Coal Glossary

ABD "all but degree" or "all but dissertation"

Not a formal degree; applies to someone who has completed all the requirements for a Ph.D.
except the dissertation.

Abiotic

Nonliving. Compare biotic.

Abiotic factors

Non living; moisture, soil, nutrients, fire, wind, temperature, climate

Absorption

The taking in or soaking up of one substance into the body of another by molecular or chemical
action (as tree roots absorb dissolved nutrients in the soil).

Absorption Field

A system of properly sized and constructed narrow trenches partially filled with a bed of washed
gravel or crushed stone into which perforated or open joint pipe is placed. The discharge from the
septic tank is distributed through these pipes into trenches and surrounding soil.While seepage
pits normally require less land area to install, they should be used only where absorption fields
are not suitable and well-water supplies are not endangered.

Absorption of radiation

The uptake of radiation by a solid body, liquid or gas. The absorbed energy may be transferred or
re-emitted. See radiation.

Academic Advisor

The officer (a member of the faculty or another professional) who provides academic advice and
guidance to students.

Acceleration

Completion of a college program of study in fewer than the usual number of years, most often by
attending summer sessions and carrying extra courses during regular academic terms.

Accreditation (see also "regional accreditation" and "professional accreditation")

A process of granting recognition to academic institutions and professional programs offered by

those institutions for meeting established standards of performance, integrity and quality and
which entitles them to the confidence of the educational community and the public.

Achievement Tests (ACH)

Subject examinations, administered by the College Board, used to measure academic

achievement and for student placement.

Acid

1
A substance that dissolves in water with the formation of hydrogen ions, contains hydrogen which
may be replaced by metals to form salt, and/or is corrosive.

Acid deposition

A complex chemical and atmospheric process whereby recombined emissions of sulfur and
nitrogen compounds are redeposited on earth in wet or dry form. See acid rain.

Acid Rain

Any precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, hail, or fog) containing sulfuric and/or nitric acid, generally
with a pH value less than 5.6. The acids are a by-product of burning fossil fuels in automobiles
and power plants. (A pH of 7 is neutral, normal rain is 7 to 5.5)

Acid rain

Rainwater that has an acidity content greater than the postulated natural pH of about 5.6. It is
formed when sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the atmosphere,
combine with water vapor and precipitate as sulfuric acid or nitric acid in rain, snow, or fog. The
dry forms are acidic gases or particulates. See acid deposition, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides.

Acid Solution

Any water solution that has more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH-); any water
solution with a pH less than 7. See basic solution.

Acidic

See acid solution.

Acidity

The capacity of water or wastewater to neutralize bases. Acidity is expressed in milligrams per
liter of equivalent calcium carbonate. Acidity is not the same as pH.

ACT

A standardized external battery of tests administered by the American College Testing Program
and covering English, mathematics, reading and science reasoning. The tests are designed to
assess the student's educational development and readiness for college-level study and may
used by institutions in lieu of the SAT.

Activated sludge

Sludge particles produced in raw or settled wastewater (primary effluent) by the growth of
organisms (including zoogleal bacteria) in aeration tanks in the presence of dissolved oxygen.
The term "activated" comes from the fact that the particles are teeming with fungi, bacteria, and
protozoa. Activated sludge is different from primary sludge in that the sludge particles contain
many living organisms which can feed on the incoming wastewater.

Adiabatic Process

A thermodynamic change of state of a system such that no heat or mass is transferred across the
boundaries of the system. In an adiabatic process, expansion always results in cooling, and
compression in warming.

2
Adjunct Faculty

Faculty members who teach part-time without appointments in the regular faculty.

Admissions Office

The office responsible for admitting students to the institution.

ADP

Adenosine diphosphate. See ATP.

Adsorption

The gathering of a gas, liquid, or dissolved substance on the surface or interface zone of another
substance.

Advanced Standing

The practice of placing a student in a course based on previous achievement levels, e.g., study at
an another institution, by challenge examination, AP or CLEP examination results.

Aeration

The process of adding air to water. In wastewater treatment, air is added to freshen wastewater
and to keep solids in suspension.

Aeration tank

The tank where raw or settled wastewater is mixed with return sludge and aerated. This is the
same as an aeration bay, aerator, or reactor.

Aerobe

An organism that requires free oxygen for growth.

Aerobic

An environment containing (or an organism requiring) oxygen.

Aerobic

A life or process that occurs in and is dependent upon oxygen. See methanotrophic, anaerobic.

Aerobic decay

The first stage in the partial bacterial decay of peat. This occurs in the top one half meter of the
peat column where some 50% of the organic matter is lost within the first year. The product is
humic material which leads to a gel like substance (gytta) at the bottom of the peat column. The
decay stops when the aerobic bacteria have used up the available oxygen. The decay products
are carbon dioxide, methane, tea colored water and acids.

Aerosol

Particulate matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended

3
in the atmosphere. Natural sources include salt particles from sea spray, dust and clay particles
as a result of weathering of rocks, both of which are carried upward by the wind. Aerosols can
also originate as a result of human activities and are often considered pollutants. Aerosols are
important in the atmosphere as nuclei for the condensation of water droplets and ice crystals, as
participants in various chemical cycles, and as absorbers and scatters of solar radiation, thereby
influencing the radiation budget of the Earth's climate system. See climate, particulate matter,
sulfate aerosols.

Afforestations

Planting of new forests on lands that have not been recently forested.

Air carrier

An operator (e.g., airline) in the commercial system of air transportation consisting of aircraft that
hold certificates of, Public Convenience and Necessity, issued by the Department of
Transportation, to conduct scheduled or non-scheduled flights within the country or abroad.

Air pollutant

See air pollution.

Air pollution

One or more chemicals or substances in high enough concentrations in the air to harm humans,
other animals, vegetation, or materials. Such chemicals or physical conditions (such as excess
heat or noise) are called air pollutants.

Albedo

The fraction of the total solar radiation incident on a body that is reflected by it. Albedo can be
expressed as either a percentage or a fraction of 1. Snow covered areas have a high albedo (up
to about 0.9 or 90%) due to their white color, while vegetation has a low albedo (generally about
0.1 or 10%) due to the dark color and light absorbed for photosynthesis. Clouds have an
intermediate albedo and are the most important contributor to the Earth's albedo. The Earth's
aggregate albedo is approximately 0.3. See radiation, radiative forcing, photosynthesis.

Alkaline substance

Chemical compounds in which the basic hydroxide (OH-) ion is united with a metallic ion, such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH). These substances impart alkalinity to
water and are employed for neutralization of acids. Lime is the most commonly used alkaline
material in wastewater treatment.

Alkalinity

Having the properties of a base with a pH of more than 7. A common alkaline is baking soda.

Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)

The group of Pacific and Caribbean nations who call for relatively fast action by developed
nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The AOSIS countries are concerned by the effects
of rising sea levels and increased storm activity predicted to accompany global warming. Its plan
is to hold Annex I Parties to a 20 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2005.
See Annex I Parties.

4
Alternative energy

Energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., compressed natural gas, solar, hydroelectric,
wind).

Alum

Astringent crystalline double sulfate of an alkali. K2SO4AL2 (SO4)3 24H2O. Used in the
processing of pickles and as a flocking agent. Excess aluminum in the environment can be
hazardous.

Ambient temperature

Temperature of the surroundings.

Ammonia oxidation

Test drawn during manufacturing process to evaluate the ammonia oxidation rate for the nitrifiers.

Ammonium nitrate

Primarily a fertilizer, ammonium nitrate (NH3NO3) is used as the explosive in surface mines.

Anaerobe

An organism that lives and reproduces in the absence of dissolved oxygen, instead deriving
oxygen from the breakdown of complex substances.

Anaerobic

A life or process that occurs in, or is not destroyed by, the absence of oxygen.

Anaerobic decomposition

The breakdown of molecules into simpler molecules or atoms by microorganisms that can survive
in the partial or complete absence of oxygen.

Anaerobic lagoon

A liquid-based manure management system, characterized by waste residing in water to a depth

of at least six feet for a period ranging between 30 and 200 days. Bacteria produce methane in
the absence of oxygen while breaking down waste.

Anaerobic organism

An organism that does not need oxygen to stay alive. See anaerobic.

Anerobic

An environment containing little or no oxygen or an organism living in an environment without

oxygen.

Anerobic decay

Decay by anerobic bacteria occurring in the peat below the oxygen level. The by-products are
hydrocarbons, alcohols and acids. Decay ceases when the pH reaches 4.0, killing the bacteria.

5
Angstrom

Abbreviated Å. A unit of length equal to 10-8 cm (one-hundredth of a millionth of a centimeter).

An Angstrom is on the order of the size of an atom.

Anhydrous

Very dry. No water or dampness is present.

Anion

A negatively charged ion in an electrolyte solution, attracted to the anode under the influence of a
difference in electrical potential. Chloride is an anion.

Annex I Parties

Industrialized countries that, as parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, have
pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2000 to 1990 levels. Annex I
Parties consist of countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) and countries designated as Economies-in-Transition.

Anoxic

An environment low in oxygen

Antarctic "Ozone Hole"

Refers to the seasonal depletion of stratospheric ozone in a large area over Antarctica. See
ozone, ozone layer.

Anthracite

A hard, black, lustrous coal containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of
volatile matter. Often referred to as hard coal. See coal.

Anthracite coal

The highest rank coal. It is very rare, found primarily in northeastern Pennsylvania. The thermal
metamorphism of the coal at this stage has begun to make the molecules unburnable, so while
the carbon content is the highest of the coals, the BTU content may be slightly lower than the
best bituminous coal.

Anthropogenic

Human made. In the context of greenhouse gases, emissions that are produced as the result of
human activities.

AP (Advanced Placement Program)

A program offered by the College Board that allows students to take college-level courses while
in high school and then take standardized tests to demonstrate whether they have attained
college-level achievement. Universities and colleges grant students credit on the basis of AP test
results.

API separator

6
A facility developed by the Committee on Disposal or Refinery Wastes of the American Petroleum
Institute for separation of oil from wastewater in a gravity differential and equipped with means for
recovering the separated oil and removing sludge

Application Deadline

The last date on which a college will accept applications for admission to the coming term.

Arable land

Land that can be cultivated to grow crops.

Arc Degree

A unit of angular measure in which there are 360 arc degrees in a full circle.

Arc Second

Abbreviated arcsec. A unit of angular measure in which there are 60 arc seconds in 1 arc minute
and therefore 3600 arc seconds in 1 arc degree. One arc second is equal to about 725 km on the
Sun.

Aromatic

Applied to a group of hydrocarbons and their derivatives characterized by the presence of the
benzene ring.

Aseptic

Free from living germs of disease, fermentation or putrefaction.

Ash

The residue remaining after the burning of coal. The most common ash is the sand and / or clay
washed into the swamp and mixed with the peat. In addition, wind blown dust (often volcanic ash)
may settle down into the peat. Coals commonly will have 3% to10 % ash which affects the BTU
value and determines the grade of the coal.

Ash

The mineral content of a product remaining after complete combustion.

Asphalt

A dark-brown-to-black cement-like material containing bitumen as the predominant constituent. It

is obtained by petroleum processing. The definition includes crude asphalt as well as the
following finished products: cements, fluxes, the asphalt content of emulsions (exclusive of
water), and petroleum distillates blended with asphalt to make cutback asphalt.

Assigned Reserves

Coal that can be mined on the basis of current mining practices and techniques by the mines
currently in existence or planned

Assimilate

7
To take in, similar to eating food.

Assistant Professor

A junior member of the faculty who has not yet received tenure.

Assistantship

Award granted to graduate students and which consists of tuition remission and a stipend for
part-time teaching or research. (see also graduate assistant; research assistant; teaching
assistant)

Associate Degree

Degree granted upon the completion of a two-year academic program mostly offered at two-year
institutions.

Associate Professor

A tenured member of the faculty.

Atmosphere

The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. The Earth's atmosphere consists of about 79.1%
nitrogen (by volume), 20.9% oxygen, 0.036% carbon dioxide and trace amounts of other gases.
The atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers according to its mixing or chemical
characteristics, generally determined by its thermal properties (temperature). The layer nearest
the Earth is the troposphere, which reaches up to an altitude of about 8 km (about 5 miles) in the
polar regions and up to 17 km (nearly 11 miles) above the equator. The stratosphere, which
reaches to an altitude of about 50 km (31 miles) lies atop the troposphere. The mesosphere
which extends up to 80-90 km is atop the stratosphere, and finally, the thermosphere, or
ionosphere, gradually diminishes and forms a fuzzy border with outer space. There is relatively
little mixing of gases between layers.

Atmospheric lifetime

See lifetime.

Atomic weight

The average weight (or mass) of all the isotopes of an element, as determined from the
proportions in which they are present in a given element, compared with the mass of the 12
isotope of carbon (taken as precisely 12.000), that is the official international standard; measured
in daltons.

Atoms

Minute particles that are the basic building blocks of all chemical elements and thus all matter.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate. Chemical energy generated by substrate oxidations is conserved by

formation of high-energy compounds such as adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) or compounds containing the thioester bond

8
Attached growth processes

Wastewater treatment processes in which the microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes
are attached to the media in the reactor. The wastes being treated flow over the media. Trickling
filters, bio-towers, and RBCs are attached growth reactors. These reactors can be used for
removal of BOD, nitrification, and denitrification.

Auditing

Taking a class to acquire knowledge but not for credit or grades. Audited courses do not count
toward degree requirements.

Autotrophy

A unique form of metabolism found only in bacteria. Inorganic compounds (e.g., NH3, NO2-, S2,
and Fe2+) are oxidized directly (without using sunlight) to yield energy. This metabolic mode also
requires energy for CO2 reduction, like photosynthesis, but no lipid-mediated processes are
involved. This metabolic mode has also been called chemotrophy, chemoautotrophy, or
chemolithotrophy.

Aviation gasoline

All special grades of gasoline for use in aviation reciprocating engines, as given in the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification D 910. Includes all refinery products within
the gasoline range that are to be marketed straight or in blends as aviation gasoline without
further processing (any refinery operation except mechanical blending). Also included are finished
components in the gasoline range, which will be used for blending or compounding into aviation
gasoline.

AWT

Advanced Waste Treatment - any process of water renovation that upgrades treated wastewater
to meet reuse requirements.

Baccalaureate

Bachelor's degree

Bachelor's Degree

The first university degree awarded upon the completion of an undergraduate curriculum. The
degrees are usually known as 'bachelor of arts'; 'bachelor of science'.

Bacteria

Living organisms, microscopic in size, which usually consist of a single cell. Most bacteria use
organic matter for their food and produce waste products as a result of their life processes.

Bacteria

One-celled organisms. Many act as decomposers that break down dead organic matter into
substances that dissolve in water and are used as nutrients by plants.

Bacterial Photosynthesis

A light-dependent, anaerobic mode of metabolism. Carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose, which is

9
used for both biosynthesis and energy production. Depending on the hydrogen source used to
reduce CO2, both photolithotrophic and photoorganotrophic reactions exist in bacteria.

Barrel (bbl)

A liquid-volume measure equal to 42 United States gallons at 60 degrees Fahrenheit; used in

expressing quantities of petroleum-based products.

Base

A substance which dissociates (separates) in aqueous solution to yield hydroxyl ions, or one
containing hydroxyl ions (OH-) which reacts with an acid to form a salt or which may react with
metal to form a precipitate.

Baseline Emissions

The emissions that would occur without policy intervention (in a business-as-usual scenario).
Baseline estimates are needed to determine the effectiveness of emissions reduction programs
(often called mitigation strategies).

Basic solution

Water solution with more hydroxide ions (OH-) than hydrogen ions (H+); water solutions with pH
greater than 7. See acid solution, alkalinity.

Batch process

A treatment process in which a tank or reactor is filled, the wastewater (or solution) is treated or a
chemical solution is prepared and the tank is emptied. The tank may then be filled and the
process repeated. Batch processes are also used to cleanse, stabilize or condition chemical
solutions for use in industrial manufacturing and treatment processes.

Bench

A flat, working platform usually 50 to100 feet wide running the length of the highwall in a surface
mine. Used by trucks, shovels, and draglines. Benches may be in the coal or overburden.

Bench scale analysis

Also known as "bench test". A method of studying different ways of treating wastewater and
solids on a small scale in a laboratory. Alken-Murray offers several such test kits including Alken
Clear-Flo® Bench Test 1 and Alken PCB Bench Test.

Beneficiation

Washing or otherwise cleaning the coal to increase the BTU content (reduces the ash).

Benzene

An aromatic hydrocarbon which is a colorless, volatile, flammable liquid. Benzene is obtained

chiefly from coal tar and is used as a solvent for resins and fats in dye manufacture.

Berlin Mandate

A ruling negotiated at the first Conference of the Parties (COP 1), which took place in March,
1995, concluding that the present commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention

10
on Climate Change are not adequate. Under the Framework Convention, developed countries
pledged to take measures aimed at returning their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by
the year 2000. The Berlin Mandate establishes a process that would enable the Parties to take
appropriate action for the period beyond 2000, including a strengthening of developed country
commitments, through the adoption of a protocol or other legal instruments. See United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties.

Binary fission

During binary fission, a single cell divides transversely to form two new cells called daughter cells.
Both daughter cells contain an exact copy of th geneticinformation contained in the parent cell.

Biocatalysis

Chemical reactions mediated by biological systems (microbial communities, whole organisms or

cells, cell-free extracts, or purified enzymes aka catalytic proteins).

Biodegradable

Organic matter that can be broken down by bacteria to more stable forms which will not create a
nuisance or give off foul odors.

Biodegradable

Material that can be broken down into simpler substances (elements and compounds) by bacteria
or other decomposers. Paper and most organic wastes such as animal manure are
biodegradable. See nonbiodegradable.

Biofilm

A slime layer which naturally develops when bacteria attach to an inert support that is made of a
material such as stone, metal, or wood. There are also non-filamentous bacteria that will produce
an extracellular polysaccharide that acts as a natural glue to immobilize the cells. In nature,
nonfilament-forming microorganisms will stick to the biofilm surface, locating within an area of the
biofilm that provides an optimal growth environment (i.e., pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrients). Since
nutrients tend to concentrate on solid surfaces, a microorganism saves energy through cell
adhesion to a solid surface rather than by growing unattached and obtaining nutrients randomly
from the medium. Pseudomonas and Nitrosomonas strains are especially well known for their
ability to form a strong biofilm.

Bioflocculation

The clumping together of fine, dispersed organic particles by the action of certain bacteria and
algae.

Biofuel

Gas or liquid fuel made from plant material (biomass). Includes wood, wood waste, wood liquors,
peat, railroad ties, wood sludge, spent sulfite liquors, agricultural waste, straw, tires, fish oils, tall
oil, sludge waste, waste alcohol, municipal solid waste, landfill gases, other waste, and ethanol
blended into motor gasoline.

Biogenic methane

Natural gas (CH4) produced in the peat by bacterial decay.

11
Biogeochemical Cycle

Natural processes that recycle nutrients in various chemical forms from the environment, to
organisms, and then back to the environment. Examples are the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and hydrologic cycles.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD)

Amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down the organic
materials in a given volume of water at a certain temperature over a specified time period. See
BOD5.

Biomass

A mass or clump of living organisms feeding on the wastes in wastewater, dead organisms and
other debris.

Biomass

Total dry weight of all living organisms that can be supported at each tropic level in a food chain.
Also, materials that are biological in origin, including organic material (both living and dead) from
above and below ground, for example, trees, crops, grasses, tree litter, roots, and animals and
animal waste.

Biomass energy

Energy produced by combusting biomass materials such as wood. The carbon dioxide emitted
from burning biomass will not increase total atmospheric carbon dioxide if this consumption is
done on a sustainable basis (i.e., if in a given period of time, regrowth of biomass takes up as
much carbon dioxide as is released from biomass combustion). Biomass energy is often
suggested as a replacement for fossil fuel combustion. See biomass.

Biosphere

The living and dead organisms found near the earth's surface in parts of the lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere. The part of the global carbon cycle that includes living organisms
and biogenic organic matter.

Biostimulation

Any process that increases the rates of biological degradation, usually by the addition of
nutrients,oxygen, or other electron donors and acceptors so as to increase the number of
indigenous microorganisms available for degradation of contaminants.

Biotic

Living. Living organisms make up the biotic parts of ecosystems. See abiotic.

Biotic potential

All the factors that contribute to a species increasing its number. Reproduction, migration,
adaptation etc.

Bio-Tower

An attached culture system. A tower filled with a media similar to rachet or plastic rings in which

12
air and water are forced up a counterflow movement in the tower.

Bitumen

Gooey, black, high-sulfur, heavy oil extracted from tar sand and then upgraded to synthetic fuel
oil. See tar sand.

Bituminization

The final stage of coalification that produces the various coals. It begins when the temperature
reaches 100o C (usually by burial to 3000 feet or more). The organic molecules are thermally
"cracked" releasing various gasses and oils, increasing the carbon percentage in the resulting
coals.

Bituminous Coal

The next rank above subbituminous coal produced by further thermal alteration (more heat). It is
subdivided on the basis of remaining volatile gases.
Rank %
Carbon Bituminous (low volatile) 91%
Bituminous (med. volatile) 89%
Bituminous (high volatile) 87%

Bituminous coal

A dense, black, soft coal, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material. The most
common coal, with moisture content usually less than 20 percent. Used for generating electricity,
making coke, and space heating. See coal.

Black Hole

A region of space that has so much mass concentrated in it that there is no way for a nearby
object to escape its gravitational pull.

Blinding

The clogging of the filtering medium of a microscreen or a vacuum filter when the holes or spaces
in the media become sealed off due to a buildup of grease or the material being filtered.

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand - the rate at which microorganisms use the oxygen in water or
wastewater while stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. In
decomposition, organic matter serves as food for the bacteria and energy results from this
oxidation.

BOD test

A procedure that measures the rate of oxygen use under controlled conditions of time and
temperature. Standard test conditions include dark incubation at 20 C for a specified time (usually
5 days).

BOD5

The biochemical oxygen demand of wastewater during decomposition occurring over a 5-day
period. A measure of the organic content of wastewater. See biological oxygen demand.

13
Bog

A wetland in which the primary vegetation includes mosses, shrubs and or sedges. Soil is
constantly waterlogged.

Boghead coal

A coal derived primarily from algae.

Boreal

Of or relating to the forest areas of the northern North Temperate Zone, dominated by coniferous
trees such as spruce, fir, and pine.

Borehole

Any exploratory hole drilled into the Earth or ice to gather geophysical data. Climate researchers
often take ice core samples, a type of borehole, to predict atmospheric composition in earlier
years. See ice core.

Bremsstrahlung

Radiation that is emitted when a free electron is deflected by an ion, but the free electron is not
captured by the ion. Generally, it is a type of radiation emitted when high energy electrons are
accelerated. (German for braking radiation)

British thermal unit (Btu)

The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree of
Fahrenheit at or near 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit.

Brown coal

A term for subbituminous coal (or lignite) in some countries.

BTU (British Thermal Unit)

The unit used to describe the heat value of coal. It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. The burning of one kitchen match is
roughly equivalent to one BTU. Coal is sold by the BTU/pound (or ton).

Buffer

A solution or liquid whose chemical makeup neutralizes acids or bases without a great change in
pH.

Bulking sludge

Clouds of billowing sludge that occur throughout secondary clarifiers and sludge thickeners when
sludge becomes too light and will not settle properly. In the activated sludge process, bulking is
usually caused by filamentous bacteria.

Bulletin

An institution's catalog of programs, curricula and courses.

14
Bunker fuel

Fuel supplied to ships and aircraft for international transportation, irrespective of the flag of the
carrier, consisting primarily of residual and distillate fuel oil for ships and jet fuel for aircraft.

Bursar

The university official responsible for collecting student fees.

Bus

A rubber-tired, self-propelled, manually steered vehicle that is generally designed to transport 30

individuals or more. Bus types include intercity, school and transit.

Cannel Coal

A rare coal made up of microspores (pollen) settling underwater.

Captive Mine

A mine whose coal is used largely or totally by its owners. Usually burned in a power plant on-
site.

Carbon black

An amorphous form of carbon, produced commercially by thermal or oxidative decomposition of

hydrocarbons and used principally in rubber goods, pigments, and printer's ink.

Carbon cycle

The movement and storage of carbon between the four major reservoirs; the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the biosphere.

Carbon cycle

All carbon reservoirs and exchanges of carbon from reservoir to reservoir by various chemical,
physical, geological, and biological processes. Usually thought of as a series of the four main
reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange. The four reservoirs, regions of the
Earth in which carbon behaves in a systematic manner, are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere
(usually includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). Each of
these global reservoirs may be subdivided into smaller pools, ranging in size from individual
communities or ecosystems to the total of all living organisms (biota).

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the ambient air. Carbon dioxide
is a product of fossil fuel combustion. Although carbon dioxide does not directly impair human
health, it is a greenhouse gas that traps terrestrial (i.e., infrared) radiation and contributes to the
potential for global warming. See global warming.

Carbon dioxide equivalent (CDE)

A metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases based upon
their global warming potential (GWP). Carbon dioxide equivalents are commonly expressed as
"million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE)." The carbon dioxide equivalent for

15
a gas is derived by multiplying the tons of the gas by the associated GWP. MMTCDE = (million
metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of the gas) See greenhouse gas, global warming potential, carbon
equivalent.

Carbon equivalent (CE)

A metric measure used to compare the emissions of the different greenhouse gases based upon
their global warming potential (GWP). Greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. are most commonly
expressed as "million metric tons of carbon equivalents" (MMTCE). Global warming potentials are
used to convert greenhouse gases to carbon dioxide equivalents — they can be converted to
carbon equivalents by multiplying by 12/44 (the ratio of the molecular weight of carbon to carbon
dioxide). The formula for carbon equivalents is: MMTCE = (million metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of
the gas) * (12/44) See greenhouse gas, global warming potential, metric ton, carbon dioxide
equivalent.

Carbon flux

The rate of exchange of carbon between pools (i.e., reservoirs). See carbon pool.

Carbon intensity

The relative amount of carbon emitted per unit of energy or fuels consumed. See energy, energy-
efficiency.

Carbon pool

The reservoir containing carbon as a principal element in the geochemical cycle.

Carbon sequestration

The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release
the oxygen and store the carbon. Fossil fuels were at one time biomass and continue to store the
carbon until burned. See carbon sinks, fossil fuel.

Carbon sinks

Carbon reservoirs and conditions that take-in and store more carbon (i.e., carbon sequestration)
than they release. Carbon sinks can serve to partially offset greenhouse gas emissions. Forests
and oceans are large carbon sinks. See carbon sequestration.

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)

A compound consisting of one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms. It is an ozone depleting
substance. Carbon tetrachloride was widely used as a raw material in many industrial
applications, including the production of chlorofluorocarbons, and as a solvent. Solvent use was
ended in the United States when it was discovered to be carcinogenic. See ozone depleting
substance.

Carbonaceous

A term describing a rock containing up to 50% carbon (carbonaceous shale).

Carnegie Unit

Time-based, quantitative measure assigned to high school courses. One unit generally consists
of one subject studied one 50-minute period per day, 5 times per week, for one 36-week

16
academic year (180 periods).

Catalog

see bulletin

Cation exchange capacity

The ability of a soil or other solid to exchange cations (positive ions such as calcium) with a liquid.

Cess Pools

This system is similar to a septic tank. in performance. Sewage water usually seeps through the
open bottom and portholes in the sides of the walls. These can also clog up with overuse and the
introduction of detergents and other material which slow up the bacterial action.

CFU

Viable micro-organisms (bacteria, yeasts & mould) capable of growth under the prescribed
conditions (medium, atmosphere, time and temperature) develop into visible colonies (colony
forming units) which are counted. The term colony forming unit (CFU) is used because a colony
may result from a single micro-organism or from a clump / cluster of micro-organisms. More Info.

CGS

Centimeter-Gram-Second (abbreviated cm-gm-sec or cm-g-s). The system of measurement that

uses these units for distance, mass, and time.

Chair/Chairperson

The head of an academic department.

Challenge Examination

Examination created by an institution as the equivalent to a course. Students who pass challenge
tests are commonly exempted from, or given credit for, the course counterpart of the examination.

Chemical precipitation

Precipitation induced by addition of chemicals; the process of softening water by the addition of
lime and soda ash as the precipitants.

Chemical reaction

Interaction between chemicals in which there is a change in the chemical composition of the
elements or compounds involved.

Chemoautotroph

An organism that obtains its energy from the oxidation of chemical compounds and uses only
organic compounds as a source of carbon. Example nitrifiers.

Chemotroph

An organism that obtains its energy from the oxidation of chemical compounds.

17
Chloramines

Compounds formed by the reaction of hypochlorous acid (or aqueous chlorine) with ammonia.

Chlorination

The application of chlorine to water or wastewater, generally for the purpose of disinfection, but
frequently for accomplishing other biological or chemical results.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Organic compounds made up of atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. An example is CFC-12
(CCl2F2), used as a refrigerant in refrigerators and air conditioners and as a foam blowing agent.
Gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone layer when they slowly rise into the stratosphere, are
broken down by strong ultraviolet radiation, release chlorine atoms, and then react with ozone
molecules. See ozone depleting substance, fluorocarbons.

Chromosphere

The layer of the solar atmosphere that is located above the photosphere and beneath the
transition region and the corona. The chromosphere is hotter than the photosphere but not as hot
as the corona.

Ciliates

A class of protozoans distinguished by short hairs on all or part of their bodies.

Clarification

A process in which suspended material is removed from a wastewater. This may be

accomplished by sedimentation, with or without chemicals, or filtration.

Clarifier

Settling tank, sedimentation basin. A tank or basin in which wastewater is held for a period of
time, during which the heavier solids settle to the bottom and the lighter material will float to the
water surface.

Class Rank

The relative position of a student in his or her graduating class, determined by grade average.

CLEP (College Level Examination Program)

A program offered by the College Board designed to offer students the opportunity to earn college
credit by examination.

Climate

The average weather, usually taken over a 30 year time period, for a particular region and time
period. Climate is not the same as weather, but rather, it is the average pattern of weather for a
particular region. Weather describes the short-term state of the atmosphere. Climatic elements
include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog,
frost, and hail-storms, and other measures of the weather. See weather.

Climate change

18
The term "climate change" is sometimes used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency, but
because the Earth's climate is never static, the term is more properly used to imply a significant
change from one climatic condition to another. In some cases, climate change has been used
synonymously with the term, global warming; scientists however, tend to use the term in the wider
sense to also include natural changes in climate. See climate, global warming, greenhouse effect,
enhanced greenhouse effect, radiative forcing.

Climate feedback

An atmospheric, oceanic, terrestrial, or other process that is activated by direct climate change
induced by changes in radiative forcing. Climate feedbacks may increase (positive feedback) or
diminish (negative feedback) the magnitude of the direct climate change. See climate, climate
change, radiative forcing.

Climate lag

The delay that occurs in climate change as a result of some factor that changes only very slowly.
For example, the effects of releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere may not be known
for some time because a large fraction is dissolved in the ocean and only released to the
atmosphere many years later. See climate, climate change.

Climate model

A quantitative way of representing the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and
ice. Models can range from relatively simple to quite comprehensive. See General Circulation
Model.

Climate modeling

The simulation of the climate using computer-based models. See climate model, General
Circulation Model.

Climate sensitivity

The equilibrium response of the climate to a change in radiative forcing, for example, a doubling
of the carbon dioxide concentration. See climate, radiative forcing.

Climate system (or Earth system)

The atmosphere, the oceans, the biosphere, the cryosphere, and the geosphere, together make
up the climate system.

Clinker

Baked shale lying directly above a naturally burned coal seam. Clinker is hard and red and often
used for road surfacing in mining areas.

Closed Course

Fully-subscribed course which is no longer enrolling students

Coagulants

Chemicals which cause very fine particles to clump (floc) together into larger particles. This
makes it easier to separate the solids from the water by settling, skimming, draining, or filtering.

19
Coal

A burnable rock composed of the remains of plant material that has undergone partial bacterial
decay and thermal alteration. Although any deposit with 50% or more carbon is considered "coal",
commercial grade coals must contain at least 92 % carbon.

Coal is usually classified as a sedimentary rock because it is found between other sedimentary
rocks. However, technically it is a metamorphic rock since it has undergone changes due to heat.
It is one of the fossil fuels.

Coal

A black or brownish black solid, combustible substance formed by the partial decomposition of
vegetable matter without access to air. The rank of coal, which includes anthracite, bituminous
coal, subbituminous coal, and lignite, is based on fixed carbon, volatile matter, and heating value.
Coal rank indicates the progressive alteration, or coalification, from lignite to anthracite. See
anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, lignite.

Coal ball

A carbonate concretion that forms during peat formation, often around a leaf.

Coal Bed Methane

Methane (natural gas-CH4) is a by-product of the coalification of plant material. There are two
types: biogenic methane produced during microbial decay of the peat (also called swamp gas)
and thermogenic methane produced by the thermal cracking of the organic molecules during the
formation of higher ranks of coal.

This is the gas that has caused so many fires and explosions in underground mines. It is now
beginning to be extracted and sold commercially. The amount of methane reaches 500 cubic feet
per ton of coal. Some 10 billion cubic feet have been produced from the Powder River Field since
1986.

Coal coke

A hard, porous product made from baking bituminous coal in ovens at temperatures as high as
2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. It is used both as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in
a blast furnace.

Coal gas

An artificial gaseous fuel (mostly methane, CH4) produced by heating coal in the absence of air.

Coal gasification

Conversion of solid coal to synthetic natural gas (SNG) or a gaseous mixture that can be burned
as a fuel.

Coal haul truck

These huge trucks haul 100 tons of coal (one train car load). A diesel engine runs a generator
sending electricity to an electric motor at each wheel. The exhaust flows along the bed to prevent
freezing in winter. The largest can haul 250 tons.

20
Coal liquefaction

Conversion of solid coal to a liquid fuel such as synthetic crude oil or methanol.

Coal Resource

The total coal resource both identified and estimated.

Coal tar

A black, sticky, liquid residue formed during the formation of coke. About eight gallons of tar can
be made from each ton of coal. Important in the chemical industry where it is used to make a
wide variety of products used in daily life including linoleum, creosote, medications, detergents,
perfumes, etc

Coal, Types of

Soft coal - Subbituminous coal

Brown coal - Lignite or subbituminous coal
Hard coal - Bituminous and anthracite coals
Boghead coal - Coal derived primarily from algae
Cannel coal - Coal made up of microspores, (often windblown pollen)
Humic coal - Coal derived primarily from woody tissue
Sapropelic coal - Coal derived primarily from spores and algae

Coalbed methane

Methane that is produced from coalbeds in the same manner as natural gas produced from other
strata. Methane is the principal component of natural gas.

Coalification

A progressive process (bacterial decay and heat) that turns decayed plant material (peat) into the
various ranks of coal. The first stage (peat to lignite) is decay and the remaining stages are
thermal. The major by-products are methane, carbon dioxide, and water.

Co-control benefit

The additional benefit derived from an environmental policy that is designed to control one type of
pollution, while reducing the emissions of other pollutants as well. For example, a policy to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions might reduce the combustion of coal, but when coal combustion is
reduced, so too are the emissions of particulates and sulfur dioxide. The benefits associated with
reductions in emissions of particulates and sulfur dioxide are the co-control benefits of reductions
in carbon dioxide.

COD

Chemical oxygen demand - the amount of oxygen in mg/l required to oxidize both organic and
oxidizable inorganic compounds.

Cogeneration

Production of two useful forms of energy such as high-temperature heat and electricity from the
same process. For example, while boiling water to generate electricity, the leftover steam can be
sold for industrial processes or space heating.

21
Coke

A fuel produced by partially burning coal in a reduced oxygen atmosphere. This removes most of
the gasses leaving a solid that burns at a higher temperature than coal.

There are two grades of coke: Chemical grade coke is a lower grade and is used for reducing
phosphate rock in electric furnaces and in the production of calcium carbide. Metallurgical grade
coke produces a much higher temperature and is used as the heat source in blast furnaces for
making steel etc.

Coliform bacteria

Non-pathogenic microbes found in fecal matter that indicate the presence of water pollution; are
thereby a guide to the suitability for potable use.

College

A general term for post-secondary education. It often refers to institutions which offer
undergraduate programs or to the undergraduate divisions of large universities.

Colloids

Very small, finely divided solids (particles that do not dissolve) that remain dispersed in a liquid
for a long time due to their small size and electrical charge.

Combined available chlorine

The concentration of chlorine which is combined with ammonia (NH3) as chloramine or as other
chloro derivatives, yet is still available to oxidize organic matter.

Combined sewer

A sewer designed to carry both sanitary wastewaters and storm or surface-water runoff.

Combustion

Chemical oxidation accompanied by the generation of light and heat.

Commencement

Graduation ceremony, usually held in May or June at the end of the academic year.

Commensalism

When two organisms coexist, one organism benefits, the other is not affected.

Commercial sector

An area consisting of non-housing units such as non-manufacturing business establishments

(e.g., wholesale and retail businesses), health and educational institutions, and government
offices.

Comminution

Shredding. A mechanical treatment process which cuts large pieces of waste into smaller pieces
so that they won't plug pipes or damage equipment.

22
Community College

Public two-year institution supported by the local community. Community colleges offer two types
of curricula: transfer (which consists of the first two years of work for the bachelor's degree) and
terminal (vocational training for employment in a wide variety of semi-professional and technical
areas).

Compost

Partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter that can be used as a soil conditioner or
fertilizer. See decomposition.

Composting

Partial breakdown of organic plant and animal matter by aerobic bacteria to produce a material
that can be used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer. See compost.

Compound

Combination of two or more different chemical elements held together by chemical bonds. See
element, inorganic compound, organic compound.

Comprehensive Examinations

Broad examinations covering material in several courses, typically taken at the end of master's
degree programs or after the end of doctoral course work before writing the dissertation.

Concentration

see major

Concentration

Amount of a chemical in a particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or other medium. See
parts per billion, parts per million. See parts per billion, parts per million.

Conference of the Parties (COP)

The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
It comprises more than 170 nations that have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in
Berlin, Germany, in 1995 and it is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP's
role is to promote and review the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically review
existing commitments in light of the Convention's objective, new scientific findings, and the
effectiveness of national climate change programs. See United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change, Berlin Mandate.

Conifer

See coniferous trees.

Coniferous trees

Cone-bearing trees, mostly evergreens, that have needle-shaped or scale-like leaves. They
produce wood known commercially as softwood. See deciduous trees.

23
Contact stabilization

Contact stabilization is a modification of the conventional activated sludge process. In contact

stabilization, two aeration tanks are used. One tank is for separate reaeration of the return sludge
for at least four hours before it is permitted to flow into the other aeration tank to be mixed with
the primary effluent requiring treatment.

Continuing Education

Educational programs offered by colleges and universities to adults in the community during the
evening and on weekends. It usually refers to non-credit course work.

Continuous miner

A mining machine designed to remove coal from the seam face and load it onto cars or
conveyors without the use of drilling and explosives.

Contour Map

A map showing the intensity of radiation as a function of position. Each contour line corresponds
to a specific intensity of radiation, with inner contours corresponding to higher intensities than
outer contours. Therefore, a closed contour encircles a region where the intensity of the emitted
radiation is greater than or equal to the intensity on the contour line. The contours outline the
shape of the emitting source.

Convection

The physical upwelling of hot matter, thus transporting energy from a lower, hotter region to a
higher, cooler region. A bubble of gas that is hotter than its surroundings expands and rises.
When it has cooled by passing on its extra heat to its surroundings, the bubble sinks again.
Convection can occur when there is a substantial decrease in temperature with height, such as in
the Sun's convection zone.

Convection Zone

A layer in a star in which convection currents are the main mechanism by which energy is
transported outward. In the Sun, a convection zone extends from just below the photosphere to
about seventy percent of the solar radius.

Conventional treatment

The preliminary treatment, sedimentation, flotation, trickling filter, rotating biological contactor,
activated sludge and chlorination of wastewater.

Conversion

Changing from one substance to another. As food matter is changed to cell growth or to carbon
dioxide.

Cooperative Education

Educational program requiring students to alternate periods of full-time study and full-time work in
their major.

Core curriculum

24
General education requirements set as a defined series of interdisciplinary courses that must be
taken by all undergraduates enrolled in degree programs at an institution.

Corona

The outermost layer of the solar atmosphere. The corona consists of a highly rarefied gas with a
low density and a temperature greater than one million degrees Kelvin. It is visible to the naked
eye during a solar eclipse.

Course

A discrete subject studied during one semester or quarter.

Credit

Time-based quantitative measure assigned to courses or course-equivalent learning. One credit

is usually defined as 50 minutes of instruction over a semester (semester credit) or a quarter
(quarter credit). 'Unit' is another term for credit.

Credit-by-Examination

The practice of awarding students college credit for satisfactory performance on an examination.

Criteria pollutant

A pollutant determined to be hazardous to human health and regulated under EPA's National
Ambient Air Quality Standards. The 1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act require EPA to
describe the health and welfare impacts of a pollutant as the "criteria" for inclusion in the
regulatory regime. Emissions of the criteria pollutants CO, NOx, NMVOCs, and SO2 are thought
to be precursors to greenhouse gas formation.

Crop residue

Organic residue remaining after the harvesting and processing of a crop.

Crop rotation

Planting the same field or areas of fields with different crops from year to year to reduce depletion
of soil nutrients. A plant such as corn, tobacco, or cotton, which remove large amounts of nitrogen
from the soil, is planted one year. The next year a legume such as soybeans, which add nitrogen
to the soil, is planted.

CRT

Cell residence time - the amount of time in days that an average "bug" remains in the process.
Also termed "sludge age".

Crude oil

A mixture of hydrocarbons that exist in liquid phase in underground reservoirs and remain liquid
at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface separating facilities. See petroleum.

Cryosphere

The frozen part of the Earth's surface. The cryosphere includes the polar ice caps, continental ice
sheets, mountain glaciers, sea ice, snow cover, lake and river ice, and permafrost.

25
Cumulative Grade Point Average

The numerical average of all the student's grades achieved during the period of study at an
institution.

Curriculum

The body of courses and other formally established learning experiences which constitute a
program of study.

Curve Grading

A system of relative grading based on the performance of all members of a class on an

examination. It is also called norm-referenced grading.

D/I unit

Deionizing unit, frequntly used to maintain water quality in aquariums. Advantages does not
waste water like the R/O unit, is designed to be hooked up to either a faucet or household piping
system, the anion & cation resins can be regenerated (with another expensive unit) indefinitely,
and these systems allow a larger water flow (up to 2,000 gallons a day), than an R/O system, but
cost dramatically more too.

DAF

Dissolved air flotation - one of many designs for waste treatment

Dean

Middle-level academic or administrative officer in charge of an administrative unit.

Dean's List

A published list of students who have earned a specified high grade-point average in a term.

Deciduous trees

Trees such as oaks and maples that lose their leaves during part of the year. See coniferous
trees.

Declining growth

A growth phase in which the availability of food begins to limit cell growth.

Decomposition

The breakdown of matter by bacteria and fungi. It changes the chemical composition and physical
appearance of the materials. See composting.

Deep mine

An underground mine. About 38% of U.S. coal is produced from underground mines. Currently
there are no underground mines in Wyoming

Deforestation

26
Those practices or processes that result in the change of forested lands to non-forest uses. This
is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons: 1)
the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and 2) trees that once
removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer
present and contributing to carbon storage.

Degradable

See biodegradable.

Degradation

A growth phase in which the availability of food begins to limit cell growth.

Denitrification

An anaerobic biological reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen gas, the removal of total nitrogen
from a system, and/or an anaerobic process that occurs when nitrite ions are reduced to nitrogen
gas and bubbles are formed as a result of this process. The bubbles attach to the biological floc
in the activated sludge process and float the floc to the surface of the secondary clarifiers. This
condition is often the cause of rising sludge observed in secondary clarifiers or gravity thickeners.
(See Nitrification)

Density

The amount of mass or number of particles per unit volume. In cgs units mass density has units
of gm cm-3. Number density has units cm-3 (particles per cubic centimeter).

Department

The formal faculty group, together with its support staff, responsible for instruction in a general
subject area.

Desertification

The progressive destruction or degradation of existing vegetative cover to form desert. This can
occur due to overgrazing, deforestation, drought, and the burning of extensive areas. Once
formed, deserts can only support a sparse range of vegetation. Climatic effects associated with
this phenomenon include increased albedo, reduced atmospheric humidity, and greater
atmospheric dust (aerosol) loading.

Detritus

Dead plant and animal matter, usually consumed by bacteria, but some remains.

Dew Point

The temperature to which air with a given quantity of water vapor must be cooled to cause
condensation of the vapor in the air.

Diatomaceous earth

A fine, siliceous (made of silica) "earth" composed mainly of the skeletal remains of diatoms
(single cell microscopic algae with rigid internal structure consisting mainly of silica). Tests prove
that DE leaches unacceptable amounts of silicate into the water for fish health. If used as a filter

27
substance, a silicone removing resin should be employed afterwards.

Diffused Air Aeration

A diffused air activated sludge plant takes air, compresses it, and then discharges the air below
the water surface of the aerator through some type of air diffusion device.

Digester

A tank in which sludge is placed to allow decomposition by microorganisms. Digestion may occur
under anaerobic (most common) or aerobic conditions.

Discipline

An area of academic study.

Disinfection

The process designed to kill most microorganisms in wastewater, including essentially all
pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria. There are several ways to disinfect, with chlorine being
the most frequently used in water and wastewater treatment plants.

Dissertation

The formal writing requirement -- often an original contribution to knowledge -- for a doctoral
degree.

Dissolved solids

Chemical substances either organic or inorganic that are dissolved in a waste stream and
constitute the residue when a sample is evaporated to dryness.

Distillate fuel oil

A general classification for the petroleum fractions produced in conventional distillation

operations. Included are products known as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 4 fuel oils and No. 1, No. 2,
and No. 4 diesel fuels. Used primarily for space heating, on and off-highway diesel engine fuel
(including railroad engine fuel and fuel for agricultural machinery), and electric power generation.

Distribution box

Serves to distribute the flow from the septic tank evenly to the absorption field or seepage pits. It
is important that each trench or pit receive an equal amount of flow. This prevents overloading of
one part of the system.

Distribution Requirement

The part of general education designed to ensure that each student takes a minimum number of
courses or credits in specified, varying academic areas.

Distributor

The rotating mechanism that distributes the wastewater evenly over the surface of a trickling filter
or other process unit.

DO

28
Dissolved Oxygen - a measure of the oxygen dissolved in water expressed in milligrams per liter.

Double Major

Program of study in which a student completed the requirements of two majors at the same time.

DOUR

Dissolved Oxygen Uptake Ratio.

Dragline

A huge excavating machine using a bucket suspended from cables attached to a boom. The
bucket is dragged along scooping up the overburden. An immense machines-the cab is as big as
a house, the boom often 100 yards long, the bucket holding 160 cubic yards.

Drill Rig

A self-propelled machine that drills four inch holes as deep as 50 feet into the overburden or coal
which are later filled with explosive (using a mixture diesel fuel and fertilizer).

Drop

To withdraw from a course.

Drop-Add

A period at the beginning of each term when students are allowed to change their class
schedules by dropping or adding courses.

Drop-out

A person who has withdrawn from all courses. One who leaves school entirely is known as a
'dropout'.

Dual Degree

Program of study in which a student receives two degrees from the same institution.

Early Admission

A program allowing well-qualified high school students to enter college full time before completing
secondary school.

E-coli

Escherichia coli - one of the non-pathogenic coliform organisms used to indicate the presence of
pathogenic bacteria in water.

Ecology

The study of all aspects of how organisms interact with each other and/or their environment

Economy

29
System of production, distribution, and consumption of economic goods.

Ecosystem

Groupings of various organisms interacting with each other and their environment.

Ecosystem

The complex system of plant, animal, fungal, and microorganism communities and their
associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit. Ecosystems have no fixed
boundaries; instead their parameters are set to the scientific, management, or policy question
being examined. Depending upon the purpose of analysis, a single lake, a watershed, or an
entire region could be considered an ecosystem.

Effluent

Wastewater or other liquid - raw (untreated), partially or completely treated - flowing from a
reservoir, basin, treatment process, or treatment plant.

EGL

Energy grade line - a line that represents the elevation of energy head in feet of water flowing in a
pipe, conduit, or channel.

El Ninõ

A climatic phenomenon occurring irregularly, but generally every 3 to 5 years. El Ninõs often first
become evident during the Christmas season (El Ninõ means Christ child) in the surface oceans
of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. The phenomenon involves seasonal changes in the
direction of the tropical winds over the Pacific and abnormally warm surface ocean temperatures.
The changes in the tropics are most intense in the Pacific region, these changes can disrupt
weather patterns throughout the tropics and can extend to higher latitudes, especially in Central
and North America. The relationship between these events and global weather patterns are
currently the subject of much research in order to enhance prediction of seasonal to interannual
fluctuations in the climate.

Elective

A course chosen freely by the student from the institution's offerings. Also called 'free elective'.

Electrolytic process

A process that causes the decomposition of a chemical compound by the use of electricity.

Electromagnetic Radiation

Radiation that travels through vacuous space at the speed of light and propagates by the
interplay of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. This radiation has a wavelength and a
frequency.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The entire range of all the various kinds or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including
(from short to long wavelengths) gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, optical (visible), infrared, and
radio waves.

30
Electron

A negatively charged elementary particle that normally resides outside (but is bound to) the
nucleus of an atom.

Electron Flux

The rate of flow of electrons through a reference surface. In cgs units, measured in electrons s-1,
or simply s-1.

Electron Volt

Abbreviated eV. A unit of energy used to describe the total energy carried by a particle or photon.
The energy acquired by an electron when it accelerates through a potential difference of 1 volt in
a vacuum. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-12 erg.

Electrons

Tiny particle moving around outside the nucleus of an atom. Each electron has one unit of
negative charge (-) and almost no mass.

Electrostatic precipitator

An aid in reducing atmospheric pollution by removing the fly ash before it goes out the smoke
stack of a power plant. An electrostatic charge is given to the particles which then adhere to a
collector plate having the opposite charge.

Element

Chemicals such as hydrogen (H), iron (Fe), sodium (Na), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), or oxygen (O),
whose distinctly different atoms serve as the basic building blocks of all matter. There are 92
naturally occurring elements. Another 15 have been made in laboratories. Two or more elements
combine to form compounds that make up most of the world's matter. See compound.

Elementary School

Primary school (grades 1-6 or 1-8)

Emission inventory

A list of air pollutants emitted into a community's, state's, nation's, or the Earth's atmosphere in
amounts per some unit time (e.g. day or year) by type of source. An emission inventory has both
political and scientific applications.

Emissions

The release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into
the atmosphere.

Emissions coefficient/factor

A unique value for scaling emissions to activity data in terms of a standard rate of emissions per
unit of activity (e.g., grams of carbon dioxide emitted per barrel of fossil fuel consumed).

Emulsion

31
A liquid mixture of two or more liquid substances not normally dissolved in one another, one liquid
held in suspension in the other.

Endemic

Species characteristic of or prevalent in a particular or restricted locality or region.

Endogenous respiration

A reduced level of respiration (breathing) in which organisms break down compounds within their
own cells to produce the oxygen they need.

Energy

The capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of doing work (potential energy) or the
conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has several forms, some of which
are easily convertible and can be changed to another form useful for work. Most of the world's
convertible energy comes from fossil fuels that are burned to produce heat that is then used as a
transfer medium to mechanical or other means in order to accomplish tasks. In the United States,
electrical energy is often measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), while heat energy is often measured
in British thermal units (Btu).

Energy conservation

Reduction or elimination of unnecessary energy use and waste. See energy-efficiency.

Energy Flux

The rate of flow of energy through a reference surface. In cgs units, measured in erg s-1. Also
measured in watts, where 1 watt = 1 x 107 erg s-1. Flux density, the flux measured per unit area,
is also often referred to as "flux".

Energy intensity

Ratio between the consumption of energy to a given quantity of output; usually refers to the
amount of primary or final energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product.

Energy quality

Ability of a form of energy to do useful work. High-temperature heat and the chemical energy in
fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are concentrated high quality energy. Low-quality energy such as
low-temperature heat is dispersed or diluted and cannot do much useful work.

Energy-efficiency

The ratio of the useful output of services from an article of industrial equipment to the energy use
by such an article; for example, vehicle miles traveled per gallon of fuel (mpg).

Enhanced greenhouse effect

The concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic emissions
of greenhouse gases. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide,
CFCs, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3, and other photochemically important gases caused by human
activities such as fossil fuel consumption, trap more infra-red radiation, thereby exerting a
warming influence on the climate. See greenhouse gas, anthropogenic, greenhouse effect,
climate, global warming.

32
Enhanced oil recovery

Removal of some of the heavy oil left in an oil well after primary and secondary recovery. See
primary oil recovery, secondary oil recovery.

Enrollment

(1) The process of registering for classes. (2) the total number of students at an institution.

Enteric

Of intestinal origin, especially applied to wastes or bacteria.

Enteric fermentation

A digestive process by which carbohydrates are broken down by microorganisms into simple
molecules for absorption into the bloodstream of an animal.

Environment

All external conditions that affect an organism or other specified system during its lifetime.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

An analysis of the environmental impacts to be anticipated from a proposed activity (mine, power
plant construction etc). Mandated by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1972

Environmental resistance

All biotic and abiotic factors combining to limit explosion.

Enzyme

Organic substances (proteins) produced by living organisms and act as catalysts to speed up
chemical changes.

Eocene Epoch

The geologic time period starting 57.8 million years ago and ending 36.6 million years ago, A
period of subtropical climate in Wyoming and the formation of Wasatch Formation in the Powder
River Basin, Wyoming which includes some of the worlds thickest coal beds.

Equalizing basin

A holding basin in which variations in flow and composition of liquid are averaged. Such basins
are used to provide a flow of reasonably uniform volume and composition to a treatment unit.
Also called a balancing reservoir.

Erg

A cgs unit of energy equal to work done by a force of 1 dyne acting over a distance of 1 cm. 107
(ten million) erg s-1 (ergs per second) = 1 watt. Also, 1 Calorie = 4.2 x 1010 (42 billion) ergs.

Estuaries

33
Bodies of water which are located at the lower end of a river and are subject to tidal fluctuations.

Ethanol (C2H5OH)

Otherwise known as ethyl alcohol, alcohol, or grain spirit. A clear, colorless, flammable
oxygenated hydrocarbon with a boiling point of 78.5 degrees Celsius in the anhydrous state. In
transportation, ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel by itself (E100), blended with gasoline (E85), or
as a gasoline octane enhancer and oxygenate (10 percent concentration).

Eurythermal

Bodies of water which are located at the lower end of a river and are subject to tidal fluctuations.

Evapotranspiration

The loss of water from the soil by evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing in the
soil, which rises with air temperature.

Exchange Scholar or Student

see visiting scholar or student

Exemption

The practice of exempting a student from a requirement. For example, if a college required all
students to take freshman English, but on the basis of evidence of outstanding prior achievement
(such as high scores on an examination) waived the requirement, this would constitute
exemption.

Experiential Learning

Learning which takes place outside of the classroom through formal courses or other life
activities.

Explosive

The explosive used in loosening the overburden and coal in open pit mines is commonly
ammonium nitrate (simple fertilizer) mixed with a little diesel fuel. A typical blast uses 60,000 lb.

Exponential growth

Growth in which some quantity, such as population size, increases by a constant percentage of
the whole during each year or other time period; when the increase in quantity over time is
plotted, this type of growth yields a curve shaped like the letter J.

Food - represents BOD in the F/M ratio. Expressed in pounds.

F/M

A ratio of the amount of food to the amount of organisms. Used to control an activated sludge
process.

Face

34
The vertical surface of a coal seam exposed in a mine

Facultative anaerobe

A bacterium capable of growing under aerobic conditions or anaerobic conditions in the presence
of an inorganic ion ie. SO4, NO3.

Facultative pond

The most common type of pond in current use. The upper portion (supernatant) is aerobic, while
the bottom layer is anaerobic. Algae supply most of the oxygen to the supernatant.

Faculty

(1) The body of teaching personnel in a department, division, or an entire institution. (2) An
academic administrative unit, e.g., The Faculty of Engineering.

Feedback Mechanisms

A mechanism that connects one aspect of a system to another. The connection can be either
amplifying (positive feedback) or moderating (negative feedback). See climate feedback.

Feedlot

Confined outdoor or indoor space used to raise hundreds to thousands of domesticated livestock.
See rangeland.

Fellow

A student (graduate or undergraduate) granted a 'fellowship' on the basis of academic

achievement.

Fermentation

A type of heterotrophic metabolism in which an organic compound rather than oxygen is the
terminal electron (or hydrogen) acceptor. Less energy is generated from this incomplete form of
glucose oxidation than is generated by respiration, but the process supports anaerobic growth.

Fertilization

A term used to denote efforts to enhance plant growth by increased application of nitrogen-based
fertilizer or increased deposition of nitrates in precipitation.

Fertilization, Carbon Dioxide

An expression (sometimes reduced to fertilization) used to denote increased plant growth due to
a higher carbon dioxide concentration.

Fertilizer

Substance that adds inorganic or organic plant nutrients to soil and improves its ability to grow
crops, trees, or other vegetation. See organic fertilizer, fertilization.

Filamentous organisms

Organisms that grow in a thread or filamentous form. Common types are Thiothrix,

35
Actinomycetes, and Cyanobacteria (aka blue-green algae). This is a common cause of sludge
bulking in the activated sludge process. Variously known as "pond scum", "blue-green algae", or
"moss", when it appears in a pond/lake, and confused with algae because it looks a lot like algae.
Cyanobacteria forms a symbiotic relationship with some varieties of algae, making the
combination very difficult to combat in lakes and ponds. Filamentous organisms and
Actinomycetes will naturally stick to solid surfaces. Common types of Cyanobacteria are
Oscillatoria, Anabaena, and Synechococcus. Other filament formers include Spirogyra,
Cladophora, Rhizoclonium, Mougeotia, Zygnema and Hydrodictyon. Nocardia is another filament
former, which causes foaming and interferes with flocculation in a waste treatment plant.

Filter aid

A chemical (usually a polymer) added to water to help remove fine colloidal suspended solids.

Final Examination

A course-based examination taken at the end of the term.

Financial Aid

Scholarships, grants and loans provided for students by academic institutions from government
and private sources to help defray educational costs.

Flare (Solar)

Rapid release of energy from a localized region on the Sun in the form of electromagnetic
radiation, energetic particles, and mass motions.

Flare Star

A member of a class of stars that show occasional, sudden, unpredicted increases in light. The
total energy released in a flare on a flare star can be much greater that the energy released in a
solar flare.

Flaring

The burning of waste gases through a flare stack or other device before releasing them to the air.

Floating matter

Matter which passes through a 2000 micron sieve and separates by flotation for an hour.

Floc

Clumps of bacteria and particulate impurities or coagulants that have come together and formed
a cluster. Found in aeration tanks and secondary clarifiers.

Flocculation

The process of forming floc particles when a chemical coagulant or flocculent such as alum or
ferric chloride is added to the wastewater.

Flow equalization system

A device or tank designed to hold back or store a portion of peak flows for release during low-flow
periods.

36
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC)

Process for burning coal more efficiently, cleanly, and cheaply. A stream of hot air is used to
suspend a mixture of powdered coal and limestone during combustion. About 90 to 98 percent of
the sulfur dioxide produced during combustion is removed by reaction with limestone to produce
solid calcium sulfate.

Fluidized-bed combustion

A clean coal technology that removes sulfur from coal combustion as well as limiting the
formation of nitrogen oxides. It involves suspending crushed coal and limestone in the bottom of a
boiler by an upward moving stream of hot air. While the coal is burned in this liquid-like mixture,
sulfur from the combustion gases combines with the limestone to form a solid compound and can
be removed with the ash.

Fluorocarbons

Carbon-fluorine compounds that often contain other elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, or
bromine. Common fluorocarbons include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). See chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, ozone depleting substance.

Fly ash

Microscopic sized particles of ash produced from the burning of coal in a power plant.

Food chain

Very simple pathway of nutrient flow. Ex. Carnivore > herbivore > plant .

Footpoint

The intersection of magnetic loops with the photosphere.

Forcing Mechanism

A process that alters the energy balance of the climate system, i.e. changes the relative balance
between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation from Earth. Such mechanisms
include changes in solar irradiance, volcanic eruptions, and enhancement of the natural
greenhouse effect by emission of carbon dioxide. See radiation, infrared radiation, radiative
forcing.

Foreign Student Advisor

Official employed by the institution to assist foreign students, scholars and faculty with
immigration, visas, orientation, insurance, and other such matters.

Forest

Terrestrial ecosystem (biome) with enough average annual precipitation (at least 76 centimeters
or 30 inches) to support growth of various species of trees and smaller forms of vegetation.

Fort Union Formation

A 2,000 foot thick layer of shale and sandstone in Wyoming that contains hundreds of coal beds.

37
It was deposited during the Paleocene Epoch over a period of some 14 million years beginning
66.4 million years ago.

Fossil fuel

A hydrocarbon based fuel (the various coals, natural gas and petroleum) generated from animals
and/or plants living millions of years ago. Considered a non-renewable resource since it is not
being replenished or formed at any significant rate on a human time scale.

Fossil fuel

A general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic materials, formed from
decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils
by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. See
coal, petroleum, crude oil, natural gas.

Fossil fuel combustion

Burning of coal, oil (including gasoline), or natural gas. This burning, usually to generate energy,
releases carbon dioxide, as well as combustion by products that can include unburned
hydrocarbons, methane, and carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide, methane, and many of the
unburned hydrocarbons slowly oxidize into carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Common sources
of fossil fuel combustion include cars and electric utilities.

Framboid

Microscopic aggregate of pyrite (FeS2) grains in a roughly spherical form. Result of anerobic
bacterial action in a reducing environment. Too small to wash out of the coal.

Free Electron

An electron that has broken free of it's atomic bond and is therefore not bound to an atom.

Freon

See chlorofluorocarbons.

Frequency

The number of repetitions per unit time of the oscillations of an electromagnetic wave (or other
wave). The higher the frequency, the greater the energy of the radiation and the smaller the
wavelength. Frequency is measured in Hertz.

Freshman

First-year student (applies to both college undergraduates and high school students).

Fugitive emissions

Unintended gas leaks from the processing, transmission, and/or transportation of fossil fuels,
CFCs from refrigeration leaks, SF6 from electrical power distributor, etc.

Full-time

Student taking 12 or more credits during any given term.

38
Gamma Ray

The highest energy (shortest wavelength) photons in the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays
are often defined to begin at 10 keV, although radiation from around 10 keV to several hundred
keV is also referred to as hard x-rays.

Gasification

The conversion of soluble and suspended materials into gas during anaerobic decomposition. In
clarifiers the resulting gas bubbles can become attached to the settled sludge and cause large
clumps of sludge to rise and float on the water surface. In anaerobic sludge digesters, this gas is
collected for fuel or disposed of using a waste gas burner.

Gasification

Process by which coal can be converted into a gaseous hydrocarbon fuel.

Gasohol

Vehicle fuel consisting of a mixture of gasoline and ethyl or methyl alcohol; typically 10 to 23
percent ethanol by volume.

General Aviation

That portion of civil aviation, which encompasses all facets of aviation except air carriers. It
includes any air taxis, commuter air carriers, and air travel clubs, which do not hold Certificates of
Public Convenience and Necessity. See air carrier.

General Circulation Model (GCM)

A global, three-dimensional computer model of the climate system which can be used to simulate
human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex and they represent the effects of such
factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapor, greenhouse gas
concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries.
The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land
surface. See climate modeling.

General Education

A component of the undergraduate curriculum designed to provide breadth to the curriculum and
a common undergraduate experience for all students. It is usually defined on an institution-wide
basis and involves study in several subject area.

Generation time

The time required for a given population to double in size. This time can be as short as 20
minutes or as long as a week.

Geomagnetic Storm

A worldwide disturbance of the Earth's magnetic field, associated with solar activity.

Geosphere

The soils, sediments, and rock layers of the Earth's crust, both continental and beneath the ocean
floors.

39
Geosynchronous Orbit

The orbit of a satellite that travels above the Earth's equator from west to east so that it has a
speed matching that of the Earth's rotation and remains stationary in relation to the Earth (also
called geostationary). Such an orbit has an altitude of about 35,900 km (22,300 miles).

Geothermal energy

Heat transferred from the earth's molten core to under-ground deposits of dry steam (steam with
no water droplets), wet steam (a mixture of steam and water droplets), hot water, or rocks lying
fairly close to the earth's surface.

Global warming

The progressive gradual rise of the earth's surface temperature thought to be caused by the
greenhouse effect and responsible for changes in global climate patterns. An increase in the near
surface temperature of the Earth. Global warming has occurred in the distant past as the result of
natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted to occur as a
result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases. See climate change, greenhouse effect,
enhanced greenhouse effect, radiative forcing.

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

The index used to translate the level of emissions of various gases into a common measure in
order to compare the relative radiative forcing of different gases without directly calculating the
changes in atmospheric concentrations. GWPs are calculated as the ratio of the radiative forcing
that would result from the emissions of one kilogram of a greenhouse gas to that from emission of
one kilogram of carbon dioxide over a period of time (usually 100 years). The chart below shows
the original GWPs (assigned in 1990) and the most recent GWPs (assigned in 1996) for the most
important greenhouse gases.

Glyoxylate cycle

A modification of the Krebs cycle, which occurs in some bacteria. Acetyl coenzyme A is
generated directly from oxidation of fatty acids or other lipid compounds.

GMAT (Graduate Management Admission Test)

A standardized external examination of verbal and quantitative skills usually required by graduate
schools of business and used to assess the qualifications of applicants for MBA programs.

Grade

A measure of the amount of contaminants (ash) found in the coal. A low grade coal has a high
ash content (>7%). Common sources of ash include clay, sand, wind blown dust, and volcanic
ash. In addition, the presence of sulfur and sodium lower the grade of the coal. The sulfur can
end up contributing to acid rain upon combustion while the sodium adversely affects the boilers in
a power plant.

Grade

An evaluation (normally by letter on a scale of A-F) of a student's performance on an

examination, a paper or in a course.

Grade-point average (GPA)

40
The average of grades earned in all courses taken during a term divided by the number of credits.

Graduate

(1) A person who has successfully completed a program of study and earned the final award (2)
as an adjective, refers to post-baccalaureate status.

Graduate Advisor

The faculty member who serves as advisor to all graduate students in a department.

Graduate Assistant

see 'research assistant'

Graduate School

The academic unit within an institution which administers graduate education.

Gram negative

Bacteria cells which lose the crystal violet during the decolorizing step and are then colored by
the counterstain. Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus are examples of gram negative strains.

Gram positive

Bacterial cells which retain the crystal violet stain during a staining procedure. Most strains of
bacilli are gram positive.

Grassland

Terrestrial ecosystem (biome) found in regions where moderate annual average precipitation (25
to 76 centimeters or 10 to 30 inches) is enough to support the growth of grass and small plants
but not enough to support large stands of trees.

GRE (Graduate Record Examination)

A two-part standardized external examination designed to measure general verbal, quantitative

and analytical skills (General Aptitude Test) and knowledge and understanding of subject matter
basic to graduate study in specific fields (Advanced Tests). The GRE is generally required by
graduate schools and is used to assess the qualifications of applicants to master's and Ph.D.
programs.

Greenhouse effect

The effect produced as greenhouse gases allow incoming solar radiation to pass through the
Earth's atmosphere, but prevent part of the outgoing infrared radiation from the Earth's surface
and lower atmosphere from escaping into outer space. This process occurs naturally and has
kept the Earth's temperature about 59 degrees F warmer than it would otherwise be. Current life
on Earth could not be sustained without the natural greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse Gas

Any gas that absorbs infra-red radiation in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include water
vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halogenated fluorocarbons

41
(HCFCs), ozone (O3), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). See
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, ozone, hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride.

Grit

The heavy material present in wastewater, such as sand coffee grounds, eggshells, gravel and
cinders.

Gymnasium

The building which houses the sports facilities on a campus.

Gytta

The gel-like organic muck resulting from the partial bacterial decay of peat. Found at the base of
the peat column about 30 feet down.

Halocarbons

Chemicals consisting of carbon, sometimes hydrogen, and either chlorine, fluorine bromine or
iodine.

Halons

Compounds, also known as bromofluorocarbons, that contain bromine, fluorine, and carbon.
They are generally used as fire extinguishing agents and cause ozone depletion. Bromine is
many times more effective at destroying stratospheric ozone than chlorine. See ozone depleting
substance.

Halophilic or Halotolerant

Bacteria which thrive in a highly salt environment, up to 25% NaCl.

Hard coal

Coals of more than 10,260 BTU (anthracite, bituminous and some subbituminous coals).

Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI)

An index of how easily a coal can be pulverized for use in power plants. A low HGI (<50) is
considered hard to pulverize.

Headworks

The facilities where wastewater enters a wastewater treatment plant. The headworks may consist
of bar screens, comminutors, a wet well and pumps.

Heat

Form of kinetic energy that flows from one body to another when there is a temperature
difference between the two bodies. Heat always flows spontaneously from a hot sample of matter
to a colder sample of matter. This is one way to state the second law of thermodynamics. See
temperature.

Heat content

42
The amount of heat per unit mass released upon complete combustion.

Hertz

Abbreviated Hz. A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second. One kHz = 1000 Hz. One
MHz = 106 (one million) Hz. One GHz = 109 Hz.

Heterotroph

A microorganism which uses organic matter for energy and growth.

High School

Secondary School (grades 7-12 or 9-12). In the 6+6 scheme, the first three years (grades 7-9)
are known as 'junior high school' and the final three years (10-12) as 'senior high school'.

Higher heating value

Quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel
assuming that the produced water vapor is completely condensed and the heat is recovered; also
known as gross calorific value. See lower heating value.

Histosol

Wet organic soils, such as peats and mucks.

Homework

Regular assignments to be completed outside the classroom and taken into account in the
student's course grade.

Honors

Special recognition of students' outstanding academic achievement.

House Sewer

The pipeline connecting the house and drain and the septic tank.

HRT

Hours of Retention Time.

Humic matter

Peat that has undergone enough decay to make the plant material unrecognizable.

Humus

The dark organic material in soils, produced by the decomposition of soils. The matter that
remains after the bulk of detritus has beenconsumed (leaves, roots). Humus mixes with top layers
of soil (rock particles), supplies some of the nutrients needed by plants -increases acidity of soil;
inorganic nutrients more soluble under acidic conditions, become more available, EX. wheat
grows best at pH 5.5-7.0. Humus modifies soil texture, creates loose, crumbly texture, that allows
water to soak in and nutrients retained; permits air to be incorporated into soil.

43
Hydraulic loading

Hydraulic loading refers to the flows (MGD or m3/day) to a treatment plant or treatment process.

Hydrocarbon

A family of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and
natural gas are all hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons

Substances containing only hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons.
Some hydrocarbon compounds are major air pollutants. See fossil fuel.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

Compounds containing hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, and carbon atoms. Although ozone depleting
substances, they are less potent at destroying stratospheric ozone than chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). They have been introduced as temporary replacements for CFCs and are also
greenhouse gases. See ozone depleting substance.

Hydroelectric power plant

Structure in which the energy of fading or flowing water spins a turbine generator to produce
electricity.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

Compounds containing only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms. They were introduced as
alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many industrial, commercial, and personal
needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in
manufacturing. They do not significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are
powerful greenhouse gases with global warming potentials ranging from 140 (HFC-152a) to
11,700 (HFC-23).

Hydrogen sulfide gas

Hydrogen sulfide is a gas with a rotten egg odor. This gas is produced under anaerobic
conditions. Hydrogen sulfide is particularly dangerous because it dulls your sense of smell so that
you don't notice it after you have been around it for a while and because the odor is not
noticeable in high concentrations. The gas is very poisonous to your respiratory system,
explosive, flammable, and colorless.

Hydrologic cycle

The process of evaporation, vertical and horizontal transport of vapor, condensation,

precipitation, and the flow of water from continents to oceans. It is a major factor in determining
climate through its influence on surface vegetation, the clouds, snow and ice, and soil moisture.
The hydrologic cycle is responsible for 25 to 30 percent of the mid-latitudes' heat transport from
the equatorial to polar regions.

Hydrolysis

The process in which carbohydrates and starches are simplified into organic soluble organics,
usually by facultative anaerobes.

44
Hydromagnetic Wave

A wave in which both the plasma and magnetic field oscillate.

Hydroperiod

The period of time when a wetland normally receives its water.

Hydropower

Electrical energy produced by falling or flowing water. See hydroelectric power plant.

Hydrosphere

The part of the Earth composed of water including clouds, oceans, seas, ice caps, glaciers, lakes,
rivers, underground water supplies, and atmospheric water vapor.

Hygroscopic

Absorbing or attracting moisture from the air.

Ice core

A cylindrical section of ice removed from a glacier or an ice sheet in order to study climate
patterns of the past. By performing chemical analyses on the air trapped in the ice, scientists can
estimate the percentage of carbon dioxide and other trace gases in the atmosphere at that time.

Incineration

The conversion of dewatered wastewater solids by combustion (burning) to ash, carbon dioxide,
and water vapor.

Incomplete

Temporary grade indicating that the student has not met all course assignments at the end of the
term.

Independent Study

An assignment (reading or research) carried out by a student under faculty supervision.

Industrial sector

Construction, manufacturing, agricultural and mining establishments.

Infiltration

The seepage of groundwater into a sewer system, including service connections. Seepage
frequently occurs through defective or cracked pipes, pipe joints, connections or manhole walls.

Influent

The liquid - raw (untreated) or partially treated - flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment process
or treatment plant.

45
Infrared radiation

The heat energy that is emitted from all solids, liquids, and gases. In the context of the
greenhouse issue, the term refers to the heat energy emitted by the Earth's surface and its
atmosphere. Greenhouse gases strongly absorb this radiation in the Earth's atmosphere, and
radiate some back towards the surface, creating the greenhouse effect. See radiation,
greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect, global warming.

Inoculate

To introduce a seed culture into a system, such as with the addition of ALKEN CLEAR-FLO®
cultures.

Inorganic compound

Combination of two or more elements other than those used to form organic compounds. See
organic compound.

Inorganic fertilizer

See synthetic fertilizer.

Inorganic waste

Waste material such as sand, salt, iron, calcium, and other mineral materials which are only
slightly affected by the action of organisms. Inorganic wastes are chemical substances of mineral
origin; whereas organic wastes are chemical substances usually of animal or plant origin.

In-situ gasification

Burning of coal underground to produce a gas.

Instructor

A formal term which designates a part-time, temporary, university teacher. It is also a synonym
for teacher.

Intensity Map

A color-coded map of radiation intensity as a function of position. Different colors or shades

represent different intensities of observed radiation.

Interface

The common boundary layer between two substances such as between water and a solid (metal)
or between water and a gas (air) or between a liquid (water) and another liquid (oil).

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World
Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the IPCC is to assess information in the
scientific and technical literature related to all significant components of the issue of climate
change. The IPCC draws upon hundreds of the world's expert scientists as authors and
thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental, social,
and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic
assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its

46
consequences. With its capacity for reporting on climate change, its consequences, and the
viability of adaptation and mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official advisory
body to the world's governments on the state of the science of the climate change issue. For
example, the IPCC organized the development of internationally accepted methods for
conducting national greenhouse gas emission inventories.

International Student Advisor

see foreign student advisor

Internship

Supervised professional training designed to allow students to apply previously acquired skills
and knowledge to practical situations. Internships can be done as part of a course, during
vacation or after graduation.

Interspecies

Between two different species, such as tomato and weeds.

Intraspecies

Within same species; Elk vs. Elk

Ion

An atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons and has become electrically charged as a
result.

Ionization

The process by which ions are produced, typically occurring by collisions with atoms or electrons
("collisional ionization"), or by interaction with electromagnetic radiation ("photoionization").

Ionization

The process of adding electrons to, or removing electrons from, atoms or molecules, thereby
creating ions. High temperatures, electrical discharges, and nuclear radiation can cause
ionization.

Ionosphere

The region of the Earth's upper atmosphere containing a small percentage of free electrons and
ions produced by photoionization of the constituents of the atmosphere by solar ultraviolet
radiation. The ionosphere significantly influences radiowave propagation of frequencies less than
about 30 MHz.

Irreversibilities

Changes that, once set in motion, cannot be reversed, at least on human time scales.

Isotope

One of two or more atoms having the same number of protons in its nucleus, but a different
number of neutrons and, therefore, a different mass.

47
Ivy League

Association of institutions located in eastern United States originally organized for athletic
competitions. The term has since become synonymous with highly selective prestigious and elite
education. The Ivy League consists of: Brown Univ., Columbia Univ., Cornell Univ., Dartmouth
Coll., Harvard Univ., Univ. of Pennsylvania, Princeton Univ, and Yale Univ.

Jet fuel

Includes both naphtha-type and kerosene-type fuels meeting standards for use in aircraft turbine
engines. Although most jet fuel is used in aircraft, some is used for other purposes such as
generating electricity.

Joint implementation

Agreements made between two or more nations under the auspices of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Joule

The energy required to push with a force of one Newton for one meter.

Junior

Third year student. (Applies to both college undergraduates and high school students.)

Junior College

Private two-year institution.

Junior High School

see high school

Kelvin

Abbreviated K. A unit of absolute temperature. Zero degrees Celsius is equal to 273.16 Kelvin.

Kerogen

A solid, waxy, organic substance produced by the partial decay of organic mater that when
heated can produce coal macerals as well as oil and gas. There are three types of kerogen based
on the source material:

Type 1. Derived from algal deposits in lakes

Type 2. Found in marine sediment, derived from a mixture of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
bacteria in a reducing environment. Source for most of the world's oil and gas. High sulfur
content.

Type 3. Derived from continental plants. Converted into coal by heat during coalification.

Kerogen

Solid, waxy mixture of rock is heated to high temperatures, the kerogen is vaporized. The vapor is
condensed and then sent to a refinery to produce gasoline, heating oil, and other products. See

48
oil shale, shale oil.

Kerosene

A petroleum distillate that has a maximum distillation temperature of 401 degrees Fahrenheit at
the 10 percent recovery point, a final boiling point of 572 degrees Fahrenheit, and a minimum
flash point of 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Used in space heaters, cookstoves, and water heaters,
and suitable for use as an illuminant when burned in wick lamps.

keV

One thousand electron volts.

Kick net

500 micron white mesh net is designed to meet the requirements of groups performing USEPA
Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Benthic Invertebrates. (Benthic = bottom dwelling)

Kilometer

Abbreviated km. 1 km = 1000 meters = 105 cm = 0.62 mile.

Krebs Cycle

The oxidative process in respiration by which pyruvate (via acetyl coenzyme A) is completely
decarboxylated to C02. The pathway yields 15 moles of ATP (150,000 calories).

Kyoto Protocol

This is an international agreement struck by 159 nations attending the Third Conference of
Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (held in
December of 1997 in Kyoto Japan) to reduce worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases. If
ratified and put into force, individual countries have committed to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions by a specified amount. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, Conference of the Parties, Berlin Mandate.

Landfill

Land waste disposal site in which waste is generally spread in thin layers, compacted, and
covered with a fresh layer of soil each day.

Land-Grant Institution

A state-run institution founded under the terms of the 1862 Morill Act which granted public lands
to the states to establish colleges to provide full-time education in agriculture and mechanic arts.

Language Requirement

An institution's requirement that its graduates master one or more foreign languages.

Letter of Recommendation

Letter written in support of a student's application for admission to a study program which
assesses the candidate's qualifications for the program in question.

Liberal Arts

49
The traditional fields of study in the humanities, sciences and social sciences as distinct from
technical and professional education.

Liberal Arts College

Higher education institution in which the bachelor's degree emphasis is on liberal or general
undergraduate education.

Lifetime (Atmospheric)

The lifetime of a greenhouse gas refers to the approximate amount of time it would take for the
anthropogenic increment to an atmospheric pollutant concentration to return to its natural level
(assuming emissions cease) as a result of either being converted to another chemical compound
or being taken out of the atmosphere via a sink. This time depends on the pollutant's sources and
sinks as well as its reactivity. The lifetime of a pollutant is often considered in conjunction with the
mixing of pollutants in the atmosphere; a long lifetime will allow the pollutant to mix throughout the
atmosphere. Average lifetimes can vary from about a week (sulfate aerosols) to more than a
century (CFCs, carbon dioxide). See residence time, greenhouse gas.

Light-duty vehicles

Automobiles and light trucks combined.

Lignin

The substance that holds cellulose together in the cell walls and gives strength to wood. Hard to
decay so It is the primary source material for coal.

Lignite

The second product of coalification (after peat). Produced by bacterial decay of peat producing a
gel-like substance. Pressure squeezes most of the water out and the subsequently dried out gel
becomes lignite. It has a high ash content and a low BTU, but can be burned in power plants if
the plant is on the mine-site (so the transportation costs are low). Also commonly known as
Brown Coal. Large lignite deposits in occur in Texas, Montana and North Dakota.

Lignite

A brownish-black coal of low rank with high inherent moisture and volatile matter content, used
almost exclusively for electric power generation. Also referred to as brown coal. See coal.

Liquefaction

The process of converting coal to a liquid fuel.

Liquefaction

The conversion of large solid particles of sludge into very fine particles which either dissolve or
remain suspended in wastewater.

Liquefied natural gas (LNG)

Natural gas converted to liquid form by cooling to a very low temperature.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

50
Ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal butane, butylene, and isobutane produced at
refineries or natural gas processing plants, including plants that fractionate new natural gas plant
liquids.

Litter

Undecomposed plant residues on the soil surface. See decomposition.

Load

An informal term used by students and faculty to refer to the number of credits they are studying
or teaching, respectively.

Log growth

A growth phase in which cell production is maximum.

Long ton

2,200 lb. (as opposed to the standard short ton of 2,000 lb.)

Longwall miner

A machine used in deep mines that automatically augers out the coal from a seam face and loads
it onto a conveyor belt without the use of explosives.

Longwall mining

A highly efficient underground mining process in which a panel or block of coal, generally 700 feet
wide and often over a mile long is completely extracted using an auger-like machine. The working
area is protected by a movable hydraulic roof support system. After mining out the coal, the
supports are removed and the roof allowed to collapse. Longwall mining accounts for 45% of the
underground coal production. The remainder is by the older, traditional room and pillar technique.

Longwave radiation

The radiation emitted in the spectral wavelength greater than 4 micrometers corresponding to the
radiation emitted from the Earth and atmosphere. It is sometimes referred to as terrestrial
radiation or infrared radiation, although somewhat imprecisely. See infrared radiation.

Low Emission Vehicle (LEV)

A vehicle meeting the low-emission vehicle standards.

Lower heating value

Quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel
assuming that the produced water remains as a vapor and the heat of the vapor is not recovered;
also known as net calorific value. See higher heating value.

Lower-division

First two years of a bachelor's degree program which consists mainly of courses at the
introductory and elementary levels.

51
LSAT (Law School Admission Test)

A standardized external examination used by law schools to assess applicants' verbal, analytical
and reasoning skills

Lubricant

A substance used to reduce friction between bearing surfaces or as a process material, either
incorporated into other materials used as aids in manufacturing processes or as carriers of other
materials. Petroleum lubricants may be produced either from distillates or residues. Other
substances may be added to impart or improve useful properties. Does not include by-products of
lubricating oil from solvent extraction or tars derived from de-asphalting. Lubricants include all
grades of lubricating oils from spindle oil to cylinder oil and those used in greases. Lubricant
categories are paraffinic and naphthenic.

Lysing

A disintegration or breakdown of cells which releases organic matter.

Microorganisms - small organisms which require a microscope to be seen. M represents the SS

in the mixed liquor and is part of the F/M ratio.

MacConkey Streak

Laboratory test for the presence of gram negative bacteria. We use this test to detect
contamination of Bacillus products such as CF 1000, 1002, 4002 and som of the Enz-Odor®
products.

Macerals

Equivalent to minerals in rocks, macerals form from the coalification of the various parts of plants.
There are three major groups of macerals:

Vitrinite - the most abundant maceral is the result of the decomposition of the cell walls of plant
material (essentially decomposed cellulose and lignin)

Exinite - composed of spores, cuticles (the outer surfaces of leaves), resins, and waxes.

Inertinite - mostly charcoal, which usually forms in layers resulting from fires that periodically
sweep through wetlands.

Macronutrient

An element required in large proportion by plants and other life forms for survival and growth.
Macronutrients include Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorous (P).

Magnetic Field

A field of force that is generated by electric currents. The Sun's average large-scale magnetic
field, like that of the Earth, exhibits a north and a south pole linked by lines of magnetic force.

Magnetic Field Lines

Imaginary lines that indicate the strength and direction of a magnetic field. The orientation of the

52
line and an arrow show the direction of the field. The lines are drawn closer together where the
field is stronger. Charged particles move freely along magnetic field lines, but are inhibited by the
magnetic force from moving across field lines.

Major

Undergraduate student's area of specialization, it consists of a number of courses in one field or

in two or more related fields. The major is also referred to as concentration.

Major professor

The professor who advises a doctoral candidate in the final stages of the program, also known as
'dissertation advisor'.

Make-up examination

A late examination for students who missed the original date.

Manure

Dung and urine of animals that can be used as a form of organic fertilizer. See fertilizer, organic
fertilizer.

Marsh

A wetland in which the primary vegetation consists of grass, reeds, rushes, and/or cattails. Water
level can vary from the soil surface to three feet deep.

Masking agent

Substance used to cover up or disguise unpleasant odors. Liquid masking agents are dripped into
wastewater, sprayed into the air, or evaporated (using heat) with the unpleasant fumes or odors
and then discharged into the air by blowers to make an undesirable odor less noticeable.

Mass balance

The application of the principle of the conservation of matter.

Master's degree

A post-baccalaureate degree usually earned after one or two years of course work.

Matriculated

Enrolled in a program leading to a degree.

Mauna Loa

An intermittently active volcano (elevation: 13,680 feet; 4,170 meters) on the island of Hawaii.

MBA

Master of Business Administration

MCAT (Medical College Admission Test)

53
A standardized external examination designed to measure specified science knowledge and its
application in solving related problems, and of other learning and reasoning skills considered
important for the study of medicine, used by medical schools to assess applicants.

MCRT

Mean Cell Retention Time - days. An expression of the average time that a microorganism will
spend in an activated sludge process.

Mechanical aeration

The use of machinery to mix air and water so that oxygen can be absorbed into the water. Some
examples are paddle wheels, mixers, rotating brushes to agitate the surface of an aeration tank;
pumps to create fountains; and pumps to discharge water down a series of steps forming falls or
cascades.

Media

The material in the trickling filter on which slime accumulates and organisms grow. As settled
wastewater trickles over the media, organisms in the slime remove certain types of wastes
thereby partially treating the wastewater. Also the material in a rotating biological contactor (RBC)
or in a gravity or pressure filter.

Megaton

An explosive force equal to one million metric tons of TNT. The energy released in the explosion
of one megaton of TNT is equal to 4.2 x 1022 ergs.

MEK

Methyl ethyl ketone.

Mercaptans

Compounds containing sulfur which have an extremely offensive skunk-like odor. Also sometimes
described as smelling like garlic or onions.

Mesophilic bacteria

A group of bacteria that grow and thrive in a moderate temperature range between 68 F (20 C)
and 113 F (45 C).

Metabolism

All of the processes or chemical changes in an organism or a single cell by which food is built up
(anabolism) into living protoplasm and by which protoplasm is broken down (catabolism) into
simpler compounds with the exchange of energy.

Metallurgical coal

Various grades of coal suitable for making coke.

Meteorology

The science of weather-related phenomena. See weather, climate.

54
Methane (CH4)

A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently estimated
at 21. Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste in
landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural
gas and petroleum, coal production, and incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The atmospheric
concentration of methane as been shown to be increasing at a rate of about 0.6 percent per year
and the concentration of about 1.7 per million by volume (ppmv) is more than twice its pre-
industrial value. However, the rate of increase of methane in the atmosphere may be stabilizing.

Methane, Coal Bed

Methane (natural gas,CH4) is a by-product of the coalification of plant material. There are two
types: biogenic methane produced during microbial decay of the peat (also called swamp gas)
and thermogenic methane produced by the thermal cracking of the organic molecules during the
formation of higher ranks of coal.

This is the gas that has caused so many fires and explosions in underground mines. It is now
beginning to be extracted and sold commercially. The amount of methane reaches 500 cubic feet
per ton of coal. Some 10 billion cubic feet have been produced from the Powder River Field since
1986.

Methanol (CH3OH)

A colorless poisonous liquid with essentially no odor and little taste. It is the simplest alcohol with
a boiling point of 64.7 degrees Celsius. In transportation, methanol is used as a vehicle fuel by
itself (M100), or blended with gasoline (M85).

Methanotrophic

Having the biological capacity to oxidize methane to CO2 and water by metabolism under aerobic
conditions. See aerobic.

Methyl bromide (CH3Br)

An effective pesticide; used to fumigate soil and many agricultural products. Because it contains
bromine, it depletes stratospheric ozone when released to the atmosphere. See ozone depleting
substance.

Metric Ton

Common international measurement for the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. A metric ton
is equal to 2205 lbs or 1.1 short tons. See short ton.

MeV

One million electron volts.

Mg/L

Milligrams per liter = ppm (parts per million) - expresses a measure of the concentration by
weight of a substance per unit volume.

MGD

Million gallons daily - refers to the flow through a waste treatment plant.

55
Micron

A unit of length. One millionth of a meter or one thousandth of a millimeter. One micron equals
0.00004 of an inch.

Micronutrient

An element required by plants and bacteria, in proportionately smaller amounts, for survival and
growth. Micronutrients include Iron (Fe), Managanese (MN), Zinc (Zn), Boron (B), and
Molybdenum (Mo).

Mid-term examination

An examination administered at the mid-point of the term.

MIK

Methyl Isobutyl Ketone.

Miller Analogies Test

A high-level mental ability test, used by some graduate schools in lieu of the GRE, which requires
the solution of 100 intellectual problems stated in the form of analogies.

Miloginite

The name coined by a resident of Milwaukee, Wisconsin for "sewage sludge", so he could scam
people into buying sludge instead of paying to dispose of it! When this ingredient is listed in a
septic product, you can be assured that the product is fraudulent! You don't use sludge to get rid
of sludge!

Mine-mouth power plant

A coal fired electrical power plant located on the mine-site.

Mineral

Any naturally occurring inorganic substance found in the earth's crust as a crystalline solid.

Minerotropic wetland

The majority of the water comes from ground water sources.

Minor

A secondary area of concentration.

Mire

A general term for any peat producing wetland.

ML

Mixed Liquor - the combination of raw influent and returned activated sludge. (no, not mixed
drinks for human consumption)

56
MLSS

Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids - the volume of suspended solids (see SS) in the mixed liquor
(see ML) of an aeration tank.

MLVSS

Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids - the volume of organic solids that can evaporate at
relatively low temperatures (550 C) from the mixed liquor of an aeration tank. This volatile portion
is used as a measure or indication of microorganisms present. Volatile substances can also be
partially removed by air stripping.

Model year

Refers to the "sales" model year; for example, vehicles sold during the period from October 1 to
the next September 31 is considered one model year.

Molecule

The smallest division of a compound that still retains or exhibits all the properties of the
substance.

Molecule

Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same chemical element (such as O2) or
different chemical elements (such as H2O).

Monoculture

Aquaculture in which one species is grown.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

The Montreal Protocol and its amendments control the phaseout of ozone depleting substances
production and use. Under the Protocol, several international organizations report on the science
of ozone depletion, implement projects to help move away from ozone depleting substances, and
provide a forum for policy discussions. In the United States, the Protocol is implemented under
the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. See ozone depleting substance, ozone layer.

Motile

Motile organisms exhibit or are capable of movement.

Motor gasoline

A complex mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons, with or without small quantities of additives,
obtained by blending appropriate refinery streams to form a fuel suitable for use in spark-ignition
engines. Motor gasoline includes both leaded and unleaded grades of finished gasoline, blending
components, and gasohol. See hydrocarbons.

Mount Pinatubo

A volcano in the Philippine Islands that erupted in 1991. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo ejected
enough particulate and sulfate aerosol matter into the atmosphere to block some of the incoming
solar radiation from reaching Earth's atmosphere. This effectively cooled the planet from 1992 to

57
1994, masking the warming that had been occurring for most of the 1980s and 1990s.

MPN index

Most Probable Number of coliform-group organisms per unit volume of sample water. Expressed
as a density or population of organisms per 100 mL of sample water

MSDS

Material Safety Data Sheet - a document that provides pertinent information and a profile of a
particular hazardous substance or mixture. An MSDS is normally developed by the manufacturer
or formulator of the hazardous substance or mixture. The MSDS is required to be made available
to employees and operators whenever there is the likelihood of the hazardous substance or
mixture being introduced into the workplace. Some manufacturers prepare MSDS for products
that are NOT considered to be hazardous to show that the product or substance is NOT
hazardous.

Multiple-choice examination

An objective examination giving students several choices of answers to a question of which one
is correct.

Municipal solid waste (MSW)

Residential solid waste and some non-hazardous commercial, institutional, and industrial wastes.
This material is generally sent to municipal landfills for disposal. See landfill.

Muskeg

A northern wetland usually combining mosses, grasses and shrubs.

Mutualism

Two species living together in a relationship in which both benefit from the association.

Naphtha

A generic term applied to a petroleum fraction with an approximate boiling range between 122
and 400 degrees Fahrenheit.

Natural gas

Gaseous hydrocarbons, especially methane (CH4). Commonly found with petroleum and coal
deposits. A fossil fuel.

Natural gas

Underground deposits of gases consisting of 50 to 90 percent methane (CH4) and small amounts
of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon compounds such as propane (C3H4) and butane (C4H10).

Natural gas liquids (NGLs)

Those hydrocarbons in natural gas that are separated as liquids from the gas. Includes natural
gas plant liquids and lease condensate.

Neutron

58
An electrically neutral elementary particle. A neutron is 1839 times heavier than an electron.

NH3N

Ammonia nitrogen. (The 3 should be subscripted, but I have not figured out how to make this
happen on the internet)

Nitrification

An aerobic process in which bacteria change the ammonia and organic nitrogen in wastewater
into oxidized nitrogen (usually nitrate). The second-stage BOD is sometimes referred to as the
"nitrification stage" (first-stage BOD is called the "carbonaceous stage").

Nitrifying bacteria

Bacteria that change the ammonia and organic nitrogen in wastewater into oxidized nitrogen
(usually nitrate).

Nitrogen cycle

Cyclic movement of nitrogen in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and
then back to the environment.

Nitrogen fixation

Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen compounds available to green plants; a
process that can be carried out only by certain strains of soil bacteria. None of these are present
in Alken Clear-Flo® formulas.

Nitrogen fixation

Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into forms useful to plants and other organisms by
lightning, bacteria, and blue-green algae; it is part of the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Gases consisting of one molecule of nitrogen and varying numbers of oxygen molecules.
Nitrogen oxides are produced, for example, by the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and
electric power plants. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute to formation of
photochemical ozone (smog), impair visibility, and have health consequences; they are
considered pollutants.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently evaluated at 310. Major
sources of nitrous oxide include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and
organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.

Nonbiodegradable

Substance that cannot be broken down in the environment by natural processess. See
biodegradable.

Nonlinearities

59
Occur when changes in one variable cause a more than proportionate impact on another
variable.

Non-matriculated

Enrolled in courses but not in a program leading to a degree.

Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs)

Organic compounds, other than methane, that participate in atmospheric photochemical

reactions.

Non-point source

Large land area such as crop fields and urban areas that discharge pollutant into surface and
underground water over a large area. See point source.

Non-renewable resource

Not being replenished or formed at any significant rate on a human time scale.

Non-slagging coal

Coals whose ash softens at more than 2,600ºF requiring removal in a solid state. (As opposed to
slagging coals whose ash is softened at less than 2,200ºF and can be discharged in a molten
state.)

Nonthermal Particle

A particle that is not part of a thermal gas. These particles cannot be described by a conventional
temperature.

Nonthermal Radiation

Radiation emitted by nonthermal electrons.

NPDES Permit

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit is the regulatory agency document issued
by either a federal or state agency which is designated to control all discharges of pollutants from
point sources into U.S. waterways. NPDES permits regulate discharges into navigable waters
from all point sources of pollution, including industries, municipal wastewater treatment plants,
sanitary landfills, large agricultural feed lots and return irrigation flows.

Nuclear electric power

Electricity generated by an electric power plant whose turbines are driven by steam generated in
a reactor by heat from the fissioning of nuclear fuel. See nuclear energy.

Nuclear energy

Energy released when atomic nuclei undergo a nuclear reaction such as the spontaneous
emission of radioactivity, nuclear fission, or nuclear fusion.

Nucleic acid

60
An organic acid consisting of joined nuceleotide complexes; the principal tyes are
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Nucleus

The positively charged core of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons (except for hydrogen),
around which electrons orbit.

Nutrients

Substances which are required to support living plants and organisms. Major nutrients are
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen and phosphorus are difficult
to remove from wastewater by conventional treatment processes because they are water soluble
and tend to recycle.

Obligate aerobe

Bacteria which require the presense of oxygen, such as Pseudomonas flourescens. A few strains
of this species are capable of utilizing nitrate to allow anaerobic respiration.

Oil

See crude oil, petroleum, fossil fuel, hydrocarbons.

Oil Retention Boom

A floating baffle used to contain and prevent the spread of floating oil on a water surface.

Oil shale

Underground formation of a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing varying amounts of

kerogen, a solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbon compounds. Heating the rock to high temperatures
converts the kerogen to a vapor, which can be condensed to form a slow flowing heavy oil called
shale oil. See kerogen, shale oil.

Ombrotropic wetland

The majority of the water comes from rain.

Open Admission

Non-selective admission of all students who have completed high school.

Open-book examination

An examination where students are allowed to consult course materials while answering
questions.

Open-pit mine

A surface or strip mine in which the coal lies close enough to the surface so that it can be
removed directly after removing the overburden. Usually the coal must be within 200 feet of the
surface. The overburden is then placed back in the pit and the land recontoured and reseeded.
About 62% of U.S. coal is produced from surface mines.

Optical Radiation

61
Electromagnetic radiation (light) that is visible to the human eye.

Orbital Period

The amount of time it takes a spacecraft or other object to travel once around it's orbit.

Ore

Mineral deposit containing a high enough concentration of at least one metallic element to permit
the metal to be extracted and sold at a profit.

Organic compound

Molecule that contains atoms of the element carbon, usually combined with itself and with atoms
of one or more other element such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine,
or fluorine. See inorganic compound.

Organic fertilizer

Organic material such as manure or compost, applied to cropland as a source of plant nutrients.

Organic matter

All of the degradable organics. Living material containing carbon compounds. Used as food by
microorganisms.

Organic nitrogen

The nitrogen combined in organic molecules such as proteins, amines, and amino acids.

Organic waste

Waste material which comes mainly from animal or plant sources. Organic waste generally can
be consumed by bacteria and other small organisms. Inorganic wastes are chemical substances
of mineral origin.

Organism

Any form of animal or plant life.

ORP

Oxidation reduction potential - the degree of completion of a chemical reaction by detecting the
ratio of ions in the reduced form to those in the oxidized form as a variation in electrical potential
measured by an ORP electrode assembly.

OSHA

The Williams-Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA) is a law designed to
protect the health and safety of industrial workers and treatment plant operators. It regulates the
design, construction, operation and maintenance of industrial plants and wastewater treatment
plants. The Act does not apply directly to municipalities, EXCEPT in those states that have
approved plans and have asserted jurisdiction under Section 18 of the OSHA Act. Wastewater
treatment plants have come under stricter regulation in all phases of activity as a result of OSHA
standards, which also refers to the federal and state agencies which administer OSHA.

62
Overburden

A surface mine term for the material overlying the coal. The overburden could be rock, clay, sand,
gravel, and /or soil.

Oxidation

Combining elemental compounds with oxygen to form a new compound. A part of the metabolic
reaction.

Oxidize

To chemically transform a substance by combining it with oxygen. See chemical reaction.

Oxidizing bacteria

Any substance such as oxygen (O2) and chlorine (Cl2), that can aaccept electrons. When oxygen
or chlorine is added to wastewater, organic substances are oxidized. These oxidized organic
substances are more stable and less likely to give off odors or to contain disease bacteria.

Oxygen cycle

Cyclic movement of oxygen in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and
then back to the environment.

Ozonation

The application of ozone to water, wastewater, or air, generally for the purposes of disinfection or
odor control.

Ozone (O3)

A colorless gas with a pungent odor, having the molecular form of O3 , found in two layers of the
atmosphere, the stratosphere (about 90% of the total atmospheric loading) and the troposphere
(about 10%). Ozone is a form of oxygen found naturally in the stratosphere that provides a
protective layer shielding the Earth from ultraviolet radiation's harmful health effects on humans
and the environment. In the troposphere, ozone is a chemical oxidant and major component of
photochemical smog. Ozone can seriously affect the human respiratory system. See atmosphere,
ultraviolet radiation

Ozone depleting substance (ODS)

A family of man-made compounds that includes, but are not limited to, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), bromofluorocarbons (halons), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide,
and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These compounds have been shown to deplete
stratospheric ozone, and therefore are typically referred to as ODSs. See ozone.

Ozone layer

The layer of gaseous ozone (O3 ) in the stratosphere that protects life on earth by filtering out
harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. See stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation.

Ozone precursors

Chemical compounds, such as carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane hydrocarbons, and

63
nitrogen oxides, which in the presence of solar radiation react with other chemical compounds to
form ozone, mainly in the troposphere. See troposphere

PAH

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. (rarely used as abbreviation for polyaluminum hydroxide)

Paleocene Epoch

The geologic time period starting 66.4 million years ago and ending 57.8 million years ago. A time
of subtropical climate in North America.

Parisitism

One organism living on or in another to obtain nourishment, without provviding any benefit to the
host organism.

Participation

Student's contribution to class discussion, often taken into account in grading.

Particulate

Free suspended solids.

Particulate matter (PM)

Solid particles or liquid droplets suspended or carried in the air (e.g., soot, dust, fumes, mist). See
aerosol, sulfate aerosols.

Particulates

See particulate matter.

Parts per billion (ppb)

Number of parts of a chemical found in one billion parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid mixture.
See concentration.

Parts per million (ppm)

Number of parts of a chemical found in one million parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid. See
concentration.

Part-time

Student taking fewer that 12 semester credits.

Pass-Fail

A system of grading which distinguishes only those who pass from those who fail.

Pathogenic organisms

Bacteria, viruses or cysts which cause disease (typhoid, cholera, dysentery) in a host (such as a
person). There are many types of bacteria (non-pathogenic) which do NOT cause disease. Many

64
beneficial bacteria are found in wastewater treatment processes actively cleaning up organic
wastes.

PCB

Polychlorinated biphenyls. Aka polychloro-biphenyls. Difficult to remediate chemical used in old-

style transformers. Concentrated PCBs used to be referred to as "1268".

Peat

The slightly decomposed plant material that accumulates on the bottom of a stagnant wetland
(swamp, marsh, or bog). Roots, stems and leaves are still visible. Dried peat is still burned in
many parts of the world even though it has a low BTU and a high ash content.

Pennsylvanian Period

A world-wide time of coal formation between 320 and 286 million years ago. A warm, humid
climate prevailed over much of the earth with numerous wetlands of giant tree ferns, reeds, and
mosses. The time of most eastern U.S. coal formation.

Pentanes plus

A mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly pentanes and heavier fractions, extracted from natural gas.
See hydrocarbons.

Percolation

The movement or flow of water through soil or rocks

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

A group of human-made chemicals composed of carbon and fluorine only. These chemicals
(predominantly CF4 and C2F6 ) were introduced as alternatives, along with hydrofluorocarbons,
to the ozone depleting substances. In addition, PFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial
processes and are also used in manufacturing. PFCs do not harm the stratospheric ozone layer,
but they are powerful greenhouse gases: CF4 has a global warming potential (GWP) of 6,500
and C2F6 has a GWP of 9,200. See ozone depleting substance.

Peristaltic pump

A type of positive displacement pump

Petrochemical feedstock

Feedstock derived from petroleum, used principally for the manufacture of chemicals, synthetic
rubber, and a variety of plastics. The categories reported are naphtha (endpoint less than 401
degrees Fahrenheit) and other oils (endpoint equal to or greater than 401 degrees Fahrenheit).

Petrochemicals

Chemicals obtained by refining (i.e., distilling) crude oil. They are used as raw materials in the
manufacture of most industrial chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints,
medicines, and many other products. See crude oil.

Petroleum

65
A generic term applied to oil and oil products in all forms, such as crude oil, lease condensate,
unfinished oils, petroleum products, natural gas plant liquids, and non-hydrocarbon compounds
blended into finished petroleum products. See crude oil.

Petroleum coke

A residue that is the final product of the condensation process in cracking.

pH

The unit used to measure acidity. In order for peat to be preserved for eventual transformation to
coal, the peat must reach a pH of 4.5. A low ash coal requires 4.0.
pH 9.0 Caused by algal bloom photosynthesis
pH 8.0 Ocean
pH 7.0 Neutral
pH 5.6 to 6.0 Natural rain
pH<5.6 Acid rain
pH 4.5 Critical peat level for coal formation
pH4.0 Required for low ash coal, limit for most life
pH 2.6 Lowest rain recorded
pH2.0 stomach acid (also the worst LA smog)

pH

pH is an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid. Mathematically, pH

is the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH may range
from 0 to 14, where 0 is most acidic, 14 most basic, and 7 is neutral. Natural waters usually have
a pH between 6.5 and 8.5.

Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy)

The highest earned degree awarded in the United States.

Phenol

An organic compound that is an alcohol derivative of benzene.

Photon

A discrete quantity of electromagnetic energy. Short wavelength (high frequency) photons carry
more energy than long wavelength (low frequency) photons. See Electromagnetic Radiation.

Photosphere

The visible surface of the Sun. It consists of a zone in which the gaseous layers change from
being completely opaque to radiation to being transparent. It is the layer from which the light we
actually see (with the human eye) is emitted.

Photosynthesis

Complex process that takes place in living green plant cells. Radiant energy from the sun is used
to combine carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to produce oxygen (O2) and simple nutrient
molecules, such as glucose (C6HI2O6). See carbon sequestration.

Phototroph

66
A microorganism which gains energy from sunlight (radiant energy).

Photovoltaic and solar thermal energy

Energy radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves (electromagnetic radiation) that is

converted into electricity by means of solar (i.e., photovoltaic) cells or useable heat by
concentrating (i.e., focusing) collectors.

PIB

Product Information Bulletin. General information on a product.

Pin Floc

Excessive solids carryover. May occur from time to time as small suspended sludge particles in
the supernatant. There are two kinds grey -ashlike, inert, has low BOD - indicates old sludge; and
brown, but a portion neither settles nor rises, has high BOD - indicates young sludge

Placement

The practice of placing a student in a course based on previous achievement levels. For
example, a student who has done very well on an appropriate examination in mathematics might
be placed in calculus as the first mathematics course rather than college algebra.

Plasma

Plasma consists of a gas heated to sufficiently high temperatures that the atoms ionize. The
properties of the gas are controlled by electromagnetic forces among constituent ions and
electrons, which results in a different type of behavior. Plasma is often considered the fourth state
of matter (besides solid, liquid, and gas). Most of the matter in the Universe is in the plasma state.

Pocosin

A North Carolina term for a swamp.

Point source

A single identifiable source that discharges pollutants into the environment. Examples are
smokestack, sewer, ditch, or pipe. See non-point source.

Pollution

The impairment (reduction) of water quality by agriculture, domestic or industrial wastes

(including thermal and radioactive wastes) to such a degree as to hinder any beneficial use of the
water or render it offensive to the senses of sight, taste, or smell or when sufficient amounts of
waste creates or poses a potential threat to human health or the environment.

Pollution

A change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the air, water, or soil that can
affect the health, survival, or activities of humans in an unwanted way. Some expand the term to
include harmful effects on all forms of life.

Poloidal Radius

The radius of the actual loop structure. For a doughnut, it is measured from the center to the edge

67
of the pastry (not from the center of the hole). See also Toroidal Radius.

Polyculture

Fish farming in which 2 or more compatible or symbiotic species of fish are grown together. Also
known as Multiculture.

Polymer

A chemical formed by the union of many monomers (a molecule of low molecular weight).
Polymers are used with other chemical coagulants to aid in binding small suspended particles to
form larger chemical flocs for easier removal from water. All polyelectrolytes are polymers, but not
all polymers are polyelectrolytes.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

A polymer of vinyl chloride. It is tasteless, odorless and insoluble in most organic solvents. A
member of the family vinyl resin, used in soft flexible films for food packaging and in molded rigid
products, such as pipes, fibers, upholstery, and bristles.

Population

Group of individual organisms of the same species living within a defined area.

Postdoctoral Fellow

Usually a recent Ph.D. holder temporarily appointed to teach or conduct research.

Potable water.

Water that does not contain objectionable pollution, contamination, minerals, or infective agents
and is considered satisfactory for drinking.

POWT

Publicly Owned Treatment Works, as opposed to an industrially owned facility or pipe system.

ppm

Parts Per Million - the unit commonly used to designate the concentration of a substance in a
wastewater in terms of weight ie. one pound per million pounds, etc. ppm is synonymous with the
more commonly used term mg/L (milligrams per liter).

Prairie Pothole

The term for a marsh in the north-central United States. Usually occupying depressions in glacial
deposits.

Precession

The tendency of the Earth's axis to wobble in space over a period of 23,000 years. The Earth's
precession is one of the factors that results in the planet receiving different amounts of solar
energy over extended periods of time.

Predation

68
One species benefits at the expense of another.

Preliminary Examinations

Written or oral examinations given to all prospective Ph.D. candidates after they have completed
doctoral coursework. The examination results determine whether candidates are admitted to the
dissertation stage of the program.

Preliminary treatment

The removal of metal, rocks, rags, sand, eggshells, and similar materials which may hinder the
operation of a treatment plant. Preliminary treatment is accomplished by using equipment such as
racks, bar screens, comminutors, and grit removal systems.

Preparation plant

A facility, usually on the mine-site, that crushes, washes, and sizes coal prior to shipment.

Prerequisite

A course which must be completed before a student is allowed to register for a more advanced
course.

Prescribed burning

Deliberate setting and careful control of surface fires in forests to help prevent more destructive
fires and to kill off unwanted plants that compete with commercial species for plant nutrients; may
also be used on grasslands.

Pretreatment facility

Industrial wastewater treatment plant consisting of one or more treatment devices designed to
remove sufficient pollutants from wastewaters to allow an industry to comply with effluent limits
established by the US EPA General and Categorical Pretreatment Regulations or locally derived
prohibited discharge requirements and local effluent limits. Compliance with effluent limits allows
for a legal discharge to a POTW.

Primary oil recovery

Pumping out the crude oil that flows by gravity into the bottom of an oil well. See enhanced oil
recovery, secondary oil recovery.

Primary treatment

A wastewater treatment process that takes place in a rectangular or circular tank and allows
those substances in wastewater that readily settle or float to be separated from the water being
treated.

Private Institution

An institution which is supported primarily from private funds in the form of tuition, fees,
endowments and donations.

Probation

A status imposed on students whose work is unsatisfactory until they improve their performance

69
or are asked to leave the program or institution.

Procaryotic organism

Microorganisms which do NOT have an organized nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

Bacteria and blue-green algae fit in this category.

Production (WYO)

Wyoming produces over 300 million tons of coal each year delivered by 25,800 trains each a mile
long with 100 cars. That's 71 trains a day!

Professional Accreditation

Accreditation granted to a professional school or a program offered at a regionally-accredited

institution by accrediting commissions affiliated with national professional organizations in such
areas as business, engineering, law, medicine, nursing, physical therapy, etc. Professional
accreditation is also known as 'specialized accreditation'.

Professional School

A post-baccalaureate institution (usually within a university) which trains students in the traditional
professions, e.g., law or medicine.,

Professor

The common honorific for all university faculty members. But it is also the formal rank of senior
(full) professors.

Program

see curriculum

Proprietary Institution

Privately owned, profit-making educational institution (mostly) offering practical occupational

skills; awards certificates and diplomas.

Proton

A positively charged elementary particle. A proton is 1836 times heavier than an electron.

Protozoa

A group of motile microscopic animals (usually single-celled and aerobic) that sometimes cluster
into colonies and often consume bacteria as an energy source.

Provost

The chief academic officer of an institution.

Proximate Analysis

A chemical analysis that determines the amounts of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and
ash in a coal.

70
Psychrophilic bacteria

Bacteria whose optimum temperature range is between 0 and 20 C (32 to 68 C), such as those
found in Alken Clear-Flo® 7018.

Public Institution

Institutions supported directly by public funds.

Pulsar

A neutron star (burnt-out star) that emits radio waves which pulse on and off.

Putrefaction

Biological decomposition of organic matter with the production of ill-smelling products associated
with anaerobic conditions.

Quad (PM)

Quad stands for quadrillion, which is, 1015.

Qualifying Examination

Examinatins given at the conclusion of master's or doctoral coursework.

Quality

Coal quality is the result of three factors: the type of macerals present, the degree of coalification
(rank), and the ash content (grade).

Quarter System

Academic calendar in which the year is divided into four quarters of 10 weeks.

Quasar

A faint blue, star-like object commonly considered to be extremely distant, probably an unusual
nucleus of a galaxy. It has a tendency to flare.

R/O unit

Reverse Osmosis Unit for water purification in small aquariums and miniature yard-ponds, utilizes
a membrane under pressure to filter dissolved solids and pollutants from the water. Two different
filter membranes can be used the CTA (cellulose triacetate) membrane is less expensive, but
only works with chlorinated water and removes 50-70% of nitrates, and the TFC membrane,
which is more expensive, removes 95% of nitrates, but is ruined by chlorine. R/O wastes water
and a system that cleans 100 gallons a day will cost from $400 to $600 with membrane
replacement adding to the cost. A unit that handles 140 gallons a day will cost above $700.00.

Rack

Evenly spaced parallel metal bars or rods located in the influent channel to remove rags, rocks,
and cans from wastewater.

Radiation

71
Energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation has differing characteristics
depending upon the wavelength. Because the radiation from the Sun is relatively energetic, it has
a short wavelength (ultra-violet, visible, and near infrared) while energy radiated from the Earth's
surface and the atmosphere has a longer wavelength (e.g., infrared radiation) because the Earth
is cooler than the Sun. See ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, solar radiation, longwave
radiation, terrestrial radiation.

Radiation Belt

A ring-shaped region around a planet in which electrically charged particles (usually electrons
and protons) are trapped. The particles follow spiral trajectories around the direction of the
magnetic field of the planet. The radiation belts surrounding Earth are known as the Van Allen
belts.

Radiative Forcing

A change in the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation.
Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation coming to the Earth would continue to be
approximately equal to the infrared radiation emitted from the Earth. The addition of greenhouse
gases traps an increased fraction of the infrared radiation, radiating it back toward the surface
and creating a warming influence (i.e., positive radiative forcing because incoming solar radiation
will exceed outgoing infrared radiation).

Rail

Includes "heavy" and "light" transit rail. Heavy transit rail is characterized by exclusive rights-of-
way, multi-car trains, high speed rapid acceleration, sophisticated signaling, and high platform
loading. Also known as subway, elevated railway, or metropolitan railway (metro). Light transit rail
may be on exclusive or shared rights of way, high or low platform, multi-car trains or single cars,
automated or manually operated. In generic usage, light rail includes streetcars, trolley cars, and
tramways.

Raised Wetland

A wetland where the water table is above the nearby dry land. It may be raised from a few inches
to as much as 20 feet.

Rangeland

Land, mostly grasslands, whose plants can provide food (i.e., forage) for grazing or browsing
animals. See feedlot.

Rank

A measure of the degree to which the peat has undergone thermal alteration to form a coal. The
higher the rank, the higher the carbon content resulting in a higher heat value per pound (BTU).
Rank BTU
Anthracite Approx. 14,000
Bituminous (low volatile) 13,000 to 15,00
Bituminous (med volatile) 13,000 to 15,00
Bituminous (hi volatile) 12,800
Subbituminous A 12,600
Subbituminous B 9,500 to 11,000
Subbituminous C 8,000 to 9,500
Lignite 3,000 to 8,000

72
RAS

Return activated sludge - settled activated sludge that is collected in the secondary clarifier and
returned to the aeration basin to mix with incoming raw settled wastewater.

RASVSS

Return Activated Sludge Volatile Suspended Solids.

RBC

Rotating biological contactor - an attached culture wastewater treatment system

Reagent

A pure chemical substance that is used to make new products or is used in chemical tests to
measure, detect, or examine other substances.

Recitation

A small-group session where students discuss material covered in large lectures.

Reclamation

Restoration of the land and environmental values back to pre-mining conditions after the coal is
removed.

Recycle

The use of water or wastewater within (internally) a facility before it is discharged to a treatment
system.

Recycling

Collecting and reprocessing a resource so it can be used again. An example is collecting

aluminum cans, melting them down, and using the aluminum to make new cans or other
aluminum products.

REDOX

Biological reductions/oxidations. These reactions usually require enzymes to mediate the electron
transfer. The sediment in the bottom of a lake, sludge in a sewerage works or septic tank will
have a very low redox potential and will likely be devoid of any oxygen. This sludge or waste
water will have a very high concentration of reductive anaerobic bacteria, indeed the bulk of the
organic matter may in fact be bacteria. As the concentration of oxygen increases the oxidation
potential of the water will increase. A low redox potential or small amount of oxygen is toxic to
anaerobic bacteria, therefore as the concentration of oxygen and redox potential increases the
bacterial population changes from reductive anaerobic bacteria to oxidative aerobic bacteria.
Measurement of REDOX potential is also referred to as ORP.

Reducing agent

Any substance, such as the base metal (iron) or the sulfide ion that will readily donate (give up)
electrons. The opposite of an oxidizing agent.

73
Reducing environment

Very low or lacking in oxygen

Reforestation

Replanting of forests on lands that have recently been harvested.

Refractory materials

Material difficult to remove entirely from wastewater such as nutrients, color, taste, and odor-
producing substances and some toxic materials.

Regional Accreditation

Accreditation granted to an entire academic institution by the accrediting commission responsible

for institutions in the particular geographic area. There are six regional accrediting commissions
in the United States. Regional accreditation is also referred to as 'institutional accreditation'.

Registrar

The officer responsible for registering students and maintaining their educational records.

Registration

The formal process of enrolling students in courses.

Remedial Education

Instruction designed to bring students up to required basic skills or knowledge levels to allow
them to attend programs which they would otherwise have been unable to follow.

Renewable energy

Energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible, unlike, for example, the fossil
fuels, of which there is a finite supply. Renewable sources of energy include wood, waste,
geothermal, wind, photovoltaic, and solar thermal energy. See hydropower, photovoltaic.

Research Assistant (RA)

A graduate student who is employed part-time to assist with faculty research.

Reserve

The amount of material (natural resource) that has been found and is recoverable economically
with existing technology. (USGS Definition)

Reserve Base

Includes beds of bituminous coal and anthracite 28 inches or more thick, and beds of
subbituminous coal 60 inches thick that occur at depths of 1,000 feet or less. (USGS Definition)

Reserve Recovery Factor

On a national average, the estimated recovery from the total Reserve Base is 50%. (USGS
Definition)

74
Reserves Indicated

Resources computed partly from specific measurements and partly from projection of visible data
for a reasonable distance on the basis of geologic evidence. (USGS Definition)

Reserves, Demonstrated

Coal deposits that are potentially mineable on an economic basis with existing technology.
(USGS Definition)

Reserves, Inferred

Quantitative estimates based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the bed
or region and where few measurements of bed thickness are available. (USGS Definition)

Reserves, Mineable

The tonnages of in-situ coal contained in seams for which sufficient information is available to
enable detailed or conceptual mine planning. (USGS Definition)

Reserves, Recoverable

The amount of coal that can actually be recovered from the Demonstrated Reserve base. The
recovery factor is about 60% for an underground mine and 80 to 90% in an open pit mine. (USGS
Definition)

Residence Requirement

An institution's requirement that a student take a set number of credits at that institution in order
to receive its degree.

Residence Time

The average time spent in a reservoir by an individual atom or molecule. With respect to
greenhouse gases, residence time usually refers to how long a particular molecule remains in the
atmosphere. See lifetime.

Residential sector

An area or portion consisting only of housing units.

Residual fuel oil

The heavier oils that remain after the distillate fuel oils and lighter hydrocarbons are distilled away
in refinery operations and that conform to ASTM Specifications D396 and D975. Included are No.
5, a residual fuel oil of medium viscosity; Navy Special, for use in steam-powered vessels in
government service and in shore power plants; and No. 6, which includes Bunker C fuel oil and is
used for commercial and industrial heating, electricity generation, and to power ships. Imports of
residual fuel oil include imported crude oil burned as fuel. See crude oil, hydrocarbons.

Resource, Coal

The total estimated quantity of a given resource commodity, discovered and undiscovered, that
might ultimately become part of the Reserve Base. (USGS Definition)

75
Resource, Identified

Specific quantities of a resource whose location quality and quantity are known from geologic
evidence supported by engineering measurements. (USGS Definition)

Resource, Identified

Includes beds of bituminous coal and anthracite 14 inches or more thick, and beds of
subbituminous coal 30 inches thick that occur at depths of 6,000 feet or less and whose existence
and quantity have been delineated within specified degrees of geologic assurance as measured,
indicated or inferred. (USGS Definition)

Resource, Indicated

Resources computed partly from specific measurements and partly from projection of visible data
for a reasonable distance on the basis of geologic evidence. (USGS Definition)

Resource, Inferred

Quantitative estimates based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the bed
or region and where few measurements of bed thickness are available. (USGS Definition)

Resource, Measured

Amount computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, mine workings and drill holes.
(USGS Definition)

Resource, Undiscovered

Includes beds of bituminous coal and anthracite 14 inches or more thick, and beds of
subbituminous coal 30 inches thick that are presumed to occur in unmapped and unexplored
areas at depths of 6,000 feet or less . (USGS Definition)

Resources

Those materials deemed important or necessary to human life in the current society.

Resources, Undiscovered

Unspecified quantities of a resource surmised to exist on the basis of broad geologic knowledge
and estimate. (USGS Definition)

Respiration

The energy producing process of breathing, by which an organism supplies its cells with oxygen
and relieves itself of carbon dioxide. A type of heterotrophic metabolism that uses oxygen in
which 38 moles of ATP are derived from the oxidation of 1 mole of glucose, yielding 380,000 cal.
(An additional 308,000 cal is lost as heat.)

Respiration

The process by which animals use up stored foods (by combustion with oxygen) to produce
energy.

Rheotropic

76
A wetland that obtains its water primarily from surface runoff.

Rhizosphere

Soil surrounding plant roots.

Rock dusting

The process of coating mine tunnels with powdered limestone to dilute potentially dangerous
concentrations of coal dust and to help minimize explosion hazards.

Room and pillar mining

The traditional underground mining technique of leaving behind pillars of coal to support the mine
roof. About half the coal is removed and the rest left behind as pillars.

RR

Respiration rate - the weight of oxygen utilized by the total weight of MLSS in a given time.

Runoff

Water running down slopes rather than sinking in (again,result of poor humus content) Ex.
erosion due to deforestation

Run-of-mine coal

Coal produced at the mine before any cleaning or preparation.

Sapropelic coal

Coal composed primarily of spores and algae.

Saprophytic

Bacteria that breakdown bodies of dead plants and animals (non-living organic material),
returning organic materials to the food chain. Saprophytic bacteria are usually non-pathogenic,
too. Most Alken Clear-Flo® products are saprophytic.

SAR

Sodium Adsorption Ratio - this ratio expresses the relative activity of sodium ions in the exchange
reactions with the soil.

SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test)

A standardized external examination (formerly known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test and then
the Scholastic Achievement Test) of mathematical, verbal and analytical skills, taken by high
school students to demonstrate their abilities for post-secondary study; often required for
admission to undergraduate programs.

SCFM

Cubic feet of air per minute at standard conditions of temperature, pressure and humidity (0 , 14.7
psi and 50% relative humidity).

77
Scrubber

Any of several chemical or plant. Most often used to remove sulfur and fly ash.

Secondary oil recovery

Injection of water into an oil well after primary oil recovery to force out some of the remaining
thicker crude oil. See enhanced oil recovery, primary oil recovery.

Secondary Treatment

A wastewater treatment process used to convert dissolved or suspended materials into a form
more readily separated from the water being treated. Usually the process follows primary
treatment by sedimentation. The process commonly is a type of biological treatment process
followed by secondary clarifiers that allow the solids to settle out from the water being treated.

Sector

Division, most commonly used to denote type of energy consumer (e.g., residential) or according
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the type of greenhouse gas emitter (e.g.
industrial process). See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Sedimentation

The process of subsidence and deposition of suspended matter from a wastewater by gravity.

Seeding

Introduction of microorganisms (such as ALKEN CLEAR-FLO® 1000 series for aquaculture, 4000
series for grease, and 7000 series for industrial and municipal wastewater) into a biological
oxidation unit to minimize the time required to build a biological sludge. Also referred to as
inoculation with cultured organisms.

Seine net

A net designed to collect aquatic organisms inhabiting natural waters from the shoreline to 3'
depths is called a seine net. Most often a plankton seine.

Semester System

The academic year is divided into two 15-week semesters.

Seminar

A small class of generally advanced students which meets with a professor to discuss specialized
topics.

Senior

Fourth year student (Applies to both college undergraduates and high school students)

Senior High School

see high school

Septic

78
A condition produced by anaerobic bacteria. If severe, the wastewater turns black, gives off foul
odors, contains little or no dissolved oxygen and creates a high oxygen demand.

Septic Tank

Untreated liquid household wastes (sewage) will quickly clog your absorption field if not properly
treated. The septic tank is a holding tank in which this treatment can take place. When sewage
enters the septic tank, the heavy solids settle to the bottom of the tank; the lighter solids, fats and
greases partially decompose and rise to the surface and form a layer of scum. The solids that
have settled to the bottom are attacked by bacteria and form sludge.

Septic tank

Underground tank for treatment of wastewater from a home in rural and suburban areas. Bacteria
in the tank decompose organic wastes and the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank. The
effluent flows out of the tank into the ground through a field of drainpipes.

Septicity

Septicity is the condition in which organic matter decomposes to form foul-smelling products
associated with the absence of free oxygen. If severe, the wastewater turns black, gives off foul-
odors, contains little or no dissolved oxygen and creates a heavy oxygen demand.

Settleable solids

Those solids in suspension which will pass through a 2000 micron sieve and settle in one hour
under the influence of gravity.

Sewage

The used water and water-carried solids from homes that flow in sewers to a wastewater
treatment plant. The preferred term is wastewater.

Sewage treatment (primary)

Mechanical treatment of sewage in which large solids are filtered out by screens and suspended
solids settle out as sludge in a sedimentation tank.

Shale oil

Slow-flowing, dark brown, heavy oil obtained when kerogen in oil shale is vaporized at high
temperatures and then condensed. Shale oil can be refined to yield gasoline, heating oil, and
other petroleum products. See kerogen, oil shale.

Shock load

The arrival at a plant of a waste which is toxic to organisms in sufficient quantity or strength to
cause operating problems. Possible problems include odors and sloughing off of the growth or
slime on a trickling-filter media. Organic or hydraulic overloads also can cause a shock load.

Short ton

2000 lb (as opposed to a long ton of 2,200 lb.)

Short Ton

79
Common measurement for a ton in the United States. A short ton is equal to 2,000 lbs or 0.907
metric tons. See metric ton.

Sink

A reservoir that uptakes a chemical element or compound from another part of its cycle. For
example, soil and trees tend to act as natural sinks for carbon.

Slagging coal

coals whose ash is softened at less than 2,200ºF and can be discharged in a molten state. (As
opposed to non-slagging coals whose ash softens at more than 2,6000ºF requiring removal in a
solid state.)

Sloughings

Trickling-filter slimes that have been washed off the filter media. They are generally quite high in
BOD and will lower effluent quality unless removed.

Sludge

The settleable solids separated from liquids during processing; the deposits of foreign materials
on the bottoms of streams or other bodies of water.

Sludge

Gooey solid mixture of bacteria and virus laden organic matter, toxic metals, synthetic organic
chemicals, and solid chemicals removed from wastewater at a sewage treatment plant.

Sludge age

A measure of the length of time a particle of suspended solids has been retained in the activated
sludge process.

Slugs

Intermittent releases or discharges of industrial wastes.

Slurry Pipeline

A pipeline used to transport coal (not in wide use) as and methane..

Soil

Complex mixture of inorganic minerals (i.e., mostly clay, silt, and sand), decaying organic matter,
water, air, and living organisms.

Soil carbon

A major component of the terrestrial biosphere pool in the carbon cycle. The amount of carbon in
the soil is a function of the historical vegetative cover and productivity, which in turn is dependent
in part upon climatic variables.

Solar Atmosphere

80
The atmosphere of the Sun. An atmosphere is generally the outermost gaseous layers of a
planet, natural satellite, or star. Only bodies with a strong gravitational pull can retain an
atmosphere. Atmosphere is used to describe the outer layer of the Sun because it is relatively
transparent at visible wavelengths. Parts of the solar atmosphere include the photosphere,
chromosphere, and the corona.

Solar energy

Direct radiant energy from the sun. It also includes indirect forms of energy such as wind, falling
or flowing water (hydropower), ocean thermal gradients, and biomass, which are produced when
direct solar energy interact with the earth. See solar radiation.

Solar Limb

The apparent edge of the Sun as it is seen in the sky.

Solar Radiation

Energy from the Sun. Also referred to as short-wave radiation. Of importance to the climate
system, solar radiation includes ultraviolet radiation, visible radiation, and infrared radiation. See
ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, radiation.

Soluble

Matter or compounds capable of dissolving into a solution.

Soluble BOD

Soluble BOD is the BOD of water that has been filtered in the standard suspended solids test.

Solution

A liquid mixture of dissolved substances, displaying no phase separation.

Sophomore

Second year student (Applies to both college undergraduates and high school students)

Source

Any process or activity that releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol, or a precursor of a

greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. See point source, non-point source.

South Atlantic Anomaly

The region over the South Atlantic Ocean where the lower Van Allen belt of energetic, electrically
charged particles is particularly close to the Earth's surface. The excess energy in the particles
presents a problem for satellites in orbit around the Earth.

Spec. Sheet

Specification Sheet. Detailed information of a product including, tests, color, odor, specific gravity,
bacterial strains, other major ingredients, etc.

Special naphtha

81
All finished products within the naphtha boiling range that are used as paint thinners, cleaners, or
solvents. Those products are refined to a specified flash point.

Specialized Accreditation

see professional accreditation

Specific gravity

Weight of a particle, substance or chemical solution in relation to an equal volume of water.

Spectral Line

A line in a spectrum due to the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation at a discrete

wavelength. Spectral lines result from discrete changes in the energy of an atom or molecule.
Different atoms or molecules can be identified by the unique sequence of spectral lines
associated with them.

Spectrograph

An instrument that spreads light or other electromagnetic radiation into its component
wavelengths (spectrum), recording the results photographically or electronically.

Spectrometer

An instrument for measuring the intensity of radiation as a function of wavelength. See

Spectrograph.

Spectrum

Electromagnetic radiation arranged in order of wavelength. A rainbow is a natural spectrum of

visible light from the Sun. Spectra are often punctuated with emission or absorption lines, which
can be examined to reveal the composition and motion of the radiating source.

Split

The splitting of a coal seam by a layer of sand or clay.

Spoil banks

Piles of waste rock and soil once left after stripping the overburden in surface mines. Now used in
the reclamation process.

Spontaneous combustion

The natural starting of a fire in a coal seam. The 200ºC temperature required for the spontaneous
combustion comes from the oxidation of pyrite and resins in the coal.

SS

Suspended solids - Solids in suspension in water which can be filtered out on a lab filter.

Stabilize

To convert to a form that resists change. Organic material is stabilized by bacteria which convert
the material to gases and other relatively inert substances. Stabilized organic material generally

82
will not give off obnoxious odors.

Stasis

Stagnation or inactivity of the life processes within organisms.

Steam coal

Coal used in electrical power plants to produce the steam that runs the generators. The vast
majority of Wyoming coal is used as steam coal.

Sterilization

The removal or destruction of all living microorganisms, including pathogenic and other bacteria,
vegetative forms and spores.

Still gas

Any form or mixture of gases produced in refineries by distillation, cracking, reforming, and other
processes. Principal constituents are methane, ethane, ethylene, normal butane, butylene,
propane, propylene, etc. Used as a refinery fuel and as a petrochemical feedstock.

Storm sewer

A separate pipe, conduit or open channel (sewer) that carries runoff from storms, surface
drainage and street wash, but does not include domestic and industrial wastes. Storm sewers are
often the recipients of hazardous or toxic substances due to the illegal dumping or hazardous
wastes or spills created by accidents involving vehicles and trains transporting these substances.

STP

Standard Temperature (25 C) and Pressure (300 mm Mercury).

STP test

Laboratory test for nitrifiers. For CF1100, 7110, 1200 & 1400 to be within specifications, this test
must show positive within 7 days.

Stratosphere

Second layer of the atmosphere, extending from about 19 to 48 kilometers (12 to 30 miles) above
the earth's surface. It contains small amounts of gaseous ozone (O3 ), which filters out about 99
percent of the incoming harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Most commercial airline flights operate
at a cruising altitude in the lower stratosphere. See ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation.

Stratospheric ozone

See ozone layer.

Strip mine

An open pit or surface mine in which the coal lies close enough to the surface (usually within 200
feet) so that it can be mined directly after removing the overburden. The overburden is then
placed back in the pit and the land recontoured and reseeded. About 62% of U.S. coal is
produced from surface mines

83
Strip mining

Cutting deep trenches to remove minerals such as coal and phosphate found near the earth's
surface in flat or rolling terrain. See surface mining.

Subbituminous coal

The lowest rank of coal. It is produced by the thermal alteration of deeply buried lignite. Divided
into three categories by carbon content and BTU.
Rank %Carbon BTU
Subbituminous A 79% 11,000
Subbituminous B 77% 9,500-11,000
Subbituminous C 75% 8,300 to 9,500

Subbituminous coal

A dull, black coal of rank intermediate between lignite and bituminous coal. See coal.

Substrate

The base on which an organism lives. The soil is the substrate of most seed plants where rocks,
soil, water, or other tissues are substrates for other organisms.

Sulfate aerosols

Particulate matter that consists of compounds of sulfur formed by the interaction of sulfur dioxide
and sulfur trioxide with other compounds in the atmosphere. Sulfate aerosols are injected into the
atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels and the eruption of volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo.
Recent theory suggests that sulfate aerosols may lower the earth's temperature by reflecting
away solar radiation (negative radiative forcing). General Circulation Models which incorporate
the effects of sulfate aerosols more accurately predict global temperature variations. See
particulate matter, aerosol, General Circulation Models.

Sulfur cycle

Cyclic movement of sulfur in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and
then back to the environment.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

A compound composed of one sulfur and two oxygen molecules. Sulfur dioxide emitted into the
atmosphere through natural and anthropogenic processes is changed in a complex series of
chemical reactions in the atmosphere to sulfate aerosols. These aerosols are believed to result in
negative radiative forcing (i.e., tending to cool the Earth's surface) and do result in acid deposition
(e.g., acid rain). See aerosol, radiative forcing, acid deposition, acid rain.

Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)

A colorless gas soluble in alcohol and ether, slightly soluble in water. A very powerful greenhouse
gas used primarily in electrical transmission and distribution systems and as a dielectric in
electronics. The global warming potential of SF6 is 23,900. See Global Warming Potential.

Sulfur, Forms of

Sulfur in coal comes in three forms: Organic that originates in the woody tissue, Inorganic
(primarily pyrite) that was generated in the reducing conditions within the wetland, and sulfate

84
from sulfates that were primarily brought into the wetland by some marine influence.

Summer Session

Formal course offerings during the summer.

Sunspot

A temporary disturbed area in the solar photosphere that appears dark because it is cooler than
the surrounding areas. Sunspots consist of concentrations of strong magnetic flux. They usually
occur in pairs or groups of opposite polarity that move in unison across the face of the Sun as it
rotates.

Supernatant

Liquid removed from a tank once the solids have settled. When hydrating Alken Clear-Flo
formulas, the supernatant is the bran-free liquid which can then be applied by sprayer, without
clogging the sprayer. Supernatant commonly refers to the liquid between the sludge on the
bottom and the scum on the surface of an anaerobic digester. This liquid is usually returned to the
influent wet well or to the primary clarifier.

Surface mine

An open pit or strip mine in which the coal lies close enough to the surface (usually within 200
feet) so that it can be removed directly after removing the overburden. The overburden is then
placed back in the pit and the land recontoured and reseeded. About 62% of U.S. coal is
produced from surface mines.

Surface mining

Removal of soil, sub-soil, and other strata and then extracting a mineral deposit found fairly close
to the earth's surface. See strip mining.

Surface Plot

A three-dimensional plot mapping the intensity of radiation from a region as a distorted surface.
More intense radiation is represented by higher points on the surface. Therefore, regions of
intense radiation resemble mountains on the earth.

Surfactant

Surface-active agent. The active agent in detergents that possesses a high cleaning ability. Used
in a spray solution to improve its sticking and wetting properties when applied to plants, algae, or
petroleum.

SV

Sludge volume - a settling test using a two liter settleometer to measure sludge quality expressed
in percent and related to time, ie. 80% in five minutes or 30% in 30 minutes. Also used to
determine the rate of settling.

SV30

The value obtained in a 30 minute settleometer test.

SVI

85
Sludge volume index - a settling test used to measure sludge quality.

SVR

The volume of sludge blanket divided by the daily volume of sludge pumped from the thickener.

Swamp

A wetland in which the primary vegetation is trees and contains standing water most of the year.

Swamp Acidity

Bacterial decay of the peat produces acid as a byproduct. In order for a good coal forming
peat to be preserved in a swamp, the acidity must reach a pH of at least 4.5. This shuts down the
decay process by killing off the bacteria before all the plant material has been completely
decomposed.

Acidity is measured by pH. In order for peat to be preserved for eventual transformation to
coal, the peat must reach a pH of at least 4.5. A low ash coal requires pH 4.0.

pH 9.0 Caused by algal bloom photosynthesis

pH 8.0 Ocean
pH 7.0 Neutral
pH 5.6 to 6.0 Natural rain
pH<5.6 Acid rain
pH 4.5 Critical peat level for coal formation
pH4.0 Required for low ash coal, limit for most life
pH 2.6 Lowest rain recorded
pH2.0 stomach acid (also the worst LA smog)

Synfuel

A synthetic fuel derived from alternative fossil fuels like oil shale, tar sand, and gasified coal.

Synthesis

Breaking down organic compounds and converting the degradation products into new cell growth.
An energy using process.

Synthetic fertilizer

Commercially prepared mixtures of plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and potassium
applied to the soil to restore fertility and increase crop yields. See organic fertilizer.

Synthetic natural gas (SNG)

A manufactured product chemically similar in most respects to natural gas, resulting from the
conversion or reforming of petroleum hydrocarbons. It may easily be substituted for, or
interchanged with, pipeline quality natural gas.

Tailings

Piles of crushed waste rock created as a by-product of mining or mineral processing.

86
Tailings

Rock and other waste materials removed as impurities when minerals are mined and mineral
deposits are processed. These materials are usually dumped on the ground or into ponds.

Take-home examination

A course examination which is completed outside of the classroom.

Tar sand

Swamp-like deposit of a mixture of fine clay, sand, water, and variable amounts of tar-like heavy
oil known as bitumen. Bitumen can be extracted from tar sand by heating. It can then be purified
and upgraded to synthetic crude oil. See bitumen.

Taxonomy

The classification, nomenclature, and laboratory identification of organisms (Do not confuse with
taxidermy - stuffing dead animals)

TDS

Total Dissolved Solids is commonly estimated from the electrical conductivity of the water. Pure
water is a poor conductor of electricity. Impurities dissolved in the water cause an increase in the
ability of the water to conduct electricity. Conductivity, usually expressed in units of microsimens,
formerly micromhos or in mg/l, thus becomes an indirect measure of the level of impurities in the
water.

Teaching Assistant (TA)

A graduate student who is employed part-time to assist with faculty teaching.

Temperature

Measure of the average speed of motion of the atoms or molecules in a substance or

combination of substances at a given moment. See heat.

Tenure

The status of a permanent member of the faculty earned by peer-review on the basis of
publications and scholarship.

Term

A generic word for academic sessions (quarter, semester)

Term Paper

A formal paper required as part of course work.

Terrestrial

Pertaining to land.

Terrestrial radiation

87
The total infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and its atmosphere in the temperature range of
approximately 200 to 300 Kelvin. Terrestrial radiation provides a major part of the potential
energy changes necessary to drive the atmospheric wind system and is responsible for
maintaining the surface air temperature within limits of livability.

Thermal Gas

A collection of particles that collide with each other and exchange energy frequently, giving a
distribution of particle energies that can be characterized by a single temperature.

Thermal Particle

A particle that is part of a thermal gas.

Thermal Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation emitted by electrons in a thermal gas.

Thermonuclear Fusion

The combination of atomic nuclei at high temperatures to form more massive nuclei with the
simultaneous release of energy. Thermonuclear fusion is the power source at the core of the Sun.
Controlled thermonuclear fusion reactors, when successfully implemented, could become an
attractive source of power on the Earth.

Thermophilic bacteria

Hot temperature bacteria. a group of bacteria that grow and thrive in temperatures above 113 F
(45 C), such as bacillus licheniformis. The optimum temperature range for these bacteria in
anaerobic decomposition is 120 F (49 C) to 135 F (57 C).

Thesis

A written piece of work required for a degree.

Tipple

Originally the place where the mine cars were tipped and emptied of coal. It is still used in that
sense, although now the term is applied to all structures involved in conveying, storing, and
loading coal into trains or trucks.

TOC

Total organic carbon - a measure of the amount of organic carbon in water.

TOEFL (Test of English as Foreign Language)

A standardized test administered world-wide to determine proficiency in English and required by

most US institutions of all foreign applicants whose first language is other than English.

Tonne

A metric coal measure of 1,000 kg (equivalent to 2,204.6 lb).

Tonstein

88
A clay layer in a coal bed, often from volcanic ash.

Topogenous

A wetland that obtains its water primarily from surface runoff.

Toroidal Radius

In a solar loop structure, it is the distance from the axis of the loop to the center of the "semi-
circle" that the loop forms. Half of the distance from one loop footpoint to the other loop footpoint.
For a doughnut, it is the distance from the center of the doughnut hole to the center (circular axis)
of the pastry. See also Poloidal Radius.

Toxic

A substance which is poisonous to a living organism.

Toxicity

The relative degree of being poisonous or toxic. A condition which may exist in wastes and will
inhibit or destroy the growth or function of certain organisms.

Trace Gas

Any one of the less common gases found in the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon
make up more than 99 percent of the Earth's atmosphere. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide,
water vapor, methane, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and ammonia, are considered trace gases.
Although relatively unimportant in terms of their absolute volume, they have significant effects on
the Earth's weather and climate.

Transcript

The official record of a student's academic performance at an institution.

Transfer credit

Credit awarded toward a degree on the basis of studies completed at another institution.

Transpiration

The process by which water vapor is released to the atmosphere by living plants, a process
similar to people sweating.

Transportation sector

Consists of private and public passenger and freight transportation, as well as government
transportation, including military operations.

Trickling filter

An attached culture wastewater treatment system. A large tank generally filled with rock or rings
(see Bio-Tower). Wastewater is sprayed over the top of the media, providing the opportunity for
the formation of slimes or biomass to remove wastes from the wastewater, through revolving
arms which have spray nozzles. Water is pumped from the bottom of a trickle filter to a secondary
clarifier.

89
Trimester System

Academic calendar in which the year is divided into three 15-week terms; students may study full-
time in two of the three or full- or part-time in all three.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of the atmosphere and contains about 95 percent of the mass of air in the
Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface up to about 10 to 15
kilometers. All weather processes take place in the troposphere. Ozone that is formed in the
troposphere plays a significant role in both the greenhouse gas effect and urban smog. See
ozone precursors, stratosphere, atmosphere.

Tropospheric ozone (O3)

See ozone.

Tropospheric ozone precursors

See ozone precursors.

TSE (Test of Spoken English)

A test designed to assess the spoken English proficiency of people whose native language is not
English. The TSE is often required of graduate students seeking assistantships.

TSS

Total suspended solids.

Tuition

The fee paid by students for their instruction.

Turbidity

The amount of suspended matter in wastewater, obtained by measuring its light scattering ability.

Ultimate analysis

A chemical analysis of the elements in a coal including carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine,
sodium, phosphorus and other selected trace elements. It also includes the various forms of
sulfur.

Ultraviolet radiation (UV)

A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths shorted than visible light. The sun
produces UV, which is commonly split into three bands of decreasing wavelength. Shorter
wavelength radiation has a greater potential to cause biological damage on living organisms. The
longer wavelength ultraviolet band, UVA, is not absorbed by ozone in the atmosphere. UVB is
mostly absorbed by ozone, although some reaches the Earth. The shortest wavelength band,
UVC, is completely absorbed by ozone and normal oxygen in the atmosphere.

Undergraduate

(1) Description of a post-secondary program leading to a bachelor's degree; (2) a student

90
enrolled in such a program.

Unfinished oils

All oils requiring further refinery processing, except those requiring only mechanical blending.
Includes naphtha and lighter oils, kerosene and light gas oils, heavy gas oils, and residuum.

Unicellular

Single celled organism, such as bacteria.

Unit train

A coal train of 60 to 160 (averaging 100) hopper cars, each carrying 100 tons of coal. Some
bigger surface mines load two or three trains a day. Eighty unit trails leave Wyoming every day.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The international treaty unveiled at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) in June 1992. The UNFCCC commits signatory countries to stabilize
anthropogenic (i.e. human-induced) greenhouse gas emissions to "levels that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." The UNFCCC also requires that
all signatory parties develop and update national inventories of anthropogenic emissions of all
greenhouse gases not otherwise controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Out of 155 countries that
have ratified this accord, the United States was the first industrialized nation to do so. See
Conference of the Parties, Berlin Mandate, Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol.

Universal Time

Abbreviated UT. The same as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) in England. Eastern Standard Time
(EST) is five hours earlier than Universal Time.

University

An institution of higher learning and research consisting of several units which offer programs
leading to advanced degrees. Universities stress graduate and professional education and
research, but also have important undergraduate divisions.

Upper-division

The part of the curriculum which is generally taught beyond the second year of a bachelor's
degree program and which constitutes its more advanced component.

Upset

An upset digester does not decompose organic matter properly. The digester is characterized by
low gas production, high volatile acid/alkalinity relationship, and poor liquid-solids separation. A
digester in an upset condition is sometimes called a "sour" or "stuck" digester.

Van Allen Belts

Two ring-shaped regions that girdle the Earth's equator in which electrically charged particles are
trapped by the Earth's magnetic field. See South Atlantic Anomaly or radiation belts.

Vector

91
An insect or other organism capable of transmitting germs or other agents of disease.

Vegetative

Actually growing state.

Vehicle miles traveled (VMT)

One vehicle traveling the distance of one mile. Thus, total vehicle miles is the total mileage
traveled by all vehicles.

Visting Scholar or Student

Individual attending a US institution by special agreement with a foreign institution. A visting

scholar or student does not-matriculate which means that he or she is not engaged in a degree
program. To change status and matriculate in a degree program a visiting student or scholar must
apply for admission to the institution and undergo the usual selection process.

Vitrinite

The most abundant maceral in coal and the one providing the most heat value. It is the result of
the decomposition of the cell walls of woody plant tissue (essentially decomposed lignin and
cellulose).

Volatile

A volatile substance is one that is capable of being evaporated or changed to a vapor at a

relatively low temperature. Volatile substances also can be partially removed by air stripping.

Volatile matter

The various gasses and tars driven off during coalification including hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, water, and methane.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Organic compounds that evaporate readily into the atmosphere at normal temperatures. VOCs
contribute significantly to photochemical smog production and certain health problems. See non-
methane volatile organic compounds.

VS/L

Measure of volatile solids, usually expressed as g VS/L/day = grams volatile solids per liter per
day.

WAS

Waste activated sludge, mg/L. The excess growth of microorganisms which must be removed
from the process to keep the biological system in balance.

Wastewater

The used water and solids from a community that flow to a treatment plant. Storm water, surface
water, and groundwater infiltration also may be included in the wastewater that enters a
wastewater treatment plant. The term "sewage" usually refers to household wastes, but this word
is being replaced by the term "wastewater".

92
Wastewater

Water that has been used and contains dissolved or suspended waste materials. See sewage
treatment.

Water truck

Mines are closely monitored for dust and must constantly water down the haul roads.

Water Vapor

The most abundant greenhouse gas; it is the water present in the atmosphere in gaseous form.
Water vapor is an important part of the natural greenhouse effect. While humans are not
significantly increasing its concentration, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect
because the warming influence of greenhouse gases leads to a positive water vapor feedback. In
addition to its role as a natural greenhouse gas, water vapor plays an important role in regulating
the temperature of the planet because clouds form when excess water vapor in the atmosphere
condenses to form ice and water droplets and precipitation. See greenhouse gas.

Wavelength

The distance from crest to crest or trough to trough of an electromagnetic wave (see
electromagnetic radiation) or other wave.

Waxes

Solid or semisolid materials derived from petroleum distillates or residues. Light-colored, more or
less translucent crystalline masses, slightly greasy to the touch, consisting of a mixture of solid
hydrocarbons in which the paraffin series predominates. Included are all marketable waxes,
whether crude scale or fully refined. Used primarily as industrial coating for surface protection.

Weather

Weather is the specific condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured
in terms of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and
precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-
season. Climate is the average of weather over time and space. A simple way of remembering
the difference is that climate is what you expect (e.g. cold winters) and ‘weather' is what you get
(e.g. a blizzard). See climate.

Weir

A wall or plate placed in an open channel and used to measure the flow of water.

Wetland

An area where the water table is at or slightly above or below the surface of the land long enough
each year to require plants that are specifically adapted to long periods of flooding. There are
three basic types of wetlands based upon the primary vegetation present.

Wetland

Land that stays flooded all or part of the year with fresh or salt water.

Wetlands

93
Areas regularly saturated by surface or groundwater and subsequently characterized by a
prevalence of vegetation adapted for life in saturated-soil conditions.

White Light

Visible light that includes all colors and, therefore, all visible wavelengths.

Withdrawal

Formal process of leaving an institution before (and without) completing a degree.

Wood energy

Wood and wood products used as fuel, including roundwood (i.e., cordwood), limbwood, wood
chips, bark, sawdust, forest residues, and charcoal.

Wyoming Coal Mines

There are currently 24 surface mines operating in Wyoming (18 in the Powder River Basin)
producing over 300 million tons a year (2001).

X-ray

The part of the electromagnetic spectrum whose radiation has somewhat greater frequencies and
smaller wavelengths than those of ultraviolet radiation. Because x-rays are absorbed by the
Earth's atmosphere, x-ray astronomy is performed in space.

Yellow Boy

Iron oxide and sulfate deposits from acid mine water.

94