03 - Sociolinguistics History

Academic Year :2015-2016
Department :English Language and Literature

Filière :MCL Master program
Semester :2
Course : SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Faculty Of Letters
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
History and Overview
Semester :2
Faculty Of Letters
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
History and Overview
1. Sociolinguistics’Antecedents
2. Emphasis in Sociolinguistics
3. The Micro / macro Distinction
4. Major Topics in sociolinguistics
5. Some Key Concepts in
Sociolinguistics
6. Chambers’ (1995) Conversation
Inferences
On language and
sociolinguistics
“…no two speaker of a language

speak exactly the same way; nor
does any individual speaker speak
the same way all the time.”
(Jannedy, S, et al (eds) (1994:362)
“An informal definition of

sociolinguistics ... [would be]
‘who speaks what, how, using
what means, to whom, when,
and why.’ If we know all these
factors, we would know a great
deal about social problems.”
(Crystal, D. (1971: 253-254)
Prof. AFKINICH Sociolinguistics: History 3

Sociolinguistics vs
linguistics
‘ It is obvious that different communities
exhibit variation in their speech: people in
Paris speak French while those in
Washington speak English and those in
Montréal cope with both; it is equally clear
that children don’t speak the same way as
their grandparents, that males and females
are not necessarily identical in their
linguistic abilities, and so on. In short, any
social parameter whatsoever may be the
focus of some linguistic difference.
Unfortunately, nothing of interest to
linguistic theory follows from this. “
(Smith, N. (1989: 180)
STOPPED
there is more to the
relationship between sound
and meaning than is dreamt
of in normal linguistic theory
(Hymes 1974: 15).
• Some of the questions whose
answers are sought by
sociolinguistics in an attempt to
understand what language is and
how it works:
– How is it that language can fulfil
communication despite variation?
– What exactly does it mean that
people in Casablanca and in Kuwait
City speak Arabic even though it is
clear for anyone with ears to listen
that there are differences in many
significant ways?
– Why do languages change and does
it mean that they do?
– And many more questions,

Beginnings
• much of our current sociolinguistic
thought has been around for quite
some time before the field
established itself as a subject of
study.
• , Pointing to the social nature of
language has been around for quite
some time well before Saussure’s
Cours de linguistique générale,
• One of the first observations is
traced back to Whitney (1867)
(Quoted in Shuy (1997:4))
• There was also that of Meillet
(1906) who based this conception
on Durkhaim’s concept of ‘social
fact’
Whitney’s (1867) quote
“Speech is not a personal possession
but a social: it belongs, not to the
individual, but to the member of
society. No item of existing language is
the work of an individual; for what we
may severally choose to say is not
language until it be accepted and
employed by our fellows. The whole
development of speech, though
initiated by the acts of individuals, is
wrought out by the community. “
(Whitney 1867:404)

Beginnings
• Many sociolinguists agree
that there is an intellectual
passing along of this
concept from Whitney to
Saussure to Meillet to
Martinet to Weinreich to
Labov.
• Meillet in a 1905 lecture
(quoted in Labov (1966:15)
is saying

Meillet (1905) ‘s quote
• “. . . but from the fact that

language is a social institution, it
follows that linguistics is a social
science, and the only variable to
which we can turn to account for
linguistic change is social change,
of which linguistic variations are
only consequences. We must
determine which social structure
corresponds to a given linguistic
structure and how, in a general
manner, changes in social
structure are translated into
changes in linguistic structure.”
Beginnings
• Neither Meillet nor his
colleagues and students seem to
have followed up on the idea that
social and linguistic phenomena
were interrelated.
• The reason for this is obvious
when we examine the theoretical
development of the period in
which he worked.
• In the 19th century, language
change, etymology and language
origins dominated the thinking of
linguists. (MTEFL STOPPED HERE)

Beginnings
• However right Meillet was in his
assessment, the technological
and social contexts were simply
not yet appropriate for the
development of his ideas.
• As Labov (1966) points out, little
was accomplished until the field
had developed a more explicit
theory of phonological structure,
the development of tape
recorders, spectrograms, ampling
procedures and, even more
recently, computers, that were
equipped to process large
quantities of data
Beginnings
• By the 20th century the major
interest became the structure of
language.
• With Bloomfield, Sapir, Bloch,
Hockett, Pike and others, the
focus of linguistics turned inward
to the basic outline of languages
in general rather than upon
variation within those languages.
There was nothing essentially
wrong with such a direction, for
linguistics probably needed to
develop in this manner.

Semester :2
Faculty Of Letters
•It took some time before the

term ‘sociolinguistics’ could take
root eversince the publication in
1949 of A Projection of
Sociolinguistics : The
Relationship of Speech to Social
Status by Haver Currie,
• LSA Institute 1964 in California
on the topic;
•Two courses:
•‘Sociolinguitics, taught by
Gumperez, and
•‘The Sociology of
Language, taught by
Fergusson
SOCIOLINGUISTICS’ ANTECEDENTS
• Sociolinguistics, As a demarcated area

of study, dates back to 1960’s
• The social was implicit in many earlier
studies.
• Panini: claimed to be the 1st to
practice scholarly linguistics,
• Kiparsky (1979:1) claims that Panini
may prove to be a pioneer of
sociolinguistics, too.
• “*Panini’s rules are+ sophisticated
attempts at capturing the stylistic
preferences among variants which are
characteristic of any living language.”
MTEFL STOPPED HERE 17/10/17

• 4 Western Traditions make up a
continuous lineage for
sociolinguistics
• Historical and comparative
Linguistics,
• Anthropology,
• Rural dialectology, and
• The study of mixed languages.
(STOPPED MCL 16-09)
• Historical and comparative
linguistics were based on written
texts /materials,
• Became aware that speech forms
can shed light on theories of
language change.

• 2 branches of sociolinguistics have
strong 19th century antecedents:
• The study of rural dialects in Europe,
• Contact between languages that resulted in
new ‘mixed languages’.
• Schuchardt and Hesseling produced their first
majorworks on mixed languages in 1882 and
1897, respectively.
• De Saussure, the structuralist, stressed
that language is a social fact, i.e., it
belonged to a realm larger than that of
theindividual.
• Recall, ‘parole’ is produced by individual
speakers; it is the concrete data of
language
• 'language is not complete in any speaker;
it exists perfectly only within a collectivity'
Saussure (1959: 14).
• Early 20th century, American
structuralists, led to the
description of eroding
Amerindian languages before
extinction,
• Franz Boas, Leonard Bloomfield
and Edward Sapir were led to
establish the foundations of an
anthropological perspective on
language
• It’s a perspective that is
interested in language, culture
and cognition

• Records show that the term
“sociolinguistic” is first used by
Eugene Nida in the second
edition of his standard work
Morphology in 1949;
• As a discipline,“sociolinguistics”
is first referred to in 1939 – in T.
C. Hodson's paper,
“Sociolinguistics in India” (in
Man in India, XIX, 94).
• Among the 1st non-linguists to
have used The term
‘sociolinguistics’ is Haver Currie,
(a poet and philosopher ) in a
paper drafted in 1949 and
published in1952.
• .
• His paper is titled ‘Projection of
Sociolinguistics: the Relationship
of speech to Social Status’
(reprinted in 1971: pp.: 39-47 in
Williamson et al (eds))
• He observed that there is a
general absence of any
consideration of the social in the
linguistic research of his time.
• Significant works on
Sociolinguistics appeared after
this date

• 1953:
• Uriel Weinreich’s Languages in Contact (
A Structural and social account of
bilingualism),
• This seminal work is still regularly cited as
the basis for understanding language
contact,
• Worthy of note is Martinet’s preface to this
thesis wherein he wrote saying (among
other things (Weinreich (1953: vii)):
“a linguistic community is never
homogeneous and hardly ever self-
contained …linguistic diversity begins
next door, nay, at home, and within one
and the same man.”
• Einar Haugen published two volumes in his
study of the social history of the Norwegian
language in America,
• This established him as the leading
authority on bilingualism and language
shift.

• Studies of urban communities
became more frequent, including
Putnam and O’Hern (1955) who
investigated black speech in
Washington, DC,
• De Camp (1958–59) who worked
in San Francisco, and Levine and
Crockett (1966) on North
Carolina speech.
• 1959 and 1962: Joos on styles
and on the dimensions of styles,
BACK

Emphases in
Sociolinguistics
• SOCIOLINGUISTICS Goals of
Linguistic Theory.ppsx
• Chomsky’s (1963:3) claims about
an idealized homogenous
speech community led to the
distillation of a core area of
sociolinguistics opposed to his
conception of language.
• Many felt that abstracting away
from society served little ends
which could not include an
encompassing theory of human
language.
• Contrary to the Chomskyan
stand, many sociolinguists
(Fishman (1971), Hymes (1971),
and others) believed that their
approach to language should be
social and,
• it should try to account for what
can be said in a language, by
whom, to whom, in whose
presence, when and where, in
what manner and under what
social circumstances

• Within the perspective of the
sociolinguist, acquiring 1st
language is not just a cognitive
process involving the activation of
a pre-disposed brain.
• It is indeed a process in which the
child acquiring the language is
sensitive to certain environmental’
conditions including the social
identity of the different people
with whom the child interacts.
• Hymes (1974:75) ‘a social monster’
would be that child who produces
languages without due
consideration to the social and
linguistic context. MTEFL STOPPED
07/11/17
• Hymes coined the term
‘communicative competence’ to
refer to the human ability to
produce the language
appropriate to different settings.
• Hymes was not interested in the
production of sentences,
• he was interested in the more
social-bound characteristics such
as acceptability of silence, rules
for turn-taking, amount of
simultaneous talk, etc.
• The above are rule governed.
• The rules of grammar will be
useless (Hymes) without the
rules of use.
• Labove (1972: xiii) says that
there can be no linguistics that is
not social
• A distinction between
‘sociolinguistics’ (= language in
society, more specifically the
insights that social contexts offer
about language) and ‘the
sociology of language’ (primarily
a subpart of sociology that sheds
light on the nature of society) is
to be made
• The boundaries between the two
areas are flexible
BACK

The Micro- Macro
Distinction
• Sociolinguistics is a
meeting ground for
linguists and sociologists,
• These two fall into two
groups:
–Some seek to understand
the social aspects of
language,
–Others are primarily
concerned with linguistic
aspects of society.
The Micro- Macro
Distinction
•  two centres of gravity
within the field:
– Micro-sociolinguistics or
sociolinguistics (in the narrow
sense) and ,
– macro-sociolinguistics or the
sociology of language
• These represent different
orientations and research
agendas

The Micro- Macro
Distinction
• Micro issues are usually
investigated by linguists,
dialectologists, and others in
language-centered fields,
• Macro issues are more frequently
taken by sociologists and social
psychologists
• However, a widespread agreement
that the two perspectives are
indispensable for a full
understanding of language as a
social phenomena
The Micro- Macro
Distinction
• Broadly speaking, micro-
sociolinguistics is
interested in the
investigation of two things:
–how social structure
influences the way people
talk and,
– how language varieties and
patterns of use correlate
with social attributes such
as class, sex, and age.
The Micro- Macro
Distinction
• While macro-sociolinguistics is
more into the study of what
societies do with their
language(s), such as :
– Attitudes and attachments that
account for the functional
distribution of speech forms in
society,
– Language shift,
– The delimitation and interaction of
speech communities,
– Etc,

The Micro- Macro
Distinction
• The divorce of sociolinguistics from the
sociology of language is often one of
appearance rather than substance
• There are no sharp dividing lines
between the two, but a large area of
common concern,
• There is a complex interrelationship
between social and linguistic structures,
• Contributions to a better understanding
of language as a necessary condition and
product of social life will continue to
come from both quarters.
BACK

Major Topics in
Sociolinguistics
• The main concerns of this field:
– Language Change,
– Variation,
– Interaction,
– Power,
– Culture,
– Boundary marker,
– Multilingualism,

Major Topics in
Sociolinguistics
• The main concerns of this field:
– Language Change,
– Variation,
– Interaction,
– Power,
– Culture,
– Boundary marker,
– Multilingualism,

Language change
• Some sociolinguists consider that

the proper task of a
sociolinguistics theory should be
to explain and predict language
change
• Examples of the questions dealt
with in this line of inquiry are:
– What are the causes and
mechanisms of language change?
– Why are certain distinctions
maintained while others are lost?
– What are the forces that resist
BACK
language change?
Variation
• Both this topic and the previous one
are often subsumed under the same
heading,
• Historical change is but one kind of
variation
• Among the questiions that this
topic raises we may cite:
– What is language variation and
what does it imply for our conceptio
of what language is?
– What are the relevant social
attributes that have a bearing on
language variation? How do
temporal, regional and social
variations interact?

Variation
• Languages exhibit internal
variation at almost all levels of
structure.
– Phonetic:
• 1. [t,d,n,s,z] are dental in some New
York City dialects.
• 2. Scottish people and some British
people have trilled [r].
– Phonological:
• 1. differencebetween caught and cot
for some Americans, not others.
• 2. Standard British English and
Bostonian English do not allow V-r-C
or V-r-# (park the car)

• Morphological:
1. some rural British English dialects have
no genitive marking for nouns. (Tom egg)
2. “hisself” for “himself”,
“theirselves” for “themselves”.
3. Appalachian English – different
division of weak/strong verbs. (climb -
clumb, heat -het)
• Syntactic:
1. done [+aux] : she done washed the
dishes already. (southern American
English)
2. right (adv) : This is right delicious.
(Appalachian English)
3. compound auxiliaries: might could,
might would, may can, useta. Function as
single constituents.
4. need + past part.: “The crops need
watered”.
BACK

• Semantic (Vocabulary Choice)
1. Knock up: British English “wake up
by knocking”, American English
“impregnate”
2. pop, soda pop, coke, soft drink,
“dope” in parts of South.
3. car park = parking lot, vest =
undershirt (British English)
4. Lift (Br.) = Elevator (Am.)
5. Tap =faucet
6. Bucket –Ame.) = pal (Br.)

Interaction
• ‘Interactional sociolinguistics’ is
associated particularly with the
foundational work of John Gumperz
(1982a, 1982b)
• It is used more broadly, for qualitative
sociolinguistic research on language in
interaction.
• Qualitative approaches represent an
important tradition within sociolinguistics
• The development of ethnographic
approaches owes much to Dell Hymes
• Hymes was concerned to establish
models of the interaction between
language and social life, or ‘the multiple
relations between linguistic means and
social meaning’ (1972: 39)

• Interaction studies concerns:
• a focus on the analysis of naturally
occurring speech;
• an emphasis on the context in which
speech is produced;
• an interest in the meanings or
functions of language, not just in the
distributionof different language forms;
• (a related point) an interest in the role
of language in managing relationships
between speakers;
• the adoption of qualitative, rather than
quantitative, methods of analysis
(while some studies may use a mixture
of methods, the emphasis is still
broadly qualitative).
BACK

Power
• Power has been identified as an
important dimension in many
(some would say most) interactions
• Language may be used to negotiate
highly unequal relationships
between speakers, or groups of
speakers.
• Some researchers have taken a
more interventionist stance,
drawing on sociolinguistic evidence
to argue for changes to speaking
practices in certain social contexts.
BACK

Culture
• The studies under this heading
draw attention to differences
in speaking practices between
different groups,
• they emphasise the fact that
not everyone interacts in the
same way, and that differences
often have a cultural basis;
• Such work also involves
making generalisations about
societies and cultures: it may in
part rely on, and contribute to,
stereotypes about human
behaviour.
• Several studies have reported on ‘silent’
cultures, such as other Native American
groups, Inuit and Finn
• Deborah Tannen (1985) discusses the
characteristics of a ‘New York Jewish’ style
of speaking.
• The features that characterised their
conversation included:
– 1. Fast rate of speech
– 2. Fast rate of turn-taking
– 3. Persistence – if a turn is not acknowledged, try
again
– 4. Marked shifts in pitch
– 5. Marked shifts in amplitude
– 6. Preference for storytelling
– 7. Preference for personal stories
– 8. Tolerance of, preference for simultaneous
speech
– 9. Abrupt topic-shifting (Tannen 1985: 102).
• MTEFL STOPPED HERE BACK

14/11/17
Boundary marker
• The symbolic nature of
language as a means of group
formation is a major theme in
sociolinguistics,
• In this respect, theories have
been suggested as to:
– language in ethnic groups
relations,
– Language alliance as acts of
identity,
– Linguistic nationalism and
language shift and loyalty
BACK

Multilingualism
• The investigation of social

aggregates characterised by
the use of some or all of its
members of two or more
languages,
• Much work in this area is
descriptive and taxonomic in
nature,
BACK

Some key concepts in
sociolinguistics
• Dialect
• Language vs Dialect,
• Idiolect,
• Speech communities
• Accent

Some key concepts in
sociolinguistics
• Dialect
• Language vs Dialect,
• Idiolect,
• Speech communities
• Accent

Dialect
• Any variety of a language

characterized by systematic
differences in pronunciation,
grammar, and vocabulary from
other varieties of the same
language is called a dialect.
• Everyone speaks a dialect – in
fact, many dialects at different
levels. The people who speak a
certain dialect are called a
speech community.
BACK

Language vs Dialect?
• This is not always easy. The
clearest definition would seem
to be that speakers of the same
language can understand each
other
• The Principle of mutually
intelligibility:If two speakers
can understand each other,
then they speak two dialects of
the same language; if they
cannot understand each other,
then they speak two different
languages.

• But this doesn’t capture everything.
There is a continuum between the
two in many cases.
• Examples
• Chinese: different parts of country
mutually unintelligible, but very
cohesive cultural history � one
language, various dialects.
• Further examples
– Czech & Slovak : Mutually intelligible,
different histories. � two languages.
Dutch/German: continuum.
Dutch/Flemish: same language, one
spoken in The Netherlands, one in
Belgium.
– Danish/Swedish: one-way intelligible
(Danes can understand Swedes more or
less, but not vice-versa.)
Brazilian Portuguese/Spanish: one-way
intelligible BACK

Idiolect
• A dialect spoken by one individual
is called an idiolect.
• Everyone has small differences
between the way they talk and
the way even their family and
best friends talk, creating a
“minimal dialect”.
BACK

Speech communities
• A Speech community is a group of
people speaking a common dialect. The
group may be defined in terms of
extralinguistic factors, such as age,
region, socioeconomic status, group
identification.
• It is very rare, however, that a speech
community defines a “pure” dialect.
There is always some overlap between
members of that group and other
dialects.
• Thus, there is no dialect of English
identified with all and only Clevelanders,
for example. For this to be so, we would
have to assume communicative
isolation, i.e., that Clevelanders have
little to no contact with people from any
other city, since this would lead to
outside influences on the dialect.
Prof. AFKINICH Sociolinguistics: History
BACK 53
Accent
• An accent is a certain form of a
language spoken by a subgroup of
speakers of that language which is
defined by phonological features.
• • Everyone has an accent, just as
everyone speaks a dialect. It’s not a
question of “having” or “not having”
an accent or dialect, it’s a question of
which accent or dialect you speak
with.
• • Note that you can speak the same
dialect as someone else while using a
different accent (though frequently
the two vary together). Thus people
from Boston and Brooklyn use about
the same dialect, but their accents
are radically different.
BACK

Chambers ‘(1995)
Conversation Inferences
• There is a multitude of
inferences that individuals make
as they engage in conversation.
• These inferences that one makes
after (over)hearing a conversa-
tion for only a few sentences
involve a great deal of
information of various kinds
about people whom one might
have never seen or heard before.
• These inferences fall into roughly
5 general categories.
Chambers ‘(1995)
Conversation Inferences
1. Personal Characteristics,
2. Linguistic Styles,
3. Social Characteristic,
4. Sociocultural factors,
5. Sociological factors

Personal Characteristics
Very immediate observation about :

1. voice quality:
– High pitched? Low pitched?
– Nasal? Open?
– Does the pithc move up and down the
scale or is it monotonal?
– Does the speaker lisp?
• Often accompanied by spontaneous
partly culture-driven and partly
experience –driven judgements e.g.:
• A monotonal voice is monotonous

Prof. AFKINICH Sociolinguistics 57
Personal Characteristics
2. Linguistic Styles Speaking
ability:
– Is the speech fluent or hesitant ?
– Articulate or vague?
•  However superficial and
simple, the observations
interact to give strong (maybe
innaccurate) impressions of
character:
– A speaker who is articulate and
hesitant will seem pensive and
thoughtful
– A speaker who is fluent but vagie
will seem evasive, perhaps
deceitful.
BACK
Linguistic Styles
• Considerable discrimination,
spontaneous and instantaneous, is
made concerning:
– the degree of familiarity among the
speakers,
– The relative age and rank,
– The function of the conversaation,
– And much more,
 The style vary from the casualness of
utterly familiar, long-time friends to
the unequal participant with no
common grounds
  Formality in style tends to increase
in direct proportion to the number f
social differences

Linguistic Styles
• Casual conversation:
– more rapid,
– more syntactic ellipses and
contractions,
– More phonological assimilations
and coalescence
• Formal conversations:
– Can be rapid (if speaker is
nervous),
– Syntax is usually stilted
(overformal, pompous)and
somewhat breathless,
– The phonology articulated
unnaturally (e.g.: indefinite article
(a): [] as opposed to []
• In sociolx, style is often included
as a variable (Labov 1966) BACK
Social Characteristic
• Our speech embodies the

hallmarks of our social
background
– Our social class imposes and
reinforces some norms of
behaviour;
– Its sub-elements include:
• Education,
• Occupation,
• Type of housing.
– Our sex and age
– The above 3 are the determinants
of social role
BACK
Sociocultural factors
• The very topics we talk about are

culturally detremined
• Culture-laden interaction abound
– (e.g. inderct request of action: It’s
cold in here, isn’t it?)
• Numerous discourse rules differ
subtly from culture to culture,
– e.g. turn taking,
– interrupting, convention for
maintaining conversational topics
BACK
Sociological factors
• Sociologically, it makes an
enormous difference to signal
the social ranks of the speakers,
• This may not be the case
linguistically. Actually, it’s
irrelevant.
• In multilingual societies,
particular languages / varieties
are more important than others
• Co-existent languages are never
equal sociologically speaking,
though they are linguistically
BACK
Types of inference from speech acts
Social Sociological
Personal
Stylistic Sociocultural
SOCIOLINGUISTICS SOCIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE
The study of the The study of the relationship

relationship between between language and society
language and society with with the goal of understanding
the goal of understanding the structure of society
the structure of language
BACK
Prof. AFKINICH Sociolinguistics:

Sociolinguistics
History 64
References:
• Chambers, J.K. (1995) Sociolinguistic Theory: Linguistic
Variation and its Social Significance Oxford, UK: Blackwell
Publishers.
• Crystal, David (1971) Linguistics (Reprinted 1980)
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books Ltd.
• Currie, Haver (1971) A Projection of Sociolinguistics: The
Relationship of Speech to Social Status. In J.V. Williamson
and V.M. Burke (eds.) A Various Language: Perspectives on
American Dialects. Pp.39-47. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston (originally as 1949)
• Hymes, Dell. (1974), Foundations in Sociolinguistics.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Labov, W. (1966), The Social Stratification of English in New
York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
• Jannedy, Stefanie, Poletto, Robert, and Weldon, Tracey, L.
(eds) (1994) Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to
Language and Linguistics Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State
University Press
• .

References:
• Meillet, Antoine. 1921. Linguistique historique et linguistique
générale. Paris: Société de Linguistique de Paris.
• Sapir, E. (1921), Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, World
• Shuy R (1997) A brief history of American Sociolinguistics. In:
Paulston C B, Tucker G R (eds.) The Early Days of
Sociolinguistics—Memories and Reflections. Summer
Institute of Linguistics, Dallas, TX. pp.: 4-16
• Wardhaugh, Ronald. (1978), Introduction to Linguistics, 2nd
edn. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Weinreich, U., W. Labov and M. Herzog (1968), Empirical
foundations for a theory of language change, in W. P.
Lehmann and Y. Malkiel (eds), Directions for Historical
Linguistics. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 95–189
• Whitney, William Dwight. 1867. Language and the Study of
Language. New York: Scribner, Armstrong and Co.

03 - Sociolinguistics History

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Academic Year :2015-2016

Department :English Language and Literature

“…no two speaker of a language

“An informal definition of

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• “. . . but from the fact that

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•It took some time before the

• Sociolinguistics, As a demarcated area

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• Some sociolinguists consider that

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• MTEFL STOPPED HERE BACK

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• The investigation of social

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• Any variety of a language

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Very immediate observation about :

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• Our speech embodies the

• The very topics we talk about are

SOCIOLINGUISTICS SOCIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE

The study of the The study of the relationship

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