AIRCRAFT CATEGORIES

THE NORMAL CATEGORY IS LIMITED TO AIRPLANES THAT

HAVE A SEATING CONFIGURATION, EXCLUDING PILOT SEATS,
OF NINE OR LESS, A MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED TAKEOFF
WEIGHT OF 12,500 POUNDS OR LESS, AND INTENDED FOR
NONACROBATIC OPERATION

THE UTILITY CATEGORY IS LIMITED TO AIRPLANES THAT

HAVE A SEATING CONFIGURATION, EXCLUDING PILOT
SEATS, OF NINE OR LESS, A MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED
TAKEOFF WEIGHT OF 12,500 POUNDS OR LESS, AND
INTENDED FOR LIMITED ACROBATIC OPERATION.

THE ACROBATIC CATEGORY IS LIMITED TO AIRPLANES

THAT HAVE A SEATING CONFIGURATION, EXCLUDING PILOT
SEATS, OF NINE OR LESS, A MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED
TAKEOFF WEIGHT OF 12,500 POUNDS OR LESS, AND
INTENDED FOR USE WITHOUT RESTRICTIONS, OTHER THAN
THOSE SHOWN TO BE NECESSARY AS A RESULT OF
REQUIRED FLIGHT TESTS.

THE COMMUTER CATEGORY IS LIMITED TO PROPELLER-

DRIVEN, MULTIENGINE AIRPLANES THAT HAVE A SEATING
CONFIGURATION, EXCLUDING PILOT SEATS, OF 19 OR LESS,
AND A MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED TAKEOFF WEIGHT OF 19,000
POUNDS OR LESS. THE COMMUTER CATEGORY OPERATION IS
LIMITED TO ANY MANEUVER INCIDENT TO NORMAL FLYING,
STALLS (EXCEPT WHIP STALLS), AND STEEP TURNS, IN WHICH
THE ANGLE OF BANK IS NOT MORE THAN 60 DEGREES.
 AIRPLANE CLASSES

AIR TRANSPORT – IS A BROAD CATEGORY OF AIRCRAFT INCLUDES:

AIRLINERS, AIRCRAFT, USUALLY LARGE AND MOST OFTEN OPERATED BY
AIRLINES, INTENDED FOR CARRYING MULTIPLE PASSENGERS OR CARGO
IN COMMERCIAL SERVICE

GENERAL AVIATION- ARE CONCERNED WITH ALL CIVIL

AVIATION OPERATIONS OTHER THAN SCHEDULED AIR
SERVICES AND NON-SCHEDULED AIR TRANSPORT OPERATIONS
FOR REMUNERATION OR HIRE. GENERAL AVIATION FLIGHTS
RANGE FROM GLIDERS AND POWERED PARACHUTES TO
CORPORATE BUSINESS JET FLIGHTS.

MILITARY AVIATION -IS THE USE OF MILITARY AIRCRAFT AND OTHER

FLYING MACHINES FOR THE PURPOSES OF CONDUCTING OR ENABLNG
AERIAL WARFARE, INCLUDING NATIONAL AIRLIFT (AIR CARGO)
CAPACITY TO PROVIDE LOGISTICAL SUPPLY TO FORCES STATIONED IN
A THEATER OR ALONG A FRONT.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Taking the subject. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics was a great chance for learning and developing
myself. Therefore, I thank God as I was provided the opportunity to take this subject. I am blessed for
having supportive love ones that motivates me to keep on going. I am also grateful for having a chance
to get close with my friendly and helpful classmates, AE-305.

I am using this opportunity to thank our instructor, Engr. Patricia Mae G. De Leon for her generous
support, coaching, understanding, and companionship during and outside the class.

I express my deepest thanks to my friends for being hospitable and giving necessary help when we are
doing our activities as a group. I choose this moment to acknowledge their contribution gratefully.

I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I will strive to use gained
attitude, skills, and knowledge in the best possible way, and I will continue to work on their
improvement, in order to attain my desired career. Hope to continue cooperation with all of u in the
future.

Sincerely

Buan, Agel Lowie R.

 AIRPLANE CATEGORIES

AN AIRPLANE OR AEROPLANE (INFORMALLY PLANE) IS

A POWERED, FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT THAT IS PROPELLED FORWARD
BY THRUST FROM A JET ENGINEOR PROPELLER. AIRPLANES COME IN A
VARIETY OF SIZES, SHAPES, AND WING CONFIGURATIONS. THE BROAD
SPECTRUM OF USES FOR AIRPLANES
INCLUDES RECREATION, TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS AND
PEOPLE, MILITARY, AND RESEARCH. COMMERCIAL AVIATION IS A
MASSIVE INDUSTRY INVOLVING THE FLYING OF TENS OF THOUSANDS
OF PASSENGERS DAILY ON AIRLINERS. MOST AIRPLANES ARE FLOWN
BY A PILOT ON BOARD THE AIRCRAFT, BUT SOME ARE DESIGNED TO
BE REMOTELY OR COMPUTER-CONTROLLED.

A ROTORCRAFT OR ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT IS A HEAVIER-

THAN-AIR FLYING MACHINE THAT USES LIFT GENERATED
BY WINGS, CALLED ROTARY WINGS OR ROTOR BLADES, THAT
REVOLVE AROUND A MAST. SEVERAL ROTOR BLADES
MOUNTED ON A SINGLE MAST ARE REFERRED TO AS A ROTOR.
THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO)
DEFINES A ROTORCRAFT AS "SUPPORTED IN FLIGHT BY THE
REACTIONS OF THE AIR ON ONE OR MORE
ROTORS". ROTORCRAFT GENERALLY INCLUDE THOSE AIRCRAFT
WHERE ONE OR MORE ROTORS ARE REQUIRED TO PROVIDE
LIFT THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE FLIGHT, SUCH
AS HELICOPTERS, CYCLOCOPTERS, AUTOGYROS,
AND GYRODYNES. COMPOUND ROTORCRAFT MAY ALSO
INCLUDE ADDITIONAL THRUST ENGINES OR PROPELLERS AND
STATIC LIFTING SURFACES.
 A GLIDER IS A HEAVIER-THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT THAT
IS SUPPORTED IN FLIGHT BY THE DYNAMIC
REACTION OF THE AIR AGAINST ITS LIFTING
SURFACES, AND WHOSE FREE FLIGHT DOES NOT
DEPEND ON AN ENGINE. MOST GLIDERS DO NOT
HAVE AN ENGINE, ALTHOUGH MOTOR-
GLIDERS HAVE SMALL ENGINES FOR EXTENDING
THEIR FLIGHT WHEN NECESSARY WITH SOME
BEING POWERFUL ENOUGH TO TAKE OFF.

LIGHTER-THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT SUCH AS BALLOONS, NONRIGID

AIRSHIPS (BLIMPS), AND DIRIGIBLES ARE DESIGNED TO CONTAIN
WITHIN THEIR STRUCTURE A SUFFICIENT VOLUME THAT, WHEN
FILLED WITH A GAS LIGHTER THAN AIR (HEATED AIR, HYDROGEN,
OR HELIUM), DISPLACES THE SURROUNDING AMBIENT AIR AND
FLOATS, JUST AS A CORK DOES ON THE WATER. BALLOONS ARE
NOT STEERABLE AND DRIFT WITH THE WIND. NONRIGID
AIRSHIPS, WHICH HAVE ENJOYED A REBIRTH OF USE AND
INTEREST, DO NOT HAVE A RIGID STRUCTURE BUT HAVE A
DEFINED AERODYNAMIC SHAPE, WHICH CONTAINS CELLS FILLED
WITH THE LIFTING AGENT. THEY HAVE A SOURCE OF
PROPULSION AND CAN BE CONTROLLED IN ALL THREE AXES OF
FLIGHT.
 POWERED LIFT REFERS TO A TYPE OF AIRCRAFT THAT CAN
TAKE OFF AND LAND VERTICALLY AND FUNCTIONS
DIFFERENTLY FROM A ROTORCRAFT IN HORIZONTAL FLIGHT.
POWERED-LIFT MEANS A HEAVIER-THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT
CAPABLE OF VERTICAL TAKEOFF, VERTICAL LANDING, AND
LOW SPEED FLIGHT THAT DEPENDS PRINCIPALLY ON
ENGINE-DRIVEN LIFT DEVICES OR ENGINE THRUST FOR LIFT
DURING THESE FLIGHT REGIMES AND ON NONROTATING
AIRFOIL(S) FOR LIFT DURING HORIZONTAL FLIGHT.

A POWERED PARACHUTE OFTEN ABBREVIATED PPC AND ALSO CALLED

A MOTORISED PARACHUTE OR PARAPLANE IS A TYPE OF AIRCRAFT
THAT CONSISTS OF A PARACHUTE WITH A MOTOR AND WHEELS. THE
AIRCRAFT'S AIRSPEED IS TYPICALLY ABOUT 25–35 MPH (40–60 KM/H).
PPCS OPERATE SAFELY AT HEIGHTS RANGING FROM A FEW FEET OFF
THE GROUND (WHILE GROUND SKIMMING, A POPULAR USE OF THE
AIRCRAFT) TO ALTITUDES AS HIGH AS 10,000+ FEET (5.5 KM). BUT
TYPICAL OPERATING HEIGHTS ARE BETWEEN 500 AND 1500 FEET
(150–500 METERS). EQUIPPED WITH THE STANDARD 5 OR 10 GALLON
FUEL TANK.
 5 MAJOR AIRPLANE PARTS

FUSELAGE

THE FUSELAGE, OR BODY OF THE AIRPLANE, IS A LONG HOLLOW TUBE WHICH HOLDS ALL THE PIECES OF
AN AIRPLANE TOGETHER. THE FUSELAGE IS HOLLOW TO REDUCE WEIGHT. AS WITH MOST OTHER PARTS
OF THE AIRPLANE, THE SHAPE OF THE FUSELAGE IS NORMALLY DETERMINED BY THE MISSION OF THE
AIRCRAFT. A SUPERSONIC FIGHTER PLANE HAS A VERY SLENDER, STREAMLINED FUSELAGE TO REDUCE
THE DRAG ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH SPEED FLIGHT. AN AIRLINER HAS A WIDER FUSELAGE TO CARRY THE
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF PASSENGERS. ON AN AIRLINER, THE PILOTS SIT IN A COCKPIT AT THE FRONT OF
THE FUSELAGE. PASSENGERS AND CARGO ARE CARRIED IN THE REAR OF THE FUSELAGE AND THE FUEL
IS USUALLY STORED IN THE WINGS. FOR A FIGHTER PLANE, THE COCKPIT IS NORMALLY ON TOP OF THE
FUSELAGE, WEAPONS ARE CARRIED ON THE WINGS, AND THE ENGINES AND FUEL ARE PLACED AT THE
REAR OF THE FUSELAGE.
 LANDING GEAR

AIRCRAFT LANDING GEAR SUPPORTS THE ENTIRE WEIGHT OF AN AIRCRAFT DURING LANDING AND
GROUND OPERATIONS. THEY ARE ATTACHED TO PRIMARY STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF THE AIRCRAFT.
THE TYPE OF GEAR DEPENDS ON THE AIRCRAFT DESIGN AND ITS INTENDED USE. MOST LANDING GEAR
HAVE WHEELS TO FACILITATE OPERATION TO AND FROM HARD SURFACES, SUCH AS AIRPORT
RUNWAYS. OTHER GEAR FEATURE SKIDS FOR THIS PURPOSE, SUCH AS THOSE FOUND ON HELICOPTERS,
BALLOON GONDOLAS, AND IN THE TAIL AREA OF SOME TAIL DRAGGER AIRCRAFT. AIRCRAFT THAT
OPERATE TO AND FROM FROZEN LAKES AND SNOWY AREAS MAY BE EQUIPPED WITH LANDING GEAR
THAT HAVE SKIS. AIRCRAFT THAT OPERATE TO AND FROM THE SURFACE OF WATER HAVE PONTOON-
TYPE LANDING GEAR. REGARDLESS OF THE TYPE OF LANDING GEAR UTILIZED, SHOCK ABSORBING
EQUIPMENT, BRAKES, RETRACTION MECHANISMS, CONTROLS, WARNING DEVICES, COWLING,
FAIRINGS, AND STRUCTURAL MEMBERS NECESSARY TO ATTACH THE GEAR TO THE AIRCRAFT ARE
CONSIDERED PARTS OF THE LANDING GEAR SYSTEM.
 POWERPLANT

THE FUSELAGE INCLUDES THE CABIN AND/OR COCKPIT, WHICH CONTAINS SEATS FOR THE OCCUPANTS
AND THE CONTROLS FOR THE AIRPLANE. IN ADDITION, THE FUSELAGE MAY ALSO PROVIDE ROOM FOR
CARGO AND ATTACHMENT POINTS FOR THE OTHER MAJOR AIRPLANE COMPONENTS. SOME AIRCRAFT
UTILIZE AN OPEN TRUSS STRUCTURE. THE TRUSS-TYPE FUSELAGE IS CONSTRUCTED OF STEEL OR
ALUMINUM TUBING. STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY IS ACHIEVED BY WELDING THE TUBING TOGETHER INTO
A SERIES OF TRIANGULAR SHAPES, CALLED TRUSSES.AN AIRCRAFT POWER PLANT IS AN ENGINE. IT IS
MADE UP OF MANY COMPONENTS, SUCH AS CYLINDERS, PISTONS, AND FANS, WHICH HELP PRODUCE
THE ENERGY NEEDED TO PROPEL AN AIRCRAFT. THE POWER PLANT MAY BE A JET ENGINE OR A
COMBINATION OF PROPELLERS AND AN ENGINE.
 WINGS

A WING IS A TYPE OF FIN THAT PRODUCES LIFT, WHILE MOVING THROUGH AIR OR SOME OTHER FLUID.
AS SUCH, WINGS HAVE STREAMLINED CROSS-SECTIONS THAT ARE SUBJECT TO AERODYNAMIC
FORCES AND ACT AS AN AIRFOILS. A WING'S AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY IS EXPRESSED AS ITS LIFT-TO-
DRAG RATIO. THE LIFT A WING GENERATES AT A GIVEN SPEED AND ANGLE OF ATTACK CAN BE ONE TO
TWO ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE GREATER THAN THE TOTAL DRAG ON THE WING. A HIGH LIFT-TO-DRAG
RATIO REQUIRES A SIGNIFICANTLY SMALLER THRUST TO PROPEL THE WINGS THROUGH THE AIR AT
SUFFICIENT LIFT. THE WINGS HAVE ADDITIONAL HINGED, REAR SECTIONS NEAR THE BODY THAT ARE
CALLED FLAPS. FLAPS ARE DEPLOYED DOWNWARD ON TAKEOFF AND LANDING TO INCREASE THE
AMOUNT OF FORCE PRODUCED BY THE WING. ON SOME AIRCRAFT, THE FRONT PART OF THE WING
WILL ALSO DEFLECT. SLATS ARE USED AT TAKEOFF AND LANDING TO PRODUCE ADDITIONAL FORCE.
THE SPOILERS ARE ALSO USED DURING LANDING TO SLOW THE PLANE DOWN AND TO COUNTERACT
THE FLAPS WHEN THE AIRCRAFT IS ON THE GROUND. THE NEXT TIME YOU FLY ON AN AIRPLANE,
NOTICE HOW THE WING SHAPE CHANGES DURING TAKEOFF AND LANDING.
 EMPENNAGE

THE EMPENNAGE (ALSO CALLED TAIL) IS THE REAR PART OF THE AIRCRAFT. USUALLY IT INCLUDES THE
STABILIZERS, RUDDER AND ELEVATOR AS MANY OTHER COMPONENTS. IN FIGHTER JETS IT MAY BE
CONSTRUCTED AROUND THE EXHAUST NOZZLE, AS IN SOME THREE-ENGINE AIRPLANES (WITH THE
THIRD ENGINE IN THE FUSELAGE). IN COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFTS THE EMPENNAGE IS BUILT FROM THE
CABIN PRESSURE-CONE AND MAY CONTAIN THE FLIGHT DATA RECORDER ("BLACK BOX"), COCKPIT
VOICE RECORDER AND THE PRESSURE OUT-FLOW VALVE.THE EMPENNAGE ALSO KNOWN AS
THE TAIL OR TAIL ASSEMBLY, IS A STRUCTURE AT THE REAR OF AN AIRCRAFT THAT PROVIDES STABILITY
DURING FLIGHT, IN A WAY SIMILAR TO THE FEATHERS ON AN ARROW. THE TERM DERIVES FROM
THE FRENCH LANGUAGE WORD EMPENNER WHICH MEANS "TO FEATHER AN ARROW". MOST AIRCRAFT
FEATURE AN EMPENNAGE INCORPORATING VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL STABILISING SURFACES WHICH
STABILISE THE FLIGHT DYNAMICS OF YAW AND PITCH, AS WELL AS HOUSING CONTROL SURFACES.
 4 FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE

THRUST

THRUST IS THE FORCE WHICH MOVES AN AIRCRAFT THROUGH THE AIR. THRUST IS USED TO OVERCOME
THE DRAG OF AN AIRPLANE, AND TO OVERCOME THE WEIGHT OF A ROCKET. THRUST IS GENERATED BY
THE ENGINES OF THE AIRCRAFT THROUGH SOME KIND OF PROPULSION SYSTEM. THRUST IS A
MECHANICAL FORCE, SO THE PROPULSION SYSTEM MUST BE IN PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH A WORKING
FLUID TO PRODUCE THRUST. THRUST IS GENERATED MOST OFTEN THROUGH THE REACTION OF
ACCELERATING A MASS OF GAS. SINCE THRUST IS A FORCE, IT IS A VECTOR QUANTITY HAVING BOTH A
MAGNITUDE AND A DIRECTION. THE ENGINE DOES WORK ON THE GAS AND ACCELERATES THE GAS TO
THE REAR OF THE ENGINE; THE THRUST IS GENERATED IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION FROM THE
ACCELERATED GAS. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE THRUST DEPENDS ON THE AMOUNT OF GAS THAT IS
ACCELERATED AND ON THE DIFFERENCE IN VELOCITY OF THE GAS THROUGH THE ENGINE.

LIFT

LIFT IS THE FORCE THAT DIRECTLY OPPOSES THE WEIGHT OF AN AIRPLANE AND HOLDS THE AIRPLANE IN
THE AIR. LIFT IS GENERATED BY EVERY PART OF THE AIRPLANE, BUT MOST OF THE LIFT ON A NORMAL
AIRLINER IS GENERATED BY THE WINGS. LIFT IS A MECHANICAL AERODYNAMIC FORCE PRODUCED BY
THE MOTION OF THE AIRPLANE THROUGH THE AIR. BECAUSE LIFT IS A FORCE, IT IS A VECTOR
QUANTITY, HAVING BOTH A MAGNITUDE AND A DIRECTION ASSOCIATED WITH IT. LIFT ACTS THROUGH
THE CENTER OF PRESSURE OF THE OBJECT AND IS DIRECTED PERPENDICULAR TO THE FLOW DIRECTION.
THERE ARE SEVERAL FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE MAGNITUDE OF LIFT.
 DRAG

DRAG IS THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE THAT OPPOSES AN AIRCRAFT'S MOTION THROUGH THE AIR. DRAG
IS GENERATED BY EVERY PART OF THE AIRPLANE (EVEN THE ENGINES!). HOW IS DRAG GENERATED?
DRAG IS A MECHANICAL FORCE. IT IS GENERATED BY THE INTERACTION AND CONTACT OF A SOLID BODY
WITH A FLUID (LIQUID OR GAS). IT IS NOT GENERATED BY A FORCE FIELD, IN THE SENSE OF A
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OR AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD, WHERE ONE OBJECT CAN AFFECT ANOTHER
OBJECT WITHOUT BEING IN PHYSICAL CONTACT. FOR DRAG TO BE GENERATED, THE SOLID BODY MUST
BE IN CONTACT WITH THE FLUID. IF THERE IS NO FLUID, THERE IS NO DRAG. DRAG IS GENERATED BY
THE DIFFERENCE IN VELOCITY BETWEEN THE SOLID OBJECT AND THE FLUID. THERE MUST BE MOTION
BETWEEN THE OBJECT AND THE FLUID. IF THERE IS NO MOTION, THERE IS NO DRAG. IT MAKES NO
DIFFERENCE WHETHER THE OBJECT MOVES THROUGH A STATIC FLUID OR WHETHER THE FLUID MOVES
PAST A STATIC SOLID OBJECT. DRAG IS A FORCE AND IS THEREFORE A VECTOR QUANTITY HAVING BOTH
A MAGNITUDE AND A DIRECTION. DRAG ACTS IN A DIRECTION THAT IS OPPOSITE TO THE MOTION OF
THE AIRCRAFT. LIFT ACTS PERPENDICULAR TO THE MOTION. THERE ARE MANY FACTORS THAT AFFECT
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE DRAG. MANY OF THE FACTORS ALSO AFFECT LIFT BUT THERE ARE SOME
FACTORS THAT ARE UNIQUE TO AIRCRAFT DRAG.

WEIGHT

WEIGHT IS THE FORCE GENERATED BY THE GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION OF THE EARTH ON THE
AIRPLANE. WE ARE MORE FAMILIAR WITH WEIGHT THAN WITH THE OTHER FORCES ACTING ON AN
AIRPLANE, BECAUSE EACH OF US HAVE OUR OWN WEIGHT WHICH WE CAN MEASURE EVERY MORNING
ON THE BATHROOM SCALE. WE KNOW WHEN ONE THING IS HEAVY AND WHEN ANOTHER THING IS
LIGHT. BUT WEIGHT, THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE, IS FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT FROM THE
AERODYNAMIC FORCES, LIFT AND DRAG. AERODYNAMIC FORCES ARE MECHANICAL FORCES AND THE
AIRPLANE HAS TO BE IN PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH THE AIR WHICH GENERATES THE FORCE. THE
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE IS A FIELD FORCE; THE SOURCE OF THE FORCE DOES NOT HAVE TO BE IN
PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH THE OBJECT TO GENERATE A PULL ON THE OBJECT. WEIGHT IS THE FORCE
GENERATED BY THE GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION OF THE EARTH ON THE AIRPLANE. WE ARE MORE
FAMILIAR WITH WEIGHT THAN WITH THE OTHER FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRPLANE, BECAUSE EACH OF
US HAVE OUR OWN WEIGHT WHICH WE CAN MEASURE EVERY MORNING ON THE BATHROOM SCALE.
WE KNOW WHEN ONE THING IS HEAVY AND WHEN ANOTHER THING IS LIGHT. BUT WEIGHT, THE
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE, IS FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT FROM THE AERODYNAMIC FORCES, LIFT AND
DRAG. AERODYNAMIC FORCES ARE MECHANICAL FORCES AND THE AIRPLANE HAS TO BE IN PHYSICAL
CONTACT WITH THE AIR WHICH GENERATES THE FORCE. THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE IS A FIELD FORCE;
THE SOURCE OF THE FORCE DOES NOT HAVE TO BE IN PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH THE OBJECT TO
GENERATE A PULL ON THE OBJECT.
 TYPES OF DRAG

PARASITE DRAG

PARASITE (PARASITIC) DRAG (DP) IS DEFINED AS ALL DRAG THAT IS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH THE
PRODUCTION OF LIFT. PARASITE DRAG IS CAUSED BY MOVING A SOLID OBJECT THROUGH A FLUID
MEDIUM. IN AERODYNAMICS, THE FLUID MEDIUM CONCERNED IS THE ATMOSPHERE. THE PRINCIPAL
COMPONENTS OF PARASITE DRAG ARE FORM DRAG, FRICTION DRAG AND INTERFERENCE DRAG.

 FORM DRAG
FORM DRAG OR PRESSURE DRAG ARISES BECAUSE OF THE SHAPE OF THE OBJECT. THE GENERAL
SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE BODY ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS IN FORM DRAG; BODIES
WITH A LARGER PRESENTED CROSS-SECTION WILL HAVE A HIGHER DRAG THAN THINNER
BODIES; SLEEK ("STREAMLINED") OBJECTS HAVE LOWER FORM DRAG. FORM DRAG FOLLOWS
THE DRAG EQUATION, MEANING THAT IT INCREASES WITH VELOCITY, AND THUS BECOMES
MORE IMPORTANT FOR HIGH-SPEED AIRCRAFT. FORM DRAG DEPENDS ON THE LONGITUDINAL
SECTION OF THE BODY. A PRUDENT CHOICE OF BODY PROFILE IS ESSENTIAL FOR A LOW DRAG
COEFFICIENT. STREAMLINES SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS, AND SEPARATION OF THE BOUNDARY
LAYER WITH ITS ATTENDANT VORTICES SHOULD BE AVOIDED.

 INTERFERENCE DRAG
INTERFERENCE DRAG IS DRAG THAT IS GENERATED BY THE MIXING OF AIRFLOW STREAMLINES
BETWEEN AIRFRAME COMPONENTS SUCH AS THE WING AND THE FUSELAGE, THE ENGINE PYLON
AND THE WING OR, IN THE CASE OF A MILITARY OR OTHER SPECIAL PURPOSE AIRCRAFT,
BETWEEN THE AIRFRAME AND ATTACHED EXTERNAL STORES SUCH AS FUEL TANKS, WEAPONS
OR SENSOR PODS. INTERFERENCE DRAG IS DRAG THAT IS GENERATED BY THE MIXING OF
AIRFLOW STREAMLINES BETWEEN AIRFRAME COMPONENTS SUCH AS THE WING AND THE
FUSELAGE, THE ENGINE PYLON AND THE WING OR, IN THE CASE OF A MILITARY OR OTHER
SPECIAL PURPOSE AIRCRAFT, BETWEEN THE AIRFRAME AND ATTACHED EXTERNAL STORES SUCH
AS FUEL TANKS, WEAPONS OR SENSOR PODS.
  SKIN FRICTION DRAG
SKIN FRICTION DRAG, IS DRAG CAUSED BY THE FRICTION OF A FLUID AGAINST THE SURFACE OF
AN OBJECT THAT IS MOVING THROUGH IT. IT IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE AREA OF THE
SURFACE IN CONTACT WITH THE FLUID AND INCREASES WITH THE SQUARE OF THE VELOCITY. IN
AERODYNAMICS, THE FLUID CONCERNED IS THE ATMOSPHERE. FRICTION DRAG IS CREATED IN
THE BOUNDARY LAYER DUE TO THE VISCOSITY OF THE AIR AND THE RESULTING FRICTION
AGAINST THE SURFACE OF THE AIRCRAFT. THE AIR MOLECULES IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE
AIRCRAFT SURFACE ARE MOST AFFECTED. AS THE MOLECULES FLOW PAST THE SURFACE AND
PAST EACH OTHER, THE VISCOUS RESISTANCE TO THAT FLOW BECOMES A FORCE WHICH
RETARDS FORWARD MOTION. THE AMOUNT OF FRICTION DRAG THAT IS CREATED PER SQUARE
METRE OF SURFACE AREA IS RELATIVELY SMALL. HOWEVER, AS THE BOUNDARY LAYER COVERS
MUCH OF THE SURFACE OF THE AIRCRAFT, FRICTION DRAG CAN BECOME QUITE SIGNIFICANT IN
LARGER AEROPLANES.

INDUCED DRAG

INDUCED DRAG IS AN INEVITABLE CONSEQUENCE OF LIFT AND IS PRODUCED BY THE PASSAGE OF AN

AEROFOIL (E.G. WING OR TAILPLANE) THROUGH THE AIR. AIR FLOWING OVER THE TOP OF A WING
TENDS TO FLOW INWARDS BECAUSE THE DECREASED PRESSURE OVER THE TOP SURFACE IS LESS THAN
THE PRESSURE OUTSIDE THE WING TIP. BELOW THE WING, THE AIR FLOWS OUTWARDS BECAUSE THE
PRESSURE BELOW THE WING IS GREATER THAN THAT OUTSIDE THE WING TIP. THE DIRECT
CONSEQUENCE OF THIS, AS FAR AS THE WING TIPS ARE CONCERNED, IS THAT THERE IS A CONTINUAL
SPILLING OF AIR UPWARDS AROUND THE WING TIP A PHENOMENON CALLED ‘TIP EFFECT’ OR ‘END
EFFECT’. ONE WAY TO APPRECIATE WHY A HIGH ASPECT RATIO FOR A WING IS BETTER THAN A LOW
ONE IS THAT WITH A HIGH ASPECT RATIO, THE PROPORTION OF AIR WHICH MOVES IN THIS WAY IS
REDUCED AND THEREFORE MORE OF IT GENERATES LIFT.
 BASIC FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE OF AN AIRPLANE

AILERONS ARE A PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE WHICH CONTROL MOVEMENT ABOUT THE
LONGITUDINAL AXIS OF AN AIRCRAFT. THIS MOVEMENT IS REFERRED TO AS "ROLL". THE AILERONS ARE
ATTACHED TO THE OUTBOARD TRAILING EDGE OF EACH WING AND, WHEN A MANUAL OR AUTOPILOT
CONTROL INPUT IS MADE, MOVE IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS FROM ONE ANOTHER. IN SOME LARGE
AIRCRAFT, TWO AILERONS ARE MOUNTED ON EACH WING. IN THIS CONFIGURATION, BOTH AILERONS
ON EACH WING ARE ACTIVE DURING SLOW SPEED FLIGHT. HOWEVER, AT HIGHER SPEED, THE
OUTBOARD AILERON IS LOCKED AND ONLY THE INBOARD OR HIGH SPEED AILERON IS FUNCTIONAL.
THE RUDDER IS A PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE WHICH CONTROLS ROTATION ABOUT THE
VERTICAL AXIS OF AN AIRCRAFT. THIS MOVEMENT IS REFERRED TO AS "YAW". THE RUDDER IS A
MOVABLE SURFACE THAT IS MOUNTED ON THE TRAILING EDGE OF THE VERTICAL STABILIZER OR FIN.
UNLIKE A BOAT, THE RUDDER IS NOT USED TO STEER THE AIRCRAFT; RATHER, IT IS USED TO OVERCOME
ADVERSE YAW INDUCED BY TURNING OR, IN THE CASE OF A MULTI-ENGINE AIRCRAFT, BY ENGINE
FAILURE AND ALSO ALLOWS THE AIRCRAFT TO BE INTENTIONALLY SLIPPED WHEN REQUIRED.

ELEVATOR IS A PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE THAT CONTROLS MOVEMENT ABOUT THE LATERAL
AXIS OF AN AIRCRAFT. THIS MOVEMENT IS REFERRED TO AS "PITCH". MOST AIRCRAFT HAVE TWO
ELEVATORS, ONE OF WHICH IS MOUNTED ON THE TRAILING EDGE OF EACH HALF OF THE HORIZONTAL
STABILIZER. WHEN A MANUAL OR AUTOPILOT CONTROL INPUT IS MADE, THE ELEVATORS MOVE UP OR
DOWN AS APPROPRIATE. IN MOST INSTALLATIONS, THE ELEVATORS MOVE SYMMETRICALLY BUT, IN
SOME FLY-BY-WIRE CONTROLLED AIRCRAFT, THEY MOVE DIFFERENTIALLY WHEN REQUIRED TO MEET
THE CONTROL INPUT DEMANDS. SOME AIRCRAFT TYPES HAVE PROVISIONS TO "DISCONNECT" THE
RIGHT AND LEFT ELEVATORS FROM ONE ANOTHER IN THE EVENT OF A CONTROL SURFACE JAM WHILE
OTHER TYPES USE DIFFERENT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS TO POWER THE LEFT AND RIGHT ELEVATOR TO
ENSURE AT LEAST ONE SURFACE IS OPERATIONAL IN THE EVENT OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM FAILURE(S).

FLAPS ARE A HIGH LIFT DEVICE CONSISTING OF A HINGED PANEL OR PANELS MOUNTED ON THE
TRAILING EDGE OF THE WING. WHEN EXTENDED, THEY INCREASE THE CAMBER AND, IN MOST CASES,
THE CHORD AND SURFACE AREA OF THE WING RESULTING IN AN INCREASE OF BOTH LIFT AND DRAG
AND A REDUCTION OF THE STALL SPEED. THESE FACTORS RESULT IN AN IMPROVEMENT IN TAKEOFF
AND LANDING PERFORMANCE. THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT FLAP DESIGNS AND CONFIGURATIONS IN
USE. LARGE AIRCRAFT SOMETIMES INCORPORATE MORE THAN ONE TYPE, UTILISING DIFFERENT FLAP
DESIGNS ON THE INBOARD AND OUTBOARD SECTIONS OF THE WING.
 AXES OF AN AIRPLANE

VERTICAL AXIS (YAW) EDIT THE POSITION OF ALL THREE AXES, WITH THE RIGHT-HAND RULE FOR ITS
ROTATIONS THE YAW AXIS HAS ITS ORIGIN AT THE CENTER OF GRAVITY AND IS DIRECTED TOWARDS THE
BOTTOM OF THE AIRCRAFT, PERPENDICULAR TO THE WINGS AND TO THE FUSELAGE REFERENCE LINE.
MOTION ABOUT THIS AXIS IS CALLED YAW. A POSITIVE YAWING MOTION MOVES THE NOSE OF THE
AIRCRAFT TO THE RIGHT. THE RUDDER IS THE PRIMARY CONTROL OF YAW.

LATERAL AXIS (PITCH) EDIT THE PITCH AXIS (ALSO CALLED LATERAL OR TRANSVERSE AXIS) HAS ITS
ORIGIN AT THE CENTER OF GRAVITY AND IS DIRECTED TO THE RIGHT, PARALLEL TO A LINE DRAWN
FROM WINGTIP TO WINGTIP. MOTION ABOUT THIS AXIS IS CALLED PITCH. A POSITIVE PITCHING
MOTION RAISES THE NOSE OF THE AIRCRAFT AND LOWERS THE TAIL. THE ELEVATORS ARE THE PRIMARY
CONTROL OF PITCH.

LONGITUDINAL AXIS (ROLL) EDIT THE ROLL AXIS HAS ITS ORIGIN AT THE CENTER OF GRAVITY AND IS
DIRECTED FORWARD, PARALLEL TO THE FUSELAGE REFERENCE LINE. MOTION ABOUT THIS AXIS IS
CALLED ROLL. AN ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT ABOUT THIS AXIS IS CALLED BANK. A POSITIVE ROLLING
MOTION LIFTS THE LEFT WING AND LOWERS THE RIGHT WING. THE PILOT ROLLS BY INCREASING THE
LIFT ON ONE WING AND DECREASING IT ON THE OTHER. THIS CHANGES THE BANK ANGLE. THE
AILERONS ARE THE PRIMARY CONTROL OF BANK. THE RUDDER ALSO HAS A SECONDARY EFFECT ON
BANK.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

STALL IS DEFINED AS A SUDDEN REDUCTION IN THE LIFT GENERATED BY AN AEROFOIL WHEN THE
CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK IS REACHED OR EXCEEDED. STALL OCCURS WHEN THE ANGLE OF ATTACK OF
AN AEROFOIL EXCEEDS THE VALUE WHICH CREATES MAXIMUM LIFT AS A CONSEQUENCE OF AIRFLOW
ACROSS IT. THIS ANGLE VARIES VERY LITTLE IN RESPONSE TO THE CROSS SECTION OF THE (CLEAN)
AEROFOIL AND IS TYPICALLY AROUND 15°. AT THE STALL, THE AIRFLOW ACROSS THE UPPER CAMBERED
SURFACE CEASES TO FLOW SMOOTHLY AND IN CONTACT WITH THE UPPER SURFACE AND BECOMES
TURBULENT, THUS GREATLY REDUCING LIFT AND INCREASING DRAG. CHANGING THE EFFECTIVE
CONFIGURATION OF A WING BY THE DEPLOYMENT OF LEADING EDGE OR TRAILING EDGE DEVICES WILL
DIRECTLY ALTER THE ANGLE OF ATTACK AT WHICH AN AEROFOIL STALLS. HOWEVER, ALL THIS ASSUMES
A CLEAN WING AND FOR ANY AEROFOIL, CONTAMINATION OF THE NORMALLY SMOOTH SURFACE BY
FROZEN DEPOSITS WILL RESULT IN A CHANGE TO THE ANGLE OF ATTACK AT WHICH A STALL WILL
OCCUR.

SPIN IS A YAW AGGRAVATED STALL WHICH RESULTS IN ROTATION ABOUT THE SPIN AXIS. THE AIRCRAFT
FOLLOWS A STEEP, "CORKSCREW" LIKE, DOWNWARD PATH. SPINS CAN BE ENTERED, EITHER
INTENTIONALLY OR UNINTENTIONALLY, FROM ANY FLIGHT ATTITUDE AND AT PRACTICALLY ANY
AIRSPEED. IF A STALLED AIRCRAFT IS SUBJECTED TO A SUFFICIENT YAW RATE, IT WILL ENTER A SPIN. THE
YAW CAN BE INDUCED BY IMPROPER USE OF THE RUDDER OR CAN BE A RESULT OF THE WING DROP
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AIRCRAFT IN QUESTION. IN A SPIN, BOTH WINGS ARE IN A STALLED
CONDITION BUT ONE WING WILL BE IN A DEEPER STALL THAN THE OTHER. THE DRAG IS GREATER ON
THE MORE DEEPLY STALLED WING CAUSING THE AIRCRAFT TO AUTOROTATE (YAW) TOWARD THAT
WING. SPINS ARE CHARACTERISED BY HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK, LOW AIRSPEED AND HIGH RATE OF
DESCENT.

REYNOLDS NUMBER (RE) IS AN IMPORTANT DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITY IN FLUID MECHANICS USED TO

HELP PREDICT FLOW PATTERNS IN DIFFERENT FLUID FLOW SITUATIONS. AT LOW REYNOLDS NUMBERS
FLOW TENDS TO BE DOMINATED BY LAMINAR (SHEET-LIKE) FLOW, BUT AT HIGH REYNOLDS NUMBERS
TURBULENCE RESULTS FROM DIFFERENCES IN THE FLUID'S SPEED AND DIRECTION, WHICH MAY
SOMETIMES INTERSECT OR EVEN MOVE COUNTER TO THE OVERALL DIRECTION OF THE FLOW (EDDY
CURRENTS). THESE EDDY CURRENTS BEGIN TO CHURN THE FLOW, USING UP ENERGY IN THE PROCESS,
AND FOR LIQUIDS INCREASING THE CHANCES OF CAVITATION. REYNOLDS NUMBER HAS WIDE
APPLICATIONS, RANGING FROM LIQUID FLOW IN A PIPE TO THE PASSAGE OF AIR OVER AN AIRCRAFT
WING. IT IS USED TO PREDICT THE TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR TO TURBULENT FLOW, AND USED IN
THE SCALING OF SIMILAR BUT DIFFERENT-SIZED FLOW SITUATIONS, SUCH AS BETWEEN AN AIRCRAFT
MODEL IN A WIND TUNNEL AND THE FULL SIZE VERSION.
Longitudinal Stability (Pitching)

In designing an airplane, a great deal of effort is spent in developing the desired degree of stability
around all three axes. But longitudinal stability about the lateral axis is considered to be the most
affected by certain variables in various flight conditions.
longitudinal stability is the quality which makes an airplane stable about its lateral axis. It involves the
pitching motion as the airplane's nose moves up and down in flight. A longitudinally unstable airplane
has a tendency to dive or climb progressively into a very steep dive or climb, or even a stall. Thus, an
airplane with longitudinal instability becomes difficult and sometimes dangerous to fly.

Lateral Stability (Rolling)

Stability about the airplane's longitudinal axis, which extends form nose to tail, is called lateral
stability. This helps to stabilize the lateral or rolling effect when one wing gets lower than the wing on
the opposite side of the airplane. There are four main design factors which make an airplane stable
laterally - dihedral, keel effect, sweepback, and weight distribution. It will be seen in later discussions
that these factors also aid in producing yawing or directional stability.

The most common procedure for producing lateral stability is to build the wings with a dihedral angle
varying from one to three degrees. In other words, the wings on either side of the airplane join the
fuselage to form a slight V or angle called "dihedral," and this is measured by the angle made by each
wing above a line parallel to the lateral axis.

The basis of rolling stability is, of course, the lateral balance of forces produced by the airplane's wings.
Any imbalance in lift results in a tendency for the airplane to roll about its longitudinal axis. Stated
another way, dihedral involves a balance of lift created by the wings' angle of attack on each side of the
airplane's longitudinal axis.

 Lateral Stability (Rolling)- Stability about the airplane's longitudinal axis, which extends form
nose to tail, is called lateral stability. This helps to stabilize the lateral or rolling effect when one
wing gets lower than the wing on the opposite side of the airplane.
 ANHEDRAL- KEEL EFFECT DEPENDS UPON THE ACTION OF THE RELATIVE WIND ONE THE SIDE
AREA OF THE AIRPLANE FUSELAGE. IN A SLIGHT SLIP, THE FUSELAGE PROVIDES A BROAD AREA
WHICH THE RALITIVE WIND WILL STRIKE, FORCING THE FUSELAGE TO PAREALLEL THE RELATIVE
WIND. THIS AID IN PRODUCING LATERAL STABILITY.

 SWEEPBACK -IS THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE WINGS ARE SLANTED REARWARD FORM THE TIP.
THE EFFECT OF SWEEPBACK IS PRODUCING LATERAL STABILITY IS SIMILAR TO THAT OF
DIHEDRAL, BUT NOT AS PRONOUNCED. IF ONE WING LOWERS IN A SLIP, THE ANGLE OF ATTACK
ON THE LOW WING INCREASES, PRODUCING GREATER LIFT. THIS RESULTS IN A TENDENCY FOR
THE LOWER WING TO RISE, AND RETURN THE AIRPLANE TO LEVEL FLIGHT. SWEEPBACK
AUGMENTS DIHEDRAL TO ACHIEVE LATERAL STABILITY. ANOTHER REASON FOR WEEPBACK IS
TO PLACE THE CENTER OF LIFT FARTHER REARWARD, WHICH AFFECTS THE LONGITUDINAL
STABILITY MORE THAN IT DOES LATERAL STABILITY.