specific Thickness, Water No Load
Orade Material Resin Gravity in. (mm) Hardness Absorption Temp. F eC) LW CW
X Paper Phenolic 1.36 .010-2 (0.25-51) 110 6 225 (107) 20,000 (138) 16,000 (110)
XXP Paper Phenolic 1.32 .015-.250 (0.38-6.35) 100 1.8 250 (121) 11,000 (75.8) 8,500 (58.6)
XXX Paper Phenolic 1.32 .015-2.0 (0.38-51) 110 1.4 250 (121) 15,000 (103) 12,000 (82.7)
CE Cotton Phenolic 1.33 .031-2.0 (0.79-51) 105 2.2 250 (121) 9,000 (62.0) 7,000 (48.2)
LE Cotton Phenolic 1.33 .015-2.0 (0.38-51) 105 1.95 250 (121) 12,000 (82.7) 8,500 (58.6)
AA Asb. Fab. Phenolic 1.70 .062-2.0 (1.3-51) 103 3.00 275 (135) 12,000 (82.7) 10,000 (69.0)
0-3 Cont. OJ. Phenolic 1.65 .010-2.0 (0.25-51) 100 2.7 290 (143) 23,000 (158) 20,000 (138)
0-5 Cont. OJ. Melamine 1.90 .010-3.5 (0.25-89) 120 2.7 .300 (149) 37,000 (255) 30,000 (207)
0-7 Cont. OJ. Silicone 1.69 .010-2.0 (0.25-51) 100 .55 400 (204) 23,000 (158) 18,000 (124)
0-9 Cont. OJ. Melamine 1.90 .010-2.0 (0.25-51) 120 .80 325 (163) 37,000 (255) 30,000 (207)
0-10 Cont. OJ. Epoxy 1.75 .010-1.0 (0.25-25) 110 .25 250 (121) 40,000 (276) 35,000 (241)
N-l Nylon Phenolic 1.15 .010-1.0 (0.25-25) 105 .60 250 (121) 8,500 (58.6) 8,000 (55)
OPO-l OJ. Mat Polyester 1.7 .062-2.0 (1.6-51) 100 1.0 250 (121) 12,000 (82.7) 10,000 (69.0)
When it is necessary to equal the production rates of other processes, the mold cost
with rotational molding may exceed that of other processes such as flow molding. The
resins used in rotational molding are generally more expensive than the pelleted resins
used in many other processes, because they must be finely and evenly powdered, such
as to a 35 mesh. However, this process generates low levels of regrind or scrap, even
when it is operating poorly. Parts can have no flash at all if good molds are used.
The molding of two different types of plastics in a single part may be accomplished
to combine their specific properties and a better or lower-cost part. This process, called
corotation, is similar to coextrusion or coinjection (see Chapter 7) in terms of the per-
formance of the designed parts. An expensive plastic may be backed with a less costly
material, and a skin surface layer can be backed with a foamed plastic molded in one
operation. The dissimilar molding powders, which may have different softening tem-
peratures, can be molded simultaneously or separately, depending on the processing
conditions and the end product's requirements. Any greater than normal part thickness
must usually be designed to form multilayered parts, especially if a foam component is
to be included. Some combinations of materials are not feasible with this method. For
instance, after molding the first layer against the mold wall, the second material cannot
have a higher melt temperature, which, of course, would melt the first layer, probably
causing them to mix.
With rotational molding one inherent overall disadvantage exists-the complete cycle
for a single mold is significantly longer than it is for many other processes. However, in
many cases it is possible to run multiple molds on each arm or arms, to offset the effect
of having slower cycles.
The wall thickness in a mold can be changed just by increasing the amount of plastic
put into the split mold, because the wall is basically produced by a coating or plating
process that operates on the inside surface of the mold. However, changes in heating
time would be necessary to fuse the resin properly. Thus, adjustments to parts' wall
thicknesses can be made without a mold if a thicker wall becomes necessary for increased
rigidity, impact strength, or load-carrying capacity. A maximum thickness does exist,
based on the type of material used and the material chosen to construct the mold and the
heat source. These factors all influence the rate of heat transfer through the plastic (see
Chapter 2). Because in this process the resin is deposited on the mold without pressure,
the finished part is generally stress-free.
Because parts in this process can have deep sections and relatively sharp comers, which
could not be done in blow molding or thermoforming, this process is used to mold
complex parts that may require three or four split molds. Also, as in other processes,
limitations exist for both simple and complex shapes. For example, the parts' surface
finish is dictated by the inside surface of the mold. This makes it easy to obtain smooth
as well as textured surfaces on the same part. Raised or depressed letters, fluting, and
other decorative inscriptions may also be molded. The inside surfaces of parts are influ-
enced by the type of resin used and may be made smooth by selecting an easily flowing
melt with a high melt index. Because such resins are sometimes chemically or mechan-
ically inferior, the better resins may be made smoother by resorting to higher molding
temperatures and longer cycle times, short of damaging the resin. In-mold decorating
methods, such as decals that are deposited on the mold surface, are used that can become
part of the finished part's surface and can be designed to provide increased structural
performance, as also in injection molding, blow molding, and other processes.
The preferred contour for any parting line is the straightest path possible. By this
means, mold-construction costs can be reduced and demolding will be the easiest means
possible. When two parts like a container and its lid are to be molded together, as in
blow molding, they may be separated after the molding by employing a removable cutter
or annular wedge, at the parting line or by molding the part oversize to provide a resting
flange, then cutting it to separate the parts.
Ample draft is suggested on side walls, to facilitate part removal. A recommended
minimum for most plastics is 1 degree. The lower-shrinkage plastics like PC and PMMA
will require Ii to 2 degrees. Undercuts are possible, but they should be kept to a minimum.
Making provisions for undercuts usually requires higher mold costs, because of having
to use some type of action such as core pulls or splitting a mold to allow separation
parallel to the undercut groove. Undercuts may also require extra time for unloading
molds. Inside or outside comers should use large radiuses, not sharp ones. By doing so
cracking, molded-in stresses, and undesirable part thickening will be prevented. A useful
guide to the smallest allowable inside radius is h in. with! in. for optimal filling
conditions. The goal should be to have a radius equal to the wall thickness for easier
melt flow. Although rotational molding produces uniform wall thicknesses, comers in it
can have greater variation than would the rest of the part. A sharp inside comer tends to
heat at a slower rate, causing the plastic to flow away from it, thus making it thinner.
Conversely, sharp outside comers heat at a faster rate and tend to hold the resin longer,
thus building up more thickness.
It is usually difficult to produce internal or external bosses and T sections, because
they are not conductive to producing uniform walls. It is possible to produce interior
extensions, by placing a metallic screen in contact with the inner mold wall. This screen
heats up, attracts resin, and becomes covered, remaining in place after molding. By using
this method a hollow part can be molded to have two or more separate chambers, with
the screen being extended entirely across the inside of the mold.
A hole can be formed by molding a dome and cutting it after molding. One technique
that can be used for this is to mount securely on the inside mold wall a fluorocarbon
(TFE) sheet "plug" to prevent resin from adhering to the mold at that location. Another
method involves inserting machined brass plugs, pins, or tubing through the mold
wall. During molding, the heat passes from the mold to the insert, causing resin to form
around it. Care must be taken to select inserts that will heat easily and a resin that will
not crack, because of the stresses created as the plastic shrinks around the insert upon
cooling.
Moldable holes and inserts can complicate molding and may require extra postmolding
operations. Thus, the most economical designs are those that minimize the number of
holes. With many resins, both external and internal threads can be molded, but sharp V
threads should be avoided, because they cause the resin to bridge, resulting in incomplete
thread fill. Rounded or modified buttress threads will allow improved thread fill.
The stiffening of solid ribs or projections is possible and easily moldable if the re-
quirement of maintaining uniform wall thickness is followed. A narrowed rib will not
fill and will leave inside stringers. And a rib that is too keep presents even greater
difficulties, preventing the melt from reaching the bottom before fusing. A small, shallow,
narrow rib will fill completely but have limited strengthening effect. The correct rib design
requires a wide gap to form the rib, with a generous draft so that the melt is allowed to
fill uniformly, without bridging. As a guide, deep ribs that are four times the wall's
thickness generally require at least five times the wall's thickness between the parallel
sides of the rib, to prevent the plastic from bridging as it flows into the rib before fusing
to the mold's wall.
Tolerances
As noted, dimensional control in rotomolding is not as close as in other processes. Many
factors influence the degree of this control: the type of resin, particularly the resin shrink
rate, the part shape, the cooling rate-the slower the better-the uniformity of part wall
thicknesses, the mold design, the control of the heat reaching the resin, and whether
fillers are used (fillers reduce shrinkage and promote better dimensional control). A guide
to dimensional tolerances for parts is to use a length and width ± if in. for the first in.
and ±0.4 in. thereafter, with a wall thickness ±n in. and a wall thickness buildup at
comers that is usually greater by 25 percent.
The production rate is reduced and made more difficult when different rotational cycles
must be employed to provide varying wall thicknesses in the same part, but other methods
for changing wall thicknesses locally are also troublesome. They typically involve chang-
ing the amount of heat that is transferred by the mold to the plastic material in the
designated area. Changing the mold wall's thickness or the color of the mold's outer
surface are two methods of doing this. Having higher heat in one area will cause the wall
thickness to be greater in that area.
The wall-thickness variations that result from such steps are always gradual, with
abrupt wall thickness changes being virtually impossible. The maximum recommended
thickness buildup, when necessary, is 50 percent of the normal wall thickness for the
part. The following recommendations apply to designed wall thicknesses of rotational
molded parts: a preferred or desirable nominal wall thickness of 1/10 to i in., a minimum
wall thickness of 0.050 to 0.060 in., a maximum wall thickness of i in., and an optimum
thickness of glass-fiber-reinforced plastic parts of i in.
All parts undergo considerable shrinkage in cooling after leaving the mold. The designer
has to allow for this shrinkage, and its effects. As in other processes, shrinkage is in
most cases caused by the thermal contraction of the plastic upon cooling. With TSs,
molecular readjustments resulting from polymerization are also important (see Chapter
2). Typical shrinkages for standard rotomold resins under controlled conditions range
from 1.25 to 2.5 percent. Such shrinkage results not only in a linear reduction of part
dimensions but in distortion when wall thicknesses differ or connecting part elements
pull other elements together as they shrink.
ASSEMBLY METHODS
As noted throughout this book, designing a one-piece item is the ideal situation, because
it precludes assembly. However, mechanical limitations and other considerations often
make it necessary to join plastic parts, either to each other or to metal parts, to complete
an assembly. In such instances the joining process can take an efficient approach to
fabrication if a few precautions are observed and established procedures are followed.
Various methods of joining can be used easily and successfully.
As reviewed in Chapters 5 and 8, assembly methods include mechanical fastening,
solvent and adhesive bonding, ultrasonic welding, and electromagnetic welding. Choosing
the best method requires a basic knowledge of good joint design and a thorough under-
standing of the purpose of the joint, the geometry and nature of the components, the type
of load involved, and the properties required in the final assembled part. Because of the
potential complexities, careful product planning is essential to eliminate needless joints.
Generally, the best joining system, in practically all cases, is never as good as a well-
designed part fabricated in one piece [5, 16, 40-43, 46, 50-53, 72, 105, 213, 683-94,
811].
One major problem of using assembly methods is potential overstressing. Typical of
this structural situation is the bolt system with injection-molded parts, which can use
standard fasteners like bolts, screws, nuts, locknuts, lockwashers, and other especially
designed units. These threaded fasteners are usually made from steel, brass, or other
high-strength metals, making it likely that the plastic parts being assembled may be
overstressed before their fasteners break or strip. Proper design should thus prevent
excessive stresses from occurring when using bolted assemblies [2].
The most obvious and logical method to prevent having high-stress assemblies is to
control carefully the tightening of all fasteners, using properly adjusted torque-limiting
drivers. This technique can work well when operations are confined to a factory assembly
line, but if there is to be field or customer assembly this can present a difficult problem
of control. Even when the torque can be controlled, a poorly designed bolted assembly
will sometimes have an impractically low assembly torque. In this case, some design
modifications will be required. Figure 11-131 shows some common examples of high
assembly-stress problems that can easily occur in bolted assemblies, together with some
practical solutions.
MECHANICAL LOADING
The viscosity behavior of plastics makes them sensitive to strain rates as well as tem-
peratures (see Chapters 2, 3, and 4). It therefore becomes important to define the rate,
magnitude, duration, and type of mechanical stress and strain loading (i.e., tension,
compression, flexure, and shear) along with temperatures during loading. The rate and
duration of loading also determine whether creep or impact will be a factor in a given
part's mechanical response [1, 2, 5-14, 29, 33,40-43,55-68,152,202,225,235,250,
270-74, 808].
Plastics are often used to replace stamped steel because their viscoelastic behavior at
lower strain rates enables them to spring back rather than to deform under suddenly
applied loads. This characteristic does add a safety factor to a design, but it also means
that a part can undergo large, nonlinear deflections. Such deflections, defined as being
greater than the wall thickness of the part, are difficult to analyze accurately with standard
engineering equations.
Conventional analysis would teIid to overstate the stresses, because it cannot take into
account the ability of flexible plastics to absorb loading by redistributing stresses. Other
conditions such as the path of the applied stress-strain loading and changes in the loading
sequence introduce their own uncertainties into the analysis. Thus, in designing with
plastics one should recognize that the analysis is based on a number of assumptions,
which it may be advisable to test the validity of on prototype parts before signing off on
the design.
Besides dealing with mechanical loading, a well-thought-out design should anticipate
abuse of the product, meaning the conditions under which the product is not intended to
operate but it may still encounter. For example, the plastic housing of an appliance might
end up being used as a stepstool. Designing for too wide a variety of abuse conditions
can make a product overly expensive. One solution is to include in the design a preferential
point of failure that will protect the product and be easy to repair or replace. For example,
using an expendable shear pin would limit the amount of torque that could be transmitted
to an otherwise vulnerable part of a product.
POOR DESIGNS PREFERRED DESIGNS
PLANNED GAP BETWEEN ADDED

POTENTIAL HIGH BENDING BOSSES PREVENTS EXCESSIVE
STRESS AS BOLT IS BENDING OF HOUSING AS BOSSES
TIGHTENED TOUCH AND GO INTO COMPRESSION
TRUSS OR ROUND HEAD

SCREW
t
FLAT-HEAD SCREW
~
7~-MrnLSUB-FRAME
..--PLASTICPART
FT=J ALTERNATIVE RECESSED

POTENTIAL HIGH STRESS HEAD DESIGN AVOIDS
DUE TO WEDGING ACTION OF POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS
SCREW HEAD WEDGING ACTION
SHOULDER SCREW
STANDARD SCREW
+
\...____~~~----~~PLASTIC
PART
WHERE TORQUE CANNOT BE CONTROLLED, AS IS THE CASE

WITH FIELD ASSEMBLY, SHOULDER SCREWS WILL LIMIT COMPRESSION
ON PLASTIC PART, OTHER SOLUTIONS ARE:
FLANGE-HEAD SCREWS LARGE WASHERS SHOULDER WASHERS
Figure 11-131. Examples of bolted assemblies, stress problems, and suggested solutions.
871
Mathematically speaking, developing stress fonnulas for analysis is done through a set
of differential equations that must be solved, subject to a number of constraints. The
equations for the pertinent stresses and deflections of a wide variety of structural shapes
are provided in widely available textbooks, under the heading "Strength of Materials."
Additional infonnation can be usually obtained from the major worldwide resin suppliers,
along with their suggestions on how the handbooks' equations can most reliably be used
with the materials of that supplier. (Chapters 3 and 5 discuss in detail these types of
problems regarding the equations that are nonnally available.)
As seen in Chapters 3 and 5, there are limitations in using handbook equations. The
restrictions and idealizations that have come to be applied to the derivation of classical
stress results should be kept in mind when they are used for design or analysis. Parts
molded of plastic may deviate from all these values, rendering the handbooks' stress
equations invalid to a greater or lesser degree. It has become common practice simply
to ignore deviations from the ideal and use the standard equations without modification
in the hope that the results will still prove reasonable approximations. Because this
procedure clearly has inherent risks, its results should be checked against experimental
observations or other validating data if at all possible.
One other limitation to elementary equations is that the material being examined is
typically assumed to be isotropic, with equal stiffness in all directions. However, molded
plastic parts are likely to have at least some orientation, as a result of flow velocity
gradients that exist during the melt-processing operation (see Chapter 7). Reinforced
plastics and composites do exhibit strong anisotropy, because there is much higher stiffness
along the fiber direction than in the transverse direction.
A part can encounter two types of stresses-dynamic and residual. Dynamic stresses
are simply those that result from the functioning of the part. Because this stress occurs
only when the unit is used, its stress level is zero when it is not in use. The designer
must as a result understand the part's function to calculate its dynamic stresses.
Residual, or molded in, stresses are those that are initiated during fabrication, partic-
ularly with injection molding. These stresses can be caused by orientation of the plastic
molecules or to an alignment of the fibrous reinforcements. Many factors influence the
molecular or fibrous orientation, such as the design of the part, the design of the mold,
and the processing conditions (see Chapters 3, 5, 7, and 9). The most common areas of
high stress are the points of attachment, sharp comers, gate areas, sections behind bosses,
and any openings in the part that may contribute to weld-line formation.
It is always good design practice to minimize the amount of molded-in stress. However,
most designs retain some level of this kind of stress. If this must be limited to ensure
proper part functioning, a quality control test with limits should be specified, such as a
part's heat-distortion temperature or impact, flexural, or tensile ratings.
Stress-Strain Polynomials
Using a stress-strain polynomial approach can result in more accurate design calculations.
In the fall of 1965, Du Pont designer James H. Crate suggested that calculations based
on published stress-strain curves for specific plastics would be much more accurate and
useful in their high ranges than were calculations based on a material's modulus of
elasticity. This advice, from a period when very few were properly designing with plastics,
has remained true. Now, designers using polynomials based on those curves may attain
an even higher degree of accuracy [808].
In stress analysis, designers frequently use equations originally derived for materials
e ~ 0.001 ,n/,n
(e = 0001 mm/mm-approx)
o
Figure 11-132. A typical tensile stress-strain curve for a metal.
,----------------------------.100
12,000 80
60 ~
:§: 8,000 e.
~ iil
Q)
i7i 40 c7.i
50% Relative Humldlly

4,000 Average Air Exposure
2.5% MOisture Content 20
L-----------------__________~O
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Strain (% Elongallon)
Figure 11·133. Tensile stress-strain data for Du Pont's Zytel 101 nylon at 23°C (73°F).
with linear stress-strain relations. In Figure 11-132, the nearly vertical segment of the
line extending to point A describes the behavior of a metal. Metals typically have an
initial linear tensile stress-strain relationship that "hardens" as the strain increases, the
way it does here beyond point A. The tensile stress-strain curve for Du Pont's ZytellOl
nylon, shown in Figure 11-133, is somewhat similar [808]. Because this material is not
as stiff, however, the proportionally higher rate of elongation (strain) is readily apparent
in the initial portion of the curve. Such engineering-manual curves, which detail a ma-
terial's stress-strain relationship at different conditions, are often referred to in calcula-
tions. Unfortunately, their coarse scale and small size can easily defeat a designer's
principal purpose in using them.
The accuracy of calculations based on these curves can be significantly improved when
a curve is described, with the aid of the proper computer software, as a polynomial
equation. Using a computer permits, without referring to graphs, the calculation of the
strength or deflection of a plastic just by using polynomial equations. A polynomial is
the sum of two or more algebraic expressions or the sum of a finite number of terms that
are each composed of a positive power of a variable that is multiplied by a constant.
The experimental data from the tensile stress-strain tests that generated the curve for
the Zytel 101 nylon resin in Figure 11-134 are accurately modeled by the computer in
the following polynomial:
-------=:;;;_-.1
16.000 1 100
12.000 80
0.2ln/min . 50% RH 73'F
~ (5.1 mm/mln . 50% RH 23'C) ~
60 ~
'i 8.000 gj
!!1 !!1
Cii 40 Cii
S = - 9.57 x 10 - 1 X e 5 + 1 85 X e"
+ 1.68 X 102 X e3 - 1.89 X 103 X e2
20
+ 8.73 X 103 )( e + 8.64
OL-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
0
~
o 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strain (% Elongation)
Figure 11·134. The stress-strain polynomial for Du Pont's Zytel 101 nylon.
S = 1.05 X 10 X eS - 1.07 X Hf X e4 + 2.99 X Hf X e3

- 5.69 X Hf X e.
2 + 4.59 X 103 X e + 6.87 X 10- 1
where S = stress, in psi, and e = unit strain, expressed as the percentage of elongation
per mm1mm or in.lin. as multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage figure.
As summarized by J. H. Crate, this polynomial describes the curve with a correlation
of 0.9999 if the constant terms are taken to a tenth decimal place. As taken to the second
decimal place, as shown, the error is small-only about one-half of 1 percent of the
calculated stress. In the sample calculation that follows, a polynomial is used instead of
the usual tensile modulus.
Conditions. A product containing a test bar of Zytel 80G 33L (glass-fiber-reinforced

nylon), which must elongate 4.38 percent during assembly. The bars are precon-
ditioned to equilibrium in 50 percent relative humidity air. The strain rate used can
be no faster than the 0.2 in.lmin. rate from available data.
Problem. What is the stress at this elongation? The tensile stress-strain curve for the
nylon just described according to the conditions given is shown in Figure 11-135.
The polynomial determined by the computer for this curve is
S = -9.57 X 10- 1 X eS + 1.85 X e4 + 1.68 X IOZ

X e3 -1.89 X 103 X e2 +8.73 X lQ3 X e +8.64
Solution. Simply enter 4.38, the percentage of elongation in the problem, for e in the
polynomial input. This gives a stress of 105.1 MPa (15,247 psi).
General comments. Had this problem been calculated using published data assuming a
linear relationship of tensile stress to strain (see Chapter 3), the answer would have
been more than twice this amount. Then the designer would certainly have questioned
its practicality, because the stress would have been higher than the tensile strength
of the resin.
By not using the polynomial but published data the following approach should be
adapted. Under the same conditions, the flexural modulus of the Zytel material, which
differs from its tensile modulus, becomes 5,068 MPa (735,000 psi). The flexural modulus
E then is equal to the stress S divided by the strain e, or E = S/e. The stress is therefore
12.000 i---------::::::;;iiiiiiii------=j80
0.2 In/min .. DAM. 73°F
(S 1mm/mln .. DAM. 23°C)
60
8.000
~
~ 40
~
~ '"'"
~
en 4.000 en
S = lOS x 10 x e5 - 1 07 X 102 X e4
+ 2 99 X 102 X e3 - S 69 X 102 X e2 20
+ 4.S9 X 103 X e+ 687 X 10-'
OL------------_~O
o 2 3 4 S
Strain (% Elongation)
Figure 11·135. The stress-strain polynomial for Du Pont's Zytel 80G 33L glass-fiber-reinforced
nylon.
calculated as 32,193 psi (that is, 735,000 x 0.0438), resulting in twice as much as the
plastic's actual tensile strength of 110 MPa (16,000 psi) under the same conditions.
Another way to use polynomials, which requires trial-and-error computer entry, is to
find the strain when the stress is either known or has been specified. As an example, in
a final evaluation of the problem above, the designer may worry that the assembly
conditions may not be ideal f6r field retrofits. The decision is then made to allow for a
stress safety factor of two. Thus, the design stress becomes 15,247/2 = 7,624 psi. A
sequence of tries then follows where
e = 1.00 percent, then S = 7,018 psi

Proceeding in this manner, a 1.114 percent strain is found to give the desired stress
of 7,624 psi. Had the designer used the linear relationship of e = SIE, the result would
have been
7,624 00104·· 1 04
735,000 =. 10./10. or. percent
Using this approach instead of the polynomial, the result would be off by 0.074 percent
of the strain (1.114 - 1.040). Even though the stress is not particularly high, this is a
significant error of 7 percent.
Unfortunately, this high a degree of accuracy is not attainable in all stress-strain
problems. Because polynomials are based on curves generated by using only one stress
direction, they do not apply in problems involving two or more directions at the same
time.
Chapter 12
CONCLUSIONS
Plastics provide the designer with many different materials and processes useful toward
meeting all the varying types of product requirements. They are also capable of producing
from simple to complex shapes and are economically beneficial. They can be made to
have a long life, they resist corrosive environments, and are recyclable, degradable, and
can meet practically any performance requirements. They also permit the fabrication of
products whose manufacturing would be difficult if not impossible in other materials.
However, designers must routinely keep up to date on developments with the more
useful plastics and acquire additional information on how to process them. The emphasis
throughout this book has been that it is not difficult to design with plastics and reinforced
plastics/composites and to produce many different sizes and shapes of thermoplastic and
thermoset commodities and engineering resins, whether unreinforced or reinforced. The
bases of material and process selection should be product performance requirements,
shape, dimensional tolerances, processing characteristics, production volume, and cost
[1-8, 14,40-43,46,62-68,73, 106-12, 119, 136, 156, 163,695, 807, 809-940].
Some plastics can be worked by many different processes, but others require a specific
proc,ess. Process selection can take place before material selection, when a range of
materials may be available, or made first to meet performance requirements and only
then have the app1ic"able process or processes chosen. Usually, in the latter situation only
one special process can be used to provide the best performance-to-cost advantages. A
particular design group may have its own processing capabilities. Unfortunately, some
operations use just whatever equipment is available. This situation could either be very
unprofitable, limit profitability, or restrict product performance. It is important to rec-
ognize that the fabrication process can markedly influence all aspects of product perfor-
mance, including cost.
Compared to other material-based industries, plastics have enjoyed an impressive growth
rate over the century since their inception, but particularly since about 1940. The product-
design community was quick to recognize the design freedom and great versatility that
plastics' materials and processing techniques afforded. Recognizing a growing marketing
opportunity worldwide, international plastics material suppliers started an endless cycle
of developing new and improved materials to meet continually new design needs. Pro-
cessing machinery builders worldwide then responded with improved equipment and
totally new processes, as conventional tool shops everywhere expanded their capabilities
to include mold and die manufacturing for the plastics industry (see Fig. 12-1).
877
STRUCTURAL PLASTICS
Figure 12-1. The interrelationship among the methods of plastic applications and processing for
the family of plastic materials. From "Studies in the Development of Plastics Industries," United
Nations.
The design, development, fabrication, and, importantly, marketing of a new product

will normally call upon many different kinds of design skills. A plastic product could
include at least the product design, industrial design, piece part design, mold or die
design, packaging design, and others. It is possible for one designer to have all these
most desirable specialties kept up to date for a specific product category. Usually, how-
ever, the designer responsible for the product will have total responsibility for producing
it with a profit and thus have to delegate work to all these specialists. This is no problem
if the designer is careful to set up complete product requirements and follow through
logically with the opinions of others as they properly come together.
In a market economy, which is to say the real world, that is ruled by competition,
plastics will be employed only in applications where they can be expected to bring an
overall economic advantage compared with other competing materials. In this connection
it is well to note that the biggest competitor to a given plastic may be another plastic.
On the basis of an overall benefits assessment taking in the full service of a plastic product,
it has been shown in millions of cases worldwide that the use of plastics not only makes
economic sense but also makes a contribution toward conserving resources.
CONCLUSIONS 879
Despite all this optimism, it must not be denied that the plastics industry will continually
be confronted with substantial problems. For one thing, new legislation will exert a
greater influence on the marketing of all types of products and the development of new
applications. Questions of product licensing, product safety, and, in particular, the meth-
ods for disposal of a product at the end of its service life will play an increasingly key
role in this context.
It will not be easy to find a simple, rapid solution to all such problems without involving
the participation and efficiencies of the plastics industry. The present problems, as well
as ones that can be expected in the future, will not reduce the high innovation potential
of plastics, and the growth market can be expected to expand continually. The reason
for this optimism is the past history and ability of plastics to produce a new generation
of materials to meet new requirements. When the market is ready, plastics could become
the world's most fire-resistant material (which is not typical today), the strongest material
in the world, and other factors highlighted throughout this book.
PRODUCT DIVERSIFICATION
As covered in this book and as is obvious with the millions of different plastic products
produced and in use worldwide, plastics are used in all markets to meet all types of
conditions (see Figs. 12-2 and 12-3). Newly designed products are literally endless, to
meet every requirement (see Fig. 12-4).
For example, consider Techturf, a rugged, natural turf system for golf courses that is
based on a PP-mesh reinforcement from BriAg Industries Ltd., a York-based subsidiary
of leI Plastics. It consists of a sand and fertilizer growing medium held together with 2-
Figure 12·2. High-perfonnance reinforced plastic/composite recreational boat exterior that

meets all kinds of conditions for strength, rigidity, toughness, and resistance to saltwater, sun,
sand, and so on.
Figure 12-3. A newly designed child-resistant closure for plastic pails used to package
swimming pool chemicals. This product, called Life Latch, is from Morris Enterprises, of
Tennessee. It employs a locking screw-top cover that is easy for an adult to open but difficult
for a child. Pressing in the lid's latches with one's thumbs permits the lid to be turned and lifted
off. Quantum's Petrothene LS556 HDPE injection-molding material is used for the lid and pail,
with their PP8420-HK impact-grade PP for the molded latches to provide excellent chemical
resistance, strength, stiffness, and ease of molding.
and 3-in. squares of mesh made of ICI's PP. The mesh forms an interlocking matrix
through which grass roots can grow. This new turf system is reported to provide excellent
drainage and wear resistance.
Long established as the materials of choice for auto interiors but now also gaining
favor for use in exterior body panels, plastics are continuing to make impressive inroads
in under-the-hood performance parts, including the potential replacement of just about
every component in the power train. Intake manifolds, camshafts, and engine blocks are
just a few such parts under development for tomorrow's cars. The mostly plastic auto
engine that has been a reality since the debut of the Polimotor in 1980, with its subsequent
success as a power plant in racing cars has now been taken seriously in Detroit.
The latest version of the Polimotor, for which the Rogers Molding Materials Division
of the Rogers Corporation holds exclusive rights, is a 2.3-liter, dual-overhead cam,
sixteen-valve, four-cylinder engine. It is an open-deck type where through-bolts hold the
cam carrier, head, combustion chambers, and block together. The 60 percent by weight
phenolic-glass-fiber-reinforced engine weighs 175 lb., as against the 300 lb. of its metal
CONCLUSIONS 881
Figure 12-4. This Total Environmental Control System in GE Plastics' Living Environments
Concept House seen in Chapter 1 combines the functions of five home comfort appliances, using
TPs to provide aesthetics, heat and corrosion resistance, light weight, and ease of serviceability
and installation, and is designed for manufacturability.
counterpart. It improves mileage, runs more quietly, has less vibration, and is virtually
free of corrosion. The phenolic RP compound used for this engine provides the required
excellent dimensional stability, creep resistance, toughness, and strength retention at high
temperatures. During operation this material is exposed to temperatures of 120 to 200°C
(250 to 400°F), as well as bolt loads that can exceed 69 MPa (10,000 psi).
The U.S. Postal Service has also turned to plastic, to develop a new stamp that could
be sold by twenty-four-hour automatic teller machines anywhere. One of the two nonlick
postage stamps developed uses a new proprietary Fasson-brand polymer-based pressure-
sensitive adhesive. It was developed by the U.S. Materials Group of Avery in Painesville,
Ohio. These stamps are printed on a sheet the size of a dollar bill. With the cooperation
of banks, consumers would buy stamps and the cost would be deducted from their
accounts. Plastic is the only material that could meet the thickness tolerances of automatic
bank teller machines. With this stamp, including its adhesive and backing sheet, plastic
can produce a sheet that is durable, will not double vend from the machine, and will not
jam. The stamp was test marketed in 1990 through the First National Bank of Seattle.
When the first plastic shotgun shells appeared on the market in the late 1950s, sporting
goods stores could not stock their shelves fast enough. Replacing paper with PE in the
shell's body spelled an end to the century-old problems of moisture absorption and misfires
caused by spoiled powder. It also reduced shell jamming and enhanced the smooth
operation of automatics that were then being introduced [843]. By the end of the 1960s
Du Pont's supertough-polymer technology had emerged. This material, by the late 1980s,
was embodied in designs for center-fire cartridges of .38-caliber pistols, using casings
made of Du Pont's Zytel ST 901L supertough amorphous nylon. This casing was both
strong enough and tough enough to withstand the explosive forces that are generated
when a bullet is fired. It offers marksmen advantages ranging from consistently high
accuracy to decreased chamber wear, low-friction extraction, elimination of corrosion,
and less recoil but more economy.
In conventional cartridges the mechanical crimp that holds a bullet tightly in place
creates a drag when it is fired. In a plastic casing integrally molded "interference fits"
lock the same standard bullet into place. But in this case, when the cartridge is fired the
burning gases expand the casing, instantly freeing the bullet as they propel it out of the
barrel.
Advances in medical technology often require advances in materials technology, as
when Friddle's Orthopedic Appliances in Honea Path, S. C., needed a plastic replacement
for the metal halo that formed part of its cervical brace for patients with neck injuries.
The adoption of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology necessitated the replace-
ment of this metal halo with a material that could offer high strength and stiffness for
this critical medical application. It is made of a long-carbon-fiber-reinforced nylon 6/6
composite produced by LNP of ICI Advanced Materials. The composite is easy to fab-
ricate, since it is injection molded. Previously, the halo had been fabricated of stainless
steel, with the superstructure of aluminum, so it had to be removed before an MRI scan
could be made, after which the skull pins had to be carefully reinserted. This repositioning
is eliminated with the plastic halo, which also costs 33 percent less and weighs 30 percent
less.
Among the many plastics used in medical applications are the following:
Acrylics. In bone replacement, corneas, adhesives, hemostatic agents, dentures, contact

lens, artificial eyeballs.
Cellulose acetate. In nerve regeneration, packaging material.
Formaldehyde-treated polyvinyl alcohol sponge. In support and growth stimulator for
blood vessels outside and into heart muscle, hemostatic agent in repair of liver and
kidney wounds, abdominal aortic grafts, vascular shunts, synthetic skin.
Fluorocarbons. In artificial cornea, blood vessels, heart-valve coatings, reconstructive
surgery, bone substitution.
Polyamide. In vascular implants, syringes, clamps, blood transfusion sets.
Polycarbonates. In syringes, parts of heart-lung machine, baby bottles, containers.
Polyester fiber. In aortic and peripheral artery transplants.
Polyethylene. In tubing, syringes, oxygen tents, repair of incisional hernias, stomach wall
support, repair of tissue damage, heart valves, contraceptive implants.
Polypropylene. In syringes, sutures, containers.
Polystyrene. In syringes.
CONCLUSIONS 883
Polyurethanes. In plastic surgery, vascular adhesive, bone adhesive.

Polyvinyl chloride. In surgical tubing, blood collection and administration sets, repair of
congenital and traumatic facial defects, surgical drapes, balloon-type splints, ad-
hesive bandages.
Polyvinyl pyrrolidone. In artificial membranes for filtration of body fluids.
Silicones. In heart valves, tubing, catheters, defoamers in blood oxygenators, urethral
valve, plastic surgery, tendon replacement, lubricants, tissue substitutes.
It may be common soon throughout the United States to have laws requiring that new
toilets use less water. Molded-in ribbing, a TP polyester resin, and a mechanical seaming
technique play key roles in the innovative design of a pressure tank for Water Control
International's water-saving system for toilet flushing. Called Flushmate, this pressurized
system uses only 1.5 gals. of water per flush, as opposed to 5 to 8 gals. with conventional
gravity flushing. The heart of this tank is its pressurization system, in three parts: a ribbed
cylindrical component injection molded of Hoechst Celanese's Celanex 4330 TP polyester,
and two metal end bells attached to the cylinder's integral flanges by a mechanical seaming
technique similar to that used to seal metal cans.
The cylinder measures 7.5 in. in diameter, is over a foot long, and weighs about 4 lb.
An equivalent vessel made of a suitable metal would be two to three times heavier and
cost twice as much. Although its normal system pressure does not exceed 240 kPa (35
psi), the tank is designed and tested to withstand a maximum pressure of ten times that.
In designing this tank to withstand such pressures the integrally molded openings posed
a design problem. With its two distinct openings at the top and one at the bottom, this
vessel seemed to have hoop stresses too great for plastic. The solution was a ribbed
design in a Hoechst Celanese resin that has a particular elasticity that works well. A total
of twenty components are needed to make up the system's pressure regulator, valves,
and supply units. All are made of Hoechst Celanese's Celcon acetal copolymer.
Water treatment systems have now come to include plastics, such as Du Pont's Permasep
permeators for reverse osmosis (RO) water desalination, introduced in 1969 (see Figs.
12-5 and 12-6). Since that time such systems have been used in thousands of installations
around the world for desalination of brackish water and seawater and to treat waste
effluents. These permeators come in four product types, according to the type of water
to be treated (see Table 12-1).
MATERIALS DIVERSIFICATION
As with end products themselves there is an endless need worldwide to develop new and
improved plastic materials to meet new design performance and process ability require-
ments [3]. These new materials include plastics, composites, superconductors, ceramics,
metals, aluminum, concrete, and others. Plastics have been revolutionizing our times.
The greater understanding of plastics' performance and design capabilities assures their
future growth in providing widespread benefits.
One example of such a beneficial product is Monsanto Chemical's recently introduced
low-color styrene acrylonitrile (SAN), which offers economical processing advantages
and enhanced optical clarity, as compared to the acrylic, PC, and styrene/acrylic (NAS)
types. From Dow Chemical comes the first in a family of new TSs to compete with the
polyimides in electronics. Derived from bisbenzocyclobutene (BCB), it is an extension
of Dow's Quatrex resin line with potential use in multichip modules and the like. BCB
has a dielectric constant of 2.66 and a dissipation factor of 0.00 1 at 1 kHz, with extremely
low moisture pickup, rather easy processing, and a glass-transition temperature above
350°C (662°F).
GE Plastics has developed a reactive polymerization technology for select TP engi-
neering resins that radically improves the ability of this material to penetrate and bond
to fiber reinforcements ranging from continuous strands to woven-glass mats. Such wetting
and bonding are properties for which TS polyester resins have been used since 1942.
The original method of bonding fiber to resin involved surface treatments of the glass.
Later treatments involved modifying resins to improve an RP's performance. Usually,
any fiber or resin treatment furnishes improvements only with certain resins [14, 17,27-
34, 150-53].
The GE technology yields ultrastrong composites while retaining its processing, eco-
nomic, and end-use performance benefits. Based on a widely known chemistry called
cyclics, this technology yields an initial molecular structure that produces extremely low
polymeric viscosity, which improves its wetability. For example, these cyclics are used
with many TS epoxy resins.
One goal in synthesizing high-performance TPs for graphite-reinforced RPs and ad-
hesives is to develop composites with enhanced properties to include improved toughness,
thermal stability, and melt processability. Cyclotriphosphazene-based monomers and polymer
precursors have now led to the development of high-temperature materials for aerospace
applications [847]. NASA's new polymers have melting points from 111 to 138°C (232-
280°F). They are useful for obtaining heat- and fire-resistant composites or molding
compounds with high structural strength.
Figure 12-5. Du Pont's hollow, fine-fiber Permasep permeator for reverse-osmosis water
desalination.
CONCLUSIONS 885
An .. Telescoping
Devlte
BMe Seal
C~rn~r
Figure 12·6. Du Pont's spiral wound "Permasep" cartridge.
Du Pont's Fiber G is a tough, lightweight material developed for composite applications

ranging from space satellites and auto bodies to electronics and undersea cables. Fiber
G is stiffer than steel, yet weighs only one-fifth as much and has a modulus of elasticity
of 206,700 to 964,600 MPa (30 million to 140 million psi). There are five grades of this
fiber. With this combination of performance of properties to weight, the designer of a
satellite can eliminate many pounds in a structure being launched into orbit. It now costs
ten thousand dollars to launch each pound of a satellite. Thisweight saving applies equally
well to such other products as autos and aircraft. The high-performance thermal properties
of this fiber are of interest in the electronic parts industry. Interestingly, in an oxygen-
free environment this fiber gets stronger as the temperature rises, all the way up to I, 700°C
(4,OOO°F).
Fiber G is made from petroleum processed into a liquid crystalline powder or mesaphase
pitch, then transformed into filaments so delicate they would tum to dust at the slightest
touch. Further manufacturing, including heating to more than 2,760°C (5,OOO°F), strength-
ens the fibers by realigning their microstructure. Finally, this pitch-based carbon fiber
(PBCF) is wound and bound together with an epoxy finish to become Fiber G.
It is often the case that an old idea bears reexamination. In 1889, T. V. Hughes and
C. R. Chambers patented a process for pyrolyzing marsh gas in iron crucibles to produce
electric lamp filaments, one of many ideas whose time had not yet come. Today, General
Motors Research (GMR) physicists are using hydrocarbon vapors to catalytically grow
carbon fibers. The strong, stiff, discontinuous carbon fibers produced by this method have
potential usefulness in many composite applications.
Conventional carbon fibers are currently based either on the polymer PAN (polyacri-
lonitrile) or petroleum pitch (see Chapter 7). Although they have many properties that
would make them useful in many matrices like plastics, metal, and cement, their expense
has limited their use. In contrast, the GMR method is an inexpensive way to produce
carbon fibers (called Pyrograf, because the method uses pyrolysis to form graphitic
carbon). The testing of the vapor phase process has been so promising that GM's Inland
Division has built a pilot plant in Dayton to produce Pyrograf.
Table 12-1. Du Pont's Permasep Permeators Based on the

Type of Water to be Treated
Product Type Description
Seawater
B-lO A hollow-fiber aramid membrane permeator designed for seawater and high brackish
applications where long membrane life is needed. Replacement bundles
available.
Brackish Water
B-9 A hollow-fiber aramid membrane permeator designed primarily for brackish-water
applications with a moderate level of suspended solids in the feedwater stream
where long membrane life is needed. Replacement bundles available.
B-15 A spiral-wound, aramid membrane cartridge designed primarily for brackish-water
applications with a higher level of suspended solids in the feedwater stream
where long membrane life is needed.
Col A spiral-wound, cellulose acetate membrane cartridge designed primarily for
brackish-water applications with a higher level of suspended solids in the
feedwater stream, where shorter membrane life is acceptable.
For years the use of aluminum plugs has required thermoformers to maintain temper-
ature-control equipment, often resulting in greater fabricating costs. Recently, a growing
number of designers have come to decide that plugs made with syntactic foam (see
Chapter 7) are as durable as aluminum plugs but can also reduce production cost. For
example, the Syntac 350 syntactic foam manufactured by Emerson & Cuming, Inc., of
Canton, Mass., has low thermal conductivity and can withstand sustained temperatures
up to 177°C (350Dp). Consequently, these plugs no longer alter the temperature of a
plastic sheet as it passes through thermoforming machinery. The plugs now provide
consistent performance, ensure the production of uniformly shaped packages, and require
no support equipment.
These plugs require no warm-up period at the start of each day, thus enhancing overall
productivity. Because of their light weight, they increase the longevity of their expensive
thermoforming machines. Blocks of this type of foam as purchased by thermoformers
can be easily cut. The plugs can be easily cut by the fabricator into a wide variety of
shapes and sizes. In contrast, aluminum plugs usually first require a pattern to be made,
which is then sent to a foundry to produce a sand or plaster shaped cavity, after which
the aluminum is poured to form a rough casting, then machined and polished.
A new process to chemically separate commingled postconsumer plastics into a fairly
pure regrind has been successfully tested at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New
York. This process is intended to be commercially available within a few years. These
researchers have taken shredded, postconsumer, contaminated plastics and fed them into
a column that selectively pulls out the polymers through a solvent process. In the first
cut PVCs and PSs are taken out, and on the second cut LDPE is extracted, all at room
temperature. On the third cut the column is heated to 71 °C (160°F), pulling out the PPs
and HOPEs. Another extraction requires a temperature of 88°C (190Dp), netting the PETs.
The drawback of this chemical-separation system thus far has been that the resulting
polymer does not meet the specifications for virgin resins in some cases (see Chapter 8).
The initial tests showed good separation efficiencies with PP and HDPE, but to date there
remain some problems with the PVC/PS split. The property drawbacks are expected to
be overcome by using other solvents before the extraction. The current cost is 13 cents
per lb., including amortization of the capital start-up costs.
CONCLUSIONS 887
Even though new developments in materials will continue to occur, the plastics al-
ready in use are finding new applications, based on their individual characteristics. There
are TPs with a memory, and others that can be bent, pulled, or squeezed into var-
ious useful shapes. But eventually, especially if one adds heat, they return to their
original form. This behavior, known as plastic memory, can be annoying. But when
properly applied, plastic memory offers some interesting design possibilities for parts
(see Chapter 2).
As discussed throughout this book, particularly in Chapters 3, 4, and 5, certain
technical or engineering factors follow prescribed patterns. However, there are cases
where they change because of the type of design applied. One example is Poisson's
ratio of lateral strain to axial strain, which always falls within the positive range of 0
to 0.5 for any material. There is, however, a basic design configuration using a dif-
ferently fabricated shaped cell structure that changes a material's strain behavior [870].
When a sample of polyurethane foam is stretched, its cross-section either moves or
grows flatter, and when compressed it becomes thinner. Thus, a PUR has a negative
Poisson ratio.
This "reentrant" foam, as it is called by its inventor Roderic Lakes, a professor of
biomedical engineering at the University of Iowa, is the only material thus far to exhibit
negative action. The key to this behavior is in its microarchitecture. Whereas conventional
foams have a convex cell structure, the ribs of each of the new foam's cells permanently
protrude inward. When a tensile force is applied, the ribs push outward, causing this
foam to expand laterally. With a compression force the ribs collapse into themselves,
causing the material to contract laterally.
Each reentrant foam starts out as a conventional plastic foam with a positive Poisson
ratio and a convex, open-celled structure. The conventional foam is then compressed
triaxially (that is, in three orthogonal directions) and placed in a mold. The mold is heated
to a temperature slightly above its softening temperature, then cooled to room temperature.
Any foam subjected to this conditioning that then possesses a permanent volumetric
compression factor between 1.4 and 4.0 exhibits a negative Poisson ratio.
When compared to conventional foams, reentrant foams display superior resiliency and
toughness. This structure has applications where the redistribution of stresses is desired:
in air filters, flexible fasteners, gaskets, sound-absorbing layers, fillers for highway joints,
ankle wraps, wheelchair cushions, and many more. An air filter made of reentrant foam
would, for example, address the problem of a pressure rise behind a clogged conventional
filter. The pore space in the reentrant foam would open rather than close as the pressure
increased, to prevent clogging. And if it were used in a flexible fastener, it would expand
when the pull-out tension was applied.
EQUIPMENT IMPROVEMENTS
New equipment nearly always offers potential or actual significant improvements in
processing capabilities. Designers should always plan for the equipment they use to aid
in meeting the goal of zero defects, as well as reduce production costs. There are many
"old" machines in operation, especially in the United States, so in certain operations there
could be ample room to improve and simplify plastics processing. In the United States
there exist an estimated 80,000 injection-molding machines, 12,000 extruders, and 6,000
blow-molding machines. For each of these types of machines about 30 percent are under
five years old, at least 35 percent are five to ten years old, and the rest are more than
ten years old.
Annual U.S. equipment purchases, including imports, have usually been about 5,000
injection machines, 1,500 extruders, and 1,000 blow-molding machines. Only about 10
percent of the U.S. machines use robots, compared to about 90 percent that use robots
in Japan and other rather high percentages in different industrialized countries.
The largest automated injection molding machine, from Battenfeld of America, that is
capable of molding parts measures up to 6 x 5 x 4 ft. It is in a plant in Oak Brook,
Ill., owned by Waste Management, Inc., which describes itself as the world's largest
provider of waste- and environment-related services, with over $50 million in annual
sales. This mold and 1M machine was designed to produce large waste containers from
HDPE, replacing their original metal counterparts used by other companies like Du Pont.
The HDPE containers are lighter in weight, have no need to be painted or repaired,
are not subject to environmental wear and tear, and have a life span at least double that
of metals, which last only two to three years. HDPE can be reground and reprocessed
into containers. The 1.5 m3 (2 yd. 3) containers weigh 48 to 55 kg (l05 to 120 lb.),
depending on the design. The clamping system uses two interconnected 4,5OO-ton plas-
ticators (that is, injection units) positioned side by side just four inches apart. Two
mechanically separated clamping units can be joined and be simultaneously under com-
prehensive closed-loop control to make ultralarge parts. Alternatively, the clamps can be
used separately.
To cope with the production of quite large parts, this unit incorporates multiaxis robots
to demold and transport the molded part. The whole twin unit, which features a combined
injection rate of 18 Ib.lsec., is managed by a Unilog 9000B control system that made its
debut at the 1989 Dusseldorf Plastics Fair. The mold alone weighs 127 t (140 tons) for
the 1.5 m3 (2 yd. 3 ) container, measures 305 x 153 x 216 cm (120 x 110 x 85 in.),
and has an opening force of 545 t (600 tons). The top and bottom tie bars are 91 ft. apart
and the side-to-side platen space is 18 ft. at a maximum mold thickness of 8i ft.
In 1990 Davis-Standard shipped a tandem extrusion complex system to Taiwan that
consisted of .25 cm (10 in.) and 31 cm (12 in.) diameter extruders for the high-speed
production of biaxal1y oriented PP film. This tandem arrangement delivers 3,992 kglh
(8,800 Ib.lhr.) of high-quality extrudate to the die. Upon its startup it was the largest-
known such installation in the world. Tandem as a technique has become quite popular
because it offers the advantage of high product throughput (see Chapters 2 and 7). The
configuration also furnishes backpressures, by utilizing custom feed-screw designs for
each extruder to allow certain speeds to be used for plastic melting, mixing, and conveying.
These high-speed short-screw (that is, length/diameter) machines also reduce plastic
residence time and can conserve floor space.
Plastic's capability of saving on use and cycle time, its better surfaces and less stress,
occur most notably with hollow, thick-sectioned parts made by the gas-injection process.
This method uses a shot of material that is insufficient to fill the mold cavity, with the
remainder of the injection-molding process being the usual 1M technique. Nitrogen gas
is introduced through the mold's gating, pushing the melt to the hot cavity walls and
forming hollow sections in the part. The locations, sizes, and shapes of the hollow sections
are determined by the mold design, part design, amount of material and gas used, and
control of the gas-injection process. The weight and cycle time of this process can be 50
percent less than for solid parts.
The now-expanding approach of using telephone connections to unite the processor
with the equipment supplier saves production downtime and cuts costs. Processors can
now have their routine maintenance problems solved by the equipment suppliers' tech-
nicians in a matter of minutes, without a technician's having to travel to the plant for a
CONCLUSIONS 889
hands-on repair [12]. The result is drastic reduction in downtime from that which is
typical for common processing-line problems. Importantly, such remote diagnostic sys-
tems represent relatively small capital investments for processors; a typical modem, for
instance, costs only between $300 and $600.
The use of a modem for diagnostic purposes comes as a natural progression of two
trends in process-control technology: increased connectivity among computers, and im-
proved diagnostic software. Coupled with the continuing shortage of good technical
people, the incentives for processors and equipment suppliers to pursue remote diagnostics
are strong. A survey of European injection-molding plants conducted by Phillips GmbH
of Germany, one of the world's largest suppliers of industrial control systems, showed
that 60 percent of all machine downtime resulted from operator error, 30 percent could
be attributed to mechanical failure, 9 percent was due to faulty electrical systems, and
just 1 percent resulted from faulty process controls. Several plants reported that having
a modem did reduce significant amounts of downtime in all these categories.
THE SOLID-WASTE PROBLEM AND PRODUCT-DESIGN SOLUTIONS

The waste-management problems of the United States and the rest of the world continually
threaten to reach crisis proportions. The U. S. takes top billing, with each person producing
at least 3! lb./day of waste, and to date it has literally done little to take corrective action.
Such other countries as Germany and Japan generate about 2 Ib./day/person but have
taken some positive corrective action.
Industrialized countries have generated a lot of garbage for a long time but now are
rapidly running out of environmentally acceptable landfills. Unfortunately, this problem
expands with the world population. At present, more than 2 billion lb. of solid waste are
pouring into waste streams annually worldwide.
There is no single, simple answer to this problem. Different, limited approaches have
been used successfully, and much more action has begun occurring here and internationally
to integrate environmentally secure landfills, recycling, advanced waste-to-energy incin-
eration, degradability, product design, waste-source reduction, industry support, public
education and support, regulation support, and various economic considerations. We now
should stop merely living with past problems and start solving them. Waste is a wide-
spread, but solvable, problem; there is an abundance of possible cures and fixes, some
good, others not so good. There are nevertheless logical approaches and facilities to
check their reliability, rather than just criticizing them [164-200, 855-63].
This overview includes information and positive actions being now taken to provide
solutions that will affect all materials. Because plastics usually receive the biggest em-
phasis, they are the main focus here. Plastics as well as other materials must all definitely
be seen as problems (see Table 12-2). Practically all plastics can be made recyclable,
incinerable, or degradable, but the conflict of product-performance requirements as against
economics in most past applications has prevented these factors from being viable. Actions
have thus been taken by the plastics industry here and abroad to make positive steps
toward helping to reduce plastics waste by recycling, incineration, and so on.
Unfortunately, generalizations that "plastics are bad" and "burning plastics always
generate toxic products" are too often heard from customers and media representatives.
More unfortunately, plastics packaging is a highly visible element in the waste stream.
And the negative public perceptions about plastics sometimes lead to negative opinions
about the companies that use them. These companies must then respond to consumer
opinions to maintain their reputations.
Table 12-2. Estimated Contributors to Solid Waste1

Percent Percent
by Weight Waste Material by Volume
37 Paper2 40
18 Yard 18
10 Metal 2
9 Glass 3
8 Food 8
7 Plastic 9-123
11 Others 13
'Total annual solid U.S. waste is estimated to be more than 300 billion lb. (136 billion kg).
'Includes, by volume, 12% in packaging, 12% in newspaper, 4% in cardboard, 2% in magazine, and 10% in others.
'By some reports, up to 16%.
Note: Seven percent of 300 billion lb. is 21 billion lb. of plastics. Annual u.s. plastics consumption is about 67 billion lb. (30 billion kg), with
domestic products at about 61 billion lb. (28 billion kg) (including about 33 percent, or 20 billion lb. [9 billion kg), in packaging) and imported
products at about 6 billion lb. (2.7 billion kg) (contained in electronics, autos, appliances, packaging, medical products, and so on). Waste, like
computer programming and nuclear physics, tends to be a subject shrouded in mystery and reportedly undentood by only the few. The annual
U.S. Control and Service Environment Business is estimated at $80 billion or larger than the total computer business of all hardware and
software, plus the telecommunications and airline businesses.
The plastics industry has fallen victim to an unrelenting international smear campaign,
particularly in the United States, Discriminatory measures have been taken in a number
of countries against plastic packaging, although scientific investigations have proven that
certain products in fact have nothing to do with the rise in the amount of domestic refuse.
On the other hand, the demand for plastics products among consumers, who readily
appreciate the advantages of this material in day-to-day living, has risen so much that
there is now a distinct possibility of disposal bottlenecks arising.
The throwaway aspect, particularly with regard to fast-food packaging, of today's
society has resulted in what has been billed in the press and by legislative bodies as the
nation's solid-waste crisis. Ironically, in many modem composite landfills a high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) liner is used to reinforce the conventional clay layers, as a way of
minimizing leaching. The matter has become a crisis simply because many cities are
facing the dilemma of how to dispose of their municipal waste. Many municipalities have
filled existing landfills and establishing new ones is becoming more and more difficult.
The plastics industry's response has been to commit itself even more firmly to recycling
and to reaffirm its earlier position that waste-to-energy incineration is critical.
Statistics: Fact and Fiction

There is no shortage of statistics about the growing municipal-solid-waste (MSW) disposal
problems (seen in Table 12-2) as well as the amount and types of waste materials. Because
plastics are lightweight, they translate from a rather low percentage weightwise to a large
percentage by volume. Every leading study has shown that plastics make up a smaller
share of solid waste than do paper and other materials. Still, in spite of the facts the
public and legislatures continue to identify plastics as the major MSW offender. The
result has been a growing proliferation of laws banning or limiting the use of plastic
products.
There exist generally held perceptions that the disposal of plastic wastes in landfills or
incinerators is harmful to the environment and human health and that the environment
and human health would somehow benefit if plastics were eliminated from the MSW
stream. Many researchers have determined that these phobias are unwarranted, because
CONCLUSIONS 891
plastics cause little pollution of either land or air and are among the most readily com-
bustible components in an incinerator. Wherever a specific plastic poses a potential
pollution or other type of hazard, there are proper procedures available for properly and
safely disposing of them.
Another reason why plastics' role in the MSW problem is highly overrated is that they
are durable materials that resist the effects of exposure to the elements. The fact that
most plastics are not biodegradable may not sit well with many people, but it still does
not change the percentages in Table 12-2 or in the MSW stream.
It has been reported that the United States recycles only about 10 percent of all its
waste, incinerates about 13 percent, and assigns the remainder to landfills. Japan recycles
50 percent, incinerates 34 percent, and landfills 16 percent. Western Europe recycles
some 30 percent and has large-scale waste-to-energy incineration. These other countries
have had to take earlier action, since they literally have no landfill areas in the way the
United States does.
Landfill
Fortunately, in the United States, as compared to other industrialized countries, municipal
landfills can playa bigger role. They will continue to be needed at least for nonrecyclables
and the ash from incinerators. They will no doubt be required to operate so that they are
environmentally sound and meet all applicable regulations. Unfortunately, many former
or existing sites are irresponsibly run and national and worldwide disgraces. Only some
15 percent of these old landfills are lined to restrict contamination by leaching of the
surrounding area.
The Environmental Protection Administration estimates that in 1987 about 18,500 U.S.
landfills were operating, 1989 had about 8,000, and about 4,800 are projected by 1994.
So while landfill sites are being reduced, the waste problem increases. It has been
determined that practically nothing degrades fully in most landfills, which hold glass,
food, paper, newspaper, aluminum, steel, plastics, and so on, in contrast with the popular
belief that only plastics do not degrade. The reason for this is simply that the moisture
and oxygen needed to encourage degradation are not present.
The U.S. packaging industry estimates the following just for plastics:
Table 12-3. Estimated Disposition of u.s. Plastics Used for Packaging

Percentages by Weight
Year Landfills Recycling Incineration Biodegradation
1987 96.1 1 3 o
1992 66.5 28 5 .5
1997 46 44 8 2
2002 37 43 18 2
Weight (per billion pounds)

Estimated Total Solid Plastic
Year Waste in U.S. Due to Packaging
1987 (6.8 billion kg)

Recycling
Recycling of waste has become an important approach and a profitable business for many.
At present very little in the way of plastics is recycled, which represents less than 1
percent of it by weight. In comparison, about 32 percent of aluminum, 25 percent of
paper, and a small amount of steel are recycled profitably. It so happens that, technically,
plastics can be one of the easiest materials to recycle, but economically this tends not to
make sense. The reason is the present high cost of collecting, sorting, and processing
plastics and other materials. Making any recycling system work requires public, industry,
and local, state, and federal support. Fortunately, recycling efforts are on the increase,
with more than 1,000 curbside recycling collection programs under way and expanding
nationwide.
For example, since 1987 Rhode Island has been successfully recycling MSW of all
sorts in specific localities. The result has been the separating and selling of recycled
paper, aluminum, glass, and plastics. Different procedures with their own auxiliary
equipment are used to separate these materials, such as aluminum cans being separated
from glass and plastic by eddy current equipment and conveyed to flatteners. Plastics
separation involves granulating milk bottles (HDPE) and soda bottles (PET), which are
also separable by color. At present 15 percent or some 60,000 tons per year of Rhode
Island's residential waste is disposed this way.
New York City, with its 15,000 tons of trash daily, has now turned to recycling to
alleviate its landfill problems. By 1995 at least 25 percent of its trash is expected to be
recycled.
Business opportunities are gradually developing to produce many different products
from recycled plastics such as detergent bottles, office equipment, highway barriers,
wastebaskets, pallet strapping, tool boxes, fast food trays, wetland walkways, signs,
hampers, boat docks, park benches, carpeting, irrigation pipes, and many others (see
Figs. 12-7 and 12-8). Until recently, most recycling programs concentrated on paper,
glass, and metal. There was little activity with plastics except in nine bottle-deposit states
or some localities where commercial collectors were active. However, with the waste
problem finally exposed, legal action aiming at curbing the use of plastics, limited action
being taken with public support, and landfill sites disappearing and more waste developing,
a new undeniable urgency exists to solve the MSW problem.
Some of the companies already involved, who are are spending over $40 million per
year in producing plastic recycled products or materials, include Rubbermaid Inc., Turtle
Plastics Co. (Cleveland), Rubber Research Elastomerics Inc. (Minneapolis), DecTech
Labs (Amherst, NH), Processed Plastics Inc. (Ionia, MI), Trio Products Inc. (Elyria,
OH), IPPI (Greensboro, GA), MRC Polymers Inc. (Chicago), Mammers Plastic Recycling
Corp. (Iowa Falls, IA), plus Mobay, General Electric, Dow Chemical, Hoechst, Bayer
AG, Ellman, and others.
Incineration
Incineration solves a lot of solid-waste disposal problems-done properly, it can reduce
the volume of solid waste by at least 90 percent. And waste-to-energy plants provide a
reduction in disposal costs. With high-energy plastics of some sort in the waste, these
significantly increase the ease of incinerating the other materials and provide a higher
waste-to-energy economic value for the plant's operating costs. Plastics have the highest
CONCLUSIONS 893
Figure 12-7. Goodyear had this two-piece suit and matching tie made from recycled two-liter
polyethylene terephthlate (PET) beverage bottles in 1978 and in 1990 donated it to the new
Ripley's Believe It or Not Museum in Wisconsin Dells, Wisc. The recycling process that
Goodyear developed shreds bottles into small flakes that can then be processed into a reuseable
TP polyester resin. Goodyear had the suit made to demonstrate the versatility of its recycled
PET.
stored energy value of any material, and also the lowest energy cost to produce and
process into products.
Most plastics bum cleanly, producing emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and water vapor, but some produce unwanted by-products such as polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). However, PVC and such other by-products can be safely burned at high tem-
peratures of 980 to 1,650°C (1,800-3,OOO°F), using controlled oxygen input, sufficient
cycle (residence) time, typically i to 2 minutes, and appropriate auxiliary equipment like
scrubbers and solid salts. However, most U.S. incinerators operate below 87°C (1,600°F)
and use only limited auxiliary equipment. For example, incinerated PVC generates un-
desirable chlorine (and bleached paper generates much more chlorine). Exhaust scrubber
systems must be used to remove this chlorine.
It has been estimated that some 135 waste incinerators operate in the United States
and process about 13 percent of all trash. Another 93 plants now being built should pennit
Figure 12-8. Wildlife conservation and plastics recycling efforts were united by Custom-Pak,
Inc., of Clinton, Iowa, in its manufacture of plastic wood-duck nest boxes. The boxes are
injection molded from blends of HDPE reclaimed from milk bottles with virgin Petrothene
HDPE from Quantum Chemical Corp. The double-walled outer-shelled plastic box resembles a
tree trunk with a nesting cavity. It has an opening just large enough to permit entry by wood
ducks, but not by predators such as raccoons.
the handling of a total of about 25 percent. With more incinerators being under consid-
erations, perhaps half of our MSW could be incinerated by 2010 in energy-recovery
plants. Thirty-eight states now have on-stream or planned waste-to-incineration plants.
In Japan, 68 percent of their trash is already incinerated, in 1,915 smaller-sized plants.
Modem incinerators can use the latest pollution-abatement technology equipment and
other environmental safeguards to eliminate the exhaust contamination that might arise
from certain plastics and other materials.
Degradable Plastics
After a long period of continuing successes at improving plastics' durability, there is now
more emphasis on using degradable plastics. As is generally recognized, plastics do not
readily degrade. Some of the methods used to do so include UV-sun exposure (with
appropriate additives), bacteria or enzymes (additives like starch to aid the microorga-
nisms), water solubility, and others.
CONCLUSIONS 895
Degradable plastics have caused more public controversy than other approaches to
providing a meaningful solution to MSW problems. Using degradables is definitely not
an overall solution, but it does have some potentially useful applications such as trash
bags and particularly mulch films. Degradability unfortunately conflicts with recycling,
and there is not enough known yet about the products of degradation.
Degradability is neither magic nor a quick fix. For example, polyethylene (PE) film
bags that contain cornstarch as an additive to further biodegradability cause the starch to
become carbon dioxide and water-but the PE remains, simply in a different form.
The potential exists with any system that degradation may occur before the plastic
product fulfills its intended life or purpose. If a degradable is accidentally mixed with
nondegradable plastics for producing products, severe problems could erupt. Also, prop-
erly built landfills are basically not conducive to promoting the degradation of any material.
Product Design
In product design there has always been the desire to use less of any material, because
the result is usually a lower-cost product. On the other side of the issue is the use of
more material to provide for a higher design safety factor beyond what is required. Thus,
unfortunately, there are designs using more material than needed, particularly when using
plastics. It is inexperience in designing with plastics that causes this problem. Many
designers lack the know ledge of at least relating a material's performance to the processing
variables that directly influence safety factors and the amount of a plastic to be used.
With the flexibility that exists in designing with plastics, there are different approaches
that may be used to reduce part weight, such as applying different shapes like internal
ribbing, corrugations, sandwich structures, and orienting or prestretching.
All this activity is aimed at producing products that use less in the way of materials
and in tum let less material enter the solid-waste stream. Some designers, including
myself, have habitually listed in product design specifications that specific environmental
requirements should be met.
A designer sometimes has an opportunity to use a material that provides no problem
in the solid-waste stream or to use a design that lets lower-cost recycled plastics be used.
In fact, blends of virgin (not previously processed) plastics with recycled plastics could
permit the meeting of required product performance requirements. This approach has
been used for the past century, but now there will be more use of it as more and more
recycled plastics become available. However, the designer must take into account the
usual lower performances that will occur with recycled plastics, which is not actually a
problem.
The recycled plastic will also have a degree of different contaminants that would
eliminate its use in certain devices or products, such as in medicine, electronics, and
packaging. However, within these rather small market applications there are designs with
three-layer coextruded, coinjected, or laminated structures having the contaminated plastic
as the center layer, isolated by "clean" plastics around it. This situation is not a problem
in most products. Because the contaminants could be only a microscopic amount of steel
particles, there could be increases in certain of the material's properties.
Another method of reducing the quantity of plastics that has been used in certain
products is to use engineered plastics with higher performance than the lower-cost com-
modity plastics. When applicable, this approach permits using less material to compensate
for its higher cost. With a thinner-walled construction there could also be additional cost
savings, since less processing heat, pressure, and time cycle is required.
To reduce significantly the use of plastics as well as other materials, designers could
apply completely different nontraditional approaches to producing products, some of
which have already been used and others for which an endless set of ideas seems to exist.
Some examples include packaging liquids and creams in flexible plastic pouches or bags
rather than the solid or rigid heavier plastic, glass, aluminum, and other containers. Food
can also be packaged in tubes of aluminum or plastic with high-quality graphics.
Industry Support
Worldwide efforts are being made by the plastic industry to accelerate solid-waste pro-
grams. The efforts include better methods of sorting waste such as separating vehicle
parts, developing better methods to separate thermoplastics and thermosets, burning
sewage sludge more efficiently with plastic wastes instead of fossil fuels, eliminating the
use of the chemical chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that are used in certain plastic foamed
products (alternates are being developed), removing certain additives and fillers in plastics
that contaminate incinerators or landfills (such as cadmium and other heavy metals), and
various others.
Many plastics producers and consumer industry leaders have become involved in major
recycling ventures: Mobil, Du Pont, Amoco, Dow Chemical, Proctor & Gamble, Heinz,
Pillsbury, Beatrice, Campbell, Continental, and others. Certain companies have long been
recycling, such as Wellman, Inc., of Shrewsbury, N.J., which is the largest U.S. recycler
of postconsumer plastics and scrap plastic fibers.
There has always been some degree of development, principally by equipment man-
ufacturers, to improve the quality of recycled plastics and make them more competitive
with virgin materials. To expand R&D, the Center for Plastic Recycling Research, a
foundation established in 1984 by the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI), is making
important headway in solving some of the problems that tend to limit the use of reclaimable
plastics. In December 1985 this group dedicated an experimental pilot plant at Rutgers
University specifically to advance research into plastics recovery and reuse.
The Plastic Bottle Institute of the SPI is another example of industries' participating
in the recycling programs. PBI provides the industry with a list of recyclers identified
by state, the type of resin (plastic) they handle, and their business category. These latter
include the type of process, the minimum pounds required per pickup, the end use of
the recycled plastics, and so on. For example, a few of the products that can be made
from recycled plastic PET bottles (such as carbonated injection-stretched, blow-molded
bottles) include strapping, twine, boards, and trash cans. With PET, bottle recycling
purification levels are listed based on the suggested guidelines from recyclers and end
users. These value levels, by the degree of processing, are, in descending order, pelletized,
clean flake or granulated, uncleaned flake or granulated, baled bottles, and loose or bagged
bottles. The PBI's Reference Guide includes information on recycling PET bottles into
aromatic polyols, unsaturated polyester resins, recycling bottles for fuel value, and the
like.
Public Education and Support

Resolving the solid-waste crisis requires effective public education so that proper cor-
rective actions can be taken. The intention is not to have isolated or incorrect slants on
problems that just expand existing misinformation. Plastics are not perfect, nor is anything
else, but they all play important parts in our society.
CONCLUSIONS 897
All materials, including plastics, definitely create major waste problems. Corrective
action must therefore be taken in a positive direction. Effective education involves having
people participate in programs such as not littering, separating trash, and purchasing or
storing products wisely so that excess trash is not deliberately created.
It is essential to provide the public with the real facts concerning solid-waste problems,
to identify their causes and the actions to be taken for proper control and management
of these problems. The public should recognize that human survival actually requires the
use of plastics, because every industry uses it to benefit people, including its use in
packaging. Furthermore, the manufacture of plastics requires only about 1.3 percent of
the oil and gas consumed in the United States and less energy is required to produce
plastics than such other materials as glass, steel, or aluminum. Plastics have also earned
the name "white coal," because of their high heat value, which is about twice that of
coal.
Plastics would not be a simple substitute for other materials, if they were not to be
used. Plastics have instead become the material of choice in many million-dollar markets
and have made huge inroads in virtually all markets like packaging, construction, autos,
boats, aircraft, electronics, medicine, and agriculture.
Plastics are undeniably part of the MSW problem. Even though the industry is taking
action to reduce the waste crisis, there will always be more to be done. However, because
this problem should have been stabilized many years ago but was not, the corrective
actions of all those involved cannot cause the problem to disappear overnight.
Economic Considerations
To obtain a clean, controllable solid-waste environment requires adopting rigid and ap-
propriate policy regulations to be met by industry and the public. A coherent policy
should provide an equal competitive opportunity to allow the cost of products to increase
in order to pay for a cleaner environment.
The unfortunate note of reality that usually has to be included is that nothing can be
recycled against the grain of economics in our competitive environment. The challenge
has been to learn how to collect, separate, reprocess, and market what has to be a low-
cost material while at the same time making a profit. Definite progress is emerging in
this regard.
What has been occurring in the United States even more so internationally is extensive
R&D in producing new equipment for handling and processing all types of waste, from
pickup to the final stage of landfill, recycling, or incineration.
Regulatory Support
Corrective action definitely requires having the proper and minimal government, state,
and local regulatory support, with the understanding that it will not occur overnight. This
support should include such incentives as tax-free financing for setting up plants like
waste-to-energy incinerators. New York City now requires that its plastic bins used for
collecting trash include 50 percent by weight of recycled plastics.
In summary, the major actions that will make significant inroads on the solid-waste
crisis involve 1) upgrading incineration; 2) upgrading landfills; 3) removing additives in
plastics that cause ecological problems; 4) recycling; 5) expanding industry, public, and
governmental support; and 6) designing products to use less material. In the meantime,
the use of plastics will continue to increase at their usual above-average rate as compared
to other materials, as it has for over a century, since the first plastics were produced, in
1868.
For the record, it has been reliably reported upon examining various environmental
issues that the world is not only livable but healthy [158]. According to Melvin A.
Bernarde and others, "Mobilization of the public from the fixed helplessness cultivated
by media hysteria and development of an accountability on the part of speakers and writers
who shape public opinion" can be the real threat and damage to our health, including
our mental attitude. It is essential to recognize that there is always hope and a way to
resolve manmade problems.
TECHNICAL COST MODELING

The adoption of any technology for producing manufactured products is characterized by
a wide range of processing , materials, and economic consequences. Although considerable
talent can be brought to bear on the processing and engineering aspects, economic ques-
tions remain. Cost problems are particularly acute when the technology that will be
employed is not fully understood, as much of cost analysis is based on historical data,
past experience, and individual accounting practices.
Historically, technologies have been introduced on the shop floor incrementally, with
their economic consequences measured directly. Although incorporating technical changes
in the plant to test their viability may have been appropriate in the past, it is now
economically infeasible to explore today's wide range of alternatives in this fashion.
Technical cost modeling (TCM) has thus been developed as a method for analyzing the
economics of alternative manufacturing processes without the prohibitive economic burden
of trial-and-error innovation and process optimization [10, 12].
TCM is an extension of conventional process modeling that particularly emphasizes
capturing the cost implications of process variables and economic parameters. By co-
ordinating cost estimates with processing knowledge, critical assumptions (processing
rates, energy used, materials consumed, etc.) can be made to interact in a consistent,
logical, and accurate framework of economic analysis, producing cost estimates under a
wide range of conditions.
For example, TCM can be used to determine the plastic process that is best for
production without extensive expenditures of capital and time. Not only can TCM be
used to establish direct comparisons between processes, but it can also determine the
ultimate performance of a particular process, as well as identifying the limiting process
steps and parameters.
TCM uses an approach to cost estimating in which each of the elements that contribute
to the total cost is estimated individually. These individual estimates are derived from
basic principles and the manufacturing process. This reduces the complex problem of
cost analysis to a series of simpler estimating problems and brings processing expertise
rather than intuition to bear on solving these problems.
In dividing cost into its contributing elements the first distinction to be made is that some
cost elements depend upon the number of products produced annually, whereas others do
not. For example, the cost contribution of the plastic is the same regardless of the number
of items produced, unless the material price is discounted because of high volume. On the
other hand, the per-piece cost of tooling will vary with changes in production volume. These
two types of cost elements, which are called the variable and fixed costs, respectively, cre-
ate a natural division of the elements of manufacturing part cost.
CONCLUSIONS 899
The variable cost elements are those elements of piece cost whose values are dependent
on the number of pieces produced. For most plastics fabrication processes the principal
variable cost elements are the material, direct labor, and energy costs.
Fixed costs are those elements of piece cost that are a function of the annual production
volume. Fixed costs are called fixed because they typically represent one-time capital
investments (for buildings, silos, processing machines, etc.) or annual expenses unaffected
by the number of parts produced (the building rent, engineering support, administrative
personnel, etc.). Typically, these costs are distributed over the total number of parts
produced in a given period. For plastics processes the principal elements are main machine
cost, auxiliary equipment cost, tooling cost, building cost, overhead labor cost, main-
tenance cost, and the cost of capital.
To demonstrate the use of such a comparative cost analysis, the production of a panel
was analyzed according to different processes (see Fig. 12-9) [11]. In these case studies
the following conditions existed: 1) the panels measured 61 x 91 cm (24 x 36 in.)
with the wall thickness dictated by the process and part requirements so that the weights
of the panels differed; 2) production was at a level of 40,OOO/yr.; 3) the plastics for all
panels were of the same type, except that different grades had to be used, based on the
process requirements, so that costs changed; 4) each panel received one coat of paint,
except that the structural foam also had a primer coating; and 5) costs were allocated as
needed to those processes that required trimming and other secondary operations.
TCM can keep cost data current, based on cost changes from day to day, region to
region, and so on. Of course, the means of keeping these data updated require that those
costs be obtained on a regular basis and incorporated into the TCM.
$ 35
$ 30
$ 25
u; $ 20
e
~ $15
ii:
$10
$5
$0
Inj Foam T- Form Blow
c::J (SJ EZ:::I ~ Ii:S:J
Material Finishing Overhead Equipment Labor
Processes: lnj = Injection molding
Foam = Structural foam molding
T-Form = Thermoforming
Blow = Blow molding
Figure 12-9. Cost comparisons of panel production using a technical cost modeling program to
show blow molding with the lowest piece cost.
SUCCESS BY DESIGN
When desiring the success of a product many important aspects have to be considered,
importantly, design. The key to analyzing design by designers, engineers, project man-
agers, marketers, corporate managers, and others is whether it incorporates ergonomics
and empathy. In other words, is it a product that truly understands the user or operator
of the product?
With designing there have always been the obvious factors of engineering, styling,
and meeting performance requirements at the lowest cost. To some there appears to be
a new era involving ergonomics, but this is not true. What is new is that there are easier
methods always appearing on the horizon to simplify and meet all specific requirements
of a design. Some designers operate only by creating a stylish outer appearance and
letting engineers work within that envelope. Perhaps that is all the involvement needed
to be successful, but a more in-depth approach would be better. Beginning with a thorough
understanding of the user's needs and keeping an eye on ease of manufacture and repair,
designers can work from the inside out. The envelope that emerges will then prove a
logical and aesthetic answer to the design challenge.
With the new materials and processes that have become available for over a century
in plastics, the design challenge has become easier. Today's plastics and processes allow
designers to incorporate and interrelate all the aspects that provide success. In products
such as electronics, medical devices, transportation controls for aircraft, cars, and boats,
and many others where user-friendly designing is required, it has to be obvious to all
that plastics play the most important role.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
One factor that has continually done a great deal to harm the reputation of plastics is that
in many cases so-called engineers have, after deciding tentatively to try to introduce
plastics into a new application or to reduce the cost of a plastic product, lavishly copied
the metal or plastic part proposed to be replaced. Too much attention cannot be spent
upon recognizing the general principle that if plastics are to be used with maximum
advantage and minimal risk, or used to make products to meet certain performance
requirements, it is essential to cast aside all preconceived ideas of design in metals and
to treat plastics on their own merits. A hard-and-fast rule, then, that should be kept by
all intending to use plastics is "design for plastics."
Designers for all kinds of products are regularly and pleasantly surprised to discover
that plastics' materials and processes provide cost benefits. Eventually, even those who
have been reluctant to do so come to acknowledge and accept the advantages of plastics
over other materials for many applications. Chapter I highlighted how each material
(plastics, steel, wood, etc.) has its own place in design. As a result of the ever-increasing
use of plastics, designers for all kinds of products are being more and more required to
learn how to use plastics. In many cases, designers who are experienced but have no
formal training in plastics product design find themselves forced into the unfamiliar role
of plastics product designers. In all too many cases the cost, quality, and reliability of
the finished product suffer accordingly. Many of the plastic-product failures that con-
sumers complain about could and should have been detected and corrected during initial
design and development.
Some degree of compromise is almost always necessary in designing parts in plastics
and other materials. Arriving at the best compromise usually requires satisfying the
CONCLUSIONS 901
mechanical, electrical, or thermal requirements of the part, utilizing the most economical
resin or composite that will perform satisfactorily and be attractive, and choosing a
manufacturing process compatible with the part's design and the material chosen. Setting
realistic requirements for these categories is of the utmost importance. Probably no plastic
will provide a full 100 percent of the requirements for the desired performance, appear-
ance, processability, and price. Then there are the "emotional" buyers for whom facts
about usefulness are meaningless but for whom aesthetics is the real, and in fact the only,
requirement. As described throughout this book, selecting the best-qualified material is
not based simply on comparing numbers on published data sheets, because these values
can be grossly misleading (see Chapters 3 through 6).
For example, choosing the most economical plastic for a given part by comparing the
cost per pound of various plastics is usually a mistake. Some plastics weight twice as
much for a specific volume as others and thus would require twice as much of them to
fill a part and possibly also cost twice as much to transport (see Chapter 2). A more
meaningful comparison would be cost per specific volume such as per cm3 or in. 3 • But
since there are expensive plastics far stronger than the lower-cost ones, cost-strength
values should also be analyzed. In many applications paying more per pound or per cubic
inch proves more economical if less material can be used, which usually results in faster
processing.
Making molds and dies, as well as assembling parts, can be quite costly, so the design
should include as much function as possible in each product. A single part should when
possible take the place of many individual parts, to eliminate assembly operations, reduce
weight, and, frequently, improve overall structural integrity. Figure 12-10 gives a sim-
plified explanation of this approach as compared to a sheet-metal enclosure with a well-
designed injection-molded plastic replacement. The designed part can also include easy
access to other products, as illustrated in Figure 12-11 [2].
The minimum volume of plastic that will satisfy the structural, functional, appearance,
and moldability requirements of an application is usually the best choice. This is in sharp
contrast to machining operations, where one starts with a solid block of material and
machines away only until what one needs to make the part function remains. Figure 12-
12 illustrates this contrast between a machined valve body and a properly designed,
injection molded, equally functional part [2].
SHEET METAL
@}'~.~
0}@/'
,.....,.L---
INJECTION MOLDED
THERMOPLASTIC
Figure 12·10. An example of an injection-molded one-piece housing (left) that replaced a

fabricated sheet-metal housing (right) where many separate parts were required and had to be
assembled.
Figure 12-11. The interior of GE Plastics' Living Environments Concept House features aGE
Gecet TP resin substrate as part of a distribution floor developed by Infill Systems B. V. of the
Netherlands, through which wiring and piping can be routed.
When designing heat-generating products such as appliances, consider the following

guidelines:
1. Heating elements radiate energy, and all parts surrounding one will absorb some radiant
energy. Generally, lighter-colored parts absorb less radiant energy than dark ones,
because of reflection.
2. The radiant energy level is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
its source. A part 0.75 in. from a heat source is thus exposed to only one-ninth the
radiant energy found on a part 0.25 in. away.
3. Using a reflector barrier or metallic adhesive-backed foil is an effective approach to
avoiding radiant heat buildup in areas adjacent to the heat source. One example is the
nearly all-plastic slide projector that has a hot electric lightbulb source; a metal reflector
employing forced air directs the heat away from the plastics.
4. Double plastic walls provide an air passage outlet to help dissipate heat buildup away
from its source. This construction allows the air between the walls to move or circulate.
Convection dissipates excessive heat buildup by ventilation.
5. The most common way to protect plastic parts from high temperatures when close
contact is required with a hot surface is by insulation. By placing a usually low-cost,
low-thermal-conducting material between the part and the heat source, heat transfer
can be sharply reduced or entirely eliminated.
CONCLUSIONS 903
Figure 12·12. An example of how to minimize material usage in plastic.
The temperature differential between the parts is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area perpendicular to the heat flow (A), the insulating material's thermal con-
ductivity (K), and is directly proportional to the length of the flow path (L). Thus, thermal
conductance is calculated as C = KAIL.
Another term, thermal resistance (R), is defined as the reciprocal of thermal conduct-
ance, or R = lIC. A typical unit of thermal resistance is °C/watt. This can be considered
as the temperature rise between two points per unit of heat transfered between them (see
Chapter 2). Values for other materials are water at 0.36, mica at 0.14, and-a very
effective medium-air at 0.016, with a vacuum being a nearly perfect medium.
Design ideas in the automotive industry using plastics continue to be extensive. New
ideas and applications for meeting performance-to-cost requirements are seemingly end-
less. There are all sorts of novel approaches to design ideas with plastics, such as those
shown in Figure 12-13 [498].
The highest skill a designer can possess consists of making full use of the properties
of materials to create truly distinctive products. In the process the designer needs to know
and explore the limits of design. For example, limits are imposed by such factors as the
manufacturing process's limits on the material that will determine the shapes to which
the material can economically be converted, the physical properties of the materials that
will limit their applications and useful environments, and the designer's imagination in
combining form and function. In theory, the imagination is limitless, but in practice the
first two limitations affect a designer's ability to exercise it (a real world exists where
nothing is perfect; just direct one's effort toward perfection using an asymptotic approach).
See Figures 1-1 to 1-3 and 1-17, which provide outlines on how to set up a new product
idea or a design approach. In tum, a design must fit into a productivity pattern as shown
in Table 12-4 and the product life cycles outlined in Figures 12-14 and 12-15 [1, 5, 7-
10, 14, 15, 62-68, 105-25, 309, 450, 463, 636, 656, 722, 825, 830-940].
Most successful designers have the ability to develop products that will be instantly
acceptable to a buyer. Their designs have.a recognizable, functional improvement along
with some visual appeal to set their products apart from conventional ones. Too many
new product designs or redesigns are nothing more than slight improvements that anybody
could make with a minimum of thought. Many companies inch their way to progress
with just such a slight change every now and then. This is the easy way to give the
appearance of improving a product line with the least disruption of the manufacturing
process and requires little adjustment by the sales staff, with the exception of printing
new brochures.
In order for a new design, redesign, design update, or model change to catch the
interest of the design engineer who must use it, it should offer at least one clear-cut
advantage over the model it supersedes. The process of inching ahead can afford the
~ ....
----------.. ----~----- ..----------
Figure 12-13. A design exercise to produce parts consolidation. High-volume car lines use
glass-fiber-reinforced plastic and composite fender extensions, headlamp housings, rear finish
panels, front grille panels, and others. There is a strong trend currently toward adding together
adjacent components to make one unitary RP component. Cars thus use RP hoods, scoops, rear
deck-lid spoilers, and other parts as distinguishing design features. Front-end parts
consolidation. An upper-grille panel and a valance panel could be joined to make a one-piece
front end. Further front-end parts consolidation. A two-piece hood in an SMC, or a wet system
outer panel and a BMC or SMC inner support panel may give way to a one-piece, self-
reinforced hood in SMC. It is possible to consider joining fenders and a one-piece hood into a
single, rigid component. More front-end parts consolidation. The potential exists for a single
joint-free front end assembly all molded as a single component. Rear-end parts consolidation.
Deck lids take the same parts consolidation path as hoods. Here the rear finishing panels,
valance panels, fender extensions, and taillamp housings (both hidden and with an exterior
finish) are all united in one piece. Further rear-end parts consolidation. This is a single, joint-
free molded component serving as a one-piece deck lid and rear-end panel with the addition of a
quarter-panel section. The consolidation of large parts. The future may include one-piece
molded chassis and even incorporate other parts.
904
--
/

905
A
906
jure 12·13. (Continued)
907
ISales volume
! nme-+ +
Figure 12-14. An example of a product's life cycle.
Sales
Capacity
Cost 01 sales
Motivation costs
Overhead
...... Order
process
Capacity
Labor costs
-"'"
Production
Capacity
Labor costs
Mati. costs
Maintenance costs
--'"
Shipping/
receiving
Capacity
Labor costs
Eqpt.imatl. costs Eqpt. costs
Motivation costs
Overhead Qual. assur. costs Motivation costs
Downtime history . OSHA costs
Downtime costs
Eqpl. costs
..... Inventory costs
Inspection costs
OSHA costs Overhead
Overhead
Purchasing
Capacity
Labor costs
Ordering costs
Motivation costs
Overhead
Figure 12-15. Another example of a product life-cycle chart.
writer of promotional copy a number of things to write about, but there should be one
or preferably several technically sound, verifiable advantages to it. These should give the
design engineer some reason to spend time learning about the product, trying it out, and
perhaps eventually buying it (see Fig. 12-16).
A new design or redesign should also incorporate some visual indication that there has
been change. A new shape or form is great if you can get one, but a new color or label
will do. When a buyer purchases something new, the product itself should look like it
CONCLUSIONS 909
New ....ice Is campared to

..tIeteddeviCfo
Does ... device have same

Indication statements? _
No
Do the dillerances alter the
intended therapeuticldlagnostldetc. Yes
,Red (In deciding. may
canslder impad on safety and
~
"Not substantially
equivalent"
Yes eHedlvenass)?
determination
No
Descriptive infarmatlon New device has same Intended New ....ice has MW
aIaout MW or _eted use and may be ·substantlally - - - - -..... Intended use
as-...
deviceraquestecl equivalent"
I=-
Does MW device have same No c;:~:..": Yes Do the MW characteristics
technalagical characteristics _ aHed safety _ raise MW types of safety or
~--:~---.~
r- No Ant the descriptive
characteristics precise IIIOUF
to ensure equlYlllance?
Yas
Do accepted sdentlftc methods
exist lOr assessing eReds 01
the ... characteristics?
Yes
No
!
No Ant perfannllJD data avadable
t to - oqulwalaace?
Ant performance data available --;;::--"1
to assess eRects of ...
challlcterlstia?
No I
Perfarmance
data Performance
+Yes
v,IS
data
required
L.
required
Do perfannance data de-mrate Do perlonnance data _ _trate ----J
.t
equivalence? equivalence?
No
"Substantially equivalent"
determination
Figure 12·16. An example showing the redesign of a medical device where a change in an
FDA-approved original product is to be updated with a modification or change. This schematic
shows the FDA's method for determining substantial equivalence. All these steps are needed to
satisfy the FDA requirements for what is known as GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices).
is new and different. Radical changes can be upsetting, but a big change is better than
no change at all when dealing with the needs of the design community. Here is a checklist
for designers looking for good things to say about their design:
1. Tell how it improves the intended function. What is its principal advantage, speed of
operation, reliability, size, cost, material of construction, or other characteristics?
Focus on the main user benefits.
2. Describe its efficiency of operation. If you can, document any operational improvement
in terms of dollars, power, time, Or whatever. It gets the attention of other engineers.
3. Emphasize quality. Many design engineers will be interested in a quality product with
longer life, a better appearance, quieter operation, improved durability, and greater
convenience, as a component for use in their own quality products. This is particularly
true now in office equipment and home appliances, where their environmental effect
is a factor in sales.
4. Size, weight, portability, ease of handling, neatness of layout, fit, and compatibility
are often crucial factors in design product selection. Visual appearance is always
important to call attention to these advantages.
Table 12-4. Example of a Design Program Approach
Design Category Subcategories Detailed Requirements
Establish functional Estimated Product basic functions
and allowable size Aesthetics and marketing
performance and shape Shipping
requirements Available space
Weight
Standardization
Strength and stiffness criteria
Flexibility
Process limitations
Establish Loads:
structural Gravity
requirements Dead--Own weight
superimposed
Live--()ccupancy
Snow
Misc.
Pressure
Fluid
Earth
Wind
Dynamic
Impact
Seismic
Handling and shipping
Cyclic
Temperature:
. {Interior
Service range- Exterior
Gradient across component thickness
No. of cycles--high to low
No. of cycles--freeze-thaw
Solar gain, surface air flow
Liquid, moisture, and/or vapor tightness
Strength-weight ratios--relative significance
Establish Service environment:

nonstructural Corrosion {InteriOr Chemical
requirements resistance Exterior { Soil
Moisture
Organic
Weathering Moisture
wet--dry cycles
{
Freeze-thaw cycles
UVexposure
Rain abrasion
Aging
Moisture
Temperature
Fire safety Incombustibility
Flame spread rate
Toxic gases
Fuel content
Light Transparency { Control of sunlight
transmission Translucency and solar heat
Opaque Color
(cant'd)
910
Surface
{Aesthetics
texture
Surface
{Abrasion resistance
coatings
Thermal {Barrier
insulation Gradient
Moisture
and vapor {Condensation
penetration
Electrical
{Dielectric properties
insulation
Establish cost Examine economics for successful competition with similar

targets products in conventional materials
Consider total effect of new design on end product costs:
materials, tooling, finishing, assembly, warehousing and
inventory, quality control, packaging and shipping, and
installation
Consider effect on operating costs. Light weight is important
in some applications
Establish Number of identical pieces
production Minimum and maximum probable production rates
and marketing Available plant
requirements Market locations
Shipping costs
Method of marketing
Installation criteria, if applicable
Cost restrictions imposed by competing products or
technology. Prices can shift with short- and long-term
changes in market conditions
Preliminary design Select size and Consider end use and limitations of suitable plastics, efficient
of component general manufacturing processes, requirements for sufficient
configuration strength and stiffness with efficient use of materials, and
cost
Select feasible Satisfy structural requirements with favorable cost ratios
plastics
material or Satisfy nonstructural criteria with acceptable compromises
materials and trade-offs where necessary
Is efficient fabrication process available?
Select feasible Provide required size and configuration
manufacturing Tooling and plant capital costs to be appropriate for number
process or of pieces and rate of production
processes Compatible with available plant and marketing plan
Provides required structural properties and quality control
Determine Develop suitably simplified concept of structural behavior to
structural permit approximate determination of structural
response response-reactions, stress resultants, stability and
based on stiffness requirements. Make appropriate assumptions
approximate within confines of laws of statics
analysis
(cont d)
911
Design Category Subcategories • Detailed Requirements
Establish design Detennine suitable allowable design strengths and stiffness,
criteria for taking into account type and duration of load, service
trial materials environments, process effects, quality expectations, etc.
selected
Proportion Detennine trial shape of plates, shells, and ribs, depth of ribs
component and sandwiches, and wall thicknesses to meet strength,
for specific deflection, and stability criteria
configuration Review economics and suitability
and thickness
Develop Detennine concept and principal details for shop and field
significant connections, penetrations, and other subparts (if
details required)
Detennine materials for connections, coatings, subparts, etc.
Revise preliminary Evaluate Review economics and suitability of materials and process
design of preliminary based on preliminary proportions.
component design Consider overall compatibility and practicality of all materials
and parts in component as a system
Does it meet functional and perfonnance requirements?
Is it compatible with other components that may interact with
it, relative to effects of expansion and contraction,
structural support or movement, fire safety, etc.?
Review Detennine if all original perfonnance requirements are
perfonnance feasible within economic objectives, or whether
and fun~tional compromises and trade-offs should be considered
requirements
Optimize design to General configuration
reduce cost or Configuration proportions such as rib depths, shell radii, fillet
satisfy radii, etc.
functional and Material thickness
perfonnance Material alternatives-consider additives to tailor properties
requirements Process alternatives
Develop final Perfonn structural Detennine structural response--stresses, support reactions,
design of analysis of deflections, and stability-based on a structural analysis
component acceptable of acceptable accuracy. Determine acceptable accuracy
accuracy based on economic value of component, consequences
of failure, state-of-the-art capability in stress and
stability analysis, margin of safety, knowledge about
loads and materials properties, conservatism of loads,
provisions for further evaluation by prototype testing
Establish final Allowable stresses, strains, deflections
design criteria Margins of safety against local and overall instability,
vibrations, etc.
Take into account type and duration of load, service
environments, process effects, equality expectations
Evaluate Shape of plates, shells, ribs
proportions Depth of ribs and sandwiches
and design Thickness of shells, flanges, and stiffeners
details; revise Connections: Shop
if necessary Field
Edge conditions
Penetrations
Subparts, Inserts
Prepare Drawings are sometimes prepared in two stages:
engineering Design drawings
drawings Detail or fabrication drawings
(cont'd)
912
Prepare Materials requirements including composition, quality

specifications standards, and minimum structural properties
for technical Fabrication requirements and standards, including
requirements dimensional tolerances, allowable defects, and minimum
of product structural properties
and materials Requirements for prototype and quality control tests and
procedures
Shipping and handling
Requirements for field assembly, installation, or erection
Prepare manuals Periodic maintenance, recoating
or instructions Service conditions: temperature limits, chemical exposure
for limits
maintenance Repair procedures
and repair
Evaluate design by Develop practical Develop practical test program to demonstrate components
prototype and full-scale ability to meet structural and performance criteria.
materials tests prototype for Extent of such test program, if any, depends on
structural economic value of "Component, number of units to be
tests produced, consequences of failure, accuracy of structural
analysis and design, margins of safety used in design,
knowledge about service loads and environments, and
difficulty of duplicating service loads and conditions in
test
Test materials for Determine that materials produced in actual fabrication
structural process will have the minimum structural properties and
properties and resistance to service environment assumed in the design.
effect of Extent of testing, if any, depends on available
service information about specific materials and processes to be
environment used
Revise design, if Correct design and detail problems, if any, revealed in tests
required Modify materials, or process, if production materials'
properties not adequate
Protect or modify materials if service environment causes
excessive degradation of properties
Develop production Pattern design and
and drawings
distribution
system Mold design and Take into account shape limitations and design rules that
drawings facilitate molding
Production process Take into account materials and configuration characteristics
design and that simplify processes
layouts Automated processes are needed for high-volume production
Develop any
special
equipment
Distribution and Production for inventory, or by special order
marketing Replacement part inventory
plan Locate production facilities to optimize distribution
Procedures for Identify special requirements for protection in handling and

packaging, shipment
storing,
handling, and
shipping
Installation Specify special requirements for assembly or installation
requirements
913
5. A designer's headache is the product that cannot be maintained, repaired, replaced,

or renewed once it is incorporated in a design assembly. Most of us have been amazed
to find such items and respond favorably to component designs that can be fixed.
6. Safety considerations are a positive factor when incorporated in a design component
rather than being left as a final assembly project or add-on. Safety should be a
prime consideration whenever there are exposed moving parts or pressure, hazard-
ous substances, or unknown conditions that could result in injury during assembly
or subsequent product use.
Change-more specifically the rate of change-is the key to nearly all design activity.
Change creates the need for new and better products and provides designers with the
technical tools for making better products. There is little excuse for a lack of technical
improvement in engineered products. There is also little excuse for not making products
attractive, easy to use, and easy to maintain to benefit the buyer.
CHALLENGE REQUIRES CREATIVITY

In order to find unique, creative solutions to difficult challenges that were not resolved
by past tried and true techniques, one must get away from the conventional state of mind
that is often unimaginative, frustrating, repetitive, and negative. The nature of some
problems tends to invite unimaginative suggestions and attempts only to use past ap-
proaches.
Problem solving in designing and producing products, as in business and personal
problems, generally requires taking a systematic approach. If practical, make rather small
changes and allot time to monitor the reaction of result. With whatever time is available,
patience and persistence are required.
However, when a problem is particularly difficult or only limited time exists, consid-
ering a new and imaginative approach with techniques that previously generated creative
ideas. First generate as many ideas as possible that may be even remotely related to the
problem. During the idea generating phase it is of critical importance to be totally positive:
no ideas are bad. Evaluation comes later, so do not attempt to provide creativity and
evaluation at the same time; it could be damaging to your creativity. Look for quantity
of ideas, not quality, at this point. Now all ideas are good; the best will become obvious
later.
If possible, relate the problem to another situation and look for a similar solution. This
approach can stimulate creative thinking toward other ideas. Try humor; do not be afraid
to joke about a problem.
The next step is to evaluate all the ideas. Consider categorizing the list, then add new
thoughts, select the best, and try them.
After all this action, if nothing satisfactory occurs, rather than give up look for that
really creative solution-it is out there. You may be too close to the problem. Get away
from the trees and look at the forest. Climb up one of the trees and look at things from
a different perspective.
Use your creative talents but, again, be positive. You have now creatively worked
through the frustration and negativism that problems seem to generate. Your increasingly
creative input will generate future opportunities.
Now let us take the thoughts above and improve on them. In doing so let us avoid
saying in effect "My mind is made up--do not give me the facts." Rather, let us use the
approach that there is always room for improvement.
CONCLUSIONS 915
Designers spend little time in a vacuum. Most of their working hours are spent adapting,
modifying, or otherwise improving on work previously performed by others. However,
good ideas are as much in demand in these areas as any other.
THE FUTURE
It can be said that the challenge of design is to make existing products obsolete or at
least offer significant improvements. Despite this level of activity there are always new
fields of industry to explore (see Fig. 12-17). Plastics will continue to change the shape
of business rapidly. Today's plastics tend to do more but cost less, which is why in many
cases they came into the picture in the first place. Tomorrow's requirements will be still
more demanding, but with sound design plastics will satisfy those demands, resulting
not only in new processes and materials but improvements in existing processing and
materials. Research will no doubt become even more adept at manipulating molecules
to the extent that the range of materials offered to industry will continue to present new
opportunities and allow existing businesses to enjoy profitable growth (see Chapters 2,
6, and 7). A reading of the literature and patents being issued indicates that there is a
great deal of commercially oriented research being aimed at further improvement and
modification to the plastics family.
Unfortunately, sometimes a new design concept is not accepted or may simply be
ahead of its time. In 1483 Leonardo da Vinci designed what he called a spiral screw
Figure 12-17. An example of exploring new fields is that of fabricating film directly on
farmland. Here two extruders are producing film that can in tum incorporate seeds, fertilizers,
and so on so that they are applied uniformly or at a controlled rate. This type of system as well
as those for extruding other products (pipe, rails, etc.) have all been in development for
decades, but to date no known commercial applications exist.
flying machine. In 1942, Igor Sikorsky developed the R4B helicopter. Taking 459 years
to bring a product to market seems a failure either in materials or perhaps the interoffice
mail.
u
..0
:::>
u
c
Q
Year
Figure 12·18. World consumption of plastics by volume.
Steel Plastics
I,OOO,Ooo~--+----+----t----+---t::*,,""--::~'---:1I----::lr-1
Aluminum
100,000
Rubber
::
0 Copper
I-
8o.
- 10,000
Zinc
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year
Figure 12·19. World consumption of plastics by weight.
CONCLUSIONS 917
Plastics are now among the nation's and world's most widely used materials, having
surpassed steel on a volume basis in 1983 (see Fig. 12-18). By the end of this century,
plastics will have surpassed steel even on a weight basis (see Fig. 12-19). Plastics'
materials and products cover the entire spectrum of the world's economy, so that its
fortunes are not tied to any particular business segment. Designers are in a good position
to benefit in a wide variety of markets: packaging, building and construction, electronics
and electrical, furniture, apparel, appliances, agriculture, housewares, luggage, trans-
portation, medicine and health care, recreation, and so on.
The effective exploitation of product design opportunities is the key to success. In
tum, success hinges on other factors, such as the proper selection of materials and using
the best available processing equipment. Because new materials and equipment continue
to be more productive and produce better quality products, one should stay abreast of
new material and equipment developments and evaluate them logically. With designing,
there is an extremely vast area for improving profitability by ensuring that the best available
material and equipment are used to meet specific design performance requirements. To
design, as to live, is to change, and to aim for perfection is to have changed often.
Appendix A
GENERAL INFORMATION SOURCES
SELECTED TRADE MAGAZINES AND PUBLICATIONS

Advanced Materials & Processes. ASM International, Metals Park, OH 44073.
Canadian Plastics. 1450 Don Mills Rd., Don Mills, Ont., Canada M3B 2X7.
Chemical & Engineering News. 733 Third Ave., New York, NY 10017.
Chemical Engineering. 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
Chemical Marketing Reporter. 100 Church St., New York, NY 10007.
Chemical Week. 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
Design News. 275 Washington St., Newton, MA 02158.
European Plastics News. 33-39 Bowling Green Lane, London ECIR ONE, England.
European Polymer Journal. Fairwell Pk., Elmsford, NY 10523.
Journal of Commerce. 110 Wall St., New York, NY 10005.
KunststofJe. C. Hanser Verlag, Munich, Postfach 8604 20,8000 Munchen 86, Germany.
Machine Design. 1100 Superior Ave., Cleveland, OH 44114.
Materials Engineering. 600 Summer St., Stamford, CT 06904.
Medical Device & Diagnostic Industry. 2416 Wilshire Blvd., Santa Monica, CA 90403.
Modern Packaging. 205 E. 42 St., New York, NY 10017.
Modern Plastics. 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
Paper. Film & Foil Convertor. 29 Wacker Dr .• Chicago. IL 60606.
Plastics Compounding. 1129 E. 17 St., Denver, CO 80218.
Plastics Design & Processing. 700 Peterson Rd., Libertyville, IL 60048.
Plastics Design Forum. 1129 E. 17 St., Denver, CO 80218.
Plastics Engineering . .14 Fairfield Dr., Brookfield Center, CT 06805.
Plastics Focus. Box 814, Amherst, MA 01004.
Plastics Machinery & Equipment. 1129 E. 17 St., Denver, CO 80218.
Plastics Technology. 633 Third Ave., New York, NY 10017.
Plastics World. 275 Washington St., Newton, MA 02158.
Rubber & Plastics News. 1 Cascade Plaza, Suite 1302, Akron, OH 44308.
SAMPE Journal. 843 W. Glentana, Covino, CA 91722.
World Plastics & Rubber Technology. 4-7 Nottingham Ct., Short's Gardens, London
WC2H 9AY England.
SELECTED TRADE ASSOCIATIONS AND PROFESSIONAL GROUPS

Adhesives Manufacturers Assoc. 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60601.
American Chemical Society. 1155 16 St., NW, Washington, DC 20036.
919
920 APPENDIX A
American National Standards Institute. 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018.

American Society for Testing and Materials. 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.
American Society of Civil Engineers. 345 E. 47 St., New York, NY 10017.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 345 E. 47 St., New York, NY 10017.
American Society of Metals. Metals Park, OH 44073.
Canadian Plastic Institute. 1262 Don Mills Rd., Suite 48, Don Mills, Ont. Canada M3B
2W7.
Drug, Chemical & Allied Trade Assoc. 40-42 Bell Blvd., Suite 204, Bayside, NY 11361.
Factory Mutual Research Corp. 1151 Boston-Providence Tpke., Norwood, MA 02062.
Industrial Designers Society of America. 1142 E. Walker Rd., Great Falls, VA 22066.
Malaysian Rubber Producers' Research Assoc. Malaysian Rubber Bureau, Washington,
DC.
Manufacturing Chemists Assoc. 1852 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20009.
National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers. Box 1499, Houston, TX 77001.
National Assoc. of Plastics Fabricators. 1100 Standard Building, Cleveland, OH 44113.
Polyurethane Manufacturers Assoc. 4219 S. Wolcott Ave., Chicago, IL 60609.
Rubber Manufacturers Assoc. 1901 Pennsylvania Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20006.
Society of Automotive Engineers. 400 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15096.
Society of Plastics Engineers. 14 Fairfield Dr., Brookfield, CT 06805.
Society of Plastics Industry. 1025 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20036.
SELECTED GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS AND GROUPS

National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST). Polymer Building, Washington,
DC 20234.
Naval Publications & Forms Center. 5801 Tabor Rd., Philadelphia, PA 19120.
Plastics Technical Evaluation Center (PLASTEC). Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, NJ 07801.
U.S. Government Publications. Available through the Dept. of Commerce, 5285 Port
Royal Rd., Springfield, VA 22161 (see Note below).
Annual Survey of Manufacturers. Bureau of the Census.
Census of Manufacturers. Bureau of the Census.
Directory of Plastics-Knowledgeable Government Personnel. NIST.
Foreign Trade Reports. Bureau of the Census.
Standard Industrial Classification Manual. Office of Management & Budget.
Statistical Abstracts of the U.S. Dept. of Commerce.
Synthetic Organic Chemicals. International Trade Commission.
US Industrial Outlook. Dept. of Commerce.
Wholesale Price Index. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Note: Some of the above publications are not available through the Springfield office, but they can guide you
as titles and their availability change. Many more publications exist as listed in their different indexes.
Appendix B
CONVERSIONS
A. METRIC CONVERSIONS·
To Convert To Multiply by To To Multiply by
(U.S. System) (Metric System) Convert (U.S.
(Metric System)
System)
Density
Ib.lin. J kg/mJ 27.680 kglmJ Ib.lin. J 0.000036

Ib.lft.J glcmJ 0.0160 glcmJ Ib.lft.J 62.43
Ib.lft. J kglmJ 16.0185 kglmJ Ib.lft.J 0.0624
Ib.lin. J g/cmJ 27.68 glcmJ Ib.lin. J 0.036.13
Temperature
in.l(in .. "F) m1(m·°C) 1.8 m1(m· OC) in.l(in .. "F) 0.556

"F °C ("F - 32)1 °C "F 1.8°C + 32
(1.8)
"F K ("F + 459.67)1 K "F 1.8K - 459.67
(1.8)
Pressure
psi kPa 6.8948 kPa psi 0.145

psi MPa 0.00689 MPa psi 145
psi GPa 0.00000689 GPa psi 145038
psi bar 0.0689 bar psi 14.51
Energy and Power
ft .. Ibf. 1.3558 ft .. Ibf. 0.7376

in. ·Ibf. 0.113 in. ·Ibf. 8.850
ft .. Ibf.!in. Jim 53.4 Jim ft .. Ibf.!in. 0.0187
ft .. Ibf.!in. J/cm 0.534 J/cm ft .. Ibf.!in. 1.87
ft .. Ibf.!in. 2 kJ/m2 2.103 kJ/m2 ft .. Ibf.!in.2 0.4755
kW metric 1.3596 metric kW 0.7355
horsepower horsepower
U. S. horsepower kW 0.7457 kW U.S. 1.3419
horsepower
Btu 1055.1 Btu 0.00095
(cont'd)
921
A. METRIC CONVERSIONS (Continued)
(Metric System)
System)
Btu W·h 0.2931 W·h Btu 3.412

Btu . in.! W/(m· K) 0.1442 W/(m' K) Btu· in.! 6.933
(h .. ft.' . oF) (h ..
ft." ~
Btu "lib. kJ/kg 2.326 kJ/kg Btu "!lb. 0.4299
Btu "/(lb .. oF) J/(kg . 0c) 4187 J/(kg . 0c) Btu "/(lb. 0.000239
oF)
V/mil MV/m 0.0394 MV/m V/mil 25.4
Output
Ib.!min. glS 7.560 gls Ib.!min. 0.1323

Ib.lh. kglh 0.4536 kglh Ib.lh. 2.2046
Velocity
in.!min. cmls 0.0423 cmls in.!min. 23.6220

ft.!s. mls 0.3048 mls ft.!s. 3.2808
Viscosity
poise Pa . s 0.1 Pa's poise 10

Ib/ft . s Pa's 1.4882 Pa's Ib/ft . s 0.6720
ft'ls m'ls 0.0929 m'ls ft'ls 10.764
Length
mil millimeter 0.0254 millimeter mil 39.37
inch millimeter 25.4 millimeter inch 0.0394
inch centimeter 2.54 centimeter inch 0.3937
foot centimeter 30.48 centimeter foot 0.0328
foot meter 0.3048 meter foot 3.2808
yard meter 0.9144 meter yard 1.0936
Area
inch' miIlimeter' 645.16 millimeter' inch' 0.0016

inch' centimeter' 6.4516 centimeter' inch' 0.155
foot' centimeter' 929.03 centimeter' foot' 0.0011
foot' meter' 0.0929 meter' foot' 10.7639
yard' meter' 0.8361 meter' yard' 1.1960
Volume, Capacity
inch' centimeter3 16.3871 centimeter3 inch 3 0.061

fluid ounce centimeter3 29.5735 3 centimeter3 fluid ounce 0.0338
quart (liquid) decimeter3 0.9464 decimeter3 quart 1.0567
(liter) (liter) (liquid)
gallon (U.S.) decimeter3 3.7854 decimeter3 gallon 0.2642
(liter) (liter) (U.S.)
(cont'd)
922
A. METRIC CONVERSIONS (Continued)
(Metric System)
System)
gallon (U.S.) meter3 0.0038 meter' gallon 264.17

(U.S.)
foot' decimeter' 28.3169 decimeter' foot" 0.0353
foot' meter' 0.0283 meter' foot 3 35.3147
yard 3 meter3 0.7646 meter' yard3 1.3079
in. 3/lb. m3/kg 0.000036 m3/kg in. 3/lb. 27.680
ft.3/lb. m3/kg 0.0624 m4/kg ft.3/lb. 16.018
Mass
ounce (avdp.) gram 28.3495 gram ounce 0.03527

(avdp.)
pound gram 453.5924 gram pound 0.0022
pound kilogram 0.4536 kilogram pound 2.2046
pound metric ton 0.00045 metric ton pound 2204.6
U.S. ton (short) metric ton 0.9072 metric ton U.S. ton l.l023
(short)
Force
lbf. N 4.448 N lbf. 0.225

dyne N I x 10-' N dyne lOx 10'
ton - f(2ooo Ibf) N 8.9 x 103 N ton-f (2000 II X 10-5
lbf)
Metric Prefixes*
Standard Metric Symbols Numerical Value Term Symbol
A .... . ampere kg .... kilogram lO deka da

bar ...... . bar L ......... liter lOz hecto h
cd .... candelar m . ..... meter lO3 kilo k
C .... . celsiust N ..... newton lO6 mega M
g ....... . gram Pa ...... pascal lO9 giga G
h ....... . hour S ..... siemens lO12 tera T
Hz ....... hertz s ...... second lO-1 deci d
J ........ joule t .... metric ton lO-2 centi c
K ...... kelvin V . ....... volt lO-3 milli m
W ....... watt 1~ micro J.I.
lO-9 nano n
lO-12 pico p
*These prefixes may be used with all metric units.

tForrnerly c.lled Centrigr.de.
923
924 APPENDIX B
B. SI UNIT PREFIXES
Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol Pronunciation (U.S.)" Tenn (U.S.)
I 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10" exa E asinT~ one quintillion
I 000 000 000 000 000 = 10" peta P asin~ one quadrillion
I 000 000 000 000 = 10 12 tera T as in terrace one trillion
I 000 000 000 = 10" giga G jig' a <! as in !!bout) one billion
I 000 000 = 10" mega M as in megaphone one million
1000 = 103 kilo k as in kilowatt one thousand
100 = J02 hecto h heck'toe one hundred
10=10 deb da deck' a <! as in !!bout) ten
0.1 = 10-1 deci d as in decimal one tenth

0.01 = 10-2 centi as in sentiment one hundredth
0.001 = 10-3 milli m as in military one thousandth
0.000 001 = 10-" micro .... as in microphone one millionth
0.000 000 001 = 10-" nano n nan' oh <.!!!!!! as in one billionth
Nancy)
0.000 000 000 001 = 10-12 pico P peek' oh one trillionth
0.000 000 000 000 00 I = 10-" femto f fern' toe @!!! as in one quadrillionth
feminine)
0.000 000 000 000 000 00 I = 10-" atto a as in .anatomy one quintillionth
Abstracted from material by American National Metric Council, 1977.

"The first syllable of every prefix is accented to ensure that the prefix will retain its identity.
C. THE PROPERTIES OF WATER

One gallon of water weighs 8.3356 lbs. at 17°e (62°F). (Air free, weighed in vacuum.)
One gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches or 0.13368 cubic feet.
One cubic foot of water equals 7.4805 gallons. A cylinder 7" in diameter and 6" high
contains one gallon.
One cubic inch of water weighs .576 oz.
The maximum density of water is at 39.1 OF.
The freezing point at sea level is ooe (32°F).
One cubic foot of water at 39.l oF equals .4335 lbs. per sq. inch.
The boiling point of water at normal pressure is 1000e (212°F).
Appendix C
TRADE NAMES
There are thousands of trade names used in the plastics industry to include and identify
its many different plastics materials. These listings are available in the publications listed
above in Appendix A, as for instance Modern Plastics, Plastics Technology, and Plastics
World. What follows gives examples of some of the more commonly encountered trade
names.
ACETRON. Filled and reinforced acetals. Polymer Corp.

ACLON. CTFE. Allied Signal, Inc.
ACRYLACON. Glass-concentrated SAN. Wilson-Fiberfil Internat., Akzo.
ADIPRENE. Polyurethane resin. Du Pont.
A-FAx. Amorphous PP. Himont U.S.A., Inc.
ALATHON. Polyethylene resin. Du Pont.
ALFfALAT. Alkyd resin. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
AMOPLEX. Glass-compatible PP. Amoco Chemicals Co.
ARAKOTE. Polyester resin. Ciba-Geigy Corp.
ARALDITE. Epoxy resin. Ciba-Geigy Corp.
ARCEL. Expandable PE copolymers. Arco Chemical CO.
ARDEL. Polyarylate. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.
ARETON. Polyaryletherketone. Du Pont.
ARPAK. Expanded PE beads. Arco Chemical Co.
ARYLON. Polyarylate resin. Du Pont.
ATLAC. Polyester resin. ICI Americas, Inc.
ATTANE. Ultra LDPE resins. Dow Chemical Co.
AzoEL. Stampable TP-RP sheets. GE Plastics.
BAYBLEND. PC/ABS blends. Mobay Corp.

BA YDUR. Rigid structural urethane foam. Mobay Corp.
BUDD. Urea molding compound. BIP Chemicals, Inc.
BUDENE. Polybutadiene resin. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
BUTACITE. Polyvinyl butyral sheeting. Du Pont.
BUTV AR. PVB resin. Monsanto Co.
CADON. Styrene anhydride terpolymer. Monsanto Co.

CALIBRE. PC resin. Dow Chemical Co.
925
926 APPENDIX C
CELDZOLE. Polybenzimidazole resin. Hoechst Celanese Corp.

CELCON. Acetal copolymer resins. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
CELLIDOR. CAB. Mobay Corp.
CELSTRAN. Long-fiber-reinforced pellets. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
CLEARTUF. PET resin. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
CLYSTAR. Shrink film. Du Pont.
COMBOMAT. Woven roving mat. PPG Industries, Inc.
CYCOLAC. ABS resin. GE Plastics.
CYCOLOY. PC/ABS alloys. GE Plastics.
CYCOM. Advanced composites. American Cyanamid Co.
CYRLITE. XT Polymer. Cyro Industries.
DACRON. PET Fiber. Du Pont.

DELRIN. Acetal resins. Du Pont.
DERAKANE. Vinyl ester resins. Dow Chemical Co.
DURADENE. SB copolymers. Firestone.
DUREL. Polyarylate resin. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
DUROFLEX. PP resin. Shell Chemical Co.
DYLARK. PS resin. Arco Chemical Co.
ECDEL. Copolyester (TPE). Eastman Chemical Co.

EKTAR. PP, TP polyester resins. Eastman Chemical Co.
ELASTOFLEX. Flexible PUR systems. BASF Corp.
ELASTOPOR. LD rigid PUR systems. BASF Corp.
ELYACITE. Acrylic resin. Du Pont.
ELYAX. EVA resins. Du Pont.
ESTANE. PUR resins and compounds. B. F. Goodrich Co.
FIBERLOC. Glass-fiber-reinforced vinyl compounds. B. F. Goodrich Co.

FLUON. TFE resins. ICI Americas, Inc.
FLUOREL. Fluorocarbon elastomers. 3M.
FLUOROCOMP. Reinforced fluorocarbons (glass, etc.). ICIILNP.
FLUOROMELT. Melt-processable fluoropolymers. ICIILNP.
FORMYAR. Polyvinyl formal resins. Monsanto Co.
FORTIFIED POLYMERS. Glass-reinforced TP compounds. ICIILNP.
FORTILENE. PP resin. Soltex Polymer Corp.
FORTRON. PPS resins. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
GECET. PPO foam beads. GE Plastics.

GELOY. Weatherable ASA terpolymer resins. GE Plastics.
GEMAX. TP alloy. GE Plastics.
GENOTHERM. PVC film and sheet. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
GEOLAST. TP elastomers. Monsanto Co.
HOSTATEC. Polyaryletherketone. Hoechst Celanese Corp.

HYPOLON. Chlorosulfonated PE (TPE). Du Pont.
HYTREL. Polyester TSE resins. Du Pont.
IMPET. TP polyester. Hoechst Celanese Corp.

APPENDIX C 927
KADEL. Polyketone resins. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.

KALREZ. Perftuoroelastomer (TSE). Du Pont.
KAPrON. Polyimide film. Du Pont.
KELVAR. Aramid fiber. Du Pont.
KODAPAK. PET resin. Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.
KODAR. Copolyester TP resins. Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.
KRATON. Styrene block copolymer elastomers. Shell Chemical Co.
KYNAR FLEX. PVDF resin. Pennwalt Corp.
LEXAN. PC resin. GE Plastics.

LoMOD. TP copolyer elastomer. GE Plastics.
LOTRENE. LLDPE resins. CdF Chimie North America, Inc.
LUBRICOMB. Lubricated TP composites. ICIILNP.
LUCITE. Acrylic resin. Du Pont.
LUSTRAN. SAN and ABS resins. Monsanto Co.
MAGNACOMP. Magnetized injection-molding compounds. ICIILNP.

MAGNUM. ABS resin. Dow Chemical Co.
MAKROLON. PC resins. Mobay Corp.
MARLEX. PE and PP resins. Phillips 66 Co.
MELINEX. Polyester film. ICI Chemicals.
MINDEL. Engineering resins, polysulfones, etc. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.
MOVIOL. Polyvinyl alcohol resin. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
MYLAR. TP polyester film. Du Pont.
NEOPRENE. Chloroprene elastomers. Du Pont.

NORPROP. Biaxially oriented PP film. Quantum Chemical Corp.
NORYL. Phenylene oxide-based resins. GE Plastics.
NY-KoN. Molybdenum disulfide-lubricated nylon. ICIILNP.
OPPANOL. Polyisobutylene resin. BASF Corp.
PELASPAN-PAC. Expanded PS resin. Dow Chemical Co.

PELLETHANE. PUR elastomer. Dow Chemical Co.
PLEXIGLAS. Acrylic sheet and molding compounds. Rohm & Haas Co.
PLIOVIC. PVC resins. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
POCAN. PBT resins. Mobay Corp.
PORON. Microporous plastics. Rogers Corp.
PREvEX. Polyphenylene resin. GE Plastics.
RADEL. Polyarylsulfone resin. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.

RESIMENE. Melamine resins. Monsanto Co.
RT/DuROID. Reinforced TFE plastics. Rogers Corp.
RYNITE. PET resin. Du Pont.
RYTON. PPS resin. Phillips 66 Co.
SANOPRENE. TP elastomer. Monsanto Co.

SARAN. PVDC resin. Dow Chemical Co.
SCLAIR. Linear PE resin. Du Pont.
928 APPENDIX C
SCOTCHPLY. Reinforced plastics. 3M.

SELAR. TP barrier resins. Du Pont.
SUPEC. PPS resin. GE Plastics.
SURLYN. lonomer resin. Du Pont.
TEDUR. PPS resin. Mobay Corp.

TEFLON. FEP, TFE, and PFA fluorocarbon resin. Du Pont.
TEMPRITE. Chlorinated PVC. BF Goodrich.
TERLURAN. ABS copolymers. BASF Corp.
TEXIN. TP PUR resin. Mobay Corp.
THORNEL. Carbon tiber. Amoco Corp.
TORNAC. Hydrogenated nitrile elastomers. Polysar, Inc.
TPX. Polymethylpentene resin. Mitsui & Co. U.S.A.
TYRIL. SAN resin. Dow Chemical Co.
TYRIN. Chlorinated PE resin. Dow Chemical Co.
UDEL. Poly sulfone resin. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.

ULTEM. Polyetberimide resins. GE Plastics.
ULTRADUR. PBT resins. BASF Corp.
ULTRAMID. Nylon resin. BASF Corp.
ULTRAPEK. Polyaryletherketone. BASF.
UPILEX. Polyimide resin. ICI Corp.
VALOX. TP polyester resin. GE Plastics.

VECTRA. Liquid crystal polymer. Hoechst Celanese Corp.
VIBRATHANE. PUR elastomer resin. UniRoyal, Inc.
VICTREX. PEEK, PSU, PES resins. ICIILNP.
VINEX. Polyvinyl alcohol resins. Air Products & Chemicals, Inc.
VITON. Fluorocarbon elastomers. Du Pont.
XCAN. TS polyester resins. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.

XENOY. TP alloy. GE Plastics.
XYDAR. Liquid crystal polymer. Amoco Performance Products, Inc.
ZYLAR. Clear impact terpolymer resins. Polysar, Inc.

ZYTEL. Nylon resin. Du Pont.
ZYTEL ST. Supertouch nylon resin. Du Pont.
Appendix 0
COMPUTERIZED SOFTWARE
AND DATABASES
Software and databases expand design capabilities, simplify design analyses, speed up
evaluations like stress analyses, provide more-complete analyses on materials, predict
shrinkage and warpage and are otherwise valuable. For example, materials databases
have been developed to optimize material selection for designers confronted with the
large number of plastics available today. As covered in the "Selection" section of Chapter
6, optimizing material selection by reading data sheets has become impractical for many
designers. Today, instead, databases are accessible over phone lines, on tape, floppy
disc, and on databases to serve the printed page. They come from manufacturers and
consortiums promoting the use of their own products, publishers compiling universal
information, services that focus on specific performance areas, and from databases that
exist solely to organize other properties on databases. All these types of useful information
are now readily available.
Examples are listed below of software, including databases that are likely to prove
useful to the product designer, with abstracts of their capabilities. They are not complete
and can become obsolete in a short period of time. It is therefore important to maintain
contact with these sources and the many others that exist, to keep up-to-date in this fast-
moving area of technology [519-36, 751-806].
DESIGN PRODUCTS
CALS (Computer Aided Acquisition & Logistics Support. U.S. Standards Development
Committee, comprised of industry and U.S. Dept. of Defense sources. A fast way to
revise and update drawings in line with the way CAD drawings are handed today.
CAM Station (Calma, Div. of Prime Computer, Inc., San Diego, CA). A systematic,
economical way to manufacture complex three-dimensional parts without compromising
function, quality, or performance. Features a full-function engineering workstation, pow-
erful 2-D and 3-D modeling, advanced surface creation, industry-proven 3-D milling
routines, full 2!-axis mill-drill functions, a postprocessor generator, tool-design capa-
bilities in 2-D and 3-D, and a turnkey system.
CARDD (Computer-Assisted Research, Design & Documentation System. Gates En-
ergy Products, Inc., EI Paso, TX). In-house data-management software allowing designers
to piece together quickly existing designs to form custom jobs. Provides measurably
929
930 APPENDIX D
improved turnaround times for new-product designs (prior fast design cycles required
twenty-eight to thirty days; now available in as little as three min.). Most manufacturing
firms rely on CAD systems to improve the speed and quality of drafting, but fully
automating the design process requires having more than just computerized blueprints.
By successfully integrating design automation with innovative design storage and retrieval
systems, designers can help their companies become major players in today's quickly
changing markets.
Designview (Premise, Inc., Cambridge, MA). Unifies geometry and mathematics with
dimensional-driven variation geometry to help visualize and analyze the behavior of
mechanical systems and quickly evaluate alternatives.
Pro/Engineer (Advanced Project Engineering, Haworth, Inc., Holland, MI). Attains
accurate design data on a 3-D solid model. With part modifications the complete model
will be accurately modified.
Smart Model (lead, Inc., Cambridge, MA). Takes traditional CAD programs based
on interactive geometric modeling systems a step further through the inputting of design
rules, including information about tooling tolerances, lot quantity, processing parameters,
and production deadlines. If any input parameters are subsequently changed, the system
can automatically generate a new design, reevaluating all rules and part dependencies
specified in the system.
GRAPHICS
AutoCAD (Autodesk, Inc., Sausalito, CA).

CADD-23 (Brodhead Garrett Co., Cleveland, OH).
CADplan (Personal CAD Systems, Inc., Los Gatos, CA).
MEGA CADD (Mega CADD, Inc., Seattle, WA).
Personal Designer (ComputervisionlPrime Computer, Inc., Bedford, MA).
VersaCAD (T&W Systems, Huntington Beach, CA).
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ANALYTIX (Saltire Software, Beaverton, OR). This constructive variational geometry
design system for mechanical engineering analysis provides kinematics, statics, dynamics,
and tolerance analysis, integrated without requiring the user to enter formulas. Its al-
gorithms provide fast response time even as drawings become more complex. Its geometry
is entered by dimensional sketches, and feedback is given on whether a drawing is under,
over, or consistently dimensioned. This software solves kinematics and statics problems
analytically rather than numerically. The fully dimensioned drawings it provides can be
made into a mechanism by simply setting one or more dimensions in motion while the
others remain constant. Velocities and accelerations can be given to any dimensions on
the drawing. Tolerances can be assigned to any dimension of the figure, and any distance
or angle measured from the figure is given in both its true value and its tolerance range.
COSMOS/M (Structural Research & Analysis Corp., Santa Monica, CA) Provides finite
element analysis with capabilities in interfaces that are for structural (static, dynamic,
etc.), nonlinear (plasticity, friction, damping, etc.), materials (isotropic, orthotropic, etc.),
elements (3-D beams, sandwich shells, springs, etc.), heat transfer (steady state, con-
vection, etc.), design optimization (miniweight, stress constraints, etc.), and CAD in-
terfaces and others.
DADS (Dynamic Analysis Design Systems, CADSI, Oakdale, IA). Performs nonlinear
APPENDIX D 931
large-displacement transient analysis and simulation. Allows for the modeling of real-
world behavior of complex systems.
DRAFT-PAK (Baystate Technologies, Worcester, MA). Allows CADD users to design
instantly with high-level features, fasteners, mechanical elements, detailing symbols and
more, by using powerful parametric programs.
EUCLID-IS (Matra Datavision, Tewkesbury, MA). A CAD/CAM/CAE design system
to help construct fast representations of complex assemblies. Its extensive array of tools
and flexible users interface boost productivity.
ME Workbench (Iconnex, Pittsburgh, PA). Analyzes designs in tolerances, linkages,
and kinematics, component development or other such applications and provides practical,
integrated design solutions to engineering problems. Its parametric modeling capabilities
refine design concepts quickly and easily by analyzing stresses, forces, accelerations, and
velocities. Transfers designs to CAD systems.
NASTRAN (NASA, Washington, DC). Structural analysis via FEA.
SAFE (Gulf Computer, INc., and Gulf General Atomic, Inc., TX). Structural analysis
via FEA.
SAP (University of California, Berkeley, CA). Structural analysis via FEA.
STRUDL (MIT, Cambridge, MA). Structural design language with FEA and integrated
civil-engineering systems.
MATERIALS
AMDBS (Advanced Materials Data Base System; PDA Engineering, Inc., Costa Mesa,
CA). Focuses on plastics/composites, including glass, graphite, and aramid fibers with
both TSs and TPs. Includes data from MIL-HDBK-5E and MIL-HDBK-17A, as well as
AFWAL properties for advanced composites. Neat resins and single-strand fiber data also
included.
CARD (Computer-Aided Barrier Design; EVAL Co. of America, Lisle, IL). Reduces
much of the development time and cost in designing multilayered packaging that must
have barrier properties. Designer can use it to select barrier structures required to pass
requirements like shelf life. Mathematical models predict the performance of constituent
materials through the full range of performance requirements and processing, sealing,
storage, and retail-sale conditions.
CAPS (Computer-Aided Polymer Selection, Polydata Ltd., Dublin, Ireland). Provides
selection from a complete overview of over 5,000 TPs from more than 65 important
producers; 100 single values, stored for each grade, are continually revised, and users
can be updated by diskette or modem. Based on a cursor-driven menu structure and user
friendly. Low computer memory is required. All data accessible within seconds. User
can enter own data, change or delete values, etc.
CENBASE (InfoDexiCENCAD, Garden Grove, CA). Selected material based on tech-
nical requirements and cost data from over 12,000 grades of TPs, TSs, TPEs, RPs, and
metals from more than 170 material suppliers worldwide. Each grade has 36 physical
properties, including processability.
EMA (Engineered Materials Abstract, ASM International, Metals Park, OH). Extensive
coverage of the international literature on all aspects of engineered materials, including
plastics and composites. Access to more than 200 other databases.
EPOS (Engineering Properties on Screen, ICIILNP, Malvern, PA). Selection of over
600 LNP composites, each with at least 50 properties, including cost by weight and
volume, friction and wear, chemical resistance, etc.
932 APPENDIX D
IPS (International Plastics Selector, D.A.T.A. Business Publications, San Diego, CA).
Plastics material selection database reviews of more than 10,000 grades with up to 50
properties for each material. Includes physical, mechanical, electrical, flammability, and
other characteristics.
MAT.DB (Materials Property Data Base, ASM International, Metals Park, OH). Com-
mercially updated available materials properties database developed for users interested
in building their own database as well as for those who simply want access to precompiled
databases. Provides flexible format for structuring diverse data types into one unified
systems. Format accommodates plastics, metals, composites, wood.
MEC (Materials Engineering Center, Dow Chemical Co., Midland, MI). Properties
and parameters needed to specify plastic materials for engineering design, with both the
product and its tooling defined. Effects of time, temperature, other environmental con-
ditions included.
MPD (Materials Property Data, National Materials Property Network, Inc., Columbus,
OH). Not-for-profit corporation that addresses the need for easy, on-line access to high-
quality, well-documented numerical material property data. Enables the designer to can-
vass multiple databases for the materials information needed, making it possible to define
properties' requirements interactively on a terminal and get back a list of databases with
detailed documentation on the potential materials. Can also download the data into in-
house computer files.
PLASCAMS (RAPRAT Technology, Ltd., Shawbury, Shropshire, England). Provides
two search routes, enabling user to search more than 75 material properties. First, an
elimination procedure identifies materials that satisfy certain essential criteria. Then the
second search optimizes a procedure that can rank or order a short list of materials with
the essential properties. Each material in the database gets ranked from 0 to 9 for each
quality and it also has specific property data and lists of commercial suppliers plus typical
applications.
PLASPEC (Plaspec [PT), New York, NY). Complete, accurate up-to-date initial ma-
terial selection available from all supplies through one source. Over 600 searchable
characteristics listed, including special features of plastic materials, property data, cost.
PLASTEC (Plastics Technology Evaluation Center, Plastec, U.S. Army, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, NJ). Has been U.S. Dept. of Defense sponsored, since 1960, to provide
the defense community with technical information services applicable to plastics, adhe-
sives, and composites. Includes numerical data of military environments on deterioration
of plastics and the like.
UWS (Underwriters Laboratories Data Services, Underwriters Laboratories, Melville,
NY). UL's worldwide independent third-party product safety certification. Query database
can answer such questions as what grades of nylon are rated 140°C (2850f) with a 94V-
o flame rating, which TPEs have a 94\'-0 rating, which PPs with a temperature index
of 121°C (250°F) or greater are available from Germany, what wire styles are available
for use internally in appliances rated at 104°C (220°F) with 300V and are oil resistant,
and so on.
MATERIALS AND DESIGNS

CAMPUS (Computer-Aided Material Preselection by Uniform Standards, KU-A-KFC,
Geb. B207, Leverkusen, West Germany). Different European plastic material suppliers
APPENDIX D 933
started by BASF, Bayer, Huls, and Hoechst provide key data properties tested under the
same conditions, including diagrams relating to tensile stress, creep, torsion, etc. Also
rheological and thermodynamic data for all mold-design calculations. Free discs available
to customers (see Chapter 6 under Computerized Databases for more information).
BAYDISK (Bayer Diskette Information System for Plastics, Bayer-Mobay Corp., Pitts-
burgh, PA). Materials information, application advice, and calculation programs for
plastics applications. Includes 1) RALPH (Recommended Admissible Load for Plastic of
High-Quality), which establishes maximum loads for parts subject to mechanical stressing,
and makes allowances for the type of loading (static tensile, static long-term, dynamic,
impact), environmental conditions, internal and external structural characteristics (weld
lines, notches, glass-fiber orientation, etc.). Stress-strain curves can be displayed for
both short- and long-term loading, for any temperature and time, with recommended
admissible loading limits; 2) FLAEMO, a program to establish moments of inertia, centers
of gravity, outer fiber spacing, and surface areas for any desired cross-section; 3) FINEL,
a program to calculate stresses, strains, and deformation for beams in any design with
variable cross-sections and different boundary conditions. Also makes allowances for any
nonlinearity with large-scale deflection; 4) BAYMAT, which contains thermal and rheo-
logical data for the design of molded parts and molds from the flow-engineering angle.
Other programs to be included will be TFEW, to calculate temperature distribution as
for cooling time in injection molding, and SNAP, for snap fits.
WIS (BASF Corp., Parsippany, NJ). A materials database on floppy discs to assist the
designer to select proper plastic materials or determine part dimensions. Includes at least
four floppy discs: AGING TEP (Thermal Endurance Profile) contains thermal aging curves
as well as important individual parameters required to compare materials. The calculations
for the reduction factor for part dimensions and viscosity data area provided as either
graphic representations or approximate coefficients. BEAMS, a simple PEA program,
provides tension and deformation analyses for parts subjected to bending stresses but for
which their cross-sections need not be constant and whose center line can be curved,
such as snap connections. The calculations may take into account not only large defor-
mations but also nonlinear stress-strain behavior. Provides direct access to GRAPH 1
(stress-strain functions), GRAPH 2 (static long-term stressing), and RHEODAT (rheo-
logical parameters). SCREWS calculates screw connections with self-tapping screws,
including the geometry of the screw-plug cylinder, screw-removal force, and screw-in
and overdrive moments for customary screw designs.
AEDL (Applications Engineering Design Laboratory, B. F. Goodrich Co., Avon Lake,
OH). A CAD/CAE database for products and molds using PVC to replace and compete
with other plastics. It runs silicon graphics solid models, C-flow and C-cool software
from Advanced CAE Technology, and PEA programs running IDEAS, from SRDC.
EDD (Engineering Design Database, GE Plastics, Pittsfield, MA). Properties and
information not found on data sheets, in design books, or in ordinary databases. Includes
tensile static stress-strain, creep and fatigue, rheology and specific heat. All data are
generated at several temperatures, stresses, strain rates, and times. Analyses include rib-
stiffening plate analysis, cooling calculations, assembly, structural foams, glass RPS.
POLYFACTS (Du Pont, Wilmington, DE). Du Pont's engineering plastics and generic
information on other plastics. Graphic curves for stress-strain, property versus temper-
ature, weathering. Application guides provide lists of applications similar to users' input,
with key properties. Troubleshooting guide and general processing information on ma-
terials is available.
934 APPENDIX D
SHRINKAGE
C PACK (Advanced CAE Technology, Inc., Ithaca, NY). Calculates volumetric shrinkage
of analyzed elements in terms of density differences between in-mold and stabilized
conditions. Linear shrinkage prediction not yet available.
IDEAS (SRDC, Milford, OH). This shrink and warp module provides volumetric and
linear shrinkage data with some warpage forecasting.
SIMVFLOW3D (Unisys, Inc., Boulder, CO). Calculates shrinkage as a function of
density differences between packing pressure and stabilized conditions.
SWIS (Moldflow, Kalamazoo, MI). Predicts linear shrinkage and, with unreinforced
materials, part warpage. Planned for future commercial release as part of a refined software
system.
TMConceptlCSE (Computerized Shrink Evaluation, Plastics & Computer, Inc., Mont-
clair, NJ). Develops the actual mold dimensions needed to meet specific product toler-
ances, taking into account part design, gate location and geometry, mold filling, process
conditions, and postmold stabilization.
PROCESSING AND PART DESIGN

PITA (Polymer Inflation Thinning Analysis, GE Plastics, Pittsfield, MA). Blow-molding
PEA design model that accounts for both performance part design and the processing
characteristics that influence part design. Modeled as a nonlinear elastic with the material
properties dependent on temperature and strain rate. Accurately predicts wall thicknesses
for complicated parts from small to large shapes.
STAT (Sheet Thinning Analysis for Thermoforming, GE Plastics, Pittsfield, MA). This
thermoforming PEA design model for programming and product development basically
takes the same approach as PITA (just reviewed).
See also the earlier section on "Materials and Designs" for more information on pro-
cessing and part designs.
INJECTION MOLDS
MOWFLOW (Moldflow Ltd., Trumball, CT). A series of software modules to analyze
melt flow, cooling, shrinkage, warpage, and stress in parts. Covers the filling, holding,
and cooling stages so that conditions within the mold are monitored until the parts eject.
Uses a common geometric database (3-D-PEA).
MOWTEMP (Moldflow Ltd., Trumbull, CT). Thermal analysis to optimize the cooling
circuit. Calculates the water flow and heat-transfer capability of each section of cooling
channels, the temperature distribution profiles at the metal-to-plastic interface, the pressure
drop in the cooling circuit, and the coolant temperature rise. Shrinkage analysis modules
are made both parallel and perpendicular to the flow for a series of individual layers
through the part thickness at each finite element of the model. Opposite sides of a part
having different cooling conditions will shrink to different degrees, including bending
stresses or warpage that will show up in unbalanced stress analysis. Provides methods
to balance this situation via better gate locations, etc.
SIMUFLOW (Unisys Corp., Boulder, CO). Provides further analysis into its Mold
Maker family, beyond simple 3-D design and drafting, by adding tools for PEA, mold
filling, and mold cooling. Numerical control of part capabilities with Unisys's Opti
Mold graphic mold design, including a database of standard mold bases and components.
APPENDIX D 935
TMConcept (Plastics & Computer, Inc., Montclair, NJ). An PEA flow program for
mold design that evolves into an integrated system with capabilities for material selection,
determination of molding conditions, flow analysis, cooling analysis, shrinkage analysis,
part tolerances, cost optimization. Incorporates the injection rate, pressure, or clamp force
capacity of 1M machines. Shrinkage programs available for different levels of precision
molding. Aimed at developing process-fault analysis at the shop-floor level. All mold
and product characteristics and their interrelations with the process are "memorized" in
the molding machine's process-control system. New software for fault analysis will make
full use of this large amount of information to help the operator prevent or correct problems
caused by variations in materials and machine performance.
MANAGEMENT
PMS (Plastics Management System, Data Technical Research, Jacksonville, FL). Fully
integrated manufacturing and financial management system designed specifically for plas-
tics processors working with injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, thermoforming,
and so on with single- or multiple-plant operations. Product quotations, order entry,
release ordering, inventory control, forward and backward production scheduling, material
requirements, capacity planning, machine utilization, production experiences, product
costing, tooling costs, other programs. Includes fully integrated financial accounting
applications.
GENERAL INFORMATION
CPR (Center for Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,
MD). Software to predict fire's behavior in buildings, transportation vehicles, etc.
COSMIC (Computer Software Management and Information Center, University of
Georgia, Athens). This organization collects, evaluates, and disseminates computer soft-
ware developed by NASA and NASA contractors.
Datapro (McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY). Software master index that includes
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Engineering, pp. 33-36, Feb. 1990.
913. "Design-Integrated Manufacturing Solves Solid-Waste Problem." Plastics World, pp. 13-14,
Feb. 1990.
914. "All-Starch Polymer Enters Biodegradable Derby." Plastics World, p. 12, Mar. 1990.
915. "Plastic Starch Injection Molds Degrades." Design News, p. 35, Mar. 1990.
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pp. 35-36, Mar. 1990.
917. Machlis, S. "How to Bring CAD to Life." Design News, pp. 54-60, Mar. 1990.
918. Feldmann, P. F. "User Experiences with PC-Based CAD/CAE System." Kunststojfe, pp. 8-
10, Jan. 1990.
919. Noller, R. "Understanding Tight-Tolerance Design." Plastics Design Forum, pp. 61-73,
Mar.-Apr. 1990.
920. Stanley, G., and Welch, C. The Molding of an Industry. British Plastics Federation, 1983.
1988.
922. Kraus, H. Creep Analysis. New York: Wiley, 1980.
923. Goldfein, S. "General Formula for Creep and Rupture Stresses in Plastics." Modern Plastics,
Apr. 1960.
924. Sheridan, T. W. "Creative Design with Thermoplastic Elastomers." Plastics Design Forum,
pp. 21-26, Mar.-Apr. 1989.
925. Janzen, W., and Ehrenstein, G. W. "Hysteresis Measurements for Characterizing the Cyclic
Strain and Stress Sensitivity of Glass Fiber Reinforced PBT." SPE ANTEC, pp. 659-63,
May 1989.
926. Felton, L. P. "Structural Index Method of Optimum Design." Proceedings, AS ME winter
annual meeting, New York, 1974.
927. Rogers, J. K. "Design Meets Manufacturing." Plastics Technology, pp. 44-55, Nov. 1988.
928. Klein, A. J. "Plastics Materials and Designs: Improving and Saving Lives." Plastics Design
Forum, pp. 25-37, Nov.-Dec. 1988.
929. Murray, C. J. "Design with Lives in Mind." Design News, pp. 100-2, Feb. 1990.
930. Stephenson, G. M., and Freiherr, G. "Cost-Effectiveness: New Yardstick for Medical Device
Evaluation." Medical Device & Diagnostic Industry, pp. 71-73, Mar. 1990.
931. Bregar, B. "Architect's Concept Would Clad Buildings in Plastic." Plastics News, p. 3, Feb.
19, 1990.
932. Goldsworthy, B. "Composites for Roads and Bridges." Plastics Trends, p. 12, Jan.-Feb.
1990.
933. McConnell, V. P. "Launch Systems: Advancing Composites into Space." Advanced Com-
posites, pp. 32-44, Jan.-Feb. 1990.
934. Robinson, G. M. "Tomorrow's Technologies at Your Doorstep." Design News, pp. 103-7,
Mar. 1990.
935. Vernyi, B. "Composites Prove Worthy; GM Testing Use in Luxury Cars." Plastics News,
pp. 1,6, Feb. 16, 1990.
936. Snyder, M. "Composites Market Plateaus." Plastics Machinery & Equipment, pp. 31-32,
Apr. 1990.
937. "A Glimpse at Future Auto Designs." Design News, pp. 23-24, Mar. 1990.
938. "Composites at Sea." Advanced Composites, pp. 38-58, Mar.-Apr. 1990.
939. Grolik, F. W., and Naumann, H. G. "Reinforced Polypropylene for Motor Vehicle Interior
Fittings." Kunststo.IJe, pp. 34-38, Dec. 1989.
940. Rosato, D. V. "Product Design: Plastic Selection Guide." SPE ANTEC, May 1990.
Index
Ablation, 154,299. See also Heat shield Anti-icing, 235

Abrasion, 239, 244, 415 Antilittering, 402
ABS, 74, 622 Aorta tube, 26
Absorption, 273 Apparent creep modulus. See Modulus of
Accumulator head, 652 elasticity, creep-apparent
Acetal, 321,414, 883 Appliance, 38, 233, 371, 403, 902
Acetate plastic, 417 Approach
Acidproof brick, 421 engineering, 46
Acid resistance, 438 practical, 46, 763, 888
Acoustic, 380 Aquacycle, 648
Acoustic test, 748 Aramid fiber, 82, 196, 241
Acrylate elastomer, 470 Area under the stress-strain curve, 141, 208. See
Acrylic plastic, 272, 415 also Stress-strain
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene plastic, 406 Arrhenius plot, 260
Actual versus theoretical values, 97 Assembling, 340, 345, 714, 869
Additive, 63, 77, 287 Athletic equipment, 436
Additive migration, 277 Autoclave, 274
Adhesive, 362, 432, 714, 869 Autoclave molding, 678
Adiabatic heat, 201 Automobile, 29, 371, 681, 885, 904
Advantages. See Plastic advantages and Automotive bumper, 154, 220
disadvantages Auxiliary equipment, 643, 711
Aerodynamic shape, 235
Aerospace, 18, 196, 300, 309, 361, 740, Barcol hardness, 105, 245
885 Barrel,628
Aesthetic, 51, 230, 303, 780 Barrier resistance, 276, 328
Aging at elevated temperature, 95, 385 BASF,534
Aircraft. See Aerospace Bayer, 534
Air entrapment, 614, 686, 814 Beam, 312, 321, 366, 521
Alkyd plastic, 416, 435 Beam equation, 146
Alloy, 72 Bearing, 240, 380, 420, 424
Aluminized film, 434 Belleville washer, 402
Aluminum, I, 127, 246 Bellow structure, 317
Alvin depth vehicle, 295 Bending modulus. See Modulus of elasticity,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 734, flexural
736 Biaxial direction, 118. See also Cbientation
Amino plastic, 416, 423 Bidirectional, 122
Amorphous plastic, 66, 166 Biodegradable, 45, 891
Anisotropic, 71, 122, 329. See also Directional Biological degradation, 273, 281
properties; Cbientation Birefringence, 99
967
968 INDEX
Black box, 297 resistance, 264, 417, 561

Bleed out, 418 separation system, 886
Blend, 72, 406 Chimney liner, 47
Blow molding, 17,318,434,638,646,847 Chlorinated polyether plastic, 417
Blown film, 638 Chlorinated polyethylene plastic, 418, 470
Boat. See Ship Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride plastic, 452
Bolt, 163, 362, 400, 833 Chlorosulfonated polyethylene elastomer, 470
Boltzman superposition principle, 167 Chrome plate, 412
Bond. See Adhesive Circuit board, 233, 623
Boron fiber, 82, 196 Classifying plastic, 525
Bosses, 342, 790, 823 Clearance. See Tolerance
Bottle, 433, 646, 659, 747, 770 Coating, 230, 301, 420,475,646
Bottle cap, 832, 841 Coefficient
Bottle, collapsible, 318 of diffusion, 276
Box beam, 319, 368 of friction, 242, 420
Brackish water, 883 of linear thermal expansion, 89, 337, 362, 388,
Brass, 1,246 798
Brinell hardness, 105 of torsion, 401
Brittle fracture. See Fracture Coextrusion, 18,280,635
Brittleness, 106, 201 Coining, 349, 693
Buckling strength, 328, 371 Coinjection molding, 623
Building and construction, 18, 273, 283, 371, 684 Cold forming, 105, 355, 668
Bulk molding compound, 39, 416, 418, 494 Cold work, 351, 794
Bumper. See Automotive bumper Collapsible container, 316, 663
Buoy, 289 Collapsible mechanism, 355
Buoyance, 295 Color, 78, 100, 790
Burn cleanly, 893 Combustion. See Flammability
Burning, 889 Commodity plastic, 82, 254. See also Engineering
Butadiene plastic, 406 Plastic
Butyl elastomer, 470 Communication protocol, 711, 888
Butyrate plastic, 417 Comonomer, 71
Compatibilizer, 72
Calendering, 693 Competition, 592, 762
Cam, 230 Composite. See Reinforced plastic, definition;
Campus database, 534 Plastic, definition
Canoe, 10 Compound, 72
Cantilever Compressible melt, 116
beam, 21, 148, 315 Compression molding, 668, 679
hinge, 350 Compression modulus. See Modulus of elasticity,
snap fit, 349, 402 compression
spring, 322 Compression properties, 145, 375, 382
Carbon black, 81, 385. See also Filler Compressive recovery rate, 145
Carbon fiber, 196, 241, 885 Compressive strength, 135,474
Casting, 424, 693 Compressive yield strength, 207, 400
Catastrophic failure, 153, 198, 285, 310 Compromise, 303
Cathode sputtering, 230 Computer
Cauchy-Riemann differential equation, 395 image processor, 753
Cause-effect relationships, 56 in design, 52, 776
Cavitation erosion, 295 modeling, 763, 680
Cellulose acetate butyrate plastic, 417 program, tolerances, 399
Cellulose acetate plastic, 417 technologies, 53
Cellulose acetate propionate plastic, 417 Computer-aided
Cellulose nitrate plastic, 417 chemistry, 741
Cellulose plastic, 72, 417 design, 53, 615, 757
Cement, 421. See also Adhesive design drafting, 53
Center of gravity, 385 engineering, 615, 778
Charpy impact test, 212. See also Impact manufacturing, 53, 652, 758
Chemical testing, 54
characteristic, 116 Computer-integrated manufacturing, 53, 606, 785
process, 71 Computerized software and databases, 528. See
reaction, 276 also Appendix D
INDEX 969
Concrete, 1, 152, 328 building-fire, 285

Conductive plastic, 230, 239 building frame, 282
Conservation, 402 challenge, 52, 914
Constrains, 789 compromises, 2, 5, 48, 900
Construction. See Building and construction consideration, 789, 898
Conversions. See Appendix B criteria, 125, 132, 910
Cooking utensil, 420 cushioning, 488. See also Design, dynamic load
Cooling stresses. See Stresses, cooling databases, 782. See also Databases
Copolyester elastomer, 472 deficiencies, 754, 789
Copolymerization, 204 definition, 9
Copolymer, 71, 406, 414 dynamic load, 371, 540. See also Design,
Copper, 1 cushioning
Core. See Foam; Honeycomb; Sandwich fail-safe, 194
Cored metal casting, 693 failure analysis. See Failure analysis
Coring, 804, 824 features, 789
Comer, 799 flow diagram, 4
Corrosion, 241, 264, 372,417,420 for environment, 385
Corrugation, 49, 838 gears, 359
Cost, 51, 58, 133,249,276,338,373,524,593, graphic. See Graphic
650, 706, 888, 898 graphic uncertainties, 310
Cost modeling, 702 optimization, 1, 789, 780
Crack, 142, 154, 191,221,270,309 overdesign, 126. See also FALLO approach
Crazing, 142, 159, 270 parameters, 4, 789, 910
Creativity, 51, 125, 914 pipe-heavy wall, 189
Creep, 114, 155,247,401 pipe joint, 339
guidelines, 179, 189 pipeline on supports, 185
modeling, 174 pipe-reinforced plastic, 326. See also Pipe
modulus, 175 pipe, thin wall, 187
rupture, 156, 158, 167, 273 procedures, 48, 54, 696
theory, 182 procedures, flow diagrams, 4
Creep-gasket, 360 products, 2, 703, 789, 895, 929
Cross-bond, 65 pseudo-elastic method, 304
Cross-head rate. See Test rate redesign, 3, 5, 903. See also FALLO approach
Cross-link, 64, 97, 282, 416, 440 reinforced plastic theory, 495
Crystal clear, 415 rib, 835
Crystalline plastic, 66, 166, 195 safety factor, 309, 332. See also Safety factor
Cushioning, 475, 488 sandwich structure, 368
Cutting plastic guidelines, 728 screw (for processing plastic), 614, 628
Cyclic chemistry, 884 shape, 49
Cyclic load. See Fatigue snap fit, 346, 402
spring, 321
Damping, 154,201,361 structures, 303, 835
Data theoretical, 97 success, 789, 917
Databases, 528, 758, 773, 782, 929. See also thermal expansion, 362
Computer and Appendix D tolerance guide, 802, 846
Decay, 161 torsional spring, 323
Decomposition temperature, 95, 284 with computers. See Computers in design
Decorating, 714, 790 with success, 51, 900
Defect, melt flow. See Melt flow defects Design concept, 4, 231, 247, 904
Deflection, 315, 338, 372, 402, 820 blow molding, 659, 847
Deflection temperature under load, 94, 258 extrusion, 631, 844
Deformation, 107, 153, 163,203,381 injection molding, 617, 796
Degradable, 894 intermittent. See Intermittent behavior
Degradation, 117,213,281 long term. See Long-term behavior
Density, 84, 98, 112 reinforced plastic, 856
Density reduction, 365 rotational molding, 865
Design thermoforming, 854
allowables, 311 Designer and computer, 52
analysis, 46, 48, 126, 129, 696, 789, 910 Designer and regulations, 402. See also
bending of bar, 184, 521 Regulations
bolt preload, 400 Designer ethics. See Ethics
970 INDEX
Designer responsibilities. See Responsibilities Eagle wing, 301

Designing Earthquake, 373
classic approach, 46 Eastman Chemical, 472
dies, 629 "Ecdel", 472
fundamentals, 1,910 Ecology, 402
heat generating products, 902 Economic analysis, 877, 897. See also Cost
molds, 393, 758. 799, 934 Educational information, 53, 896. See also
molds with "holes", 819 Training
with creep data. 175 Ejector, 814
with databases, 4, 52, 773, 932. See also Elastic deformation, 107, 220, 387
Databases Elastic limit. See Tensile elastic limit
with elastomers, 458 Elastic modulus. See Modulus of elasticity
with fatigue data, 201 Elastic turbulence, 114, 154
with impact data, 220 Elasticity, 102, 112
with materials, 932 Elastomer, 61, 70, 233, 301, 371,458, 472, 527
with screw insert, 831 Electric iron, 39
Detractor, 789 Electric power tool, 38
Deutsches Instut-Normung, 732 Electrical, 223, 260, 418, 450
Diallyl isophthlate plastic, 418 Electromagnetic
Diallyl phthlate plastic, 418 compatibility, 225
Diaphragm, 420, 841 interference, 225
Dichroism, 99 radiation, 235, 282
Die, 391, 591, 599, 629 welding, 727
Die shear rate, 109 Electronic, 12, 232, 434, 534
Dielectric strength, 229, 282, 420 Electronic radiation, 228
Differential scanning calorimetry, 737 Elongation
Diffusion, 276 creep, 157
Digitizing, 775 fatigue, 191
Dimensional change. See Tolerance impact, 207
Dimensional characteristic, 87, 265, 634, 834, tensile, 137, 385
869 Empathy, 51
Directional properties, 118, 121. 333, 700 Endurance limit, fatigue, 194
Disadvantages. See Plastic, advantages and Energy
disadvantages absorbed, 372, 590
Dispersion, 100 conservation, 713
Disposable labware, 18 consumption, 628
Disposal,403 control, 371, 781
Distortion temperature. See Deflection temperature dissipation, 195, 196, 540
under load efficiency, 373
Dow Chemical, 470 impact, 141
Downtime, 889 kinetic. See Kinetic energy
Draft angle, 790, 810 ratio of recovery, 590
Drain-waste-vent, 412 to failure, 210
Drawing. See Graphics to manufacture, 58
Droop test, 262 via incineration, 891. See also Incineration
Drug release implant, 45 Engine, 10, 427, 880
Drying plastic. See Hygroscopic plastic Engineering
Ductile, 105 approach. See Approach, engineering
Ductile fracture. See Fracture equation, 125,304,314
Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature, 203 plastic, 82, 234, 366. See also Commodity
Ductility, 102, 160,220 plastic
DuPont, 400, 472 stress. See Stress, engineering
Durometer, 385, 460 Environmental
Dynamic load, 153, 348, 371,540 concept house, 25
Dynamic mechanical analysis, 387, 746 conditions, 253, 429
Dynamic mechanical behavior, 153, 590, 872 enbrittlement, 154
Dynamic modulus. See Modulus of elasticity, influence, 201, 385
dynamic Environmental Protection Administration, 891
Dynamic sensitivity, 238 Epoxy plastic, 263, 419, 427
Dynatup test, 216. See also Impact Equipment improvements, 887
INDEX 971
Ergonomic, 51 Fire Safety, 404

Erosion, 295, 300 Fire, small and large scale, 285
Ethics, 52 Fit. See Press fit; Snap fit
Ethyl cellulose plastic, 417 Flame dripping, 287
Ethylene acrylic elastomer, 471 Flame retardant, 285, 420
Ethylene chiorotrifluoroethylene plastic, 421 Flammability, 9, 282, 422
Ethylene oxide, 274 Flash,524
Ethylene propylene elastomer, 470 Flexural modulus. See Modulus of elasticity,
Ethylene tetraftuoroethylene plastic, 421 flexural
Ethylene vinyl acetate plastic, 419 Flexural properties, 146
Euler equation, 371 Flexural strength, 135, 146
European market, 530 Flotation, 292
EVAL Company of America, 276 Flow, nonlaminar, 108, 114
Exothermic reaction, 474 Flow performance, melt. See Melt flow
Expandable polystyrene plastic, 449, 690 Fluorinated ethylene propylene plastic, 421
Extensometer, 142 Fluorine gas, 276
Extruded hinge, 355 Fluorocarbon, 472
Extrusion, 610, 624, 642, 844 Fluoroplastic, 39, 358, 420
Extrusion blow molding, 651 Fluorosilicone elastomer, 471
Extrusion tandem complex, 888 Foam, 49, 295,475, 590, 624
Foam reentrant, 887
Fabric, 82, 510, 584 Foam reservoir molding, 679
Fabric, three-dimensional. See Three-dimensional Foam, structural. See Structural foam
woven fabric Foamed-in-place, 475
Fabricating. See Processing Foaming processes, 690
Fact and fiction. See Statistics, fact and fiction Foldable container, 317
Factor of ignorance, 55, 309 Folded membrane, 232, 317
Factor of safety. See Safety factor Forrest Products Laboratory, 122
Facts and myths, 785 Forming, 665
Fail-safe, 194 Fracture, 153, 197, 221, 387
Failure analysis, 387, 754 Fracture mechanics, 196
Falling weight test, 415. See also Impact Fracture resistance, 201, 204
FALLO approach, 3, 589 Friction, 239
Fastener, 340, 364, 400, 723, 870 Frozen stress, 638
Fatigue, 153, 190, 249, 385 Fumes, 286, 431
crack, 197 Fungal deterioration, 282
endurance limit, 194, 588 Furan plastic, 421
heat generation, 195 Fusible core molding, 693
rate dependence, 163, 195 Future high performance plastic, 36, 97, 133
strength, 265, 359
strength versus tensile strength, 193 Garbage, 889
testing, 191 Gardner test, 414. See also Impact
transparent, 196 Gas injection molding, 624
Fatigue-reinforced plastic, 191, 195 Gas permeability, 104, 276
Fatigue-reinforced plastic film interlayer, 196 Gasket, 360,420
Fiber orientation, 118 Gasohol, 414
Fick's law of diffusion, 279 Gasoline storage tank, 265
Filament winding, 295, 326, 684 Gate location, 217, 808
Filler, 63, 77, 287, 727 Gauge length, 136
Fillet, 402, 795 Gear, 40, 240, 359, 398
Film, 473, 638, 888 Gear pump, 628
Film orientation. See Orientation General purpose polystyrene plastic, 449
Financial. See Cost Geometry factors, 196, 304, 346, 360, 368, 402,
Fine tuning, 40 699, 749, 837
Finish, 38, 714 German database, 530
Finite element analysis, 55, 399, 401 Glass, 276, 293
Finite element modeling, 773 Glass fiber, 66, 196, 241
Fire, 282, 287, 404, 879 Glass transition temperature, 70, 83, 195,431,
Firefighter, 286, 432 638
Fire Research Center, 288, 403 "Glasshopper," 45
972 INDEX
Golf course, 879 Ignorance factor. See Factor of ignorance

Gossamer Albatross airplane, 32 Impact
Government groups. See Appendix A detector, 238
Grafting, 75 factors influencing, 153, 217
Granulate, 524, 886 load, 210, 361
Granule, 71, 591 rapid load, 153, 201, 205, 209
Graphics, 310, 783, 930. See also Appendix D strength, 96. See also Area under the stress-
Graphite fiber, 30, 82, 196,241,389,884 stain curve
Gravitational force, 292 tensile, 119, 210, 215
Grommet, 360 Implant, 45
Guided load, 306 Impregnated, 82
Improvements, 57
Hairline crack, 309. See also Crack Incineration, 58, 889, 892
Hand lay-up molding, 674 Indentor, 105
Handle, 649, 662 Induction welding, 727
Hardness, 105, 239,244 Industrial pollutant, 273
Haze, 98, 100 Inert, 422
Health care, 18 Infrared spectroscopy, 746
Heat Initial modulus. See Modulus of elasticity, initial
capacity, 84, 88 tangent
condition, 201 Injection blow molding, 657, 749
dissipated, 695 Injection molding, 450, 610, 685, 712, 796, 808
distortion temperature. See Deflection circuitboard, 233
temperature under load gas, 624
exchange, 116, 614 liquid,687
generation, fatigue, 195, 359 Insert, 340, 719, 797, 825, 854
history, 602 Inspection, 606
release, 282, 359, 555 Insulator, 20, 225, 275, 902
shield, 253. See also Ablation Integral hinge. See Hinge
test, 260 Intermittent behavior, 74, 130, 164
welding, 727 Interrelating product-resin-process performance, 55
Heterogeneous, 73, 122 Interrelating properties, plastics, and processing,
Hevea Brazilienst, 458, 467 116,758
High-density polyethylene plastic, 276, 444 Intuitiveness, 125
High molecular weight HOPE plastic, 444 Ionic bonding, 421
High pressure laminate, 82 Ionomer plastic, 421
Highway, 372 Ironing clothes, 38
Hinge, 346,349,841 Irradiation, 274
Hoechst Celanese, 358, 472, 534, 883 Isochronous graph, 157, 181,256
Hole-blind, 819 Isometric graph, 157, 181,256,769
Hollow channel, 319, 666 Isoprene rubber, 70
Homogeneous, 73 Isostatic, 280
Homopolymer, 414 Isothermal heat, 201
Honeycomb, 31, 49 Isotropic, 71, 121, 141, 368, 509. See also
Hooke's law, 139, 495 Orientation
Hoop stress, 335, 342, 355 Iwd impact, 208,212, 594,797. See also Impact
Hopper rail car, 45
Hot air duct, 235 Joining, 841, 714, 869
Hull-deep submergence, 293 Joint, 336, 339, 838
Humidity, 273, 388
Hydrocarbon plastic, 420 "Kelvar," 82
Hydrodynamic force, 292 Ketone plastic, 422
Hygroscopic plastic, 201, 602 Keyboard, 238
"Hypalon," 470 Kinetic energy, 210
Hypervelocity impact. See Impact, strength Kinked molecular chain, 118
Hysteresis effect, 140, 201, 359, 540, 565 Knoop indentor, 105
"Hytrel," 472
Labeling, 319, 721
I-beam, 314, 368 Landfill, 58, 891
Identify plastic, 525, 547 Law, 402
Ignition temperature, 284 Leaching, 891
INDEX 973
Leaf spring, 321 properties, superior, 97

Life cycle, 908 Medical, 45, 228, 882
Light scattering, 98 Melamine fonnaldehyde plastic, 82, 416,423
Light transmissability, 99 Melt
Linear thennal expansion. See Coefficient of linear compressibility. See Compressible melt
thennal expansion flow, 113, 123,209,591,617,630, 778,782
Liquid crystal polymer, 68, 263,422 curve, 397
Liquid injection molding, 687 defects, 113, 618
Liquid penetrant test, 748 trends, 116
Liquid plastic, 591 fracture, 114
Living hinge. See Hinge index, 110, 440
Load analyzed, 305, 335, 565 orientation, 117. See also Orientation
Load bearing product, 303 pump, 628
Load deflection, 370, 380 shear rate, 107
Load, dynamic. See Dynamic load structure, 115
Load pipe externally, 326 temperature, 65, 83, 611, 614
Load relaxation. See Relaxation load viscosity, 653
Loading, impact. See Impact, load Melting point, 68, 425
Loading, intermittent. See Intermittent behavior Membrane technology, 232
Loading, long-tenn. See Long-tenn behavior Memory in plastic, 117
Loading mode, 130,201,362 Metal, 153, 203, 342, 368
Loading short duration, rapid. See Impact, rapid Metallization, 238, 717. See also Coating
load Microbial degradation, 281
Loading, short-tenn. See Short-tenn behavior Microcracking, 272
Loading, static, 153 Microtoming, 750
Locking fastener, 402 Microwave oven, 233
Longitudinal stress, 336 Migration, 276
Long-tenn behavior, 134, 153, 241, 247 Mining in the sea, 289
Lord Corporation, 372 "MinIon," 400
Loudspeaker, 361 Missile, 44, 235, 453
Low-density polyethylene plastic, 441 Mixing, 591
Low pressure laminate, 81 Mobay Chemical, 349
Lubricity, 107 Modeling, 596, 763
"Lubricomb," 239 Modeling cost, 898
Luminous transmittance, 98 Modulus of elasticity, 136, 510
Luscher and Hoeg equation, 333 compression, 145
creep, 155, 162
Machine conditions, 55 creep-apparent, 161, 175
Machine improvements, 590, 887 dynamic, 154, 195, 385
Machining plastic, 727 flexural, 146, 835
Machining plastic guidelines, 594, 728 initial tangent, 139, 304
Magnetic resonance imaging, 882 secant, 140, 304, 349
Manufacturing. See Fabrication shear, 149, 369
Manufacturing via computer. See Computer-aided soil, 330
manufacturing static, 385
Markets, 9, 877 temperature, 108
Mar resistance, 244 tension, 119, 139
Material handling, 713 theoretical, 97
Material selection. See Plastic selection viscoelastic, 175, 209
Materials comparison, 7, 8, 35, 97, 740, 931 Modulus of rupture. See Aexural strength
Mathematical analytical solution, 48 Mohr's circle, 308
Mathematical model, 614, 776 Moisture, 273, 282, 416
Matte finish, 38 Mold, 348, 391, 591,599, 615,758,808,934
Maxwell model, 175 Mold action, 841
Mechanical behavior, dynamic. See Dynamic Mold cooling analysis, 780, 934
mechanical behavior Mold quotation guide, 600
blending, 72 Mold, time to produce, 601
damping. See Damping Molded-in hinge. See Hinge
interface, 342 Molded-in insert, 340, 825
loading, 195,488,870 Molded-in stresses, 116
properties, 86, 96, 127, 133, 930 Mold operation, 605
974 INDEX
Molding area diagram, 609 Paper, 82

Molding variables versus performances, 616 Parabolic reflector, 239
Molding volume diagram, 609 Parison thickness control, 653
Molecular motion and mechanical damping, 154 Parting line, 805, 843
Molecular orientation, 118. See also Orientation Parts handling, 713
Molecular weight, 109, 281 Parylene plastic, 425
Molecular weight distribution, 109, 116 Pascal. See Appendix B
Molecule, 66 Pattern making, 596
Molecule, kinked, 118 Pellet, 591
Molybdenum disulfide, 241 Perfection, 403
Moment of interia, 49,312,319,332,367,521, Performance prediction, 55, 97, 125
835 Performance versus molding variables, 616
Moment of inertia, polar, 324 Permanent set, 136, 402
Monomer, 71, 277 "Permasep," 883
Morphology, 66, 84 Permeability, 277, 424, 732. See also Gas
Motion control, 371 permeability; Vapor permeability
Motor housing, 690. See also Engine Perms, 104
"Mylar," 196 Phenol-formaldehyde plastic, 426
Myths and facts, 785, 889 Phenolic plastic, 82, 426
Phenoxy plastic, 427
Natural rubber, 70, 467 Photoelastic stress analysis test, 748
Neat plastic, 89, 147, 246 Photopolymerization, 599
Necking, 136, 158, 203 Physical properties, 98
Neoprene elastomer, 469 Piezoelectric, 237
Netting die, 636 Pinch-off, 654
Newtonian liquid, 109 Pipe, 47,269,326,358,432,644,845. See also
Nitrate plastic, 417 Design pipe
Nitrile elastomer, 469 Pipe orientation. See Orientation
Nitrogen, 276 Pipe thread. See Thread
Noise, 360, 371 Plant overhead, 60
Nomography, 102 Plastic
Nonburning, 284 advantages and disadvantages, 56
Nonconductive, 228 and the world, 9, 879
Noncrystalline plastic. See Amorphous plastic behavior, 209. See also Intermittent behavior;
Nondestructive testing, 55, 746 Short-term behavior; Long-term behavior
Nonlarninar flow. See Flow, nonlarninar brittle, 209
Nonlinear effect, 130 classification, 525
Non-Newtonian liquid, 109, 630 comparisons, 535
Nonplastication, 115 consumption, 405, 591, 877, 916
Notched, 191,208,212 database. See Computerized software and
Notch sensitivity, 106 databases; Appendix D
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 747 definition, 61, 109
Nuclear radiation, 282 development, I
Nylon plastic, 38, 119, 289, 400, 423, 873 diversification, 878
O-ring seal, 292 future, 97, 915
Ocean environment, 288 geometry, 66
Offset strain. See Strain, offset high performance, 97
Oil resistance, 385 hygroscopic. See Hygroscopic plastic
Olefin plastic. See Polyolefin plastic identification guide, 525, 527
Optical analysis test, 98, 750 intermittent behavior. See Intermittent behavior
Optical plastic, 491 long-term behavior. See Long-term behavior
Orientation, 118, 166, 209, 268, 515, 616, 620, misapplications, 754
638,658,734,791,797,888 myths, 785, 889
Orthotropic, 122, 510 processing. See Processing
Oscillatory rheometer, 149 properties, 6, 61, 129, 276,405, 931
Osmosis, 883 selection, 53, 126, 166, 525, 535
Overdesigned, 126 short-term behavior. See Short-term behavior
Oxifluorination, 276 structure, 66
Ozone, 273, 283, 385 thickness, 388. See also Thickness
to metal, 358, 368
Packing, 12, 274, 432, 880 to metal wear, 246
INDEX 975
to plastic wear, 246 Polyvinyl butyral plastic, 454

types, 6, 62, 166 Polyvinyl chloride plastic, 489, 452
volume, 901, 916 Polyvinylidene chloride plastic, 455
with a memory, 117 Polyvinylidene fluoride plastic, 238, 421, 455
Plastic Bottle Institute, 896 Postage stamp, 881
Plasticity, 102, 591 Postforming, 641, 670
Plasticizer, 204, 692 Postshrinkage, 388. See also shrinkage
Plastics are bad, 785, 889 Powder, 591
Poisson's ratio, 141, 151,323,336,510 Powder coating, 692
Poisson's ratio, negative, 887 Practical approach. See Approach, practical
Polarized light, 99 Pragmatic approach, 126
"Polimotor," 880 Preload, 400
Polyallomer plastic, 428 Press fit, 40, 163, 342
Polyamide plastic, 423, 473 Pressure bag molding, 678
Polyamideimide plastic, 263, 428 Pressure, velocity, 241
Polyanhydride plastic, 45 Pressure vessel, 325, 883
Polyarylate plastic, 430 Printed wiring board, 232
Polyarylether plastic, 420 Problem solving, 914
Polyaryletherketone plastic, 420 Process analysis tools, 777
Polyarylsulfone plastic, 431 Process control, 392, 603, 614, 627, 653
Polybenzimidazole plastic, 431 Process selection, 166,591,695. See also
Polyblend, 73, 166 Selection
Polybutadiene elastomer, 469 Processing, 107, 116, 209, 217,524,589,675,
Polybutylene plastic, 432 759, 785, 934
Polybutylene terephthalate plastic, 433 Processing and tolerance, 391, 596, 640
Polycarbonate plastic, 273, 432 Processing cycle, 595
Polyester plastic, 433 Processing equipment improvement, 887
Polyester thermoplastic, 433 Processing guidelines, 2, 682, 703
Polyester thermoset plastic, 435 Processing variables, 55
Polyehter chlorinated plastic, 417 Product life cycle, 908
Polyetheretherketone plastic, 263, 422, 438 Product shape, 129
Polyetherimide plastic, 439 Product size, 699
Polyetherketone plastic, 422, 436 Product specification, 398
Polyetherketoneetherketoneketone plastic, 431 Productivity, 611, 759,879,903
Polyethersulfone plastic, 263, 440 Professional groups. See Appendix A
Polyethylene chlorinated plastic, 418 Profile, 475, 647. See also Extrusion
Polyethylene plastic, 289, 440 Property, theoretical, 97
Polyethylene terephthalate plastic, 433 Propionate plastic, 417
Polyimide plastic, 445 Proportional limit. See Tensile proportional limit
Polyisoprene elastomer, 467 Protocol, communication, 711, 888
Polymat database, 530 Protocol, fire test, 404
Polymer. See Plastic Prototype, 164,341,596,762
Polymerization, 599 Pseudo-elastic method. See Design, pseudo-elastic
Polymethylmethacrylate plastic, 415 method
Polymethylpentene plastic, 446 Publications. See Appendix A
Polynomial, 872 Pultrusion molding, 683
Polyolefin elastomer, 473 Pump, 295, 420
Polyolefin plastic, 421, 440, 446 Punching, 105
Polyperfluoroalkoxyethylene plastic, 421 Purging, 615
Polyphenylene ether plastic, 446 Pyrolyzing, 885
Polyphenylene sulfide plastic, 239, 447
Polypropylene plastic, 447
Quality auditing, 753, 761
Polypyrrole plastic, 239
Quality control, 591, 731, 754
Polystyrene plastic, 23, 449
Quotation, 600
Polysulfide elastomer, 471
Polysulfone plastic, 449
Polytetraftuoroethylene plastic, 241, 360, 420 Radiation, 274, 902
Polyurethane elastomer, 469, 472 Radio frequency interference, 228
Polyurethane plastic, 361, 451, 588 Radio frequency welding, 725
Polyvinyl acetate plastic, 454 Radiography, 746
Polyvinyl alcohol plastic, 454 Radome, 13, 235, 301
976 INDEX
Rain erosion, 300 Screw design, processing plastic. See Design,

Rapid transit vehicle, 371 screw
Reaction injection molding, 682, 687 Screw thread. See Thread
Reactive polymer, 76 Sea environment, 288
Reactor, 71 Seal, 341, 360
Reciprocating screw, 610 Sealing. See Hot sealing
Recovery rate, compression, 145 Secant modulus. See Modulus of elasticity, secant
Recreation, 9 Secondary operations, 711
Recycling, 24, 58, 524, 602, 889, 892 Selection. See Plastic selection; Process selection;
Reduced cross section, 136, 158 Test selection
Reentrant foam, 887 Selection worksheet, 535
Refractive index, 98 Self-extinguishing, 284
Refrigerator, 42 Self-latching, 318
Regrind. See Granulate Self-tapping screw, 358
Regulation, 402, 732, 897 Sensor, 239
Reinforced plastic, 81, 121, 265,293,299,310, Sewing machine, 41
421,435,493,668,670, 856 S-glass, 196
definition, 81 493 Shape, 49, 129, 235, 319, 663, 699, 789, 843
fatigue testing, 191, 195 Shape factor, 360, 373, 591
film interlayer, 196 Sharkskin, 114
hysteresis measurement, 584 Shear modulus. See Modulus of elasticity, shear
pipe, 326 Shear properties, 149, 382. See also Melt, shear
processing, 673, 698 Shear rate, melt. See Melt, shear rate
spring, 321 Shear strength, 135, 151
weep, 334 Shear strength, direct shear, 150, 325
Reinforcement, 63, 77, 501, 673 Shear stress. See Stress, shear
Relative thermal index, 261 Shear yield strength, 151
Relaxation load, 114, 153, 164 Sheet, 473, 645
Reliability control, 754 Sheet molding compoond, 416, 494
Residence time, 602 Sheet orientation. See Orientation
Residual deflection. See Deflection Shielding, 228
Residual monomer, 277 Ship, 11,289,371,879
Residual stress, 791, 872 Shock, 371
Resin. See Plastic, definition Shoe, 195,587,769
Resin-transfer molding, 679 Shore durometer, 105, 245
Resource utilization, 762 Short-term behavior, 135,201,209,241,247,
Responsibilities, 51 355
Retardation, 140 Shot peening, 265
Reynold's number, 395 Shot-to-shot variation, 615
Rheology, 107 Shotgun shell, 881
Rheometer, oscillatory, 149 Shrink allowance, 390, 393,596,607,616,656,
Ribs, 50, 310,316, 331,790,833 661, 791
"Riteflex," 472 Shrinkage, 70, 115, 123, 388, 758, 829, 934
Rivet, 362 Silicone elastomer, 471
Robots, 888 Silicone plastic, 233, 241,455
Rockwell hardness, 245 Simple support load, 306
Rotational molding, 691, 865 Sink mark, 624, 798, 804, 836
Roving, 510 Sinusoidal deformation, 153
Rubber, 458, 467. See also Elastomer Sketches. See Graphics
Rupture strain. See Strain, rupture Skin, integral, 49
Skis, 9
Safety factor, 54, 125, 332. See also Design, Smoke generation, 264, 282, 286
safety factor Snap fit, 12,345, 402, 838
Safety factor guidelines, 309 Snap switch, 232
Safety glass, 18 S-N curve, 191
Sailboard, 9 Software. See Computer; Databases; Appendix D
Salt spray test, 273 Solar radiation, 272, 297
Sandwich structure, 31, 49, 235, 295, 368 Sole of shoe. See Shoe
Scrap, 524 Solid modeling, 772
Scratch, 244, 415, 491 Solid-phase forming, 668
Screen pack, 627 Solid waste, 58, 889, 896
INDEX 977
Solubility, 66 allowable working, 178

Solvent, 429, 714, 869 amplitude, 191, 197
Sound absorbing, 361 analysis, 304, 820, 872
Space communication antenna, 15 beam bending, 312, 315
Spadoning, 38 bending, 146, 359
Space environment, 297, 371 compression, 147,400
Spangler Iowa equation, 331 concentration, 217, 794, 799
Specific gravity, 98 constant, 201
Specific heat, 285 corrosion, 265, 295
Specification, 398, 402, 594, 732 cracking, 156, 270
Spherical shape, 235 crazing, 159, 270
Spin welding, 725 creep, 155
Splay, 366, 624 damping, 154
Spray-up molding, 674 deflection. See Deflection
Spray-zinc arc, 230 engineering, 136
Spring, 163, 195, 380, 400. See also Design, fatigue, 190
spring frozen, 638
Staking, 325 harden, 873
Stamping, 666, 683, 717 history, 153
Stamps, 881 hoop. See Hoop stress
Standard,732 impact, 362
Stapler, 321 imposed, 167,825
Static loading, 153 longitudinal, 336
Statistics, 126, 193, 223, 212 multiaxial, 308
Statistics, fact and fiction, 890 nonrecoverable, 136
Steel, I, 127,247,328 number of cycles curve, 335
Stereolithography, 598 peak,359
Sterilization, 274 relaxation, 114, 118, 162, 360
Stiffness, %, 129, 319, 368, 380, 836 residual. See Residual stress
Stiffness factor, 331, 370, 521 sandwich beam, 369
Stiffness-to-weight ratio, 310 shear, 110, 149, 323, 325, 355, 387
Storage tank, 265 spring, 321
Strain tensile, 136, 147, 400
analysis, 164, 333, 339 thermal. See Thermal stress
compression, 145, 375 time, creep, 157
creep, 155 true, 136
damping, 154 Whitening, 160, 272
dynamic. See Dynamic load zero, 1%
fatigue, 190 Stress-strain
impact. See Impact behavior, 136, 147, 157, 181,207
induced load, 305, 336 curve/data, 57, 139, 141, 143,273,335,459
initial, 158, 385 impact, 361
limit, 304 polynomial, 872
offset, 137 Stresses-molded-in, 820
plastic, 136 Stretching. See Orientation
rapid, 201, 215 Structural foam, 23, 295, 365, 474, 709
recovery, 164 Structure, 31, 50, 293, 297, 303, 368, 380, 667,
rupture, 159 837
shear, 151, 523 Styrene, 418
tensile, 136, 336 Styrene-acrylonitrile plastic, 412, 883
thermal contraction, 333 Styrene butadiene elastomer, 468
time dependent, 159 Styrene copolymer elastomer, 473
Strain-to-first crack, 334 Submarine, 289
Strapping, 474, 664 Success by design, 51
Strength, 91. See also Tensile strength; Super polymer, 422
Compression strength; Flexural strength; Support condition, 305
Fatigue strength; Shear strength; Buckling Surface finish, 700
strength Surface modeling, 767
Strength, regression, 161 Surfboard, 10
Strength-to-weight ratio, 310 Suspension system, 378, 385
Stress, 872 Swelling, 66, 630
978 INDEX
Swimming pool, 436 flow, 417

Switch, 232, 416 foundation, 332
Symbols, 143 friction and wear, 241
Synergistic effects, 72 Gardner, 215
Syntactic foam, 295, 475 gas transmission, 279
gasket, 360
Tank,44,46, 265, 647, 883 glass transition temperature, 83
Tape, 639, 643 hardness, 71, 105
Taper, 660, 810 heat capacity, 88
Technical cost modeling, 898 heat test, 260
"Techturf," 879 hydrostatic, 334
Telephone, 412 impact, 209,212, 217
Temperature, 203,253, 297,903 limiting oxygen index, 287
Temperature, glass transition. See Glass transition long-term behavior, 153
temperature melt index, llO
Temperature index, 95 modulus, 175
Temperature range, 92, 428 pipe deflection, 330
Tennis, 9 plastic selection, 540
Tensile safety factor, 332
bridging, 338 shear, 149
elastic limit, 136, 138, 387 specific gravity, 98
elongation. See Elongation, tensile spring, 322
hysteresis. See Hysteresis, effect stress cracking, 271
impact. See Impact, tensile temperature index, 95
modulus of elasticity. See Modulus of elasticity, tensile, 136
tensile tensile impact, 215
properties, 136 test rate, 143
property symbols, 143 thermal conductivity, 87
proportional limit, 137 thermal diffusivity, 88
strain. See Strain, tensile thermal insulation, 87
strength, 36, 135, 138, 2ll, 724 torsion, 152
strength, theoretical, 97 wall thickness, 747
strength at break, 138 water absorption, 104, 272
strength versus fatigue strength, 193 wear. See Test method; Friciton; Wear
stress. See Stress, tensil weather, 273
stress crazing. See Crazing Test rate, 143
yield strength, 137, 400, 402 Test selection, 755. See also Selection
Tentering frame, 638, 642 Test simplification, 308, 732
Terpolymer, 71 Test specimen cross-section, 136, 735
Test assumptions, 308 Testing, 272, 292, 334, 731
Test method, 734, 735 high speed, 209
acoustic, 380 nondestructive. See Nondestructive testing
appliance safety, 403 short-term, 134
artificial, 273 Testing via computer. See Computer-aided testing
chemical, 272 Theoretical versus actual values, 97
classification, 525 Thermal
coefficient of linear thermal expansion, 89 aging, 260
compressive properties, 145 conductivity, 84, 87
creep-rupture properties, 156, 160 contraction, 333, 377
deflection temperature under load, 94 diffusivity, 84, 88
density, 98 expansion, 84, 90, 362, 377
drop-weight, 361 failure, 196, 201
Dynatup, 215 index, relative, 261
elastomer, 458 insulation, 84
electric, 225, 422 properties, 83, 903
electromagnetic, 228 stress, 90, 297, 362
falling weight, 215 Thermoanalytical test, 735
fatigue, 191 Thermodynanrics, 116, 201
flame, 287, 403 Thermoforming, 666, 886
flexable culvert, 331 Thermoforming orientation. See Orientation
flexural, 146 Thermogravimetric analysis test, 740
INDEX 979
Thennomechanical analysis test, 744 Vapor barrier, 104

Thennoplastic, 64, 253, 611 Vapor penneability, 104
Thennoplastic elastomer, 70, 371,472 Variables combined, 399,495
Thennoset, 64, 66, 253, 611 "Velcro" strip, 622
Thennoset elastomer, 70, 467 Vent, 814
Thickness, 790 Vessel, 325
Thread strength, 355, 358, 680, 824, 831 Vibration, 239, 372
Three-dimensional woven fabric, 122 Vibration welding, 725
Throwaway aspect, 890 Vickers, 105
Time dependent loading, 130 Vinyl dispersion, 692
Titanium, I Viscoelasticity, 107,114, 140, 155, 174,304
Toilet flushing, 883 Viscosity, 870
Tolerance, 387, 398,416,596, 606,629,647, Viscous, defonnation, 107, 174
660,761,791, 802,834,846,855,864,869 Viscous modulus. See Modulus of elasticity,
Tooling, 596, 701, 758 creep-apparent
Torque, 832, 870 Vision system inspection, 749, 753
Torsion pendulum, 149 Void,217
Torsion properties, 152, 323, 355, 380, 401 Void content determination, 686
Toughness, 96, 105,203,415,421,432. See also Volatile, 115
Area under the stress-strain curve Volume resistivity, 229
Towline, 292
Toxicity, 282, 286,431, 889 Wall thickness, 187, 189, 201, 355, 598, 747,
Trade association. See Appendix A 780, 798, 801
Trade magazine. See Appendix A Warpage, 70, 261, 510, 616, 624, 798, 804
Trade name, 76,405, 533. See also Appendix C Washer, 401
Training, 786. See also Educational infonnation Waste, 883. See also Solid waste
Transducer, 237 economic consideration, 889
Transfer molding, 679 public education, 890, 896
Transmission, water vapor, 104 regulatory support, 891
Transparency, 98, 415, 491 Waste-to-energy incineration, 891
Transportation, 18 Water, 924
Trash compactor, 361 Water absorption, 104, 274
Trial-and-error, 399 Water treatment, 883
Troubleshooting, 603 Water vapor transmission, 104
True stress. See Stress, true Watertight assembly, 233, 292
Turf, 879 Wear, 239, 420, 424, 628, 882
Turnaround time, 762 Wear, plastic to metal, 246
Two-shot molding, 623, 719 Wear, plastic to plastic, 246
''Tyrin,'' 470 Weather resistance, 272, 414
Weep, 334
Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene plastic, Weight saving, 37, 365, 890
444 Welding, 336, 362, 723, 869
Ultrasonic test, 748 Weldline, 217, 618, 695, 734, 813
Ultrasonic welding, 272, 723 Wetability, 884
Ultraviolet radiation, 415 Wire frame modeling, 757, 765
Uncertainties. See Safety factor Wood, I, 122, 161, 311
Undercut, 348, 816, 843 Woods Hole vehicle, 295
Underground, 44, 265, 429 Wodd without plastic, 9
Underwater, 288, 293, 330 Wright-Patterson Air Force Laboratories, 122
Underwriters Laboratory, 95, 732, 739
Uniaxial direction, 118 See also Orientation
X-ray spectroscopy test, 747
Unidirectional, 122. See also Orientation
"Xydar," 263
Unsaturated polyester plastic, 416
Unscrewing, 355
Urea fonnaldehyde plastic, 416, 423,456 Yield. See Tensile, yield strength; Compressive
Urethane. See Polyurethane yield strength
Utensil, 420 Young's modulus. See Modulus of elasticity
Vacuum bag molding, 677 Zero defect, 887

Vacuum metalization, 230 Zinc-arc straying, 230
"Vamac," 471 "Zytel," 873, 882
~ Identify Dimensions. structural loads. gov'Vlndustry standards. service environments, etc__ 1
specific
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--I Plant personnel capability I
iii
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~ Identify Dimensions. structural loads. gov'Vlndustry standards.

service environments, etc__ 1

rl Matt flow analysis Shrinkage analysis I

Plant personnel capability evaluation I

Y Documentation for management to ensure meeting delivery schedules and profitability I

Set up value analysis (VA)

Donald V. Rosato, Ph. D.

~ SPRINGER SCiENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

Library of Congress Catalog Number 90-46378

ISBN 978-1-4615-9725-4 ISBN 978-1-4615-9723-0 (eBook)

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

1. Plastics. 2. Engineering design. I. Di Mattia, David P.

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING WITH PLASTICS AND

2. THE STRUCTURE AND BASIC PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS / 61

3. PLASTICS: DESIGN CRITERIA / 125

4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING PLASTICS / 253

5. STRUCTURAL DESIGN ANALYSIS / 303

6. THE PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS / 405

7. THE PROCESSING OF PLASTICS / 589

8. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT AND SECONDARY OPERATIONS / 711

9. TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL / 731

10. COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN / 757

Mold Design / 758

11. DESIGN FEATURES THAT INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE / 789

12. CONCLUSIONS / 877

Appendix A. General Information Sources / 919

l Receive and review product I

Il1In6dialely after part is in

Set up TEST1NG/QUAUTY CONTROL-

Set up practical/useful TROUBLESHOOTING

Apply design creativity

Dimensions & tolerances

Databases and/or available

-i Documentation for management to ensure meeting delivery schedules and profitability I

Figure 1·5. A general comparison of different materials.

Maximum Continuous Service Temperature

Plastics / Reinforced Plastics

The Design Process

composites selectively reinforced to eliminate flutter at high speeds. Similarly so-

64-m (210-11.) diem

c. Bolt detail lorm

4. In building and construction. This market is the second-largest consumer of plastics,

Deck lid emblem pad

Pump cutlet nut

= GrFRP FRONT SEAT

GrFRP REAR SUSPENSION

Fixed trailing edge panels [K/GJ

Wmg-to-body fairing [K/G

Over wing fairing

Engine access doors

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Figure 1-29. The applications of various materials in aircraft.

1.5 GrIEp 5116 HOLES "C._____.,,' B/Ep NO HOLES

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

B/Ep IAVCO 55051

NOTE: VARIATIONS IN STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

Figure 1·37. Being designed-

Figure 1·39. Plastic motor

Figure 1-44. A hand-held three-gallon HDPE extrusion blow-molded sprayer tank.

Figure 1·46. A simplified flow diagram for a design procedure.

PERFORMANCE COMPETITION LEGAL

Computer-Aided Design Drafting