Steel and Timbe PDF

Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 1
Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts
1.1 Introduction
Structures whose major constituent components are steel are known as steel structure
while those with large proportion of timber components timber structures. As it will be
noted from subsequent presentations, there are great many steel and timber structures in
engineering practice
Steel and timber are used both in structural and non-structural members in various civil
engineering applications such as buildings of various types, bridges, power transmission and
communication towers, windmills, off-shore oil and gas facilities, reservoirs and other
storage structures, mines, among others. In particular, steel may also be used as a cable
system in suspension- and cable-stayed structures such as suspension bridges, cable-
supported roofs and cable-stayed towers. Their structural engineering applications of steel
also extend to manufacture of space- and aircrafts, ship structures
The main component of this coursework will be dealing with steel structures. The various
design concepts and detailing procedures for timber are similar to those involved in steel
structures and, thus, similar computational and detailing operations are followed for their
planning. Steel structures are of so many types that it is difficult, if not impossible, to
classify them on the bases of their service, shape, size or methods involved in their design.
However, from structural point of view they can be broadly categorized as either frame or
skeletal types, or shell- and plate-type structures.
Framed structures are the primary topic for discussion in this course work. They consist of
an assemblage of elongated or one-dimensional members such as roof trusses, latticed
towers, beams, columns, etc
Shell- and plate-type structures are mostly made up of steel sheets. In such structures
loads are mostly taken up by the sheet plates, which also serve as covering materials. Tanks,
aircrafts and shell-roof coverings are some examples of shell structures
Areas of Application
While some of the main applications outlined below are also related to timber, steel
structural members have found, the widest use in the fol1owing types of structures.
Framework or skeletal systems
• The framework of industrial building and related structures like crane girders, platforms,
etc.
• Railway, highway, pedestrian and other large- and small-span bridges.
• Very tall multi-story buildings, exhibition pavilions, roofs, floors, domes, sports-facility
• Sheds, as well as building components such as staircases, fire-escape facilities, etc
• Special-purpose buildings such as airport terminals and railway stations, aircraft hangars,
shipyards, railway platforms
• Special structures. such as, for example, power transmission pylons, television and radio
as well as telecommunication towers, headwork for mines, underground tunnels, oil
derricks, hydraulic engineering works such as dam gates and spillway structures, cranes,
etc
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Design of Steel and Timber Structures CE-519 Yibeltal T.
Shell and plate structures

• Gas holders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases
• Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of water, fuels and other liquids
• Bins and bunkers for the storage of loose materials like cement, grain. Etc
• Special structures such as blast furnace air heaters, gas scrubbers.
• Large diameter steel piping employed at iron and steel works coke and by-
product works, hydroelectric power plants and oil and gas pipe lines.
• Ship bulls, airplane fuselage, tank armor, etc.
Steel is finding diverse application in the construction industry. The following pictures will
reveal a number of such applications in various kinds of constructions.
Structural steel can be used to constitute the complete framing system in a high-rise
building. Either medium-sized, such as the hotel building or very tall buildings, such as the
office building can be constructed from steel (see Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Multi Story Buildings
Special purpose buildings such as airport terminals, railway stations, exhibition pavilions,
conference halls, aircraft hangars, shipyards, railway platforms, in which large space should
be covered with out obstruction of columns, are constructed from structural steels trusses
(see Fig. 1.2 and Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.2 Exhibition Halls (Long Span Roofs)
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Cross section
Fig. 1.3 Aircraft Maintenance Hangars
Steel is a preferred choice when it comes to industrial structures as it also provides large
column-free space with fewer framing elements. Fig. 1.4 shows the model of such an
industrial building facility making use of steel framing.
Fig. 1.4 Industrial Building (columns, beams, and roofs)
Another area where steel and timber find their use is in bridge construction. There are
various kinds of bridges where structural steel can be used effectively and efficiently. in
suspension- and cable-stayed bridges, steel plays a predominant role at least as the cabling
system. Some of the main types of steel bridges are plate girder bridges, truss arch
bridges, cable stayed and suspension bridges (see Fig. 1.5).
a) Plate Girder Bridge b) Truss Arch Bridge
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c) Cable-stayed Bridge d) Suspension Bridge
Fig. 1.5 Use of Steel in Bridge Construction
Several industries and communication facilities call for towers for a variety of purposes.
Steel towers are used for types of towers including microwave transmission for
communications, radio transmission, television transmission, satellite reception, air traffic
controls, flood light stands such as in stadiums and large fly-over’ intersections, power
transmission lines, metrological measurements, tower-test. Set ups, derricks and crawler
cranes, oil drilling masts both in-land and off-shore facilities, and overhead water tanks,
among others. Figs. 1.6 show the various tower-related application of steel
a) Microwave Communication Facilities b) Power Transmission Facilities
Fig. 1.6 Use of Steel Members and Plates in Tower Construction
A number of temporary structures and shed facilities for car parks, gasoline stations,
storage facilities can also be constructed from steel. One such facility is shown in Fig. 1.7
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Fig. 1.7 Use of Steel Members and Panels for Gasoline Station
The corrosive nature of sea water calls for special kind of construction materials for
building off-shore oil and gas facilities. Specially treated steel responds to these
requirements better than most other possible construction materials (see Fig. 1.8).
Specially treated steel finds its wide application in petrochemical industries where chemical
attack and temperature effects could be treated at their highest. Steel structures in
theses industries can form part of the facilities themselves or structural framing for the
housing structures (see Fig. 1.9).
Fig. 1.8 Use of Steel Members and Plates in Fig. 1.9 Use of Steel in a Petro-chemical Industrial Facility
Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration/Drilling Facility
Most industrial buildings need to be provided with handling and hoisting equipment. There
are variety of such equipment used the factories and nearly all of them are built up from
structural steel. Some of the common types are cranes on gantry girders (overhead cranes),
chain pulley blocks, fork lift, derrick cranes, conveyor belts; rope ways, assembly lines,
among others. A typical overhead crane with gantry girders is shown in Fig. 1.10.
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Fig. 1.10 Typical Over Head Cranes
Roof trusses of stadiums and sport facilities are usually made of either cantilever (free-
standing) or cable-stayed structural steels (see Fig. 1.11)
Fig. 1.11 Use of Steel for Roof Trusses of Stadiums
Concrete construction requires some kind of temporary support during construction up until
when the concrete has set and attained the necessary strength to support itself. In this
scenario, scaffolding and formworks, that can be built up from steel members can be used
effectively and efficiently (see Fig. 1.12).
Fig. 1.12 Use of Steel Scaffolding in Tunnel Construction
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Bracing systems are usually made from structural steel and they provide lateral stability
for a building by resisting winds and earthquakes (see Fig. 1.13).
Fig. 1.13 Use of Steel Members for Bracing Systems
Steel is also used in composite construction with concrete as shown in Fig. 1.14. This
construction practice improves the fire-resistance property and prevents corrosion of steel
in addition to improving the load-resisting capacity of the resulting structural members.
Fig. 1.14 Use of Steel for Composite Construction
Merits of Steel Structures
The principal merits of steel members are:
• The ability to resist high loads with a comparatively small size and light weight of
members. Thus for the same strength, steel members are smaller in size and lighter
in weight, as compared to members made of other materials (except for some high
strength aluminum alloys).
• Due to its high density, steel is completely non-porous.
• The possibility of industrializing the construction work by the use of pre-
fabricated members and mechanized erection at the construction site.
• A very long service life, provided care is taken
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• The possibility of disassembling or replacing some steel members of a structure, for

strengthening purposes.
• It is an environmental friendly material by being recycled.
• With particular reference to high-rise buildings, Steel is favored over other
construction materials such as reinforced concrete for various reasons. Among
these are:
• Shorter erection period permits an earlier recovery of capital
• Steel offers wide-span frames. It provides column-free, uninterrupted interior
space. This offers greater interior design scope and results in more cost-efficient
buildings.
• Steel structural members offer the absolute accuracy of dimensions. Uniform
quality possible only with pre-fabrication under close control in the plant that
reduces man-hour requirements at the site-an important consideration in the face
of unavailability of skilled labor
• Steel offers greater possibilities for imaginative architectural design
• Finally, cost comparison studies have revealed that the construction cost of
structural steel is generally more economical than reinforced concrete
Thus, structural steel is the preferred choice for speed of erection, value and quality
The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which

necessitates their painting or the use of other methods for their protection. The second
drawback of steel is its low fire resistance. At high temperatures steel loses most of its
strength, leading to excessive deformation or failure
1.2 Design Philosophy and design Formats
Engineered structures are of such variety that they defy any attempt to enumerate them
except in a general way. The countless problems which arise in their design have prompted
engineers to specialize in the design of particular structures or groups of related
structures, such as, for examples steel structures or timber structures for bridges,
buildings, towers, etc
Design Procedure
There are a number of phases in a design process - from inception to detailing and quantity
estimation.
Functional Planning/Design
The first and often the most difficult problem in design is the development of a plan that
will enable the structure to fulfill effectively the purpose for which it is to be built. If the
structure is a building, for example, the designer must create a plan which is adapted to the
site; which provides a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.;
which will be aesthetically acceptable and which can be built at a price the client is
prepared to pay. This phase of design, sometimes called functional planning.
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Structural Planning / Design
Structural design is the second major step in the design process although the planning of
structural scheme is never independent of the functional plan. Depending on the type of
structures, the extent to which the scheme must be developed during the functional
planning stage may depend upon the structure. For example, the location of the columns in a
building usually must be worked out with the functional plan and sufficient space must be
anticipated between finished ceiling and finished floor of adjacent stories to accommodate
the floor construction. On the other hand, the functional plans and structural schemes of
highway bridges or communication towers are usually not so strongly interdependent.
It is usually necessary to make tentative cost estimates for several preliminary structural
layouts. Sometimes this may have to be carried out while the functional plan is being
developed; sometimes it can be done at a later stage. Selection of structural materials must
be based upon consideration of availability of specific materials and the corresponding
skilled labor, relative cost, and wage scales, and the suitability of the materials for the
structure.
The third stage of the design is a structural analysis. Although design specifications and
building codes usually describe the nature and magnitude of the loads to which the
structure may be subjected, at times the engineer must make the decision. Once the loads
are defined, a structural analysis must be made to determine the internal forces which will
be produced in the various members of the structure. Although this is a fairly routine
procedure, simplifying assumptions must invariably be made before the principles of
mechanics can be applied. The designer must be conscious of his or her assumptions to
ensure that the structure as designed can be expected to behave accordingly.
In the fourth phase of the design process, the engineer proportions the members of the
structural system. The latter must be chosen so that they will be able to withstand, with an
appropriate margin of safety, the forces which the structural analysis has disclosed.
Familiarity with the methods and processes of fabrication and their limitations and with the
techniques of constructions as well as their limitations is indispensable in the design
process.
The four steps in the structural design process discussed so far are seldom, if ever,
distinct, and in many cases they must be carried along more or less simultaneously.
Furthermore, they assume varying degree of importance relative to one another.
Design is necessarily a trial-and-error procedure. Most structures are statically

indeterminate and require that member properties be specified before the analysis for load
effects can be carried out. After the member forces have been determined, the validity of
the member selection must be evaluated. If changes in member properties are required, a
re-analysis must be carried out. The procedure must be repeated until the members’
selected and resultant member forces are in acceptable arrangement. The development of
the computer has greatly facilitated this phase of the design process, but the judgment and
experience of the designer are impossible to build into a completely logical system as
required by the computer.
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Development of procedures for translating design specifications into computer programs

continues to receive the attention of engineers in all specialties. There are also a number of
specialized and industry-targeted such software products available nowadays. Many of such
software can now help the engineer from planning to analysis, design, detailing to quantity
estimations. Such programs, however, should be utilized only after the engineer has a
thorough understanding of the requirements of the specifications, the method of analysis
employed in the program, and the behavior of many types of structural members.
Design Philosophy
Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength, serviceability,

and economy.
Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load
conditions. The structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without severe
distress and damage during its lifetime.
Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its

appearance, maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load, conditions.
Deflection, vibration, permanent deformation, cracking, and corrosion are some design
considerations associated with serviceability.
Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design, fabrication,
erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.
A structure should be designed and fabricated to fulfill the following conditions:

• Remain fit for use during its intended life
• Sustain the loads, which may occur during construction, installation and usage
• Localize damage due to accidental overloads.
• Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.
The above requirements can be satisfied by using suitable materials, appropriate design and
detailing and specifying quality control procedures for construction and, if necessary, for
maintenance program.
Design Formats
The design of steel structures may be controlled by several criteria described as “limits of
structural usefulness ". They are as follows:
• Hypothetical attainment of yield point

• Attainment of maximum plastic strength
• Excessive deflections at service load and drift limitations
• Instability
• Fatigue
• Fracture
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One or more of these conditions must form the basis for any rational design procedure and
their consideration enters into the subject matters to be presented in the subsequent-
sections for the design of several types of members and structural components.
As a result of the various design criteria, three major design methods and formats have
evolved in practice. At present, steel design can be performed in accordance with one of the
following three formats worldwide.
Al1owable Stress Design (ASD)
In the allowable stress design (ASD), a member is selected such that under expected loads,
known as service or working loads, the stress will not exceed one of the previously
described limits of usefulness. It is performed by specifying expected working design loads
and allowable stresses. The factor of safety is inherent, but usual1y not stated. Also, the
limit of usefulness is usual1y undesignated
This design methodology has been in use for decades for steel design of buildings and
bridges. It continues to enjoy popularity among structural engineers engaged in steel
building design. In allowable stress (or working stress) design, member stresses computed
under the action of service (or working) loads are compared to some pre-designated
stresses, called allowable stresses. The allowable stresses are usually expressed as a
function of the yield stress (fy) or tensile stress (fu) of the material. To account for
overload, under-strength, and approximations used in structural analysis, a factor of safety
is applied to reduce the nominal resistance of the structural member to a fraction of its
tangible capacity.
In so far as the method of analysis is concerned, allowable stress design is based on elastic
analysis to obtain the structural responses such as moments, shear and axial forces that a
member must be designed to carry.
The general formula for an allowable stress design has the form:
Rn m
≥ ∑ Qi
Fs i =1
Where: Rn = nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in units of stress
Qi = service or working stress computed from the applied working load type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
m = number of load types considered in the design
= allowable stress of structural component
Rn
Fs
Plastic Design
Plastic design makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved strength beyond the
first yield condition, When a section is under flexure, yielding of the cross section occurs in
a progressive manner, commencing with the fibers farthest away from the neutral axis and
ending with the fibers nearest the neutral axis. This phenomenon of progressive yielding
referred to as plastification, means that the cross section does not fail at first yield. The
additional moment that a cross section can carry in excess of the moment that corresponds
to first yield varies depending on the shape of the cross section. To quantify such reserved
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capacity, a quantity called shape factor, defined as the ratio of the plastic moment (moment
that causes the entire cross section to yield, resulting in the formation of a plastic hinge)
to the yield moment (moment that causes yielding of the extreme fibers only) is used.
For an indeterminate structure, failure of the structure will not occur after the formation
of a plastic hinge. After complete yielding of a cross section, force (or, more precisely,
moment) redistribution will occur, in which the unfailed portion of the structure continues
to carry any additional loadings. Failure will occur only when enough cross sections have
yielded to render the structure unstable, resulting in the formation of a plastic collapse
mechanism.
In plastic design the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to obtain factored
loads. A design is said to have satisfied the strength criterion if the load effects (i.e.,
forces, shears, and moments) computed using these factored loads do not exceed the
nominal plastic strength of the structural component. Plastic design has the form:
m
Rn ≥ γ ∑ Qni
i =1
Where: Rn = nominal plastic strength of the member

Qni = nominal load effects from the loads of type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
m = number of load types considered in the design
γ = load factor
In steel building design the load factor γ is given by the AISC Specification as 1.7, if Qn
consists of dead and live gravity loads only, and as 1.3, if Qn consists of dead and live gravity
loads acting in conjunction with wind or earthquake loads.
Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design
Limit state is a Probabilistic design procedure in which a structure, or part of a structure,

is considered unfit for use when such a limiting condition exceed a particular state, called a
limit state, beyond which it infringes one of the criteria governing its performance thus
making the structure unable to meet design performance criteria. All relevant limit states
shall be considered in the design so as to ensure an adequate degree of safety,
serviceability and durability.
Three classes of limit states are recognized: ultimate limit states, serviceability limit states and
durability limit states. Ultimate limit states are those which if exceeded can lead to collapse of part
or the whole of the structure, endangering safety of people. Serviceability limit states correspond to
states beyond which specified service criteria are no longer met. Durability limit states can be
regarded as subsets of the ultimate and serviceability limit states depending on whether, for example,
the corrosion affects the strength of the structure or its aesthetic appearance. Structures should be
designed by considering all relevant limit states.
A design is considered satisfactory according to the strength criterion if the resistance exceeds the
load effects by a comfortable margin. In actual design, a resistance factor ‘ γm’ is applied to the
nominal resistance of the structural component to account for any uncertainties associated with the
determination of its strength, and a load factor ‘ γl’ is applied to each load type to account for the
uncertainties and difficulties associated with determining its actual load magnitude. Different load
factors are used for different load types to reflect the varying degree of uncertainty associated with
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the determination of load magnitudes. In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more
predictable and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less predictable.
Mathematically it can be expressed as:
Rn m
≥ ∑ γ li Qi
γm i =1
Where:
= design strength
Rn
γm
m
∑ γ li Qi = the required strength or load effects for a given load combination
i =1
Specifications and codes provide the values of γ pertaining to different loads and also outline the load
combinations to be used on the right-hand side of the above equation. For a safe design, all load
combinations should be investigated, and the design is based on the worst-case scenario.
Although, allowable stress design has been used for decades, the world wide trend is to ward the limit
state approach to design. The national building codes, both EBCS 3 1995 far steel and EBCS 5 1995
far timber structures are also based on the concepts of the limit state design. In view of this trend
and in cognizance of the likelihood that limit state design/LRFD will be the mainstream design method
henceforth, only limit state/LRFD provisions will be covered in this coursework. So, interested
readers on others are advised to refer to relevant literature.
1.3 Materials
Steel is one of the mast important structural materials. Properties of particular importance in
structural usage are high strength compare to any other available material, and ductility (i.e., its
ability to deform substantially in either tension or compression before failure). The most important
structural properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, shear
modulus, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of thermal expansion, and its density.
Stress-strain Behavior of Structural steel
A schematic diagram of an engineering stress-strain curve of steel obtained from a simple

tension test is shown in Fig. 1.14.
Fig. 1.15 Idealized Stress-strain Curve
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Elastic region
In this region the stress is proportional to the strain, and Hooke's law applies. The constant
of proportionality is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, E. The modulus of
elasticity for steel has values ranging from 190 - 210 GPa. The modulus of elasticity does
not vary appreciably for the different grades of steel used in construction, and a value of
200 GPa is often used for design. The elastic region ends when the stress reaches h" the
yield stress. For stress below 1; no. plastic, or permanent, deformation will occur in the
steel section. Table 1.1 gives the yield point and the ultimate strength of several grades of
steel, classified according to ASTM designation, and of interest to the structural designer.
Inelastic Region
In this region the steel section deforms plastically under a constant stress, fy- The extent
of this deformation differs for different steel grades. Generally, the ductility (the ability
of a material to undergo plastic deformation prior to fracture) decreases with increasing
steel strength. Ductility is a very important attribute of steel. The ability of structural
steel to deform considerably before failure by fracture allows the structure to undergo
force redistribution when yielding occurs, and it enhances the energy absorption
characteristic of the structure
Strain-Hardening Region
In this region deformation is accompanied by an increase in stress. The peak point of the
engineering stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress, fu. fu is the largest stress the
material can attain under uniaxial condition. In a uniaxial tension test, the specimen
experiences non-uniform plastic deformation (necking) once the stress reaches fu. Beyond fu
deformation proceeds at a rapid rate and equilibrium can be maintained only by a reduction
in the applied load. For design purposes, fu is often regarded as the stress at which failure
is imminent.
Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s ratio, υ, is the absolute value of the ratio of the transverse strain to longitudinal
strain under axial load. In the idealized elastic range Poisson’s ratio for structural steels is
approximately 0.3 while in the plastic range it is about 0.5.
Sear modulus
Shear modulus, G, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear modulus, G, is
presumed to be constant (= 80 GPa ) for all structural steels.
Thermal expansion
The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely involves concern
about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such behavior is desirable when specifying
welding procedures, and when concerned with the effects of fire as the modulus of
elasticity, yield strength and tensile strength all reduces with increase in temperature. The
coefficient of thermal expansion, α, for structural steel is 12 x 10-6 per oc.
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Fatigue
Fatigue failure can occur in members or structures subjected to fluctuating loads such as
crane girders, bridges and offshore structures. Failure occurs through progressive growth
of a crack that starts at a fault and the failure load may be well below its static value.
Welded connections have the greatest effect on the fatigue strength of steel structures.
On the other hand, bolted connections do not reduce the strength under fatigue loading. To
avoid fatigue failure, detail should be such that stress concentrations and abrupt changes
of section are avoided in regions of tensile stress.
Brittle
Structural steel is ductile at temperatures above 10oC, but it becomes more brittle as the
temperature falls, and fracture can occur at low stresses below 0°c. To reduce the
likelihood of brittle fracture, it is necessary to take care in the selection of the steel to be
used and to pay special attention to the design detail. Thin plates are more resistant than
thick ones, abrupt changes of section and stress concentration should be avoided. Fillets
welds should not be laid down across tension flanges and intermittent welding should not be
used.
Types of Steel
Structural steels used for construction purposes are generally grouped into several major
classifications according to national and international standards. The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) classifications are among such widely used standards. The
Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995 also classifies according to their strength.
The following are per the ASTM classification
Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM A709)
In addition to iron, the main ingredients of this category of steels are carbon (maximum
content 1.7%) and manganese (maximum content 0.65%), with a small amount (<0.6%) of
silicon and copper
Depending on the amount of carbon content, different types of carbon steels can be
identified:
- Low-carbon steel: carbon content < 0. 5%
- Mild carbon steel: carbon content varies from 0. 15 to 0.29%
- Medium-carbon steel: carbon content 0.30-0.59%
- High-carbon steel: carbon content 0.60 - 1.70%
The most commonly used structural carbon steel has mild carbon content. It is extremely
ductile with well defined yield point (see Fig. 1.16a). A36 is used mainly for buildings; A529
is occasionally used for bolted and welded building frames and trusses, and A 709 is used
primarily for bridges.
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Fig. 1.16 Typical Stress-strain Curves
High-strength Low-alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572)
These steels possess enhanced strength as a result of presence of one or more alloying
agents, such as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, and vanadium; in addition to the basic
elements of iron, carbon, and manganese. Normally, the total quantity, of all the alloying
elements is below 5% of the total composition. This category includes steels having yield
stresses from 275 to 480 MPa with a well defined yield point (see Fig.). These steels
generally have higher corrosion resistance capacity than carbon steels.
Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514)
The quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of those used in
carbon and low-alloy steels. In addition, they are heat-treated by quenching and tempering
to enhance their strengths. These steels do not exhibit well-defined yield points (see Fig.).
Their yield stresses are determined by the 0.2% offset strain method. These steels,
despite their enhanced strength, have reduced ductility (see Fig. ), and care must be
exercised in their usage, as the design limit state for the structure or structural elements
may be governed by serviceability considerations (e.g. deflection, vibration) or local buckling
(under compression).
Table1.1 gives a summary of the specified minimum yield stress (fy) and the specified
minimum tensile strengths (fu), and Table 1.2 gives the general usages for these various
categories of steel in accordance with ASTM designation.
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Table 1.1 Properties of Steels used for Buildings and Bridges
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Table 1.1 Continued
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Table 1.2 Uses of Various Structural Steels
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Table 1.3 Continued
EBCS 3, 1995 recognizes three grades of ordinary hot rolled steel as shown in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Nominal Values of fy and fu for Various Grades of Structural Steel (EBCS 3, 1995)
Nominal Steel Thickness t (mm)

Grade t ≤ 40mm 40mm < t ≤ 100mm
fy (MPa) fu (MPa) fy (MPa) fu (MPa)
Fe 360 235 360 215 340
Fe 430 275 430 255 410
Fe 510 355 510 335 49
Note: t is the nominal thickness of the element
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Structural Steel Shapes
In general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot-rolled,
cold-formed, and combined. Most of the rolling is done on hot steel, with the product
termed hot-rolled steel. Sometimes the thinner plates are further rolled or bent, after
cooling, into cold-rolled or "cold-formed" steel products. Regardless of the manner by which
the steel shape is formed, it must be manufactured to meet certain international standards
such as ASTM or European standards. The commonly used standard hot rolled steel shapes
are as shown in Fig. 1.17
Cold formed steel shapes are formed in rolls or brakes from sheet or strip steel. Because
of the great variety which can be produced, shapes of this type, unlike hot rolled shapes,
have not been standardized (see Fig. 1.18).
Fig. 1.17 Standard Rolled Shapes
Fig. 1.18 Some Cold-formed Shapes
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The dimensions and geometric properties of the various hot rolled sections utilized in design
calculation are listed in the tables of manual (see Tables at the back which are obtained
from British Standards).
Structural Fasteners
Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened

together, usually at the ends of its members. The two main fastening means are bolting and
welding (with a few and isolated case also riveting and pins). Connections are structural
elements used for joining different members of a framework.
Bolts
Four basic types of bolts are commonly in use; they are designated by ASTM as A307,
A325, A490, and A449
A307 Bolts: These are called unfinished or ordinary bolts and are made from low-carbon
steel. They are furnished in two grades, A and B, the former for the general purposes and
the latter for joints in pipe systems. They are available with several head and nut
configurations, but the hexagonal and square head are most commonly used.
A325 Bolts: The A325 bolt is made of medium carbon steel. It is also used in both hot-
rolled and cold-formed construction. e are called high-strength bolts. A325 bolts are made
of medium-carbon steel. They are used in both hot-rolled and cold-formed construction.
A490 bolts are made from quenched and tempered alloy steel and thus have higher
strength, than A325 bolts. They are used for general construction purposes.
A449 Bolts: The A449 bolt also of medium carbon steel, is furnished in three ranges of
diameter.
490 Bolts: The A490 bolt is made of alloy steel in one tensile-strength grade.
Table 1.5 Properties of Structural Bolts (ASTM)
____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 1.6 Nominal Values of Yield Strength fyb and Ultimate Tensile Strength fub for Bolts (EBCS 3, 1995)
Bolt Grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

fyb (MPa) 240 320 300 400 480 640 900
fub (MPa) 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000
Welding
Welding is the process of joining metal parts by means of heat and pressure, which cause
fusion of the parts (resistance welding), or by heating the metal to the fusion temperature,
with or without the addition of weld metal (fusion welding).
Welds are classified according to their type as groove, fillet, plug, and slot. The detailed
treatment of welding and the electrodes which are used as filler materials are specified in
different standards. The detail will be covered in chapter seven, the design of connections.
Specifications and Building Codes
Then design of steel structures is generally done within the framework of codes giving
specific requirements for materials, structural analysis, member proportioning, etc.
Specification serves as a guide for the engineer to arrive at a safe and acceptable design.
It is also a guarantee to the owner that the resulting structure will comply with basic
standards to ensure safety, utility and economy.
The designer doing steel structures in various disciplines, such as buildings, bridges, etc, will
have to follow closely the relevant design requirements in the appropriate specifications and
design codes as minimum requirements.
The following are some important specifications for concrete structures.
• EBSC 1 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis of Design and Actions on Structures.
• EBCS 3 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for the Design of Steel Structures.
• EBCS 4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures.
• EBCS 8 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis Earthquake design of Structures.
• EC 3 European Standards for the Structural Use of Steel
• AISC American Institute of Steel Construction, Steel Construction Manual
• AWS American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code
• AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Specification for Highway Bridges
• BS 5950 British Standards for The Structural Use of Steel Works in Buildings
• AREA American Railway Engineering association, Specification for Steel Railway Bridges
• ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
• DIN DIN V ENV 1993 German Standards for the Structural Use of Steel
____________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter Two: Tension Members 1
Chapter Two: Tension Members
2.1 Introduction
Tension members are structural members that carry pure tension loads. They are efficient
carriers of load and are used encountered in most steel structures. The bottom chords of
roof and bridge trusses are c1assic examples of tension members. Steel cables in suspension
and cab1e-stayed bridges, cab1es-supported roofs, guyed microwave and radio
communication towers and power transmission towers, elevator cables and those cables in
parts of hoisting equipment are all examples of tension members.
Certain web members of a truss system may be in tension for certain loading condition and
in compression for other loading conditions. Wind bracing in an X configuration is frequently
used where the members are so flexible that "buckling" takes place under compression
stresses developed by wind in one direction but functions as a tension member for the
reversed wind.
Tension members frequently appear as secondary members, being used as tie rods to stiffen
a trussed floor system or to provide intermediate support for a wa1l girt system.
The selection of their cross section is one of the simplest and most straightforward
procedures encountered in the design of steel components. Since stability is of minor
concern with tension members, the process of designing such structural members is reduced
to:
• selecting a section with sufficient cross-sectional area to carry the design load
without exceeding the design tensile stress as stipulated in relevant codes of
practice
• proportioning connections so that all relevant design specifications are met with
regard to arrangement as well as stress limitations.
In all these, the tensile strength of steel is used. In this stress configuration, member
buckling or warping is not a matter of concern. However, specifications normally require a
minimum amount of member stiffness or rigidity with the view of preventing undue sagging,
deflection and vibration and, accordingly, slenderness ratio is 1imited by design
specifications in order to account for this requirement.
Tension members are frequently subjected to bending stresses in addition to the principal
tensile forces. These conditions occur when the cross section is acted upon by eccentric
forces. This calls for additional investigation of the member for proper design and members
subjected to such a condition of combined bending and tensile stresses will be discussed
later.
2.2 Types of Tension Members
Tension members may consist of a single structural shape or they may be built up from a
member of structural shapes as shown in Fig. 2. 2
The cross sectional arrangement of axially stressed tension members is structurally

unimportant so long as the net cross sectional are is sufficient to carry the design loads and

Fig. 2.1 Tension Members in Buildings and Bridges

the shape can be conveniently connected to other members in the structure. In view of this,
their form is governed largely by the type of structure of which they for parts and by the
method of joining them to the connecting portions of the structure. The only other
structural requirement is that they be sufficiently stiff to prevent harmful vibration,
unsightly sagging, or, where a member may resist a chance of reversal stress to compression
of small but indeterminate magnitude, to prevent buckling.
Fig. 2.2 Cross-sections of Typical Tension Members
Accordingly, if a member at the end is to be connected by bolts or rivets, the angle,

channel, or I section, single or built-up, will be better suited. The use a particular rolled or
built-up shape will be dictated, in addition to its capacity, by the remainder of the
structure; i.e., by the availability of sufficient space on the joint where the member will be
framed into. On the contrary, plates and angles are mostly used in welded structures. For
light trusses and for bracing systems, single angle sections are commonly used. The use of
double angles is generally preferred since the joint will be more symmetrical both in and out
of plane, as opposed to using a single angle, which will always have an out-of-plane
eccentricity.

Tension rods may be used as suspenders for suspension bridges and for smalls-pan roof
trusses. For heavy building trusses and long-span bridges, the eye bar is economical to use.
For latticed girders, the chord members are generally built-up sections
.
For carrying greater tension the members have to provide larger net area and therefore
built up sections might be the only effective choice. Such members are also required when a
single or a pair of angles, or anyone of the standard rolled shapes does not have sufficient
rigidity (measured by L/r), or the joint will be impractical to fabricate. For long-span light
structures, tubular sections are ideally suited.
In general, therefore, the use of single structural shapes is more economical than built up
sections. However, the latter may be required under any of the following situations:
• the tensile capacity of a single rolled section is not sufficient.

• the L/r ratio (the ratio of the unbraced length to the minimum radius of gyration)
does not provide sufficient rigidity.
• the effect of bending combined with the tensile behavior requires a large lateral
stiffness
• usual connection details require a particular cross section
• esthetic control
1.3 Design Consideration
Although the design of tension members is the simplest and most straight-forward one
compared to those for various other member types such as compression or bending. The
process nevertheless requires consideration of several factors. A member subject to axial
tension is supposed to develop a uniform tensile stress across the entire cross-sectional
area. The preconditions for such assumption are as follow:
• Axial force is acting along the centroid of the cross section
• No bending moment exists on the section
• Inter-connections of members or joints are such that the center of gravity of the
member is collinear; that is, it has no eccentricity with the joint.
In order to fulfill these assumptions, due consideration need be given, among others, to
connection types and details, types of shapes available or required for the intended system,
and the effects of shear flow in the section.
Strength as a Design Criterion
The problem of designing a tension member is basically one of providing a member with
sufficient cross-sectional area to resist the applied loads with an adequate margin of safety
against tensile failure. The controlling strength limit state for tension member will be either:
a) yielding of gross cross-sectional area of the member away from the joints, or
b) Fracture of the effective net sectional area through the holes at the joints.
Net Area:
For tension members having holes for rivets and bolts, the reduced cross section is
referred to as the net area. The determination of the net section involves the geometric
spacing of the holes made to accommodate the connecting bolts and rivets.

The net area of a cross-section or element section shall be taken as its gross area less
appropriate deductions for all holes and other openings. When the fastener holes are not
staggered the total area to be deducted should be the maximum sum of the sectional areas
of the holes in any cross-section perpendicular to the member axis.
Accordingly, the net area Aeff for the determination of section capacity will be given by:
no
Aeff = Ag − ∑d
i =1
t
o ,i i (2.1)
Where: Ag = gross cross sectional area

do,i = hole diameter at section i
tj = thickness of the section at i
If the holes are not disposed symmetrically about the centerline of the section, an
effective net area, obtained by multiplying the net area by a reduction factor kA, should be
used. For a single hole, the reduction factor is given by:
do  2e 
K A = 1− 1 − b  (2.2)
b  
where: do is the hole diameter,
e is edge distance ( from hole center to edge )
b is width of the section.
When the holes are staggered, the stress distribution is more complicated and an
approximation is allowed (Fig. 2.3a).
Fig. 2.3 Determination of Net Section

The almost universally adopted procedure is as follows:
• Take any reasonable and possible path across a chain of holes and deduct one hole width for
each bolt hole encountered.
s2
• For each change in direction from hole to the next hole, add back the quantity where s is
4p
pitch or longitudinal distance between adjacent holes and g is gauge distance between
adjacent holes across the width.
In general, the net sectional area Aeff can be determined from:
n0 np
 s2 
A eff = Ag − ∑ d 0.i t i + ∑   t j (2.3)
i =1 i =1  4 g  j
where
Ag is gross cross-sectional area
Do is nominal diameter of the ho1e (bolt cutout)
t is thickness of the component element (note that elements within cross section may have
different thickness, such as the webs and flanges in rolled sections)
S is the staggered pitch, the spacing of the centers of two consecutive holes in the chain measured
parallel to the member axis.
g is the gauge, the spacing of the centers of the same two holes measured perpendicularly to the
member axis.
In an angle, or other member, with holes in more than one plane, the gauge shall be measured along the
center of thickness of the material (Fig.2.3b).
Effective Net area
Then net area computed in the previous section may not correctly reflect the strength specially:
• when the tension member has a profile consisting elements not in a common plane.
• where the tensile load is transmitted at the end of the member by to some but not all of the
elements. Angle section having connection to one leg only is an example of such a situation.
• due to shear lag effect (non uniformity of stresses in wide plates i.e. the shear transfer lags
or inefficient)
For such cases the tensile force is not uniformly distributed over the net area. To account for this,
LRFD provides for an effective area Aeff to be
Sym
computed as:
Aeff = U An (2.4)
gusset plate Gusset plates
where: U is a reduction coefficient C.G. angle
An is net area
x- x- x-
Fig. 2.4 Eccentricity in Joints

The reduction coefficient is given by:
−
x (2.4a)
1 − ≤ 0 .9
l
where: l is the length of the connection

−
x is the connection eccentricity (distance from centroid of element being
connected eccentrically to plane of load transfer as shown in Fig; 2.4.)
U should be calculated using the maximum value of x.
1.4 Limit State Design of Tension Members
Limit state design of tension members calls for verification of the member to withstand
various kinds of failures related to tensile strength both in gross cross section and in
effective net section as well as block shear with respect to tension fracture and shear
fracture.
Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3, 1995
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, axially loaded tension members designed to resist a
factored axial force of Nt,Sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy
the condition:
N t .sd < N L , RD
where:
Nt, Rd = design tension resistance capacity of the cross-section, taken as a smaller of
either the design plastic resistance Npl,RD of the gross section or the design
ultimate resistance Nu,Rd of the net section at the bolt hole where, again,
Npl,Rd and Nu.Rd are determined as in the fol1awing expressions:
Ag x f y
N Pi , RD = (2.5a)
γ MO
0.9 x Aeff x fU
NU , RD = (2.5b)
γ M2
The partial safety factor γMO = 1.1 and while γM2 = 1.25 represents resistance of the net
section at bolt holes.
AISC-LRFD Specification
According to the AISC-LRFD Specification, tension members designed to resist a factored

axial force of Pu, calculated using the appropriate load combinations, and must satisfy the
condition:
φt Pn ≥ Pu (2.6)

Where:
φPn = the design tensile strength of the cross section and it is evaluated based on
three limit states: yielding in gross section, fracture in effective net section,
and block shear.
φt = 0.9 is the appropriate resistance factor in tension.
Yielding in the cross section away from the joint should be avoided to prevent excessive
deformation that results when steel yields. The design strength for this limit state is
evaluated from the equation:
φt Pn = φt x fy x Ag (2.6a)
where
φt = 0.9 = resistance factor for tension
fy = specified minimum yield stress of steel
Pn = nominal axial strength
Fracture in effective net section or fracture of the net section the joint should be avoided,
to prevent the loss of load-carrying capacity of the member. The design strength for this
limit state is evaluated from the equation:
φt Pn ≥ φt x fu x Ae (2.6b)
where:
φt = 0.75 = resistance factor for fracture in tension
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the material
Ae= effective net cross-sectional area of the member
Pn = nominal axial strength
For members without holes, fu11y connected by welds, both Aeff in EBCS 3 and Ae in AISC-
LRDF specifications are the smal1er of the gross area of the member and the effective
area of the welds.
As it can be seen from both EBCS 3 and AISC-LRDF specifications, the concept of net
section forms one of the criteria for the determination of limiting strength of the cross
section.
Block Shear
Block shear failure or rupture along a block shear failure path occurs when a segment of the
connecting member is torn out as a result of the combined effects of tension and shear.
Block shear must be checked if the load is transmitted by some but not all of the
component elements of the cross section.
Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3, 1995
The design value of the effective resistance Veff,Rd for rupture along a block shear failure
path shall be determined from:

0.6 x f y x Av. ef f (2.7)

Veff . RD =
γ MO
Where γ MO = 1.1 = partial safety factor

fγ = specified minimum yield stress of steel
Av,eff = effective shear area subject to block shear
The effective shear area Av,eff for block shear, Fig. 2.5, is
determined from:
Av,eff = t (Lv + L1 + L2 – ndo) (2.7 a)
in which L1 and L2 are given by:
L1 = 5.0d0 ≤ a1
L1 = 2.5d0 ≤ a2
and n = the number of fastener holes in the block shear

failure path
do = hole diameter
T = thickness of the web or bracket
Fig. 2.5 Net Shear Area for Block Shear.
.
AISC-LRFD Specification
According to the AISC-LRFD Specification, the design strength for block shear is
determined from the following two conditions:
• Tension Fracture – Shear Yield: φt Pn = 0.75 x (0.60 x fy Agv + fuAnt) (2.8a)

• Shear Fracture – Tension Yield: φt Pn = 0.75 x (0.60 x fu Anv + fyAgv) (2.8b)
Where
0.75 = resistance factor for block shear
fy, fu = specified minimum yield stress and tensile strengths, respectively
Agv = gross area of the torn-out segment under shear
Ant = net area of the torn-out segment under tension
Anv = net area of the torn-out segment under shear
Agt = gross area of the torn-out segment under tension
Normally, it is necessary to investigate both the tension fracture - shear yield and the
shear fracture-tension yield criteria. The larger of the two values calculated is to be used
for φtPn.
Slenderness Ratio
In al1 tension members, minimum amount of member stiffness or rigidity is required with
the view of preventing undue sagging, deflection and vibration. This is accomplished by
limiting the slenderness ratio given by L/r where L is the length of the member and r is the
list radius of gyration.
____________________________________________________________________________________
L
AISC specifies an upper limit of 300 on
r
Adequacy of the Connection
Connections must also be carefully designed and detailed. This topic will be discussed in
detail in Structural Connections and Design of Joints.
Longitudinal Spacing of Connectors
The spacing of connectors in built-up tension members consist of elements in continuous

contact shall conform to the spacing requirements for fasteners. Details of this will be
presented in Structural Connections and Design of Joints.
_______________________________
ADDITIONAL READING
• E.H. Gayloard and J.E. Stalmeyer

Chapter 3
• Charles G. Salmon and Johne E. Johnson
Chapters 3
• Robert Englekirk
Chapter 1
• EBSC 3 and EC 3
____________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter Three: Compression Members 1
pChapter Three: Compression Members
3.1 Introduction
Compression members are perhaps the most common structural elements in an ordinary
structure and are variously termed as columns, posts, struts or stanchions, etc. A structural
member is considered to be a compression member if it is designed primarily to resist axial
compression, though some bending may also be present and accounted for in the design. If the
bending action is quite significant, the member is termed as a beam-column and designed in a
different way as will be shown later in Chapter Five.
Structural action of columns, stanchions, struts and posts is identical; but due to difference in
their usage different names are used. Columns are ordinarily used in buildings, are vertical and
transmit some actual load or beam reaction to another column or foundation. Stanchions are
steel columns made of rolled steel sections (usually built – up) and carry heavy loads. Struts on
the other hand are not necessarily vertical and are used as compression members in roof trusses
and bridge trusses. The term post is loosely used for a column but the end member of a bridge
truss is known as the end-post. Similarly, the main compression members of a roof truss are
known as “rafters”.
Under the general category of compression members could be included columns, compression
members in a trussed structure, component parts of frames such as compression flanges of
beams or plate girders.
The two main differences between tension and compression members are:
A. Tension members are held

straight by means of tensile loads,
while in the case of compression
members, the compressive loads
tend to bend the member out of
the plane of loading.
B. For riveted or bolted

connections, the net area will
govern the strength of a tension
member, while for compression
members the rivets are assumed
to fill the holes.
This Chapter will present the assessment

and design of structural members that
are acted upon by pure compression
forces; i.e., direct loads with no moments
acting simultaneously.
The main kinds of compression members
are as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1a Simple compression members
Design of Steel and timber structures (CE 519) Yibeltal Temesgen

Fig. 3.1b Tapered members Fig. 3.1c Stepped columns
Fig. 3.1d Built up columns

Fig.3.1e Built up members Fig. 3.1f Perforated plate columns
Compression members can fail by yielding, inelastic buckling, or elastic buckling depending on the
slenderness ratio of the members as well as in local buckling that is usually influenced by the
relative thickness of the component elements that constitute the cross section. Members with
low slenderness ratios generally tend to fail by yielding, whereas members with high slenderness
ratios tend to fail by elastic buckling. Most compression members used in construction have
intermediate slenderness ratios, and so the predominant mode of failure is inelastic buckling.
Member buckling can occur in one of three different modes: flexural, torsional, and flexural-
torsional.
• Flexural buckling occurs in members with doubly symmetric or doubly anti-symmetric

cross sections such as I and Z sections, and in members with singly symmetric sections
such as C, T, equal-legged L and double L.
• Torsional buckling occurs in members with very thin walls.
• Flexural-torsional buckling occurs in members with singly symmetric cross sections such
as C, T, equal-legged L, double L.
Normally, torsional buckling of symmetric shapes and flexural-torsional buckling of un symmetric

shapes are not important in the design of hot-rolled compression members; either they do not
govern or their buckling strengths do not differ significantly from the corresponding weak-axis
flexural buckling strengths. However, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling modes may
govern for sections that have relatively thin component plates.
In addition to slenderness ratio and cross-sectional shape, the behavior of compression members
is affected by the relative thickness of the component elements that constitute the cross
section. The relative thickness of a component element is qualified by the width-to-thickness

ratio (b/t) of the element. The width-to- thickness ratios of some selected steel shapes are
shown in Fig. 3.2. If the width-to-thickness ratio falls within a limiting value stipulated by
relevant codes and specifications, local buckling of the component element will not occur.
However, if the width-thickness ratio exceeds these stipulated values, consideration of local
buckling in the design of the compression member is required.
Fig. 3.2 Dimensions of sections
3.2 Classification of Sections
Classification of sections of compression members depends on their failure modes under load.
Different standards and codes stipulate various classification although they generally coverage
to two main modes of classification-either into four classes (as in, for example, the EBCS3 1995)
or into three classes (as in, for example, the AISC Standard).

The EBCS 3 1995 classifies sections into four categories. Accordingly, the design strength of a
cross-section subject to compression depends on its classification as Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2
(Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or Class 4 (thin-walled) according to their capacity in the
following manner.
Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections can develop their plastic moment resistance
(fy times plastic modulus) with the rotation capacity required for plastic analysis. Only cross
sections falling in this class may only be used for plastic design.
Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with limited rotation
capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as compact sections.
Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their “yield” moment (fy times elastic modulus)
but local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment resistance. In Class 3
sections, the stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to the yield stress because local
buckling prevents development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this
group are also known as semi-compact sections.
Table 3.1. Classification of Compression Sections According to EBCS 3 1995 (Modified to meet
latest Euro code Standard).
(Refer to fig. 3.2 for the various parameters under ratio checked)
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements (those exceeding these limits are
taken as Class 4 section)
Section Element Ratio Checked Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
General - None Assumed Class 3
Rectangular - None Assumed Class 2
d/tw (rolled)
Web 33ε 44ε 51ε
d/tw (welded)
I - shape
c/tf (rolled) 10ε 11ε 15ε
Flange
c/tf (welded) 9ε 10ε 15ε
Web d/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
Box (b-3tf)/tf (rolled) 42ε 42ε 42ε
Flange
b/tf (welded) 42ε 42ε 42ε
Web d/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
Channel
Flange b/tf 10ε 11ε 15ε
Web h/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
T-Shape b/2tf (rolled) 10ε 11ε 15ε
Flange
b/2tf (welded) 9ε 10ε 14ε
h/t 15.0ε
Angle - NA NA
(b+h)/(2t) 11.5ε
Round Bar - None Assumed Class 1
Pipe - d/t 50ε2 70ε2 90ε2
h/t 15.0
Double Angle - NA NA
(b+h)/(2t) 11.5ε
NA = Not Applicable

Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in which local buckling
is liable to prevent the development of the “yield” moment; i.e., premature buckling occurs
before yield is reached.
According to EBCS 3 1995, the classification of sections depends on the classification of flange
and web elements. The classification also depends on whether the compression elements are in
pure compression, pure bending or under the influence of combined axial force and bending. The
latter two conditions will be discusses in subsequent chapters. This Chapter presents
classification of compression elements for only pure compression according to Table 3.1.
The section dimensions used in the tables are given in Fig. 3.2. If the section dimensions satisfy
the limits shown in the tables, the section is classified as Class 1, Class2, or Class3 as applicable.
A cross-section is classified by reporting the highest (least favorable) class of its constituent
compression elements that are partially or wholly in compression. If a section fails to satisfy
the limits for class 3 sections, it is classified as Class 4.
One of the major factors in determining the limiting width-thickness ratio is the parameter ε.
This parameter is used to reflect the influence of yield stress on the section classification.
Parameter Steel Grade
1/ 2
  Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510
ε =  235 f  (3.1) fy 235 275 355
 y 
ε 1 0.92 0.81
The properties of Class 4 cross-
sections may be established by calculation using
the effective widths of the component elements
in compression. The later may be obtained from
Table 3.2 both for internal and outstand
elements.
The effective widths of flange elements may be

based on the stress ratio ψ determined for the
gross cross-section. The effective width of a
web element should be based on the stress ratio
ψ determined for a cross-section comprising the
effective area of the compression flange but the
gross area of the web and tension flange. In
Fig. 3.3 Gross and effective cross sections of
Table 3.2, it is recommended to determine the class 4 section subjected to compression
reduction factor ρ as follows:
1 for λ p ≤ 0.673


ρ=
 λ p − 0.22 for λ p > 0.673
 λ2 p

Where λp is the element slenderness defined as:

fy b/t (3.2b)
λp = =
σ cr 28.4ε kσ
t = the relevant thickness
kσ = the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio ψ from Table 3.2.
−
b = the relevant width (see Fig 3.2) and given as follows:
−
Webs b=d
−
Internal flanges b=d
−
Box elements: b = b-3t
−
Outstand flanges b=c
−
Equal-legged angle: b = (b + h)/2
−
Unequal-legged angle: b = h or (b + h)/2
Table 3.2 Effective width of Class 4 cross-sections.
Generally, the neutral axis of the effective section will shift by a dimension ”e” compared to the
neutral axis of the gross section as shown in fig. 3.3. This should be taken into account when
calculating the properties of the effective cross-section.
RADII OF GYRATION OF COMMON SECTIONS
Whatsoever the section may be for design purposes, its radii of gyration about the principal
axes are required so that the least radius of gyration may be obtained and used to find
slenderness ratio.
Table 3.3 Approximate radii of gyration for different sections.
Radii of gyration of single sections can be found generally with less computational effort. These
properties are also given along with manufacturers’ manuals for standard sections. But for built
up sections made of two or more components with or without the cover plates, the calculation
work for radii of gyration becomes very tedious. The design of compression members is a a
process of a trail and error which means that if first trial is not satisfactory, the next trails will
have to be made. In every trail the radii of gyration are to be necessarily calculated. It
becomes customary for a designer to have an idea of approximate radii of gyration of various
commonly used sections so that much of the calculation work is reduced. The radii of gyration
of commonly used sections are given in Table 3.3
a) Internal compression element b) Outstand compression element
Generally, the neutral axis of the effective section will shift by a dimension ”e” compared to the
neutral axis of the gross section as shown in fig. 3.3. This should be taken into account when
calculating the properties of the effective cross-section.

Radii of Gyration of Common Sections
Whatsoever the section may be for design purposes, its radii of gyration about the principal
axes are required so that the least radius of gyration may be obtained and used to find
slenderness ratio.
Radii of gyration of single sections can be found generally with less computational effort. These
properties are also given along with manufacturers’ manuals for standard sections. But for built
up sections made of two or more components with or without the cover plates, the calculation
work for radii of gyration becomes very tedious. The design of compression members is a
process of a trail and error which means that if first trial is not satisfactory, the next trails will
have to be made. In every trail the radii of gyration are to be necessarily calculated. It
becomes customary for a designer to have an idea of approximate radii of gyration of various
commonly used sections so that much of the calculation work is reduced. The radii of gyration of
commonly used sections can be obtained from any standard books.
Effective Length Factor
The effective length factor K is a factor which, when multiplied by the actual unbraced length L
of an end-restrained compression member, will yield an equivalent pinned-ended member whose
buckling strength is the same as that of the original end-restrained member. For a prismatic
member, the effective length factor can be determined from Fig. 3.4 or Fig. 3.5
Fig. 3.4 K factor table
Figure 3.4 is used when the support conditions of the compression members can be closely
represented by those shown in the figure. On the other hand, Fig. 3.5 is used for members that
are parts of a framework.

The effect of end restraint is quantified by the two end restraint factors GA and GB where the
subscripts A and B refer to the joints at the two ends of the member being considered and G is
defined as:
sum of flexural stiffness of all columns meeting at the jo int

G =
sum of flexural stiffness of all beams meeting at the join
=
∑ ( EI / L) columns
(3.3)
∑ ( EI / L) beams
Fig. 3.5 K factor alignment
Note that if the end of the member is fixed, the theoretical value of G is 0, but a G value of 1
is recommended for use. On the other hand, if the end of the member is pinned, the theoretical
value of G is infinity, but a G value of 10 is recommended for use. The rational behind the
foregoing recommendations is that no support in reality can be truly fixed or pinned.
Once the G factors are calculated, the effective length factor can be obtained from the
appropriate alignment chart. The chart for sideways-inhibited frames applies to frames that
are braced in such a way that relative displacement between two ends of the member is
negligible. The chart for sidesway-inhibited frames applies to frames in which relative
displacement between member ends is not negligible. Although the charts were developed

assuming elastic behaviour for all members, inelasticity in the columns can be accounted for by
multiply the end-restrained factors by the quantity Et/ E, where Et is the tangent modulus.
The alignment charts shown in Fig 3.5 where developed based on a number of simplifying
assumptions; as a result, they do not always give accurate results, especially for members in
frames for which the parameter L (P EI )

varies significantly from column to column in a
given story. The alignment charts also fail to give accurate results for frames that contain
leaner columns.
Limiting Slenderness Ratio
The governing slenderness ratio (KL/r) of compression members preferably should not exceed
200.
3.3 Design Criteria for Compression Members
A number of design checks are required for compression members. In all cases, it is
recommended that the forces and moments in the members are derived from an elastic global
analysis.
In addition to cross-sectional resistance, consideration should be given to overall buckling of

members. Members in compression are susceptible to a number of buckling modes including local
buckling (Class 4 or thin sections only), flexural buckling torsional buckling and flexural-torsional
buckling. The last three modes are overall buckling modes involving the whole member. Although
all modes should be considered, point-symmetric open sections ( such as Z-shapes) are usually
more prone to torsional buckling while single-symmetric open sections to flexural-torsional
buckling. Local buckling while single-symmetric open section to introducing certain modification
pertinent to specific code implementation.
Compression members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-sections resistance
to applied loads be established and member capacity verified against possible buckling failures.
These will be presented for EBCS 3 1995 Specification as follow.
3.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995
Resistance of Cross section
Compression
According to the EBCS 3 specification, axially loaded compression members designed to resist a
factored axial force of Nc.sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the
condition:
Nc.sd, ≤ Nc.Rd (3.4)
Where Nc.Rd = design compression resistance of the cross-section, taken as a smaller of either
the design plastic resistance Npl, RD of the gross section or the design local buckling resistance

N0,Rd of the gross section where, again, Npl,Rd and N0,Rd are determined as in the following
expressions:
Ag x f y
N p1, Rd = for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross − sec tions (3.4a)
γ MO
Aeff x f u
N O , Rd = for Class 4 cross − sec tions (3.4b)
γ M1
The partial safety factors are γMO = 1.1 and γM1 = 1.1.
Note that Class 4 sections which are not doubly symmetric should be assessed to account for
the additional bending caused by shift in the neutral axis discussed earlier.
Flexural Buckling
Axially loaded compression members designed to resist a factored axial force of Nc.sd, calculated
using appropriate load combinations must satisfy the condition:
Nc.Sd ≤ Nb, Rd (3.5a)
Where Nb, Rd = design flexural buckling resistance of the cross-section to be determined from:
A fy
N b, Rd = χβ A
γ M1
(3.5b)
Where:
βA = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/ A for Class 4 cross-sections
Where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections
A = gross area
χ = a reduction factor accounting for buckling
= 1.0 for χ ≤ 0.2
1
= but χ ≤ 1 for 0.2 ≤ λ ≤ 3.0
2 0.5
φ + φ −λ ( 2
)
In which:
[
φ = 0.5 1 + α λ − 0.2 + λ 2 ( ) ]
Leff 1 fy βA λ 0.5 π
λ= = β A Af y / N er = β A ; λ1 = = 93.9ε ; ε = 235
r π E λ1 (E / f y )5 fy
Leff = effective length of member

Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
r = radius of gyration of the gross section
α = an imperfection factor as in the following tables:

Buckling curve a b c d
α 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Values of the reduction factor χ can easily be obtained for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness ̅λ from Table 3.5 while for flexural buckling, the approximate curve shall be
determined from Table 3.4
Torsional and Flexural-torsional buckling
The resistance to these buckling modes may be determined as in for the flexural buckling
discussed above by introducing a substitution for ̅λ by the greater ̅λT or ̅λFT and taking α =
0.34
Where:
fy βA
λT =
σT
(3.6)
fy βA
λ FT =
σ FT
In which:
= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-sections
Where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections
1  π 2 EI w 
σT = G1t + 
Ar 2 0  L2 et 
1 
+ σ T ) − 4 β σ Ey σ T 
2
σ FT = (σ Ey + σ T )− (σ
2 β  
Ey
π 2E
σ Ey = 2
(L ey / ry )
A = cross-sectional area of gross section

E = Modulus of elasticity
G = Shear modulus

Table 3.4 Selection of buckling curve for a cross section
NOTE:
Fyb; the bsic tensile yield strength of the basic metal out of which the member is made
by cold-forming
Fya: the average yield strength of a member after colding-forming and shall not exceed
fu or 1.2fyb.
β = 1 – (y0/r0)2
Yo = distance from shear center to centroid of gross cross-section along the y-axis.

Ry = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the y-axis.

Rx = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the z-axis.
It = torsional constant
Iw = Warping constant
Let = effective length
Ley = effective length corresponding to buckling over the y – axis.
Table 3.5 Reduction factors χ
Reduction factor
Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d
0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000

0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671
1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766
2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399
2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302
2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882
For angles, they y and z axes should be taken as the u and v axes, respectively. For mono-
symmetric sections, the y axis should be taken as the axis of symmetry. For point-symmetric

sections, the y axis should be taken as the major principal axis. For double-symmetric sections,
the y axis should be taken as the minor principal axis.
3.5 Built-up Compression Members
Built-up members are members made by bolting or welding together two or more standard
structural shapes. For a built-up member to fully effective (i.e., if all component structural
shapes are to act as one unit rather than as individual units), the following conditions must be
satisfied.
1. The ends of the built-up member must be prevented from slippage during
buckling.
2. Adequate fasteners must be provided along the length of the member.
3. The fasteners must be able to provided sufficient gripping force on all the
component shapes being connected.
Condition 1 is satisfied if continuous welds are used throughout the length of the built-up
compression member all component shapes in contract at the ends of the member are connected
by a weld having a length not less than the maximum width of the member, or by fully tightened
bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters apart for a distance equal to 1 ½ times
the maximum width of the member.
Condition 2 is satisfied if continuous welds are used throughout the length of the built-up
compression member.
Condition 3 is satisfied if either welds or fully tightened bolts are used as the fasteners.
While condition 1 is mandatory, conditions 2 and 3 can be violated in design. If condition 2 or

condition 3 is violated, the built-up member is not fully effective, and slight slippage among
component shapes may occur. To account for the decrease in capacity due to slippage, a
modified slenderness ratio is used for the computation of the design compressive strength when
buckling of the built-up member is about an axis coincident with or parallel to at least one plane
of contact for the component shapes. The modified slenderness ratio (KL/r)m is given as follows:
Condition 2 Violated. If intermittent welds or fully tightened bolts are used:
2 2
 KL   KL  (h / 2rib )2 a
  =   + 0.82   (3.7a)
1 + (h / 2rib )  ri 
2 
0
 r m  r 
Condition 3 Violated. If snug-tight bolts are used,
2 2
 KL   KL  a
  =   0 +   (3.7b)
 r m  r   ri 
Where:
(KL/r)0 = (KL/r)x if the buckling axis is the x axis and at least one plane of contact
between component shapes is parallel to that axis.

(Kl/r)0 = (KL/r)y if the buckling axis is the y axis and at least one plane of contact
between component shapes is parallel to that axis
a = the distance between fasteners measured along the longitudinal axis of the member
ri = the minimum radius of gyration of the component element
rib = the radius of gyration of the component element relative to its centroidal axis
parallel to the member axis of buckling.
h = the distance between centroids of component elements perpendicular to the member
buckling axis.
No modification to (KL/r) is necessary if the buckling axis is perpendicular to the planes of

contact of the component shapes. Modifications to both (KL/r)x and (KL/r)y are required if the
built-up member is so constructed that planes of contact exist in both the x and y directions of
the cross section.
Once the slenderness ratio is computed, the design compression strength is to be calculated
from the expressions developed for simple compression members depending on the cross section
geometry and component element width-thickness ratio of the built up shapes.
An additional requirement for the design of built-up members is that a/ri does not exceed ¼ of
the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member. This provision is provided to prevent
component shapes buckling from occurring between adjacent fasteners before the built-up
member buckling overall.
_______________________________
ADDITIONAL READING

Chapter 6
Chapters 4
Chapter 3
• EBSC 3 and EC 3

Chapter Four: Flexural Members 1
Chapter Four: Flexural Members
4.1 Introduction
Flexural members, otherwise known as beams, are structural elements that span between or
across supports carry principally lateral loads which are resisted by flexural bending and shear.
A beam is a combination of a tension element and a compression element. In view of his
phenomenon, the concepts of tension members and compression members are combined in the
treatment of a beam member. The main uses of beams are to support floors and columns, carry
roof sheeting as purlins, side cladding as sheeting rails, and to support bridge decks. The main
kinds of flexural members are as shown in Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.1 Different sections of beams
According to the width-thickness ratios of the component elements, steel sections used for
flexural members are classified into a number of classes depending on the standard
specification implemented for design. Accordingly, EBCS 3, 1995 classifies flexural members
into four classes while AISC-LRFD Specification categorizes them into three classes.
Design of steel and timber structures Yibeltal Temesgen

4.2 Classification of Cross-sections
The four classes of flexural members adapted by EBCS 3, 1995 based on the width-to-thickness
ratios of their components are Class 1 (plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or
Class 4 (thin-walled) according to their capacity in the following manner.
Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections, can develop their plastic moment resistance
(fy times plastic moment resistance) with the rotation capacity required for plastic analysis. Only
cross sections falling in this class may only be used for plastic design.
Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with limited rotation
capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as compact sections.
Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their “yield” moment (fy times elastic modulus)
but local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment resistance. In Class 3
sections, the stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to the yield stress because local
buckling prevents development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this
group are also known as semi-compact sections.
Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in which local buckling
is liable to prevent the development of the “yield” moment: i.e., premature buckling occurs
before yield is reached.
The moment resistances for the four classes defined above are:
for Classes 1 and 2: the plastic moment (Mpl = Wpl . fy)
for Class 3: the elastic moment (Mel = Wel . fy)
for Class 4: the local buckling moment (Mo < Mel).
The four classes given above are recognized for beam sections in bending. For axial compression
members, Classes 1, 2 and 3 become one, and, in the absence of overall buckling are referred to
as "compact"; in this case Class 4 is referred to as "slender".
The response of the different classes of cross-sections, when subject to bending, is usefully
represented by dimensionless moment-rotation curves as shown in Table 4.1.
According to EBCS 3 1995, the classification of sections depends on the classification of flange
and elements. The classification also depends on whether the compression elements are in pure
compression, pure bending, or under the influence of combined axial force and bending. While
compression cases have been presented in Chapter three, the case of combined axial and bending
presented later in Chapter Six. The present Chapter presents classification of flexural
members coated to pure flexural bending according to Table 4.2.

Model of Moment Rotation Capacity Class

Behaviour Resistance
Plastic moment Sufficient
M on full section M
M pl
fy
M pl
Local 1
buckling 1
φrot
φpl φ
φ 1 φ pl
Plastic moment Limited

on full section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
1
Local 2
buckling
φ
φ 1 φ pl
Elastic moment None

on full section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
M el 1
Mal
Local Mpl 3
buckling
φ
φ 1 φ pl
Elastic moment on None

effective section M
M M pl
fy
M pl
M el 1
Local 4
buckling
φ
φ 1 φ pl
Table 4.1 Cross section requirements and classifications
Fig. 4.2 EBCS 3 1995 definition of geometric properties

Table 4.2. Classification of Flexural Sections According to EBCS 3 1995 (Modified to meet the
latest Euro code Standard) (Refer to Fig. 4.1 for the various parameters under “ratio checked”)
Width - Thickness Ratios for Flexural Elements ( those exceeding these limits are taken as Class
4 sections)
Section Element Ratio Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Checked
General - None Assumed Class 3
Rectangula - None Assumed Class 2
r
I-shape Web d/tw 72ε 83ε 124ε
(rolled)
d/tw
(Welded)
Flange Flange-end in c/tf (rolled) 10ε/α 11ε/α 23 ε kσ
compression zone
c/tf 9 ε/α 10ε/α 21 ε kσ

(welded)
Flange-end in c/tf (rolled)
10 ε / α α( ) (
11ε / α α ) 23 ε / kσ
tension zone
c/tf 9ε / α α ( ) (
10 ε / α α ) 23 ε / kσ
(welded)
Box Web d/tw 10ε 83ε 12ε
Flange (b-3tf)/tf 33ε 38ε 42ε
(rolled)
b/tf 33ε 38ε 42ε

(others)
Channel Web d/tw 33ε 38ε 42ε
Flange Flange-end in c/tf (rolled) 10ε/α 11ε/α 23 ε / κσ
Compression zone
c/tf 9ε/α 10ε/α 21ε kσ

(Welded)
Flange-end in c/tf (rolled) (
10 ε α α ) (
11 ε α α ) 23 ε k σ
tension zone
c/tf 9ε α α ( ) (
10 ε α β ) 23 ε / κσ
(Welded)
T-shape Web h/tw 33 ε 38 ε 42 ε
Flange b/2tf 10 ε 11ε 15 ε
(rolled)
b/2tf 9ε 10 ε 14 ε

(welded)
Angle - h/t 33 ε 38 ε 15 ε
(b + h ) / (2t) 11.5 ε
Round bar - None Assumed Class 1

2
Pipe - d/t 50ε 70ε2 90ε2
Double - h/t NA NA 15.0ε
angle (b+h)/(2t) 11.5ε
Note: αc = 2ac/h
Where: ac is the distance from the plastic neutral axis to top fiber.
4.3 Design Criteria for Flexural Members
The following criteria should be considered for establishing the moment resistance of flexural
members:
(1) yielding of the cross section or its flexural strength
(2) local buckling (Class 4 sections only)
(3) lateral-torsional buckling
(4) shear strength including shear buckling
(5) local strength at points of loading or reaction; i.e., criteria for concentrated loads
(6) deflection criterion; with respect to serviceability limits states,
Flexural members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-sections resistance to
applied loads be established and member capacity verified against possible buckling failures.
These will be presented subsequently for both EBCS 3 1995.
4.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995
Resistance of Cross section
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored uniaxial bending
Msd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the condition:
Msd ≤ Mc, Rd (4.1)
Where Mc, Rd = design moment resistance of the cross-section taken as the smallest of:
a) the design plastic resistance moment Mpl, Rd of the gross section
W PI x f y
M PI , Rd = For class 1 or 2 cross sections (4.2a)
γ M0
b) the design elastic resistance moment Mel, Rd of the gross section
WeI x f y
M el , Rd = For class 3 cross sections (4.2b)
γ M0

c) the design local buckling resistance moment Mo,Rd of the gross section
Weff x f y
M 0, Rd = For class 4 cross sections (4.2c)
γ M1
d) the design ultimate resistance moment of the net section at fastener holes Mu,Rd.It shall
be assessed by evaluating possible influence of the reduced section in the tension flange
due to fastener holes. Fastened holes in the tension flange need not be allowed for
when:
A f , net fy γ M2
0 .9 ≥
Af fu γ M 0 (4.3)
When this relationship does not hold, a reduced flange area may be assumed which satisfies the
limit.
Torsional Buckling
Consideration of lateral-torsional buckling may be discounted for the following classes of

member:
- Bending only takes place about the minor axis
- Beams laterally restrained throughout their length by adequate bracing
- Non-dimensional lateral slenderness parameter λLT ≤ 0.4.
The design buckling resistance mo ment of a laterally unrestrained beam may be calculated as:
Mb,Rd = χLTβ w,y Wpl.y fy/γMl (4.4)
βw,y = 1 for class 1 or class 2 cross-sections

βw,y = Wel.y/ Wpl.y for class 3 cross-sections
βw,y = Weff.y/ Wpl.y for Class 4 cross-sections
Where:
Wpl.y = plastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Wel.y = elastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Weff.y = elastic modulus of effective cross-section about the major axis
χLT = a reduction factor accounting for lateral-torsional buckling and given by:
χLT = 1 for λLT < 0.4
χLT 1
=
 0.5

φ LT (
+ φ2 LT −λ
2
LT )  but χ LT ≤1 for λ LT ≥ 0.4
[ (
φ LT = 0.5 1 + α LT λ LT − 0.2 + λ ) 2
LT ]
− 1 f y βW . y
λ LT = λ LT
π E

λLT = lateral-torsional slenderness

φLT = imperfection factor which shall be taken as αLT = 0.21 for rolled sections and αLT =
0.49 for welded sections.
Elastic Critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling
The elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling of a beam of uniform symmetrical cross
section with equal flanges, under standard conditions of restraint at each end, loaded through
its shear centre and subjected to uniform moment is given by:
0.5
π 2 EI z  I w L2GI t 
M cr =  +  (4.5a)
L2 2
 I z π EI z 
E
Where G=
2(1 + υ )
It is the torsion. Constant
Iw is the warping constant
Iz is the second moment of area about the minor axis
L is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint.
The standard conditions of restraint at each end are:

- Restrained against lateral movement
- Restrained against rotation about the longitudinal axis
- Free to rotate in plane
In the case of a beam of uniform cross-section which is symmetrical about the minor axis, for
bending about the major axis the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling is given by
the general formula:
0.5
π EI z   K  I w 
2
( KL) 2 GI t
M cr = C1 {   + [
+ C2 Z g − C3 Z j ]
2
 [ ]
− C2 Z g − C3Zj } (4.5b)
( KL) 2   K w  I z π 2 EI z 

Where C1, C2 and C3 are factors depending on the loading and end restraint conditions k and kw
are effective length factors.
The effective length factors k and kw vary from 0.5 for full fixity to 1. 0 for no fixity with 0.7
for one end fixed and one end free.
The factor k refers to end rotation on plan. It is analogous to the ratio l/L for a compression
member.
The factor kw refers to end warping. Unless special provision for warping fixity is made, kw
should be taken as 1.0.
Values of C1, C2 and C3 are given in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 for various load cases, as indicated by
the shape of the bending moment diagram over the length L between lateral restraints. Values
are given corresponding to various values of k.

For cases with k= 1.0 the value of C1 for any ratio of end moment loading as indicated in Table 4.
is given approximately by:
C1 = 1.88 – 1.40ψ + 0.52ψ2 but C1 ≤ 2.70
The sign convention for determining Zj, see Fig. 4. is:

a) Zj is positive for the compression flange
b) Zj is positive when the flange with the larger value of Iz is in compression at the point of
largest n1omen
The sign convention for determining Zg, is:

c) For gravity loads Zg is positive for loads applied above the shear centre
d) In the general case Zg is positive for loads acting towards the shear centre from their
point of application.
For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections Zj = 0, thus:

0.5
π EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GI t 
2
{   [ ]  [ ]
2
M cr = C1 + + C2 Z g − C2 Z g } (4.5c)
( KL) 2   K w  I z π 2 EI z 

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with end-moment loading C2 = 0 and for
transverse loads applied at the shear centre Zg = O. For these cases:
0.5
π EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GI t 
2
M cr = C1    +  (4.5d)
( KL) 2   K w  I z π 2 EI z 
 
For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and when K = kw = 1.0(no end fixity):
0.5
π EI z  I w ( KL ) 2 GI t 
M cr = C1  +  (4.5e)
( KL) 2  I z π 2 EI z 
Values of the reduction factor χLT for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness λLT may be
obtained from Table 4.3.
Reduction factors for lateral-torsional buckling
λLT ≤ 0.4 No lateral-torsional buckling verification required

0.4 < λLT ≤ 3.0 1 Rolled with αLT = 0.21
χ LT = ≤1
2 2
φ+ φ − λ LT Welded with αLT = 0.49
Table 4.3 can be used with:

λ = λLT
χ = χLT , using:
a) curve a (α = 0.21) for rolled sections
b) curve c (α = 0.49) for welded sections

Table 4.3 Reduction factors χ
Reduction factor 
Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d
0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671
1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766

2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399
2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302
2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882
Table 4.4. Value of Factors C1, C2,and C3 corresponding to values Factor k: Transverse
Loading Cases

Table 4.5. Value of Factors C1, C2, and C3 corresponding to values Factor k: End Moment
Loading
Shear Resistance
The shear resistance is either limited by the shear plastic resistance, VRd, or the shear buckling
resistance, Vb, Rd.

Plastic shear resistance
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored shear force Vsd
calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the condition:
Vsd ≤ Vpl,Rd (4.6)
Where
Vpl, Rd = the plastic shear resistance of a cross-section given by
V pl , Rd =
(
Av f y / 3 ) (4.7)
γ M0
In which Av = the shear area, normally given by h x tw where h is the overall depth of the web
and tw the web thickness.
Shear buckling resistance
The design shear buckling resistance, Vb,Rd, may be obtained from:
dw tw τ b (4.8)
Vb, Rd =
γ M1
Where:
ιb = the design value of the mean shear strength given in Table 4.6 as a function of:
0 .8 d w fy
λw =
kτ t w E
in which kι is he buckling factor for shear obtained as follows:
For unstiffened webs (webs with transverse stiffners at the supports but no
intermidaite transverse stiffners)
kι = 5.34 (4.8a)
For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners with panel ratio a/dw < 1.0:
5.34 (4.8b)
kτ = 4 +
(a / d w )2
For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners giving panel aspect ratio a/dw ≥ 1.0:
4
kτ = 5.34 +
(a / d w )2 (4.8c)
In both the above latest expressions:

a = panel length between stiffeners
dw = panel depth between flanges.

Table 4.6 design value of the mean shear strength ιb.

0.8 d w fw ιb for an unstiffened web ιb for a web with transverse
λw =
kτ t w E stiffeners including at
supports
λw ≤ 0.2 fy / 3 fy / 3
0.2 ≤λw ≤ 0.6 [1 − 0.63 (λ )] f
w − 0.2 y / 3 [1 − 0.63 (λ w )]
− 0.2 f y / 3
λw > 0.6 −
(1 − 0.42 λ ) f w y / 3 27 − λ w
−
fy
3
24 + 19 λ w
Transverse stiffeners should be designed to comply with the requirements stipulated under
“Transverse stiffeners” subsequently.
Resistance to bending and Shear
The theoretical plastic resistance moment of a cross section is reduced by the presence of
shear. For small values of the shear force this reduction is so small that it is counter balanced
by strain hardening and may be neglected. However, when the shear force exceeds half the
plastic shear resistance, allowance shall be made for its effect on the plastic resistance moment.
Provided that the design value of the shear force doesn’t exceed 50% of the design plastic
shear resistance Vpl,rd no reduction need be made in the resistance moments given by equations
4.2.
When Vsd exceeds 50% of Vpl,rd the design resistance moment of the cross section should be
reduced to Mv,rd the reduced plastic resistance moment allowing for the shear force obtained as
follows:
a) For cross section with equal flanges, bending about the major axis:
 ρAv 2  f y
M v , rd = Wpl −  but Mv,rd ≤ Mc,rd
 4tw  γ Mo
Where ρ = (2Vsd/Vpl,rd – 1)2
b) For other cases Mv,Rd should be taken as the design plastic resistance moment of the
cross section, calculated using a reduced strength (1-ρ)fy for the shear area, but not
more than Mc,rd
Resistance of webs to transverse Forces
The resistance of an unstiffened web to forces from concentrated loads or support reactions
will be governed by one of three possible failure modes:
Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the
flange.
Crippling of web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the
flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange.
Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.

As a guide, Table 4.7 indicates the need for checking a particular mode depending on the type of
section and load application.
Table 4.7. Checks for local strength of webs
TYPE OF SECTION CRUSHING CRIPPLING BUCKLING
Fabricated by welding:
1. Load resistance by web shear • •
2. Load resistance by reaction on • •
opposite flanges
Cold formed • •
Crushing resistance (Art. 4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)
The design crushing resistance Ry,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:
( ss + s y )tw f yw
Ry , rd = (4.9a)
γ M1
In which sy is given by:
bf f yf σ f , Ed
s y = 2t f ( )( )[1 − ( )2 (4.9b)
tw f yw f yf
- But bf should not be taken as more than 25tf and σf,Ed is the longitudinal stress in the
flange.
- At the end of a member sy should be halved
Crippling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.4, EBCS 3)
The design crippling resistance Ra,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:
tf t s
( Ef yf )[( ) + 3( w )( s )]
2 tw tf d
Ra , rd = 0.5tw (4.10)
γ M1
Where Ss is the length of stiff bearing (see Section 4.6.6.2, EBCS 3)

Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2
Buckling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.5, EBCS 3)
1) The design buckling resistance Rb,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained
by considering the web as a virtual compression member with an effective breadth beff
obtained from:
b eff = h 2 + s 2

2) Near the ends of a member (or at openings in the web) the effective breadth beff should
not be taken as greater than the breadth actually available, measured at mid-depth, see
Fig. 5.15.
3) The buckling resistance should be determine from chapter three using buckling curve c
and BA = 1.
4) The buckling length of the virtual compression member should be determined from the
conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the flanges at the point of load
application.
5) The flange through which the load is applied should normally be restrained in position at
the point of load application. Where this is not practicable, a special buckling
Transverse stiffeners (Art. 4.6.6.6 and 4.6.4.4, EBCS 3)
1. When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross section of a stiffener should
be taken including the width of web plate equal to 30εtw, arranged with 15εtw, each side
of the stiffener(see Fig. 4.3, chapter-4). At the ends of the member (or openings in the
web) the dimension of 15εtw, should be limited to the actual dimension available.
Fig 4.3 Effective cross section of stiffeners for buckling
2. the out of plane buckling resistance should be determined by considering them as

compression members using buckling curve C and a buckling length L of not less than
0.75d, or more if appropriate for conditions of restraint.
The buckling resistance of symmetric stiffeners may be determined from:

A fy (4.11)
N b , Rd = χ β A
γ M1
Where:
= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-section
where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections
A = gross area
χ = a reduction factor accounting for buckling

= 1.0 for χ ≤ 0.2
1
= But χ ≤ 1 for 0.2 ≤ λ ≤ 3.0
2 0.5
(
φ + φ2 −λ )
in which:
[
φ = 0.5 1 + 0.76 λ − 0.2 + λ ( ) 2
]
Lef f 1 fy βA λ 2 π
λ = = β A Af y / N er = β A ; λ1 = 5
= 93.9ε
r π E λ1 (E / f )
y
ε = 235 f
y
Leff = effective length of stiffener ≥ 0.75dw or more if

appropriate for conditions of
restraint.
Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
r = radius of gyration of the gross cross section
α = an imperfection factor.
3. For both the simple post-critical method and tension field method , the compression
force Ns in an intermediate transverse stiffeners should be obtained from:
dtwτ bb
N s = Vsd − but Ns ≥ 0 (4.11a)
γ M1
In which τbb is the initial shear buckling strength from eqns (5.4c, 5.4d &5.4e)); the lower
value of for the two panels adjacent to the stiffener should be used.
4. The second moment of area of an intermediate stiffener, Is, should satisfy the following:
If a I s ≥ 1 .5 d 3 w t 3 w / a 2
dw < 2:
if a ≥ 2 : I s ≥ 0.75 d w t 3 w
dw
5. End stiffeners and stiffeners at internal supports should normally be doubled sided and
symmetric about the centre line of the web.
6. Where single sided or other asymmetric stiffeners are used, the resulting eccentricity
should be allowed for.
7. In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross section resistance of a load
bearing stiffener should also be checked adjacent to the loaded flange. The width of the
web plate included in the effective cross section should be limited to Sy (see Section
4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)

Flange Induced Buckling
1. To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in the plane of the web,
the ratio d/tw of the web shall satisfy the following criterion:
d E Aw
≤k (4.12a)
tw f yf A fc
Where Aw is the area of the web

Afc is the area of the compression flange
fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange
The value of the factor k should be taken as follows:

For class 1 flanges = 0.3
For class 2 flanges = 0.4
For class 3 or class 4 flanges = 0.55
2. When the girder is curved in elevation, with the compression flange on the concave
face, the criterion should be modified to:
d K ( E / f yf ) Aw / A fc
≤ (4.12b)
tw  dE 
1 + 
 3rf yf 
Where r is the radius of curvature of the compression flange
3. When the girder has transverse web stiffeners, the limiting value of d/tw may be
increased accordingly.
Deflection Criterion
Deflection is a serviceability consideration. As a result service loads (not factored loads) are
used in calculating beam deflections. Since most beams are fabricated with a camber, which
somewhat offsets the dead load deflection, consideration is often given to deflection due to live
load only. For beams supporting plastered ceilings, the service live load deflection preferably
should not exceed L/360, where L is the beam span. A larger deflection limit can be used if due
considerations are given to ensure the proper functioning of the structure
Refer Art 5.2 of EBCS 3, 1995

Fig. 5.15 Effective breadth for web buckling resistance
_____________________________
ADDITIONAL READING

Chapter 5
Chapters 7 & 9
Chapter 2
• EBSC 3 and EC 3

Chapter Six: Combined Bending and Axial Load Members 1
Chapter Six: Combined Bending and Axial Load Members
6.1 Introduction
Nearly all members in a structure are subjected to both bending moment and axial force-either
tension or compression. When the magnitude of one or the other is relatively small, its effect is
usually neglected and the member is designed either as a beam, or as an axially loaded column.
For many situations neither effect can properly be neglected and the behavior under combined
loading must be considered in design. A special class of such members that are subjected to
both axial compression force and bending moment are called beam-columns. They represent the
general load case of an element in a structural frame.
There are a number of factors that affect the performance of a member under combined axial
force and bending moment. A number of categories of combined bending and axial load along with
the likely mode of failure may be summarized as follows:
a. Axial tension and bending: failure usually by yielding.

b. Axial compression and bending about one axis: failure by instability in the plane of
bending, without twisting.
c. Axial compression and bending about the strong axis: failure by lateral-torsional
buckling.
d. Axial compression and biaxial bending-torsionally stiff sections: failure by instability in
one of the principal directions. (W shapes are usually in this category.)
e. Axial compression and biaxial bending thin-walled open sections: failure by combined
twisting and bending on these torsionally weak sections.
f. Axial compression, biaxial bending, and torsion: failure by combined twisting and bending
when plane of bending does not contain the shear center.
It may be apparent from this summary that no single design procedure is likely to properly
account for such varied behavior. Current design procedures generally follow empirical
interaction procedures to design structural members under combined stresses. Through such
interaction equations the true behavior is accounted for more accurately for most of the
stability situations.
In addition to mode of moment application as noted above, the behavior of a beam-column also
depends on its length on its lateral support conditions. In this later context, and with special
reference to beam-columns, the behavior can be classified into the following five cases:
Case 1: A short column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about either axis or
biaxial bending.
Failure generally occurs when the plastic capacity of the section is reached. Note
limitations set in Case (2) below.
Case 2: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the major
axis y-y.
If the column is supported laterally against buckling about the minor axis z-z out
of the plane of bending, the column fails by buckling about the x-x axis. This is
Design of steel and timber structures (CE 519) Yibeltal Temesgen

not a common case (see fig. 6.1a) at low axial loads or if the column is not very
slender a plastic hinge forms at the end or point of maximum moment.
Case 3: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the minor
axis z-z.
The column does not require lateral support and there is no buckling out of the
plane of bending. The column fails by buckling about the z-z axis. At very low
axial loads it will reach the bending capacity for z-z axis .
Case 4: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the major
axis y-y.
This time the column has no lateral support. The column fails due to a
combination of column buckling about the z-z axis and lateral torsional buckling
where the column section twists about x-axis as well as deflecting in the yx and
yz planes (see fig. 6.1b).
Case 5: A lender column subjected to axial load and biaxial bending.
The column has no lateral support. The failure is the same as in Case 4 above but
minor axis buckling will have the greatest effect. This is the general loading case
(see fig. 6.1c).
Column deflects in zx plane, then Column deflects in zx and yx planes

Column deflects in zx plane only buckles by deflecting and twists about x-axis
in yx plane and twisting about x-axis
Fig. 6.1a In-plane behavior Fig. 6.1c Bi-axial bending
Fig. 6.1b Flexural-torsional behavior
6.2 Overall Stability
In a beam column the treatment of cross-sectional behavior take account of the way in which
the moment M at the particular cross-section under consideration was generated. Figure 6.2
shows a beam-column undergoing lateral deflection as a result of the combination of compression
and equal and opposite moments applied at the ends.

(a) Equal and opposite moment case (b) Non-uniform moment case
Fig. 6.2 Primary and secondary moments
The moment at any point within the length may conveniently be regarded as being composed of
two parts:
• primary moment M
• secondary moment Nv
Effect of Pattern of Primary Moment
Figure 6.2a showed how, for the particular case of equal and opposite end moments, the primary
moments are amplified due to the effect of the axial load N acting through the lateral
displacements v. When the pattern of primary moment is different the two effects will not be
so directly additive since maximum primary and secondary moments will not necessarily occur at
the same location. Figure 6.2b illustrates the situation for end moments M and ψM, where ψ can
adopt values between +1 (uniform single curvature) and -1 (double curvature). The particular case
shown corresponds to a ψ value ≅ -0,5.
For the case illustrated the maximum moment still occurs within the member length but the
situation is clearly less severe than that of Figure 6.2a assuming all conditions to be identical
apart from the value of ψ. It is customary to recognize this in design by reducing the
contribution of the moment term to the interaction relationship.
Since the case of uniform single curvature moment is the most severe, it follows that a safe
simplification is always to use the procedure for ψ= 1.0.
Returning to Figure 6.2b, it is possible for the point of maximum moment to be at the end at
which the larger primary moment is applied. This would usually occur if the axial load was small
and/or slenderness was low so that secondary bending effects were relatively slight. In such
cases design will be controlled by the need to ensure adequate cross-sectional resistance at this
end.

6.3 Limit State Design, EBCS 3 1995
Resistance of Cross Section
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist factored bending moments
My.sd and Mz.sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the following
condition:
a. When Vsd ≤ 0.50Vbs , rd
N Sd M y .Sd + N Sd e Ny M z .Sd + N Sd e Nz (6.1)

+ + ≤ 1 .0
N Rd M c. y .Rd M c. z . Rd
Where:
NSd, My.Sd, Mz.Sd are the design forces acting at the cross-section
NRd is the resistance to axial force as discussed earlier
Mc.y.Rd,Mc.z.Rd are the resistances to uniaxial moment respectively
eNy, eNz are the shifts in the neutral axis when the cross-section is subjected to uniform
compression. Note that for class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections and for doubly symmetric Class 4
cross-section, both eNy and eNz are both zero. For single-symmetric Class 4 sections, either eNy
or eNz is zero.
Note that for angles, the y and z axes in the above should be taken as the u and v axes
respectively.
When Nsd is tensile, both eNy and eNz are to be taken as zero and Nsd is to be taken as positive.
b. When Vsd > 0.50Vbs , rd
The design resistance of the cross-section to the combination of moment and axial force should
be calculated using a reduced yield strength (1-ρ) fy for the shear area where ρ = (2VSd/VRd – 1)2
Buckling Resistance
a. Axial tension and bending
Members subject to combined axial tension and bending should be checked to the requirements
of flexural members presented in Chapter Four, but advantage may be taken of the stabilizing
effect of the tension when considering lateral-torsional buckling as follows:
When the axial tension and bending moment can vary independently, the design value of the axial
tension should be multiplied by a reduction factor, for vectorial effects, of 0.8.
The check should be carried out using an effective design internal moment MSd obtained from:
MSd = Wc σc (6.2)
Where
σc = the net stress in the extreme fiber due to the vectorial effects of factored loads.
Wc = the elastic section modulus for the extreme fiber.

b. Axial Compression and Bending
In addition to satisfying the requirements of cross-sectional resistance presented above, at

every point along the length of the member and the general requirements for flexural as
presented in Chapter Four, interaction effects should be considered between compressive loads
and bending moments. The following interaction criteria are suitable:
1. Axial compression and uni-axial major axis moment:
i. To avoid buckling about the major axis:
Nsd k y M y Sd + N Sd eN y
+ ≤1 (6.3a)
N b. y .Rd β wyW pl . y f y γ Ml
µ y N sd
In which ky = 1 − but k y ≤ 1.5
X y Af y
W pl . y − Wel . y 
µ y = λ y − (2 β my − 4) +   but µ y ≤ 0.9
 W el . y 
Conservatively:
Nsd 1.5M y Sd + N Sd eN y
+ ≤1 (6.3b)
N b. y .Rd β wyW pl . y f y γ Ml
ii. To avoid buckling about the minor axis (for members subject to lateral-torsional
buckling):
N Sd k M + N Sd eNy
+ lT y .Sd ≤ 1 .0 (6.3c)
N b. z . Rd M b. Rd
µ LT N sd
In which k LT = 1 − but kLT ≤ 1
X z Af y
µ LT = 0.15λz − β M . LT − 0.15 but µLT ≤ 0.9
Conservatively:
N Sd M y .Sd + N Sd e Ny
+ ≤ 1 .0 (6.3d)
N b. z . Rd M b. Rd
2. Axial compression and uni-axial minor axis moment:
To avoid buckling about the minor axis:
N Sd k M + N Sd eNz
+ z z .Sd ≤ 1 .0 (6.4a)
N b. z . Rd β w. yWpl . z f y γ Ml

Conservatively:
N Sd 1.5M z .Sd + N Sd eNz

+ ≤ 1 .0 (6.4b)
N b. z . Rd β w. yW pl . z f y γ Ml
3. Axial compression and biaxial moments:
i. All members should satisfy:
N Sd k y M y .Sd + N Sd eNy k z M z .Sd + N Sd eNz

+ + ≤ 1 .0 (6.5a)
(Nb.z.Rd )min β w. yW pl . z f y γ Ml β w. zW pl . z f y γ Ml
µ z N sd
In which kz = 1 − but kz ≤ 1.5
X z Af y
− Wpl . z − Wel . z 
µ z = λz (2 β mz − 4) +   but µ z ≤ 0.9
 W el . z 
Conservatively:
N Sd 1.5M y.Sd + N Sd e Ny 1.5M z .Sd + N Sd e Nz

+ + ≤ 1 .0 (6.5b)
(N b. z.Rd )min β w. yW pl . z f y γ Ml β w. zW pl . z f y γ Ml
ii. Members potentially subject to lateral-torsional buckling should also satisfy:
N Sd k M + N Sd eNy k z M z .Sd + N Sd eNz

+ LT y .Sd + ≤ 1 .0 (6.5c)
N b. z . Rd M b.Rd β w. zW pl . z f y γ Ml
Conservatively:
N Sd M + N Sd eNy 1.5M z .Sd + N Sd eNz

+ y .Sd + ≤ 1 .0 (6.5d)
N b. z . Rd M b. Rd β w. zW pl . z f y γ Ml
In the above equations:
NSd,eNy and eNz are defined in above under “Resistance of Cross-section”

MySd and MzSd are the maximum design moments, each considered separately, occurring
in the member.
Nb.yRd and Nb.zRd are the flexural buckling resistances for the y and z axes respectively
(see under “Flexural buckling”, Chapter two - Compression Members).
(Nb.Rd)min is the lesser of Nb.yRd and Nb.zRd (all buckling modes considered)
Xy and Xz are reduction factors (see chapter 3 or 4) for the y-y and z-z axes
respectively.
βmy and β mz are equivalent uniform moment factors for flexural buckling (see Figure)
βM.LT is an equivalent uniform moment factor for lateral-torsional buckling (see
Figure 6.3)

βwy and β w.z are the values of β w determined for the y and z axes respectively in
which
βw = 1 for class 1 or 2 cross sections
= Wel/Wpl for class 3 cross-sections
= Wel/Wpl for class 4 cross-sections
Wpl.y and Wpl.z are the plastic moduli for the y and z axes respectively
Mb.Rd is the lateral-torsional buckling moment (see Chapter Four-Flexural
Members)
Note that for angles, the y and z axes in the above should be taken as the u and v axes
respectively.
c. Biaxial Bending
The cross-sectional resistance should be checked as provided earlier as well as the general
requirements for beam members (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members).
The following interaction criteria are suggested for verification of buckling resistance for
biaxial bending in the absence of axial compression:
k y M y .Sd k z M z .Sd
+ ≤ 1 .0 (6.6a)
β w. yW pl . y f y γ Ml β w. zW pl . z f y γ Ml
And, where lateral-torsional buckling is a possible buckling mode:
k LT M y .Sd k z M z .Sd
+ ≤ 1 .0 (6.6b)
M b.Rd β w. zW pl . z f y γ Ml
Where all quantities are defined under “axial compression and bending” earlier.
Note: the equivalent uniform moment factors β m.y, β m.z and βm.LT shall be obtained from the
foolwing figure according to the shape of the bending moment diagram between the relevant
braced points as follows:
Factor Moment about axis Points braced in direction

βm.y y-y z-z
βm.z z-z y-y
βm.LT y-y y-y

Figure 6. 3 Equivalent uniform moment factors

6.4 Limit State Design, AISC-LRFD SPECIFICATION
According to the AISC-LRFD Specification, doubly or singly symmetric structural members

designed to resist a factored axial load NSd bending moment Mu, calculated using the appropriate
load combinations, must satisfy the condition:
1. For Pu/φPn ≥ 0.2:
Pu 8  M ux M uy 
 ≤ 1 .0
+ + (6.7a)
φPn 9  φb M nx φb M ny 

2. For Pu/φPn ≥ 0.2:
Pu 8  M ux M uy 
+  +  ≤ 1 .0 (6.7b)
2φPn 9  φb M nx φb M ny 

Where:
a. If P is tensile,
Pu = factored tensile axial force
Pn = design tensile strength (see Chapter Two-Tension Members)
Mu = factored moment
Mn = design flexural strength (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members)
φ = φt = resistance factor for tension = 0.9
φ = resistance factor for flexure = 0.9
b. If P is compressive,
Pu = factored compressive axial force
Pn = design compressive strength (see Chapter Three-Compression Members)
Mu = factored moment to be determined as per subsequent discussion
Mn = design flexural strength (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members)
φ = φc = resistance factor for compression = 0.85
φb = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90
The factored moment Mu should be determined from a second-order elastic analysis. In lieu of
such an analysis, the following equation may be used:
Mu = B1Mnt + B2Mlt (6.8)
Where
Mnt = factored moment in member, assuming the frame does not undergo lateral
translation (provision of artificial restraint at the joints)
Mlt = factored moment in member as a result of lateral translation (equal and opposite
forces at the same joint)
B1 = Cm/(1-Pu/Pc) ≥1.0
Pe = π2El/(KL)2, with K≤1.0 in the plane of bending
Cm = a coefficient to be determined from the following discussion

B2 = 1 1 − (∑ Pu ∆ oh
[ ∑ HL )] or B2 = 1 1 − (∑ Pu
[ ∑ P )]
e
∑p u = sum of all factored loads acting on and above the story under consideration
∆oh = first-order inter-story translation
∑ H = sum of all lateral loads acting on and above the story under consideration
L = story height
For end-restrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are not subject
to transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending, Cm is given by:
M 
C m = 0.6 − 0.4 1  (6.9a)
 M2 
Where: M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger member end moments. The ratio is positive if
the member bends in reverse curvature and negative if the member bends in single curvature.
For end restrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are subject to
transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm = 0.85 (6.9b)
For unrestrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are subject to
transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm = 1.00 (6.9c)
The selection of trial sections for use as beam-columns is facilitated by rewriting the
interaction equations, Eq.(6.7a) and Eq.(6.7b) into the so-called equivalent axial load form.
For Pu/φcPn > 0.2:
Pu + mxMux + myUMuy ≤ φcPn (6.10a)
For Pu/φcPn ≤ 0.2:
Pu 9 9
+ m x + m yUM uy ≤ φ c Pn (6.10b)
2 8 8
Where
8
mx = (φ c Pn φb M nx )
9
8
m yU = (φ c Pn φb M ny )
9
Numerical values for m and U are provided in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction. The
advantage of using Eqs. (6.10) for preliminary design is that the terms on the left-hand side of
the inequality can be regarded as an equivalent axial load, (Pu)eff. The similarity in form between
the two equations and Eq.(3.7a), Chapter Three, allows the designer to take advantage of the
column tables provided in the manual for selecting trial sections.

Biaxial Bending
Members subjected to bending about both principal axes (e.g., purlins on an inclined roof) should
be designed for biaxial bending. Since both the moment about the major axis, Mux and the
moment about the minor axis, Muy, create flexural stress over the cross section of the member,
to avoid yielding at the most severely stressed point the following equation for the yielding limit
state must be satisfied:
fun ≤φbfy (6.11)

where
fun = Mux/Sx + Muy/Sy = the flexural stress under factored loads
Sx, Sy = elastic section moduli about the major and minor axes, respectively
φb = 0.90
fy = specified minimum yield stress
In addition, the limit state for lateral torsional buckling about the major axis should also be
checked, i.e.,
φbMnx ≥ Mux (6.12)
Where φbMnx the design flexural strength about the major axis (see Chapter Four-Flexural
Members). Note that lateral torsional buckling will not occur about the minor axis.
Equation (6.11) can be rearranged to give:
M ux M uy  Sx  M ux M  d 
Sx ≥ +  ≈ + ux  3.5  (6.13)
φb f y φb f y S  φ f φb f y  df 
 y  b y
The use of Eq. (6.13) greatly facilitates the selection of trial sections for use in biaxial bending
problems.
Combined Bending, Torsion, and Axial Force
Members subjected to the combined effect of bending, torsion, and axial force should be
designed to satisfy the following limit states:
Yielding Under Normal Stress
φfy ≥ fm (6.14)
Where
φ = 0.90
fun = maximum shear stress determined from an eleastic analysis under factored loads
Yielding Under Shear Stress
φ(0.6fy) ≥ fun (6.15)

Where
φ = 0.90

fvu = maximum shear stress determined from an elastic analysis under factored
loads.
Buckling
φcfcr ≥ fun or fuv, which ever is applicable. (6.16)

Where
φcfcr = φcPn/Ag, in which φcPn is the design compressive strength of the member
(see Chapter Three-Compression Members)
fun,fvn = normal and shear stresses as defined in Eq. (6.14) and (6.15).
______________________________
ADDITIONAL READING

Chapter 6
Chapter 12
Chapter 3
• EBSC 3 and EC 3

Chapter Nine: Timber Structures 1
Chapter Nine: Timber Structures
9.1 Introduction
Timber is an organic material produced from naturally growing trees. There are about 30,000
different species of trees and of these close to 100 different species are exploited as a proper
source of timber in Ethiopia.
As it was introduced in the first chapter, structures whose major constituent components are
timber are known as timber structures.
Timbers are used both in structural and non-structural members in various civil engineering
applications such as buildings of various types, bridges, power transmission and communication
towers, among others.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Timber
a) Advantages
- Timber is available in many countries
- Easy to handle and change in to various forms
- It has nearly same properties in compression, tension, and flexure and has high
elasticity
- There is a good relation between its bearing capacity and own weight
- Good resistant against chemicals
- Nearly no length change in response to temperature variation
- Nearly no electric conductivity
b) Disadvantages
- Organic in nature which affects its quality
- No apparent control over its quality ( other materials are man made and therefore
same form of quality control at their production)
- Strength is affected by moisture
- Timber changes its volume or/and shape depending on its moisture content
- It is inflammable
- Many years has elapsed for a tree to be exploited as timber
9.2 Timber Properties
Grain Nature: Grains are not always parallel to the longitudinal direction of the timber pieces.
Thus the angle between the grain and the direction of the application of the load influences the
strength on a much wider scale.
Density and Moisture Content: Generally, Strength increases with density and decreases with
rising moisture content and hence correction to permissible stress is required
.
Temperature: Its effect on strength is not considered in the design of timber structures.
Defects: Knots should be considered in the design of timber as they affect the capacity.
Design of Steel and timber structures Yibeltal Temesgen

Duration of loading: Duration of loading is an important factor in the design of timber

structures. Wooden beams loaded continuously for a longer period of time fail at a load ½ to ¾
of the load required to cause failure in a couple of minutes.
Main loading categories in duration terms are:

- Short term load ( minutes to hours, such as wind or earthquake)
- Medium term load ( hours to months, such as live loads)
- Long term Loads ( in years, such as dead loads)
Permissible stresses
Permissible stresses are obtained from large number of tests. They are given in specifications
(EBCS 5).
Corrections to permissible stresses
a) According to moisture content

- Dry condition ( indoor structures): +20%
- Moist condition (out door strictures): 0%
- Wet condition ( under water structures): -20%
b) According to loading duration

- Short term loads ( wind): +20%
- Medium term loads ( Live): 0%
- Long term loads: ( dead) -20%
.
c) Load correction factors

- Short term ( Dead + imposed + wind): 0.8
- Medium term (dead + temporary imposed): 1.0
- Long term ( Dead + permanent imposed): 1.25
9.3 Design of Members
The various design concepts and detailing procedures for timber are similar to those involved in
steel structures and, thus, similar computational and detailing operations are followed for their
planning.
Tension Members
Tension members are structural members that carry pure tension loads. The bottom chords of
roof and bridge trusses are c1assic examples of tension members.
The process of designing such structural members is reduced to selecting a section with
sufficient cross-sectional area to carry the design load without exceeding the allowable tensile
stress as stipulated in relevant codes of practice and proportioning connections so that all
relevant design specifications are met with regard to arrangement as well as stress limitations.
Generally, the following ASD equation should be satisfied:

T
f t= ≤ Ft , //
An

where: T = tensile force

An = net cross sectional area
Ft,// = allowable tensile stress parallel to the grain
Note: For tension members having knots, the net area should be considered in design. Tensile
forces can apply only parallel to the grain.
Compression Members
Timbers may be used in the construction of compression members such as columns, posts, struts
or stanchions, etc.
Generally, in the design of compression members, the following ASD equations should be
satisfied:
- Short Column
N
fc = ≤ Fc , // orFc , ⊥
A
- Long column
wN
fc = ≤ Fc , // orFc , ⊥
A
where: N = compressive force
A = cross sectional area
Ft,// = allowable compressive stress parallel or perpendicular to the grain
Note: No need of considering reduction due to holes if the holes are filled with a material at
least having the same strength as that of the main element.
Flexural Members
Flexural members are structural elements that span between or across supports carry principally
lateral loads which are resisted by flexural bending and shear. Hence, flexural members must
be checked for extreme fibre flexural stresses, shear stresses and deflection.
Generally the following ASD equations should be satisfied.
- Extreme fibre Flexural stress:

Mc
fb = ≤ Fb , //
I
where: M = bending moment
I= moment of inertia of the cross section
c = distance of bottom or top extreme fibres from neutral axis.
Fb,// = allowable bending stress parallel to the grain
- Shear stresses:
VQ
fv = ≤ Fs , //
It

where: V = shear force

I= moment of inertia of the cross section
Q = first moment about the neutral axis of the part of the cross
sectional area lying further from the neutral axis than the point where
the shear stresses are being calculated
t= width of the member where the stresses are being calculated
Fs, //= allowable shear stress parallel to the grain
For rectangular cross sections:

3V
fv = ≤ Fs , //
2bd
where: b= width of the member
d= depth of the member
- Deflection:
l
o General purpose beams: ∆≤
360
l
o Highway bridges: ∆≤
200
l l
o Stringer in railroad bridges: ∆≤ to
200 300
Combined Members
Nearly all members in a structure are subjected to both bending moment and axial force-either
tension or compression.
Generally the following ASD equations should be satisfied:
a) Members designed to resist bi-directional bending moments:

Mx My
fb = + ≤ Fb , //
Wx Wy
δ R = δ x2 + δ y2
b) Members designed to resist tension plus bending:
ft , // f b, //
+ ≤ 1 .0
Ft , // Fb, //
c) . Members designed to resist compression plus bending:
f c , // f b, //
+ ≤ 1 .0
Fc , // Fb , //

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Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 1

Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

Framework or skeletal systems

Shell and plate structures

Fig. 1.1 Multi Story Buildings

Fig. 1.2 Exhibition Halls (Long Span Roofs)

Fig. 1.3 Aircraft Maintenance Hangars

Fig. 1.4 Industrial Building (columns, beams, and roofs)

a) Plate Girder Bridge b) Truss Arch Bridge

c) Cable-stayed Bridge d) Suspension Bridge

Fig. 1.5 Use of Steel in Bridge Construction

a) Microwave Communication Facilities b) Power Transmission Facilities

Fig. 1.6 Use of Steel Members and Plates in Tower Construction

Fig. 1.10 Typical Over Head Cranes

Fig. 1.11 Use of Steel for Roof Trusses of Stadiums

Fig. 1.12 Use of Steel Scaffolding in Tunnel Construction

Fig. 1.13 Use of Steel Members for Bracing Systems

Fig. 1.14 Use of Steel for Composite Construction

Merits of Steel Structures

The principal merits of steel members are:

• The possibility of disassembling or replacing some steel members of a structure, for

The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which

1.2 Design Philosophy and design Formats

Structural Planning / Design

Design is necessarily a trial-and-error procedure. Most structures are statically

Development of procedures for translating design specifications into computer programs

Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength, serviceability,

Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its

A structure should be designed and fabricated to fulfill the following conditions:

• Hypothetical attainment of yield point

Al1owable Stress Design (ASD)

Where: Rn = nominal plastic strength of the member

Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

Limit state is a Probabilistic design procedure in which a structure, or part of a structure,

Mathematically it can be expressed as:

Stress-strain Behavior of Structural steel

A schematic diagram of an engineering stress-strain curve of steel obtained from a simple

Fig. 1.15 Idealized Stress-strain Curve

Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM A709)

Fig. 1.16 Typical Stress-strain Curves

High-strength Low-alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572)

Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514)

Table 1.1 Properties of Steels used for Buildings and Bridges

Table 1.1 Continued

Table 1.2 Uses of Various Structural Steels

Table 1.3 Continued

Nominal Steel Thickness t (mm)

Note: t is the nominal thickness of the element

Structural Steel Shapes

Fig. 1.17 Standard Rolled Shapes

Fig. 1.18 Some Cold-formed Shapes

Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened

Table 1.5 Properties of Structural Bolts (ASTM)

Bolt Grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

Specifications and Building Codes

The following are some important specifications for concrete structures.

Chapter Two: Tension Members

2.2 Types of Tension Members

The cross sectional arrangement of axially stressed tension members is structurally

Design of Steel and Timber Structures CE-519 Yibeltal T.

Fig. 2.1 Tension Members in Buildings and Bridges

Design of Steel and Timber Structures CE-519 Yibeltal T.

Fig. 2.2 Cross-sections of Typical Tension Members