Deep Electromagnetic Exploration (J. R. Wait, K. K. Roy, S. K. Verma, K. Mallick)

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Preface
The book consists of seven chapters. The introductory remarks in the first
chapter focus on the electromagnetic waves and their rote in probing the
earth. The second chapter deals with the interpretation and application of
deep electrical and electromagnetic soundings. Interesting case histories are
reported from Finland, former USSR and different geological terrains in
India to solve geodynamic and crustal problems. The ocean bottom
magnetotellurics, an important exploration tool in marine environment and
more so with the present thrust on gas hydrates, is covered in the third
chapter. The contributions cover studies on oceanic mantle conductivity structure
using very long period signals, theory and interpretation of ocean bottom
magnetovariational data, the design of the ocean bottom electrometers and a
case study around Peninsular India. There is a detailed description in Chapter
4 on 1D, 2D and 3D modeling. Electromagnetic migration is an important
inclusion in this chapter. Theory and practise of the thin sheet modeling,
finite difference modeling, consideration of a transitional earth and robust
estimation of transfer function for a magnetovariational array are some of the
useful topics of this chapter. Chapter 5 deals with the inversion techniques.
An overview is presented on the framework of the inverse problems on
electromagnetics with regard to global optimization, genetic algorithm, Backus-
Gilbert approach, stochastic method and simulated annealing concept. An
example of inversion of DC sounding data by matrix method is also illustrated
in this chapter. The time domain etectromagnetics (TEM) plays a major role
in electromagnetic exploration. Chapter 6 is devoted to the theory,
instrumentation and case studies with TEM, Deep TEM and Long Offset
TEM methods. The electromagnetic method started with the exploration of
mineral and groundwater at shallower depths. In order to complete the history
of electromagnetic methods. Chapter 7 outlines shallow electromagnetics,
VLF, the theory of large rectangular loops and bore hole geophysics.
The students, researchers, academicians and professionals will find the
book useful and informative.
In the course of preparation of material for this important publication the
editors have taken help from many people in India and abroad. The editors
record a deep sense of gratitude to all the authors who accepted their invitation
to contribute to this book. tt took more time than envisaged to edit, to bring
the text to the same format and retrace many diagrams. Mr. Samar Mukherjee
of IIT, Kharagpur loaded all the manuscripts on PC and Ms. Rita Singh of
vi Preface
NGRI, Hyderabad reformatted all the text materials. At NGRI, Prof. RS.
Moharir provided free access to his computer. Mr. S,R Hazra, Mr. T. Sarkar
of IIT, Kharagpur and Mr. M. Jaya Rama Rao at NGRI have traced the
diagrams neatly. The graphic production of the cover page, designed by
Dr. S.K. Verma, is by Mr. K. Govindarajan at Association of Exploration
Geophysicists, Hyderabad. The editors are grateful to all of them.
The electromagnetic groups in India in general and Prof. K.K. Roy, IIT
Kharagpur, in particular are grateful to the Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India, New Delhi for the generous support to
promote deep electromagnetic exploration in India. The editors wish to thank
M/s Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi for taking interest and pains to
bring out his publication.
K.K. Roy
S.K. VERMA
K. MALLICK
Contents
Preface V
I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1-18

1. Electromagnetic Waves in Geophysics: A personal
perspective
J.R. Wait
2. Role of Electromagnetics in Probing the Earth
D. Guptasarma
3. Antennas in Geophysical Environment 10
J.R. Wait
II. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

SOUNDING 19-226
4. Dilemmas of the MT Interpretation, EM Field Distortion
or Real Indication of Resistivity Distribution 21
A. Addm
5. The Fennoscandian Shield: A treasure box of deep
electromagnetic studies 31
Z Korja and S.-E. Hjelt
6. Magnetotelluric Technique 74
B.P. Singh and S.G. Gokarn
7. Rotation Invariant Magnetotelluric Tensors: A case
study from West Singhbhum (Bihar, India) 99
K.K. Roy, S. Srivastava and A.K. Singh
8. Magnetotelluric Model of Singhbhum Granite
Batholith 120
K.K. Roy, A.K. Singh and C.K. Rao
9. Telluric Field Observations During the Earth Tremor
Activity Near Gandipet (Hyderabad, India) 152
S.VS. Sarma, T. Harinarayana and C,V.G. Krishna
viii Contents
t0. Deep Electrical Conductivity Investigations in Some

Geothermal Areas of India 160
T. Harinarayana and S.ES. Sarma
11. Frontier Technologies for Hydrocarbon Exploration--
Electrical Conductivity Reference Exploration (ECRE) 176
R. Karmann, J.L. Seara and U. Jensen
12. Technology and Some Results of Deep Electromagnetic
Soundings in the Former USSR 188
LS. Feldman
13. Direct Current Resistivity Traversing Across Singhbhum
Shear Zone Near Ghatshila-Mosabani (Eastern India) 205
K.K. Roy, L.K. Das, tl. Das, K.K. Mukherjee,
M.K. Sen, P.S. Routh, D.K. Saha, M.K. Rai,
D.C. Naskar and R. Chunduru
III. OCEAN FLOOR ELECTROMAGNETICS 227-280

14. Oceanic Mantle Conductivity Structure Determined from
Magnetotelluric Data: Hollister revisited 229
Wenjie Dong, Randall Mackie and Theodore Madden
15. Methods for the Analysis and Interpretation of the Sea
Floor Electromagnetic Fields 248
O.N. Zhdanova and M.S. Zhdanov
16. On the Design of Ocean Bottom Electrometer 260
R.V. lyengar
17. EM Sounding of Sea Bottom Around Indian Peninsula 268
E. John Joseph, R.V. Iyengar and L.A. D'Cruz
IV. ELECTROMAGNETIC MODELLING 281-438

18. Electromagnetic Migration 283
M.S. Zhdanov
19. Numerical Modelling in Electromagnetic Induction 299
J.T. Weaver
20. Thin-Sheet Modelling for Deep Electromagnetic Studies
in the Fennoscandian Shield 364
P. Kaikkonen
21. The Generation and Thermal and Electromagnetic
Effects of Rising Melt in a Three-Dimensional
Subducting Lithospheric Slab Model 387
EW. Jones, F. Pascal and M.E. Ertman
Contents ix
22. Fast Difference-Differential Modelling for Geophysical

Electrodynamics 402
V. Druskin, L. Knizhnerman and T. Tamarchenko
23. The 2- and 3-D Modelling of EM Induction and Current
Channelling in the Saurashtra and Adjoining Regions 412
K. Veeraswamy
24. Magnetotelluric Response on a Layered Earth with Non-
monotonic Resistivity Distribution 425
B.P. Pal
25. Application of Robust Estimation of Transfer Functions
for a Magnetovariational Array in Eastern India 432
Nandini Nagarajan
V. INVERSE PROBLEMS 439-516

26. Geophysical Inversion 441
V.K. Gaur
27. Crustal Resistivity Inversion Using Global
Optimization Techniques 465
P.S. Routh and K.K. Roy
28. Backus-Gilbert Magnetotelluric Inversion 488
A. Manglik and P.S. Moharir
29. Stochastic Inversion of Magnetotelluric Data 497
B.B. Bhattacharya and R.K. Sarkar
30. Computational Efficiency of the Matrix Method in
the Inversion of Resistivity Sounding Data 507
M. Israil, Sri Niwas and K.N. Khattri
VI. TRANSIENT ELECTROMAGNETICS 517-596

31. Application of Ground Transient EM Systems in
Geophysical Exploration 519
A.K. Sinha
32. Diffusion of an Electromagnetic Pulse in a
Heterogeneous Earth 527
S.K. Verma
33. The Theoretical Study of a Possible High Resolution
Resistivity Sounding Technique for Groundwater
Exploration in Hard Rocks 566
M. Poddar
x Con~n~
34. Transient CFS Response Over a Multilayer Earth 575

H.P Patra and N.L. Shastri
35. Frontier Technologies for Hydrocarbon Exploration,
Deep Transient Electromagnetic Sounding (DTEM) 585
R. Karmann, U. Matzander, J.R. Rossow,
J.L. Seara, K.M. Strack and P.A. Wolfgram
VII. SHALLOW ELECTROMAGNETICS 697-652

36. Recent Developments in Quantitative Interpretation
of VLF-EM Data 599
A.K. Sinha
37. A Study on the Possibility of Assessing Anisotropy
Due to 2D Structures from VLF-EM Data 607
LB. Rama Prasada Rao, R.R. Mathur and
N.S. Patangay
38. Response Resolution of Shielded Conductors Through
Multifrequency Measurements: A review 616
D. lndira Nagubai and P.D. Saraf
39. Electromagnetic Depth Sounding on a Transitional
Earth Using Large Rectangular Loop Source 628
If. Prabhakara Rao, PD. Saraf and K. Mallick
40. Application of Electromagnetic Propagation Logging in
the Interpretation of Fresh Water Neogene Sands of
Upper Assam Tertiary Basin (India) 639
G.K. Handique, A.K. Saikia, R.K. Mallick and
S.C. Das
I
Introductory Remarks
Deep Electromagnetic Exploration
K.K. Roy et al (eds)
Copyright © t998 Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India
1. Electromagnetic Waves in Geophysics:

A personal perspective
J.R. Wait
Consultant in Etectromagnetics and Electrical Geophysics,
2210 East Wavefly,TucsonArizona AZ 85719, USA
Much progress has been made in investigating the substructure of the earth
using electrical measurements on the surface. These methods, for the most
part, exploit the contrasting electrical properties of the various earth materials.
From an electromagnetic stand point, the most significant parameters are
electrical conductivity, electric permittivity or dielectric constant, and the
magnetic permeability or susceptibility. But we are also interested in the
frequency dependence of these parameters. Also the anisotropy of the
properties can yield additional insight to the geological structure.
The fundamental limitation of such surface measurements is the adverse
masking influence of the upper or overburden layers. When direct current
is employed, the injected current tends to be diverted from the deeper
regions by the upper layer(s) and useful information from the target is
small. In the case of alternating current or transient excitation, there is the
additional degradation caused by the attenuation of the propagated signal
over the two-way path. In spite of such forbidding limitations, great strides
have been made over the years in overcoming the hurdles that nature has
put in our way.
It seems that the initial optimism gave way to dire passimism until the
mathematical modelling and instrumentation advances were made available
to the earth science community. Signal processing techniques have greatly
contributed to the viability of dealing with what was considered hitherto "a
signal lost in the noise".
Many challenges remain. For how can we exploit the fact that any
"electromagnetic response" measurement, in the frequency or time domain,
will be influenced by both the electromagnetic propagation and the electro-
chemical properties of the media? We suggest that it is counterproductive
to try to separate these two phenomena by non-physical empirical means.
The theoretical tools are now available to permit a grand assault on developing
a unified quantitative analysis of such composite models. Such results should
lead the way to vastly improved capabilities to probe the "deep subsurface".
Deep ElectromagneticExploration
Copyright © 1998 Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India
2. Role of Electromagnetics in
Probing the Earth
D. Guptasarma
NGRI, Hyderabad-500007, India
Electromagnetic (EM) exploration fascinates the mathematically minded

physicist because of the challenge it offers. It fascinates the instrument
designer because of the very wide range of possibilities and the variety of
ways in which it may be applied in different ranges. It fascinates the explorer
because of its ability to extract hidden underground information through a
relatively inexpensive operation, and the geologist because it frequently
looks magical although sometimes quite unverifiable, as in the case of deep
seated electrical conducting zones.
The effectiveness of EM in earth probing, however, remains limited. The
principal reason for this may be that enough investments have not been
made as yet, or that its resolution or depth probing abilities do not match
those offered by such methods as seismic exploration. EM exploration has
been applied to mining problems mote than in any other field, and has had
most rewarding successes in the exploration of shallow conducting targets,
such as massive sulphides and graphites. But it has also been tried in all
kinds of problems from earthquake prediction to atmospheric water vapour
radiometry.
In retrospect one can see that the growth and application of EM has been
controlled to a large extent by the availability of electronic hardware for
data acquisition, and computation capabilities for interpretation. Starting
with vacum tubes and coils of the Bieler-Watson type, the then technology
has gone through the stages of using discrete component semi-conductor
circuits, followed by integrated circuits and microprocessors in a process of
transition from the analog world to the digital, concurrently with steady
improvements in the capability for computation and interpretation. Data
acquisition has also changed in its essence. Operations like noise rejection
and filtering have been made possible through digital techniques in a way
that was beyond the wildest dreams of the geophysicists in the 1950s.
EM has succeeded mostly for problems dealing with target detection at
shallow depths, or within short distances from the source detector system.
Sources have been artificial, otherwise the natural variations of the EM
fields have been used as source. Detectors have correspondingly varied
depending mainly on the frequency range of operation.
Role of Electromagnetics in Probing the Earth 5
Since Maxwell's equations cannot be solved in closed from if the

conductivity boundaries are mixed, the analytical approach to the forward
problem of the interaction of EM fields with conductors has only been
possible to solve the simplest cases, such as a layered ground, or a sphere
or a cylinder. The problems of a plate-like object have also been handled
by making simplifying assumptions regarding the thinness of the plate as
compared to the wavelength concerned. But the science has not gone much
further because of inherent difficulties in handling the EM field solution
rather than the technology limitations. This has led inevitably to numerical
approaches for arriving at the fields that would satisfy a few simple conditions
at the conductor boundaries. However, some cases of inhomogeneities in
the form of uniform variation of properties in one direction, or anisotropy,
have also been possible to handle ' analytically. The horizontally layered
ground model remains, nevertheless, the most used model.
The handling of lateral inhomogeneity as a 2D or 3D problem has been
attempted by many workers; but excepting the simplest models the
computational requirements have been the main reason limiting its widespread
use. The. layered ground model has been used in various scales, of a few
100 m for problems like exploration of groundwater, to a few 100 km such
as the estimation of deep conductivity discontinuities in the mantle. Along
with the scale, the operating frequency has had to change in a manner that
more or less keeps the product of the square of the linear dimensions and
the frequency constant. While applications to problems like determination
of thickness of weathered layer over a compact crystalline basement lend
themselves easily to workable interpretatitns that may be readily verified,
the case of deep deductions have to remain unchecked. In the shallow case
misinterpretation caused by an undulating base of the .weathered layer cannot
do much harm because this usually gets verified by the investigator. In the
case of deep structure, however, one can conveniently theorise about the
physical state in the upper mantle, or the lower crust and make conclusions
about the structure and origin of the rocks at these depths with complete
guarantee that verification will never be possible. The danger, of course,
lies in the possibility of misinterpretation which can arise in a variety of
ways, not the least important among which is the case of lateral
inhomogeneities smoothed out by the interpreter b y a process no more
reliable than hand waving. While this goes on, another set of workers
continually discover local conductivity inhomogeneities at similar depths
proving thereby that the layered ground interpretation may indeed be in
deep trouble in such cases.
One must remember that the non-uniqueness of the process of inverting
an observed EM field data set is, to a large extent, the result of artefacts
of computation. Nevertheless, there are certain situations in which different
conductivity settings may be quite indistinguishable, in principle, assuming
that every field measurement has some range or error of its own. Even in
6 Guptasarma
the case of a layered ground, the ambiguities cannot be resolved in many

situations without additional input from some other sources or methods. In
addition to such ambiguities we have the problem of lack of resolution,
particularly for structures at some depth. Many investigators would be
ready to fight you to prove that resolution at depth can be improved by
changing frequency, observation method, or scale of the observing setup,
or something like that. The usual approach to such demonstration takes the
route of keeping all parameters except one constant and varying that parameter
to show how sensitive the method is to changes in that parameter. In course
of such an analysis, which looks quite convincing, one tends to ignore the
fact that when many parameters vary simultaneously the reliability of
determination of a given parameter cannot be determined by varying that
parameter alone in model calculations. We are quite accustomed to see
inversions of EM data, under some very reasonable constraints¢ produce
very different results under some other constraints of comparable reliability.
What seems to be happening i's that the system has a strong parameter
interdependence that cannot be resolved without knowing the actual values
of the parameters with adequate confidence. The overall consequence is
that one has to remain satisfied with some gross result and not even attempt
a fine high resolution interpretation in such cases.
To add to all the above difficulties we have noise which may come
either from the observing electronics, the natural EM variations, or variations
caused by inhomogeneities in the ground itself. While random errors caused
by noise of random nature is usually reduced by averaging many observations,
the patterns produced by inhomogeneity of the ground itself cannot thus be
smoothed out. Unlike seismic exploration, where a method like common
depth point stacking can partially remove such difficulties caused by
inhomogeneities, an analagous method has not been constructed in the case
of EM exploration. There have been some claims about the removal of the
noise due to near surface inhomogeneities by making observations of
resistivity measurements in a manner that uses a weighted averaging of
nearby observations. Whatever may be the argument forwarded in favour
of such a process by way of justification, it is clear that such weighted
averaging amounts to no more than smoothing of profile data by a linear
operator. Indeed, there is very little that can be done with regard to
inhomogeneities if unfortunately the scale of inhomogeneities happen to be
such that the effect on the observation is very strong. The situation is not
very different from trying to see something through a smoke screen acting
as an intermediate scatterer. In fact every conductivity discontinuty between
the target and the observing system reduces the observability of the target,
and even in the case of a layered ground it is not possible to effectively see
beyond a few layers in case the conductivity contrast between these layers
is high.
The time scales of observation, the spatial scales of targets, and the rate
of propagation of EM signals make it essentially different from the situation

one has in seismic probing. For example, while the first arrival travel time
between a source and a detector can be taken as that corresponding to the
shortest Fermat path between the source and detector without taking into
account the presence of other inhomogeneities that do not affect this path,
this approach is usually not possible at frequencies at which EM exploration,
particularly deep exploration, may be attempted. As a result we have seen
some efforts at tomographic reconstruction using EM signals producing
some odd pictures which do not represent real target configuration.
It was realised fairly early that observations at a single frequency provide
less information than observations made at many frequencies. There was a
time when it was believed that because of the lack of induction at low
frequencies and the lack of penetration at high frequencies there is a 'window'
in the frequency domain through which the EM signals must be seen. This
idea was partially replaced by considerations that led to the belief that a
very wide band operation, covering the above mentioned window, would
be the best thing to do. Hardware was developed for multifrequency wide
band operation. Most of these systems worked on the basis of an artificial
source and a detector, and it was quickly realised that what being measured
is the transfer function of the source-ground-receiver system at various
frequencies over a certain band. This realisation led to the correct logical
conclusion that as long as the strength of the signal is sufficiently above
noise, that is, as long as the averaging process produced a steady estimate
of the transfer function, nothing is gained by increasing the source strength.
But the urge to escape from the confines of a narrow frequency window
quickly brought about the use of systems using transient excitation and
time domain measurements of the response. Apart from the fact that such
measurements basically provided information over wide band width, no
particular special advantage seemed to flow from the principle of the transient
measurement. Interpretation of transient measurements still depended largely
on forward modelling in the frequency domain and conversion into transient
response.
The situation changed when it was realised that there is a time separation
of signals which automatically happens in time domain measurements, but
does not happen in frequency domain measurements, which gives time
domain measurements an advantage that is very useful. An example of this
is the case of a conducting target buried in a less conducting surrounding.
In continuous wave (CW) frequency domain measurements in any manner
the received signal is always the sum of the signals from every element of
the ground added together. In the steady state this sum is the value that is
actually measured in the CW system. If this sum contains large signals
from poor conductors nearby, which can easily mask a weak signal from
a good conductor at some depth, there would be no way of getting rid of
this masking in CW measurements. This is because if the frequency was
8 Gupmsarma
lowered, the signal from both the target and the disturbing conductor would
reduce in nearly the same manner, with no advantage at all in the signal-
to-noise ratio. If the near conductor was, for example, a conducting
overburden, increasing frequency would allow the overburden to screen the
target away fromview.
The situation with transient excitation is, however, different. Currents
induced in the poor unwanted conductor would decay faster and, in the
case of a conducting cover of an overburden, would quickly diffuse away
from the source region, while the current induced in a good conductor
target would decay more slowly and would remain more or less confined
to the target itself. This means that at a suitable time after transient excitation
the signal-to-disturbance noise ratio could be much better than what can be
attained in CW excitation.
The process of induction in a conducting half space therefore attracted
attention as a diffusion process in which the induced current in the ground
was considered to be decaying and moving at the same time. Computations
of the manner of diffusion of current in a half space in simple cases were
done to reveal that the induction in the ground indeed behaves like a decaying,
moving system of currents.
The earlier concept of transfer function determination and lack of advantage
of having a stronger than minimally needed source strength yielded to
efforts at making very strong sources for transient excitation and
measurements. This gave rise to such systems as magnetohydrodynamic
exciters for transient measurements. These bomb like devices can produce
very strong currents for short durations in a more or less explosive manner.
But the use of such systems has not yet become popular.
Currently we have various systems using natural magnetic and telluric
signals, geomagnetic variations of long periods, artificial source systems
using fixed or moving large loop, or small loop, sources making measurements
in the time or frequency domain. There are systems which make measurements
of different components of the magnetic or electric field and also systems
which make measurements on very low frequency radio transmissions in
the frequency range of 16 to 25 kHz. Most of these systems in current use
utilize highly sophisticated electronics, microprocessor control, and a variety
of computerised means of data storage and interpretation. But there is no
basic change in the approaches that are visible during the past decade, or so.
What is it, one may ask, that could act as limiting factors to the growth
of EM techniques for ground probing. At this time it seems that deep
exploration is bothered principally by the signal to noise ratio problem,
resolution is limited mainly by the scale of the targets in proportion to the
wavelength, and detectability reduced by the presence of an intervening
conducting medium. Although we may stretch the current capabilities by
using special noise reduction techniques, nothing basically more effective
is likely to be achieved along the routes so far followed.
The current trend of separating the source and the detector by distance
of a few kilometers, along with the use of strong excitation either conductivety
into the ground or inductively through the use of a loop, the measurement
being digitally stacked over many cycles, would perhaps continue in the
same direction with some increased capabilities. Deeper exploration would
still have to rely on magnetotellurics, and on horizontal layering approximation
for some time to come. Simultaneous measurements with many sensors in
an array would continue to discover more lateral inhomogeneities at depth.
Such measurements would also be done in the abyssal plains in the oceans
in our efforts to better understand the state of the mantle. But the 'visibility'
of targets will not improve substantially untill we can formulate some
method of construction of images.
Imaging with tow frequencies would not be easy and would not produce
adequate resolution if the wavelength is comparable to the intended scales
of resolution. But, in any case, apart from more and more sophisticated
modelling of induction no new ideas are visible on the horizon.
It is therefore necessary to consider carefully what are our best chances
of improving the capabilities of EM methods in probing the earth and to
what extent these are achievable. If we do not get deflected by some of the
undemonstrated claims on resolution and detection capability by some
proprietary procedures, we have a chance of arriving at some breakthroughs
that may really improve matters.
3. Antennas in the Geophysical

Environment
J.R. Wait
Emeritus Professorof Geophysics, Department of Earth Sciences
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
Introduction
The performance of antennas is greatly influenced by their surroundings.
There are many instances, Where the reaction with the environment can be
estimated in a simple manner such as an elevated radiating structure located
over a fiat surface. But often the configuration is sufficiently complicated
that rudimentary approaches, such as geometrical optics, will not suffice.
In particular, if the antenna is located within the inhomogcneous region,
such as the earth's crust or the ionosphere, the resultant performance is a
great deal more difficult to predict. Here wc need to understand the interaction
of the antenna with the ambient medium. The other side of the coin, of
course, is the possibility of exploiting the antcnna's dependence on the
environment in remote sensing schemes. In this latter situation, we may
visualize the antenna as a probe to interrogate the surrounding region.
Indeed this is what geophysical exploration is all about!
In this limited review, we will outline some of the basic concepts from
both the telecommunications and the remote sensing points of view. The
choice of topics will be biased somewhat by the author's experiences over
the past several decades. Literature references are provided for the benefit
of readers who wish to delve further.
Dipoles in a Homogeneous Region

An excellent starting point exploits the original work of Hertz (1893) and
deals with the exact electromagnetic fields of electric and magnetic dipoles
located in homogeneous dissipative media of infinite extent. Here the electric
dipole (of length ds) is a short current element lds, and the magnetic dipole
is a small loop element IdA, where dA is the area of the small loop. We
locate the dipoles at the origin of a spherical coordinate system (R, 0, ¢)
and their axes are oriented in the polar 0 = 0 direction. The medium has
a conductivity or, permittivity E and permeability pt. The current in the
source dipoles are assumed to vary as exp (jo)t), where o) is the angular
frequency.
For the configuration described we can write the exact expressions, for
non-zero field components, for the two cases.
Antennas in Geophysical Environment 11
Electric Dipole
E R = [lds/[2rc(cy + jeo))R3)]] A(pR) cos 0 (1)
E o = [I ds/[47r(cr + j eo))R3)]] B(pR) sin 0 (2)
HO = [I ds/(4zrR2)] A(pR) sin 0 (3)
Magnetic Dipole
HR = [I dA/(2trR3)] A(pR) cos 0 (4)
H o = [I dA/(4zrR3)] B(pR) sin 0 (5)
E¢ = -j/to) [I dA/(4trR2)] A(pR) sin 0 (6)
where
A(pR) = (1 + pR) exp (-pR) (7)
B(pR) = (1 + pR + p2R2) exp (-pR) (8)
and were p = [j/d0) (or + jeo))] 1/2 (9)
The quasi-static limit corresponds to replacing A(pR) and B(pR) by 1 which
is a good approximation of IpR I < 0.1, On the other hand, if I pR I >> 1,
the 0 and ¢ components of the fields vary, with R, as R -1 exp (-pR) while
the R components vary as R -2 exp (-pR). It is here where the environmental
influence is most marked. If the medium is highly conducting, where
cr >> e o9, we see that Rep = 1/d, where d = (2/cr/dw)m is the electrical skin
depth. Thus 1exp (-PR) 1 =_ exp (-R/d) and the field loses a neper (8.68 dB)
for every meter in addition to the inverse distance factors. On the other
hand, if the medium is only slightly conductive, where say ~ << eo), we
then deduce that Rep --- (p/e)l/2cr/2 which only vanishes in the limit of zero
conductivity.
We show a plot of I A(pR) I and I B(pR) I as a function of (try) m R in
Fig. 1 where f is the frequency in Hz, cr the conductivity in mhos/m and
r the distance in meters. Values of the parameter Kf/cy are also shown on
the curves where K = e/e0, is the dielectric constant relative to the free
space value.
It is interesting to note that I A I actually has a magnitude somewhat
greater than 1 for a range of values for the parameter (crf)l/2R. For fixed
values of cr and r, this is sometimes called the "low frequency window"
(Gabillard et al, 1971). In this window, the magnetic field strength, for a
given dipole moment, are actually greater than for the same range r in free
space. This behavior has been exploited in sub-surface communications and
mine rescue schemes (Large and Farotad, 1973; Wait, 1974). But it is equally
important to note that the curves for I A I and I B t, shown in Fig. 1, have a
significant dependence on the conductivity cr and dielectric constant K. Thus
it is evident that transmission measurements, as a function of frequency,
12 Wait
will provide the basis of a geophysical probing scheme. We discuss such a

scheme in the next section.
3
fK/0" =
.I-9000}
,~ 4000 B
0
t~ 0.5
ca
z 0.3
'~ 0.2 fK/O'=
o 0.1 A f 4000
0
hi
9000
ca 0.05
l-- )
0.03
0.02
0.01
o oosL
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10
1
I fff ]'~ R
Fig. 1
Borehole A n t e n n a E x p e r i m e n t
An example of a transmission scheme for a through the earth path is shown
in Fig. 2. The objective (Grubb and Wait, 1971) was to deduce the
electromagnetic properties of a granite rock mass in the frequency range-i-
10 MHz. Here the battery-operated transmitting antenna was a short dipole
located in a vertical air-filled borehole. The amplitude and phase were then
recorded in adjacent holes using vertical antennas contained in the same
vertical plane. This arrangement has significant advantages over a simple
two-dipole trat~sfer impedance measuring scheme. In fact the input impedance
of the receiving antennas does not need to be determined which is a great
advantage practically.
IRELATIVE FIELD
STRENGTH,MEAS.
GROUND /
SUR FACE
MEAS.
DEPTH
100 m 1
100 m
30m •-15 cm
DIA.
•, ~ - - R E C V R . - - - ~
ANTE NNAS
1 AND 2
Fig. 2
The relative signal between the two receiving antennas is plotted in
Fig. 3 as a function of depth for the situation where all three antennas are
lowered in unison. Assuming that the rock mass is reasonably uniform (at a
site near Raymond, Colorado), we estimate the ratio of the electric field for
two separation distances R1 and R2 from the transmitting antenna. Using (2),
we have
E(R2)/E(R1) = (R1/R2) exp [(R2 - R1)] (10)
- 20
o
I'--
<¢
c¢:
-r -~0
p-
LO
Z
ILl
"p--" - 6 0
_J
--=-' - 8 0
IJ..
,I I I I
0 25 50 75 100
MEAS. DEPTH ,m
Fig. 3
14 Wait
where we have assumed, for convenience, that 1R t >> I. As shown elsewhere

(Grubb and Wait, 1971), it is a simple matter to deduce the cr and the K,
for the rock mass, from the complex ratio given by (9). Table 1 summarizes
the key results.
Table 1
Freq. (MHz) 1.10 2.10 4.40 7.60 10.20

Re. p (nepers/m) 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11
lm. p (radians/m) 0.10 0.16 0.30 0.63 0.49
(Y (m rnhos/rn) 0.93 1.12 1.45 1.63 1.75
K (= e/e0) 16.20 11.50 10.30 9.00 8.40
The deduced values of cr and K were reasonably close to those actually

measured in the laboratory.
Audio Frequency Antennas

Unfortunately the experimental conditions are not usually so convenient as
in the previous example. Often the desired depth of penetration is much
greater and furthermore boreholes may not be available. Thus the trend is
to employ lower frequencies. Here the air/earth interface plays a major role
and layering of the crustal layers must be included in the interpretation
schemes. "Antennas", in such instances, are really of two basic types: (1)
undergrounded insulated wires lying on or just above the earth in the form
of a closed loop and (2) linear insulated wires which are grounded at their
end points by metal electrodes (Parasnis, t986).
We discuss the loop type configurations first. The full blown theory
(Wait, 1987) can be quite complicated but there is one saving grace. The
relevant dimensions of the problems are small compared with a free-space
wave-length. Thus, in the air region, the fields can be deduced from a
magnetic potential which itself satisfies Laplaces equation. In the lower
conductive regions, such assumptions, of courses, are not valid and rigorous
solutions of the Helmholtz equations are needed.
An example of a basic configuration is a pair of spaced coplanar loop
whose diameters are small compared with their separation 1:. In the case
where the loops are lying on the surface of a homogeneous half space, with
properties or, e and/z o, the mutual impedance between the two loops is
given by:
Zm = Z o D(pr) (11)
where Z0 is the mutual impedance between the two loops as if they were
located in free space and where
D(pr) = [2/(pr) 2] [9 - (9 + 9pr + 4p2r2 + p3r3)e -pr] (12)
which is valid for all values o f p r but, as indicated, r must be much less than
the free space wavelength otherwise a more general form should be employed
(Wait, 1987). For purposes of plotting we write pr = Vj 1/2 (1 +jb) I/2, where
V = ((7 ]-19 O9)1/2r and b = e o9/o"are real. The amplitude and phase of the
normalized impedance function D(pr) are shown in Fig. 4 as a function of
the normalized separation distance V for various values of the parameter b.
In fact b is the ratio of the displacement to the conduction currents in the
medium. The curves are quite diagnostic of electrical properties of the half-
space. Because of electrochemical properties (Wait and Debroux, 1984), the
b parameter may not be negligible even though displacements in the air region
are not significant.
60 °
1.6
30 ° [:3
¢-a 1.2 t.l.

c~
tt t.tJ
o 0*
.<
lad :z:
0.8 0..
l-- -300
..d
ta
.< 0. t~
-60 °
0.0 I I l I -90*
0 2 4 6 8 10
V
Fig. 4
Many other loop configurations are employed in exploration schemes

(Wait, 1956 and 1958). In particular, a loop source mounted on a helicopter
or aeroplane with a receiver in a towed bird is a viable scheme (Sinha,
1973). There has also been a major effort to employ transient excitation of
the source loop (Nabighian, 1984).
The second type of audio frequency antenna, is the insulated wire grounded
at its end points. Because of the relatively low frequencies employed (e.g.
1000 Hz), the electrical length of the insulated cable is small and the
constant current assumption is usually justified (Chang and Wait, 1974). Of
course this would not be true for uninsulated wires in the air/earth interface.
The receiving antenna is a similar configuration. The "open circuit voltage"
16 Wait
is measured between two additional ground stakes which again are connected
by a section of insulated wire.
Antennas in Tunnel
A final example deals with tunnel transmission from the standpoint of
telecommunication. Here we are interested in the coupling between linear
antennas located within an air-filled cylindrical tunnel of radius a cut through
homogeneous rock of conductivity o"e and permittivity eo. We also locate
a passive leaky coaxial cable in the tunnel and fixed at a radial distance r0
from the tunnel axis. Cross section of the configuration is shown in Fig. 5.
The configuration we have described is an idealization of what is known
as a Leaky Feeder Communication System (Delogne, 1982). If the braid of
the cable is sufficiently sparse, the coupling into and out of the cable is
significant. As a result communication ranges greatly exceed what would
be possible without the leaky cable.
ANTENNA / - - - t ~''- 7~" ~ . . ~ \ ~ {r°'~°'0)
ROCK ~ ~.Jn. , ~ O J
(ffejee)
Fig. 5
Leaving aside the details of the rather complicated theory (Hill and Wait,
1976), Fig. 6 shows the calculated mutual impedance between two radially
oriented linear antennas of fixed length (0.75 m), for separation distances
of 0, 1 and 2 kin. The significant parameters of the problem are identified
in Fig. 6. In particular, the surface transfer impedance Lt of the cable braid
plays a major role. The overall transmission toss of the system can also be
deduced from the same theory (Hill and Wait, 1976) but space limitations
prevent further discussion here.
Concluding Remark
We have attempted here to show how important the immediate environment
is on determining the system performance whether we are dealing with
telecommunications or remote sensing.
10 0
0"e = 10 -3 , e e / e o = 10
E
O
E
N
L./
lo-3
z
.<
1::3
LIJ
¢:L 10`4
..J lo-s
<
I.--
;D
,, I,. ! I I I~1~1 J I I I,,ttl

10 100
FREQUENCY ( HHz )
Fig. 6
References
Chang, D.C. and J.R. Wait, 1974, ELF propagation along a horizontal wire located above or
buried in the earth, IEEE Trans. Vol. COM-22, No. 4, 421--427.
Delogne, P., 1982, Leaky Feeders and Subsurface Communications, Peter Peregrinus Ltd.
Stevenage, UK.
Gabillard, R., P. Degauque, and J.R. Wait, 1971, Subsurface electromagnetic tele-
communication--a review, 1EEE Trans., Vol. COM-19, No. 6, 1217-1228.
Grubb, R.N. and J.R. W a i t , 1971, Insitu measurements of the complex propagation constant
in rocks from 1 to 10 MHz, Electronics Letters, Vol. 7, No. 17, 506--507.
Heinrich Hertz, 1893, Electric Waves, (Dover reprint, 1962), see p. 141.
Hill, D.A. and J.R. Wait, t976, Calculated transmission loss for a leaky feeder communi-
cation system in a circular tunnel, Radio Science, Vol. 11, No. 4, 315-321.
Large, D.B. and A.J. Farstad, 1973, Radio transmission from underground c0al mines, IEEE
Trans. Vol. COM-21, 21-31. Nabighian, M.N., (Editor), 1984, special Issue, Time domain
Electromagnetics, GeophysiCs, Vol. 47, No:7, 849-1 t36.
Parasnis, D.S. 1986, Principles of Applied Geophysics, Chap. 6, Chapman and Hall.
Sinha, A,K., 1973, Comparison of airborne EM coil systems placed over a multilayer
conducting earth, Geophysics, Vol. 38, No. 5, 894-919.
Wait, J.R. 1987, Geo-electromagnetism, Chaps 3 & 4, Academic Press 1982 & Nedra.
Wait, J.R. and P. Debroux, t984, Induced polarization in inductive schemes, Geophysical
Prospecting, Vol, 32, 1147-1154, No. 6.
Wait, J.R., 1956, Mutual electromagnetic coupling of loops over a homogeneous ground,
Geophysics, Vol. 20, No. 3,630-637~ and Vol. 21, No. 2, 479-484.
18 Wait
Wait, J.R., 1958, Induction by an oscillating magnetic dipole over a two-layer ground,
Applied Scientific Research, Sec. B, Vol. 7, 73-80.
Wait, J.R. (Editor), 1974, Special Issue, ELF communications, IEEE Trans, Vol. COM-22,
353-587, No. 4. General references: M. Nabighian, 1987, Electromagnetic Methods in
Applied Geophysics, Society of Exploration Geophysics, Tulsa.
Wait, J.R., 1989, Complex Resistivity of the Earth, Progress in electromagnetic Research,
Vol. 1, No. 1, 1-175, Elsevier.
II
Electrical and
Electromagnetic Sounding
4. Dilemmas of MT Interpretation, EM
Field Distortion or Real Indication of
Resistivity Distribution
P p
A. Adam
Geodetic and Geophysical Research Institute of the HungarianAcademy of Sciences,
H-9401 Sopron, POB 5, Hungary
Introduction
Berdichevsky and Dmitriev (1976) outlined the scheme of the magnetotelluric
data interpretation. The first step-of their scheme is "Diagnostics of surface
effects by criteria of distortion theory". To the same authors is due the first
analysis of the two basic EM distortions, i.e. of the frequency independent
galvanic and frequency dependent inductive distortions. The main peculiarities
of these distortions can easily be studied on the E and B polarized
pseudosections of a simple conducting dike embedded in a layered section
(Adam 1987; Ad~im and Szarka, 1989). It is evident that the MT effect
of a near-surface small-scale structure can be much greater than that of
regional buried target. Nowadays the different decomposition methods aim
at the separation of these effects. As long as in 2-D models the geoelectric
structure expressed by the magnetotelluric response can be approximated
by forward numerical ("trial and error") and analytical methods and interactive
inversion techniques the direct numerical 3-D model computations have
been done only in some very simple cases (e.g. Wannamaker et al, 1984).
The main features of EM fields of an elliptical resistive and conductive
inclusion were already delineated in 1976 by Berdichevsky and Dmitriev
(1976). Their results have been confirmed by Wannamaker et al (1984)
calculations.
In general practice, the MT interpretation begins nowadays by fitting
layered half space to the MT sounding curve by 1-D inversion. On the
basis of these 1-D models an "approximate" 2-D structure is constructed
and afterwards it is corrected by 2-D inversion.
If the static shift is neglected, only a few case histories were published
which consequently strip the field data from different distortions before
searching for the most appropriate geoelectric structure.
The following two cases shown from the Pannonian basin (Hungary)
will illustrate how to overcome the difficulties in the MT interpretation due
to different EM distortion.
22 Jtddm
D i s t o r t i o n s or C o n d u c t i v i t y A n o m a l i e s A l o n g the
Pannonian Geotraverse
The Pannonian geotraverse crosses the eastern part of Hungary in NW-SE
direction from the Northern Hungarian Middle Range to the B6k6s graben
in the Great Hungarian Plain. In the Middle Range the volcanic and crystalline
rocks crop out, in the extensional B6k6s graben, however these basement
rocks sink to a depth of about 7 km. According to the isopach map (Fig. 1)
the latter huge sediment accumulation is a typical 3-D conductive structure.
Fig. 1 Pannonian geotraverse with MT measuring sites and Rhom.Xdirections

and their changes with the period (T).
Magnetote!luric research along the geotraverse determines the parameters

of the conducting layers on the surface (sediments), in the lower crust and
in the asthenosphere.
The anomalous behavior of two geoelectric structures (Szolnok flysch
belt and B6k6s graben) along the geotraverse are as follows:
Dilemmas of MT Interpretation 23
(a) Szoinok tlysch belt

The geotraverse crosses a flysch belt (Szolnok graben, collision zone) in its
middle part. Here the depths both to the lower crustal conducting layer and
to the asthenosphere increase according to depth values calculated by Bostick
transforms and 1-D inversion along a very detailed additional MT profile
(see T-De in Fig. 1) with a spacing of 750 m. The deepening of these layers
could be due to the temperature decrease in this collection zone of two
microplates (Pelso and Tisza). The heat flow map of Dovenyi et al (1982)
hints at the drop of the temperature in the flysch belt. An areal MT
measurement and more careful study of the effect of the mentioned factors
should support the conclusion.
(b) Brkrs-graben
More complicated is the interpretation of the MT data obtained in the 7 km
deep sedimentary basin, the typically 3-D Brkrs graben.
As the conductance inside the basin reaches 2000 Siemens, there is no
hope to determine the conducting layer in the lower crust having a conductance
of only some hundreds Siemens (Adam et al, t990). The decreasing branches
of the Rho curves indicate the asthenosphere (with different, therefore distorted
depth values) or represent any EM field distortions due to inhomogeneities
in the sediments or to changes in the geometry of the basin structure.
The MT indication of the asthenosphere is strongly distorted by the
static shift.
In the case of a 2-D structure the empirical relations between the depth
to the conductive layer (h) and the conductance of the surface sediment ($1)
only characterizes the B polarised Rho curves. In case of 3-D structures the
h-S1 relation can appear in the parameters derived from both extreme Rho
curves (Rhomax and Rhomin) depending on the positions of the measuring
sites in the 3-D one (see Kaikkonen's, 1988 model calculations for different
elongated conducting prisms).
The main characteristics of the depth values (h) to conducting layers and
their relation to $1 values in MT points measured in the Brkrs graben are:
- - It reaches its greatest values if the Rhomax direction varies vs period

(MT sites 1 and 4).
The static shift most clearly appears in the hRhomax values of MT
sites 2, 3, 5 and 6. The sediment thickness continuously increases
with site number.
- - The Rhomax curve of site 7 lies in strike direction according to
isopach map (Fig. 1), therefore it is a quasi-E pol. curve, hRhomax
value derived from it represents an outlier to the h-S 1 diagram of
sites 2, 3, 5 and 6.
- - The hRhominare much lowerthan the hRhomax,values. At the rim of
the Bekes graben (sites 1, 2 and 3) there is also a relation between
24 ,i~d(~m
----4
0 ,,j
• 0
~ °o
• o J
: o
mO
1 • Oi
.!
i .i
Mr - o =I
I
~ ~o ° "
E
0 ..~
0 il
"~ ° >',
• o ~,
} "=A
0,-~ o
~ o ,I
c,~ . e
II
C
~- o I
°~
o~
"~-- 41
0
q
::Io
N
._ P'--- (3
~ g
0 0 0
hRhominand $1 values, referring to the galvanic distortion although

in these points the Rhomin directions are nearer the strike (E
polarization).
- In sites 3, 5 and 6, i.e. in the graben areas, hRhominvalues are stabilized
-
around 30-40 km.

- - In sites 4 and 7 hRhominis only about 20 km!
In this large scatter of h values one has to find the most real depth to
the asthenosphere in the B6k6s graben. It follows from the 3-D model
calculations by Berdichevsky and Dmitriev (1978) and by Wannamaker et
al (1984) (e.g. Fig. 4) that Rho curves measured in the graben areas, i.e.
over the "conducting inclusion" give lower depth values to the third (3 =)
layer (asthenosphere) due to current channelling. This peculiarity is expressed
by the MT data of sites 3, 5 and 6, but most clearly by the h values of site
6 lying over the almost deepest part of the graben. According to the model
calculations, the Rhomax curves lie in the direction of the long axis (x) of
the elliptical inclusion (the basin). It is worth noting, that the static shift
appears most definitely in the case of these quasi-E polarized curves.
According to Fig. 4B (after Beridichevsky and Dmitriev, 1976) and
Wannamaker et al's sounding curves calculated for B, C and D sites (see
their Figs. 19, 20 and 21), outside the conducting inclusion the Rho values
measured parallel to the long axis (x) of the basin are the smallest. Due to
the foreland structure of the Bdk6s graben this statement does not get on
here.
Site 7 lies over the steep eastern wall of the graben. The Rhomin curve
here has given the shallowest depth to the conducting layer (18.5 km) in
the dip direction, most probably in consequence of the distortion caused by
the current restriction of the wall (wall effect or edge effect).
The most real h value can be approximated by using the quasi-E pot
Rhomax curve of site 7 and by the extrapolation of the series of the hRhomin
values (see the left side of the dashed line connecting hRhominvalues in
Fig. 3).
Berdichevsky and Dmitriev (1976) proposed to use the average impedance
values i.e. 1/2 (Z~. - Zyx), as the best approximation outside the 3-D inclusion.
The nearer the elliptical inclusion to a circle (a/b = 1) is, the more real
impedance value is obtained by this kind of averaging.
Another approximation is the calculation of geometric mean (hay) of the
hRhomaxand hRhominvalues, similar to Rhoeff value, i.e. hav= hRhomax" hRhomin.
These hay values are also shown in Fig. 3 and given in Table 1. Except the
extreme values in site 1, the scatter of these hav-S is much smaller and their
average (hay = 58 km) approximate the depth of the assthenosphere in the
Pannonian basin determined by MT in other parts of the country and by
seismic methods, too. Enescu's (1987) recent seismic value averages between
50 and 60 km near the Hungarian border in Romania.
26 .4ddm
h [kin
180
160
140 O
120
100
80
60
o ,, " , , ~ - - ha.v
Z~0 "O... -.. e
20 0 0
0 I t I I ,, I I, t I 1 , I '1
/~ S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 l& Sl(Siemens) = 100
Zxyma x varies vs T o hRhomin

• hRhom a x t h ov
Fig. 3 Depth values (h) to the asthenosphere vs conductances of sediments ($1) in

the B~k~s graben.
Regional EM field distortions due to isolated graphitic schist blocks in

tectonic zones
In a recent paper (Addm and Varga, 1990) a detailed study has been given
about different MT distortions found in a 15 x 15 km 2 test area of the
Transdanubian (W Hungary) crustal conductor in the seismoactive M6r
graben.
Analysis of the distortion has been based on 22 MT sounding curves
measured with spacing of about 2 kin.
The Transdanubian crustal conducting anomaly (Fig. 5) consists of graphitic
schist blocks beneath thick carbonate layers and pressed by the tectonism
into one of the most characteristic fracture lines of the Pannoniam basin,
the so called "longitudinal" fracture line (in NE-SW direction). The
conductivity anomaly reaches its shallowest depth, about 3 kin, in the
test area.
We do not discuss here the galvanic distortions, 3-D effects etc. as in the
first half of this paper in connection of the B6k6s graben and described in
Dilemmas of MT lnterpretation 27
9 yx~
i
~:0 ]h2
B
Fig. 4 MTS curves in three-dimensional model with elliptical inclusion; a/b .~ 2,

ol/Cyf = 16, h2/hl = 20; pi and/Y are local curves; A---over the inclusion,
B--outside the inclusion (xt/b = O, I y I/b - 1.5) (after Berdichevsky and
Dmitriev, 1976).
Table 1
Site Thickness Average $1 (Rhomax) Depth to the asthenosphere

number of sediment resistivity (Siemens)
(kin) (ohm-m) of sediment hRhomin hRhomax hay
1 3.5 6.2 564 56.0 176 99
2 3.5 5.2 673 46.0 106 70
3 4.5 5.5 818 31.0 89 52,5
4 5.0 6.3 793 19.6 136 51.6
5 5.95 5.5 1083 36.5 76 52.7
6 6.5 5 1300 31.0 58 42
7 8.15 4.9 1330 18.5 78 38
detail by ,/~d~imand Varga (1990). A very characteristic regional effect and

its origin is only explained here by 2-D numerical calculation.
As Fig. 6 shows, Rhomax values tie (with few exceptions) in NW-SE
direction perpendicular to the huge linear and shallow (5-7 kin) conductor
(Fig. 5).
Inversion of the Rhomax and Rhomin curves give very different values for
the depth to this graphitic block. The average depth vales are 15 km from
Rhomax and 3 km from Rhomin. If in a 2-D numerical modelling the graphitic
block is substituted by a homogeneous conducting layer or a 2-D conductor,
the average depth values are the same both for E and B polarization.
On the basis of h-S1 relation (due to static shift) and from the mentioned
directions it can be stated that the E polarization is represented by Rhomin
curves in all MT points and consequently the B polarization by Rhomax
28 fi~d6m
17° E 18° 19°
4 8ON
~r , li |
=
., ,
/~7°N
~(o °°
o
LEGEND
Depth of conducting blocks
Transitions,
~. 7 - - ] 2.5 "6 km 3, r r r ~ zonebetween 5 . ~ no indicotion
zones 1 a n d 2 0 "~0 lttrt'l
2. WZ'~ 6-10kin 4 r r [ ] ' ~ 10-25 km ~ "-
n MK-1 profile
Fig. 5 Map of the depth of crustal conducting formation in Transdanubia
(Adfim and Varga, 1990).
,~ 7 .... I B " llI'
Fig. 6 Azimuths of RhOm., curves shown by lines through the station location dot.
Hatched areas are villages. Depth in metres of the conducting formations
calculated on the basis of R h o i " curves in ellipses. Some values of Rhom. x
are given in rectangular boxes (Adfim and Varga, 1990).
ones. This pattern of the polarization is stable for the whole test area and
does not change, as oppositely expected in a case of a large homogeneous
conductor or sedimentary basin. These peculiarities were originally pointed
out by the statistical analysis of the depth and conductance values derived
from Rhomax and Rhomin curves (Ad~im, 1981). It was concluded that the
real inormation of the depth' and conductance of the conducting layer is
given by the E pol. Rh0min curves.
Stability of polarization connected to Rhominand Rhomax curves, respect-
ively, can be modelled by a series of isolated conducting dikes, as proposed
by Schmucker (1986), too. Fig. 7(a) shows 8 conducting and isolated dikes,
while (b) and (c) show their resistivity and phase profiles. Rho and phase
values do not change along the profile. This numerical model really express
the natural conditions, as it was found in the case of outcropped graphite
7SOre 0 8 dikes 750m
i
al
2 km
S00.0.,m
10m
8 dikes 100 100 m 8 ¢likes

log Rho IAm) T=3.rs "P Te3.6s
28 6.6O
27 . . . . A
26 6.z,o
25
L,20'
26. b) c)
23
6.00~
22
21
3 80*
20 l:r--.-o
t 360'~
190.1
o,0' o.1 °'.2 0, 06. 0s 06 °7 0 , m - 0.1 0'0 0, 01, 01, .i 0; 0'6 ol, U k .
og-pol AH-pol at-pol AH-pol
Fig. 7 (a) Model of 8 dikes; (b) resistivity profile and (c) phase profile
above the dikes.
schist blocks in the Gail valley in the Eastern Alps (Ad~im et al, 1990).
Therefore, the Transdanubian conductor is not a homogeneous body but is
cut into separate and isolated conducting dikes giving possibility for the
clear separation of the two polarization.
At present, in the study of the tectonic zones graphitic formations are
30 iid6m
getting a more and more important rOle, therefore in interpretation of M T

data should pay more attention for this important regional aspect making
easier the determination of the real geoelectric parameters.
References
Adam A. (1981): Statistische Zusammenhange zwischen elektrischer Leitfhhigkeits

verteilung and Bruchtektonik in Transdanubien (Westungarn). Acta Geod. Geoph. Mont.
Hung., 16, 97-113.
. / ~ m A. (1987): Tectonic effects in the magnetotelluric field and their numerical modelling.
Gerlands Beitrage zur Geophysik 96, 17-31.
Adam A., Duma G., Horvath J. (1990): A new approach to the electrical conductivity
anomalies in the Drauzug-Bakony geological unit. Phys. Earth. Planet. Int., 60, 155-
162.
,~d~m A., Landy K., Nagy Z. (1989): New evidence for the distribution of the electric
conductivity in the Earth's crust and upper mantle in the Pannonian basin as a "hotspot".
Tectonophysics, 164, 361-368.
~d~im A,, Nagy Z., Nemesi L., Varga G. (1990): Electrical conductivity anomalies along
the Pannonian geotraverse and their geothermal relation. Acta Geod. Geoph. Mont. Hung.,
25,291-309.
Ad~imA,, Szarka L. (1989): MT phase anomalies due to deep conducting dikes, Proceedings
of the 34th International Geophysical Symposium, Sept. 4-8, 1989, Budapest, 33-43.
,~d~m A., Varga G. (1990): Distortions of the eletromagnetic field by shallow basins and by
resistive outcrops. Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 60, 80-88.
Berdichevsky M.N., Dmitriev V.I. (1976): Distortion of magnetic and electric fields by
near-surface lateraal inhomogeneities. Acta Geod. Mont. Hung., 11,447-485.
Dovenyi.P., Horvath E, Liebe P., Galfi J., Erki I. (1983): Geothermal conditions of Hungary.
Geophys. Transactions, 29., 114 pp.
Wannamaker P.E., Hohmann G.W., Ward S.H. (t984): Magnetotelluric responses of three-
dimensional bodies in layered earths. Geophysics, 49 (9), 1517-1523.
Kaikkonen E (1988) : Personal communication.
Enescu D. (1987): Contributions to the knowledge of the lighosphere structure in Romania
on the basis of seismic data. St. Cerc. Geol. Geofiz. Geogr., GEOFIZIKA 25, 20-27.
Schmucker U. (1986): A regioinal quasi-anisotropy in West Germany. Poster presentation
at the 7th EM induction Workshop in Neuchatel, Aug. 1986.
5. The Fennoscandian Shield: A treasure box

for deep electromagnetic studies
T. Korja* and S.-E. Hjelt
University of Oulu, Institute of Geosciences,Department of Geophysics,
RO. Box 333 FIN-90571 Oulu, Finland
Introduction
The electrical and electromagnetic (EM) soundings are the most sensitive
geophysical methods for the detection of tectonically important although
volumetrically minor constituents of the Earth's lithosphere, i.e., carbon/
graphite, free saline fluids, and small percentage of partial melt. In tectonically
active regions partial melts and free saline fluids form conducting structures
that are distinct for different tectonic environments, continental rifts, mid-
ocean ridges, oceanic subduction zones and convergent continental margins.
In stable regions ancient tectonic processes have left in many places
electrically conducting traces which give information on collisions of either
continental or island arc crustal blocks revealing the location of paleosuture
zones or terrane boundaries (see e.g., Hjelt and Korja (1993), where a map
of electrically conducting zones of Europe was compiled). Enhanced electrical
conductivity may be due to graphite-and/or sulphide-bearing rocks of
sedimentary sequences that were complexly deformed and underthrust deep
into crust or emplaced closer to the surface by subduction and collision
and/or due to graphite precipitated from CO2-rich fluids into the shear
zones (gliding zones) between moving blocks. The nature of the conductivity
of the lower crust has been recently very much debated (an excellent and
detailed global review can be found in Jones, 1992). The role of fluids and/
or carbon as an explanation for the enhanced conductivity of the continental
lower crust remains still open together with another crucial question: whether
these constituents are of ancient tectonic origin or results of today's geological
processes.
Data acquisition and processing, petrophysical analysis of rocks at relevant
pressures, temperatures and fluid environments as well as modeling and
inversion algorithms have improved especially rapidly for various
electromagnetic techniques. A coeval increase in the number of
electromagnetic studies have considerably improved in last few years our
*Current address: Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FIN-02151, Espoo,
Finland.
32 Korja and Hjelt
knowledge on the electrical structure of the Earth's lithosphere and upper

mantle (e.g., Jtdicke, 1992; Hjelt and Korja, 1993; Brown, 1994). The
progress in electromagnetic methodology as well as availability of
multiparameter and spatially coinciding geophysical data sets (magnetotelluric
and reflection and refraction seismic data) has made it possible to interpret
geoelectrical models in much more specific tectono-geological terms (e.g.,
Korja et al., 1996a).
Shields with exposed Precambrian crust provide excellent windows to
probe the deep structure of continental lithosphere and to investigate its
evolution and the extension of plate tectonics to Palaeoproterozoic and
Archaean times. The Fennoscandian (Baltic) Shield (Fig. 1) is the largest
exposed part of the Precambrian East European Craton and it has practically
no sedimentary rocks and a very thin overburden of quaternary sediments.
The electrical screening effect of conducting sediments is minimal and the
conductors within the surficial parts of the Fennoscandian bedrock are
reasonably well known because of systematic airborne electromagnetic
mapping and extensive prospecting campaigns. Consequently electromagnetic
data allow us to infer the geoelectrical structure of the crust and upper
mantle with a reasonable resolution. In addition the Fennoscandian Shield
hosts several exposed sections of deep continental crust (granulite belts of
which the Palaeoproterozoic Lapland Granulite Belt in the northern part of
the shield is the largest) providing additional clues to the processes of deep
crust.
Ideally electromagnetic studies should start with an areal mapping (Fig. 2).
Anomalous conducting structures can then be studied and (regional) average
values of conductivity be obtained along selected profiles or at selected
sites. The distribution of large scale crustal structures can best be mapped
by magnetovariational (MV) and magnetotelluric (MT) measurements whereas
investigation of the internal "microstructure" of conductors requires methods
with dense lateral sampling, e.g., airborne electromagnetics (AEM) and
audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) soundings. An appropriate combination of large
scale methods (MV, MT and special controlled source techniques like
magnetohydrodynamical sounding, MHD) and small scale methods (AMT;
AEM; direct current, DC; and VLF resistivity, VLF-R, techniques) with
adequate vertical sampling and penetration provide a powerful tool and
allow us to investigate in detail both the position of conductors with respect
to geological and tectonic structures and the internal structure of the conductors
themselves (Table 1).
In 1980's and early 1990's an extensive program of electromagnetic and
electric studies was carried out in Fennoscandia to develop geoelectric
models for the Fennoscandian Shield and to interpret them in tectono-
geological terms. The information which these investigations produced on
the crustal scale distribution of electrical conductivity in the Fennoscandian
Shield is based mainly on magnetovariational (e.g., Jones, 1981; Rokityansky,
The Fennoscandian Shield 33
[ I1
I 14
~]10
[-.-7]12
Fig. 1 Geological map of the Fennoscandia (modified from Korja, A. et al., 1993
and geological references therein). Legend: Archaean Domain (1-3) 1:
Archaean (> 2.5 Ga); 2: Paleoproterozoic Granulite Complex (2.2-1.9 Ga);
3: Karelian metavolcanic and sedimentary rocks (2.5--1.9 Ga); Svecofennian
Domain (4-8) 4: Svecofennian schists (2.0-1.8 Ga); 5: Early Svecofennian
granitoids (1.9-1.86 Ga); 6: Late Svecofennian granitoids (1.83-1.75 Ga);
7 : rapakivi granitoids (1.65-1.54 Ga); 8: Jotnian sandstone formation; 9:
Southwestern Scandinavian Domain; 10: Caledonian; 11: Phanerozoic platform
cover; 12: terrain boundaries. A = Inari terrane; B = Lapland Granulite
Belt; C = Kittil~i-Karasjok Belt; D = Imandra-Varzuga Belt; E = Vetrenny-
Poyas Belt; F = Skellefte~ volcanic district; G = Northern Ostrobothninan
Schist Belt; H = Kainuu Schist Belt; J = Central Finland Granitoid Complex;
K = Bergslagen volcanic district; L = Tampere Schist belt and Vammala
Migmatite Belt (Southern Finland schist area); M = Outokumpu formation;
N = Transscandinavian Igneous Belt; O = Lake Onega; P = Per~ipohja
Schist Belt; R = Pielavesi-Pyhiij~irvi; S = Siljan; T = Karelian Kuhmo
block; Be = Belomorian Belt; CK = Central Kola terrain; KA = Karelian
Province; Mu = Murmansk terrain; SF = Svecofennian Domain; SN =
Sveconorwegian Domain; TESZ = Trans European Suture Zone.
1982; Pajunp~i~i, 1987) and magnetotelluric (Adam et al, 1982; Golod et al,
1983; Jones et al, 1983; Rasmussen, 1987; Kovtun et al, 1989; Korja,
1990) data (Fig. 3) whereas airborne electromagnetic mapping all over
Finland (Peltoniemi, 1982; Peltoniemi et al, 1992; see Fig. 4) has provided
important information concerning near-surface structures, e.g., the possible
34 Korja and Hjelt
Fig. 2 Methodological framework for lithospheric electromagnetic studies

(after Hjelt, 1990).
surface expressions of deep conductors. Locally AMT soundings (Kaildconen

and Pajunp~i~i, 1984), ground VLF-R and airborne VLF mapping (Hjelt et
al, 1990; Zhang et at, 1987; Korja et al, 1996a), DC dipole-dipole profiling
(Pernu, 1991), controlled source soundings, e.g., frequency and DC-soundings
in the northeastern part of the shield using magnetohydrodynamic data
(Velikhov et aI, 1987; Vanyan et al, 1989; Zhamaletdinov, 1990), and self
potential measurements (Korja et al, 1996a) have produced data for crustal
studies.
The aim of this paper is to:
(i) give a brief review of electromagnetic studies and their results carried
out in the NE and central part of the Fennoscandian Shield.
(ii) show how the combination of large scale regional and small scale
detailed local studies provides the best models for the tectono-
geological interpretation of conducting structures because the
combination makes it POssible to study in detail both the position of
conductors with respect to geological and tectonic structures and the
internal structure of the conductors themselves.
(iii) show how geoelectromagnetic studies can provide valuable information
on the geological and tectonic structures of oldPrecambrian cratons
and their present physical state, e.g., via (1) the detection of shield
scale conducting belts which can be associated with terrane boundaries
formed during ancient orogenies and via (2) the electrical properties
of the deep lithosphere.
Table 1 Electromagnetic and electric methods used for studies of lithospheric

electrical conductivity in the Fennoscandian Shield and the principal
survey characteristics
Methods Survey characteristics

Variation in Sampling Depth
conductivity distance range
Natural source fields
Magnetovariational
(MV, GDS) t' 2 horizontal grid: 10-50 km 10-1000 km
Magnetotellurics (MT) horizontal/vertical 1-15 km 1-250 km
Audiomagnetotellurics (AMT) horizontal/vertical 0.1-2 km 0.5-5 km
Self potential (SP) horizontal 2.5-10 m 0-
Controlled sources
VLF-resistivity (VLF-R) horizontal/vertical 10--50m 0-0.5 km
Direct current ( D C ) horizontal/vertical 10-50 m 0-5 km
Airborne electromagnetic
(AEM) 1 horizontal grid: 12 x 200 m 0-150 m
Magnetohydrodynarnic
(MHD) 3 horizontal/vertical 0.5-25 km -15 km
Fennoskan link4 horizontal/vertical 0.5 km- 0-
1 Magnetovariational (MV; or geomagnetic depth sounding; GDS) and airborne

elecromagnetic (AEM) ("wing-tip" Slingram) data also provide qualitative information
on the variation of conductivity with depth.
2 Horizontal spatial gradient method (HSG) applied to magnetovariational data also
gives quantitative information on the variation of conductivity with depth.
3 Direct current soundings and profiling (DCS, DCP) and frequency soundings (FS)
utilizing signals from the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator "Khibiny" located
on Fisher Island (peninsula) of the Kola Peninsula.
4 DCS and FS utilizing signals from the direct current power transmission link between
Finland and Sweden across the Gulf of Bothnia.
Fennoscandian Shield and Geoelectric Data Sets
An O v e r v i e w o f the G e o l o g y of F e n n o s c a n d i a n Shield
The Fennoscandian Shield, the largest exposed Precambrian crustal segment
in Europe, is bordered by the Caledonides in the north and west, by the
Trans European Suture zone (TESZ) in the southwest, and by Phanerozoic
sediments of the East European Platform to the south and east (Fig. 1).
Recent studies (see, e.g., Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993 and references
therein), however, have shown that the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover of
the East European Platform is underlain by Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic
36 Korja and Hjelt
. / '~;~ 1 e~
\y:.- . , ~ ,-.< _~ I .~ ~.....~ .~,~1 ~.~

"Z'
@
~?.~-...., ,~.. ,.,, .,--; 4o
°~
°'% • • ,
o . , * • /
,~ . , ° - 2, ° " ~
P.
~ o o
\ ~-~ ~, : ::..~ ~ X "~

t. ~ ~..-. . . . . . . O~ e~
• ,; ~ : °..
.°;* i ~ • °...
t .. ,...,, t,~ ° " ~1 0

Gulf of Finland
Fig. 4 Near-surface conductors (black) observed by airborne electromagnetic

surveying. No data from dotted regions (modified from Peltoniemi et al,
1992). BO -- Bothnian Schist belt; CFGC = Central Finland Granitoid
complex; KB = Archaean Kuhmo blocks; KI = Kittil~i Greenstone belt;
KSB = Kainuu Schist belt; LG = Lapland Granulite belt; NOSB = Northern
Ostrobothnia Schist belt; OK = Outokumpu region; PP = Pielavesi-Pyh~ij~irvi
region of Savo Schist belt; PSB = Periipohja Schist belt; SA = Salla Schist
belt; SFMA = Southern Finland Migmatite area; SOSB = Southern
Ostrobothnian Schist belt; TSB = Tampere Schist belt; VR = Virtasalmi-
Rantasalmi region of the Savo Schist belt.
b e d r o c k h a v i n g the s a m e ages as the b e d r o c k in the F e n n o s c a n d i a n Shield.

In the light o f these n e w data, the shield is v i e w e d as an e x p o s e d part o f
a larger P r e c a m b r i a n crustal s e g m e n t (called F e n n o s c a n d i a ) w h i c h extends
38 Korja and Hjelt
to the Volhyn-Central Russian aulacogen in SE. Together with the adjacent

Sarmatian and Volgo-Uralian crustal segments, the Fennoscandian crustal
segment forms the East European Craton that extends from the Black Sea,
the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains to the Caledonides.
The Fennoscandian Shield, proper, is divided into three tectonic domains
which continue beneath the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover to the southeast
and south. From NE to SW the domains are (e.g., Ga~il and Gorbatschev,
1987; Gazil, 1990; Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993): (1) the Archaean
Domain; (2) the Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian Domain; (3) the Meso-
and Neoproterozoic Sveconorwegian Domain. Each domain is further
composed of several crustal blocks (terranes), e.g., the Archaean Domain
consists of the Archaean Karelian Province in SW and the Kola-Lapland
orogen in NE including the Murmansk and Central Kola composite terranes
and the Belomorian Belt (Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993).
The crustal formation 'in the Archaean Domain occurred during the Lopian
(2.8-2.6 Ga) orogeny although part of the crust in the Karelian Province
may have formed already during the Saamian (3.1-2.9 Ga) orogeny. The
Karelian Province is a typical granite-greenstone belt terrain whereas the
Archaean terranes and provinces in the Kola-Lapland orogen are high grade
gneiss terrains. The Karelian Province was cratonised towards the end of
the Archaean and may have acted as a foreland during the Late Archaean
deformation in the Belomorian Belt (late Archaean mobile belt; Gafil and
Gorbatschev, 1987) and even later during the Palaeoproterozoic Kola-Lapland
orogeny. During the early Palaeoproterozoic (2.5-2.0 Ga ago) the Archaean
craton experienced widespread and repeated cycles of intracratonic rifting
that produced mafic layered intrusions, several sets of mafic dyke swarms
(Vuollo, 1994) and large intracratonic volcano-sedimentary extensional basins,
e.g., the Pechenga and Imandra-Varzuga basins and the basin extending
from the Karasjok-Kittit~i region in Norway and Finland to the Lake Onega
region in Russian Karelia. The oceanic environment have been proposed
for the southern part of the latter belt whereas ensialic for the northern part
(Kittilfi region) (Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993). Recently, however, it
has been proposed that ophiolites exist within the Kittil~i Greenstone Belt
(Hanski, 1995). The extension and rifting ultimately dispersed the craton
and led to the opening of smaller oceanic basins and/or large oceans to the
NE and SW.
In NE the consequent convergent tectonic processes 2.0-1.9 Ga ago
welded together the Archaean crustal masses (e.g., Murmansk, Central Kola
and Belomorian), deformed them and attached the collage against the Archaean
Karelian Province in SW. Relatively little new crustal material, except for
the Lapland Granulite Belt, were formed in this process and the boundaries
of the Archaean crustal units can be seen as NW-SE treading Palaeoproterozoic
schist belts such as the Pechenga and Imandra-Varzuga Belt in the Kola
Peninsula and the Lapland Granulite Belt in northern Finland. This collage
of the Archaean terranes and intervening Palaeoproterozoic schist belts

form the Lapland-Kola orogen between the Archaean Karelian Province in
SW and the Archaean Murmansk terrane in NE. The Lapland-Kola orogeny
is characterized by a continent-continent type collisions of (relatively small)
crustal blocks. It is not yet clear if all the Archaean crustal blocks, or
terranes are rifted crustal slices of the Archaean Domain or if some are
exotic (Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993).
The break up of the Archaean craton in SW at about 2.0 Ga ago led to
the opening of a large ocean, manifested by the 1.96 Ga old ophiolites of
Jormua and Outokumpu (Kontinen, 1987; Vuollo, 1994; Vuollo et al, 1995),
and a development of a passive continental margin. It is not yet clear
whether the Jormua ophiolite was obducted from a narrow basin between
the Karelian Province, proper, and a rifted crustal slice of the Archaean
Iisalmi block or whether the Jormua ophiolite was thrust from west over
the lisalmi block to its present position within the Kainuu Schist Belt
during the Svecofennian orogeny. Simultaneously, or slightly later, with the
Kola-Lapland orogeny convergent processes started SW of the Archaean
Karelian Province and initiated the Svecofennian orogeny. In contrasts to
the Kola'-Lapland orogeny, this orogeny produced vast amounts of juvenile
crustal material (Huhma, 1987) that were attached to the Archaean craton
by collisions of several island arc complexes and/or by mafic underplating
(Korja, A. et al, 1993; Lahtinen, 1994). Isotope systematics suggests the
existence of 2.1-1.93 Ga old continental crust (Claesson et al, 1993) which
may indicate that some of the Svecofennian crust have formed slightly
earlier. Alternatively, the source for the sedimentary material may be the
Kola-Lapland orogen as suggested, e.g., by Laajoki (1986). In the central
part of the shield, the development of the Svecofennian Domain involved
at least two collisions (e.g., Nironen, 1989; Lahtinen, 1994). The first collision
occurred 1.91-1.88 Ga ago when an island arc, extending from Lake Ladoga
to northern Sweden, collided against the Archaean craton margin from SW
resulting in the overthrust of Kalevian marginal sediments onto the reactivated
Archaean crust and thickening of crust that at present record even over 60
km along the cratonic margin (Luosto, 1991). The first collision was followed
at 1.85-1.80 Ga ago by the collision of a second island are complex extending
from SW Finland to central Sweden. The second collision was preceded by
a northward directed subduction that produced the Skellefte~ and Tampere
volcanic arcs. In southern Finland the recent models (e.g., Lahtinen, 1994)
include also a southward directed subduction that produced the volcanic
rocks of the Vammala migmatite belt (VMB). The island arc complexes
and the sedimentary material from intervening basins were intruded by vast
amounts of synorogenic I-type granitoids 1.9-1.86 Ga ago and by S-type
granitoids from remelted Svecofennian material 1.83-1.75 Ga ago, the latter
magmatism has been related to the extensional collapse of the Svecofennian
orogeny (Korja, A. et al, 1993; Korja, A., 1995).
40 Korja and Hjelt
The western margin of the Svecofennian Domain was developed when

the Transcandinavian Igneous Belt was formed between 1.83 and 1.65 Ga
either as a product of continental arc type magmatism (Andersson, 1991)
or deep-seated rift-related magmatism (Gorbatschev and Andr6asson, 1990).
Additional Palae0proterozoic crust was formed in southwestern and western
Scandinavia between 1.75 and 1.55 Ga.
The Svecofennian crust was intruded by anorogenic rapakivi batholiths
and coeval mafic swarms between 1.65 and 1.54 Ga in an extensional
tectonic setting (Haapala and R~imr, 1992; Korja, A. et al, 1993; Korja, A.
and Heikkinen, t995). Another extensional event, probably related to the
rifting of the crust prior to Sveconorwegian-Grenvillean orogeny, occurred
about 1.2 Ga ago when the Subjotnian sandstone formations were deposited
in grabens and mafic dyke-sill complexes were intruded in Lake Ladoga
area, Southwest Finland and Central Sweden.
The Sveconorwegian Domain in the SW part of the Shield was developed
during the Sveconorwegian-Grenvillian continent-continent collision type
orogenic events between 1.2 and 0.9 Ga ago. It reworked substantially the
southwestern part of the shield but created little new crustal material
(Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993).
Geoelectric data sets

The extensive program of electromagnetic and electric studies in Fennoscandia
in 1980's and early 1990's was carried out by the EM Induction Groups in
Oulu and Uppsala as well as by several groups in former Soviet Union,
where deep EM research started in late sixties. Data and results from several
studies designed for various structural problems of mineral exploration and
more general geological research were also available in developing the
geoelectric models for the Fennoscandian Shield and to interpret them in
tectono-geological terms. The methods used for these studies have been
described in Table 1. The available data sets have recently been reviewed
by Korja and Hjelt (1993) where a detailed list of references for original
studies can be found.
Finland was among the first countries to start regular nationwide airborne
EM surveys using mainly magnetic dipole systems in the wing-tip
configuration (Peltoniemi 1982; Ketola 1986). The airborne electromagnetic
(AEM) data collected by the Geological Survey of Finland were recently
compiled into a surface conductance map of Finland (Peltoniemi et al,
1992; a simplification in Fig. 4). These data in the form of 1:100000 profile
maps of real and imaginary components are useful to delineate near-surface
conducting structures and to study the internal structure of the surface
expressions of deeper conductors (e.g., Korja and Koivukoski, 1994; Korja
et al, 1996a).
The first long period MT soundings in Finland were carried out in 1980
(.Ad~im et al, 1982) and the extensive magnetometer array work started
almost simultaneously (e.g., Pajunp~i~i, 1987, 1989). The MV array data

cover Finland between latitudes 60 and 66.5°N approximately and have
provided a general horizontal distribution of electrical conductivity in the
southern and central parts of Finland (Fig. 3). The corresponding area of
Central Sweden has also been covered, but only the first results of processing
and analysis of the data are available (Rasmussen et al, 1992). The same
magnetometers had been used in the IMS project 1976-79 with the main
aim being the mapping of magnetospheric and ionospheric current systems.
The data were utilized also for crustal structural studies by Jones (1981,
1983) and by Jones et al (1983). MV data exist also from the Karelia in the
former Soviet Union (e.g., Rokityansky, 1983).
The MT data include soundings carried out in Russian Karelia by several
groups (e.g., Kovtun, 1976; Golod et al, 1983; Kovtun et al, 1992), whereas
the Finnish and Swedish data stem some early work of Alan Jones (Jones
et al, 1983) and mainly from measurements made by the Oulu and Uppsala
groups (e.g., Rasmussen et al, 1987; Rasmussen, 1988; Zhang et al, 1988;
Pedersen et al, 1992 and Korja et al, 1986; Korja et al, 1989; Pernu et al,
1989; Vaaraniemi, 1989; Korja and Koivukoski, 1994; Korja, 1993).
Additional MT soundings in Denmark along the EGT transect were obtained
by Uppsala and Aarhus groups (Rasmussen et al, 1992; Hjelt, 1990). The
groups in Finland, Sweden and Denmark have utilized similar equipment
all through the 80's having produced some 600 soundings. The MV and
MT data thus form a comprehensive and unified data set, unique in the
whole world. The positions of the MV recording and MT sounding sites are
given in Fig. 3 (a and b respectively).
In the northeastern part of the shield in Finnish Lapland and in Kola
Peninsula frequency soundings (FS) exploiting energy from a
magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator located at the Fisher Island of the
Kola Peninsula have been used for geoelectric investigations. Data have
provided both average crustal resistivity variations as well as detailed profile
results (Heikka et al, 1984; Velikhov et al, 1987; Kaikkonen et al, 1988;
Vanyan et al, 1989; Zhamaletdinov 1990, 1992).
Conductivity Variations in the Upper and Middle Crust

The results of the various electromagnetic research projects have recently
been summarised by Korja and Hjelt (1993), Hjelt and Korja (1993) and
Korja (1993) including comprehensive references for original studies as
well as for detailed discussions on the tectono-geologicat significance of
the conductivity distributions in the lithosphere. We shall first outline the
main results of the electromagnetic investigations completed in the
Fennoscandian Shield and then present a further discussion on their tectono-
geological interpretation.
Main features of EM results are shown in three figures: A simplified
distribution of near-surface conductors mapped by the airborne
42 Korja and Hjelt
electromagnetic surveys (Peltoniemi et al, 1992) is shown in Fig. 4. Airborne

data provide evidence only for very shallow (0-150 m) and within the limit
of a few meters, exposed (e.g., KI in Fig. 4) conductors. Inference aboUt
their continuation deeper into the crust requires additional information from,
e.g., magnetotelluric soundings. The location and geometry of the main
belts of conductors compiled from all available geoelectromagnetic data
(mainly MV, MT and AEM) are shown together with the major tectonic
units of the shield in Fig. 5 (see also Fig. t for a detailed geological map
and Fig. 3 for the location of the conductivity anomalies mapped by the
MV method). The two-dimensional resistivity models with seismic information
from central, northern and eastern part of the shield are shown in Fig. 6.
Only the nearest-to-the-surface location of the conductive belts are indicated
in Fig. 5. In some cases the "deep" conductors observed by MV and MT
methods are neither exposed nor do they show any clear surface e.xpression
(e.g., the SE continuation of the Outokumpu, OK, anomaly to the SE)
whereas in some other cases the possible surface expressions of deep
conductors are manifested by the nearby near-surface conductors revealed
by AEM surveys (e.g., Oulu, OU, and Southern Finland, TSB VMB
conductors). In many cases the conductors are inclined and hence the shaded
belts show the surface projection of the uppermost part of the dipping
conductive body. The direction of the dips are indicated in Fig. 5 in the
place where the conductors plunge deeper into the crust (e.g., Skellefte~
conductor, SK). The termination of the dipping part of the conductors is
shown by dashed lines with pins pointing towards the conductor.
The electrical structure of the crust of the Fennoscandian Shield is very
complex with resistivity variations from 10 +6 m to below 10 -l m that
are extreme values compared with those normally observed in crustal rocks
(Haak and Hutton, 1986; Jones, 1992). Several elongated conductors which
are either many hundred kilometres long or which form belts of discontinuous
conductors, delineate electrically more resistive blocks within the shield.
The resistive blocks are usually relatively homogeneous laterally but have
vertical variations in conductivity. The intemaI structure of conductors may
be very complicated as is evident from the airborne electromagnetic data.
An example from the Lapland Granulite Belt is described later (Fig. 9).
The main conductors in the central, northern and eastern parts of the
shield are, from NE to SW, as follows:
(i) A set of NW-SE trending, southwestward dipping, highly conducting
zones in the Kola Peninsula and in northern Norway including the Polmak-
Pechenga (P) and Imandra-Varzuga (IV) conductors. Conductors have been
mapped by both the airborne electromagnetic surveys (in the Pechenga
region) and the deep penetrating electromagnetic soundings. In the Pechenga
area the conductors dip southwestward and reach a depth of 7-10 km
(Zhamaletdinov, 1990) about 10 km to the southwest of the surface exposure.
Further to northeast along the Polmak-Pechenga Schist Belt in Norway the
Fig. 5 Upper and middle crustal conductors in the central and northeastern
Fennoscandian Shield based on MV, MT, MIlD and AEM data. Geological
boundaries are from Gorbatschev and Bogdanova (1993). The SW extent
of the Archaean crust beneath the Palaeoproterozoic strata is shown by
double dashed line and is based on isotope studies by Huhma (1987) and
t~hlander et al (1993) and on reflection seismic data by BABEL Working
Group (1990). Conductors: 1. Kola-Lapland region (vertical stripes): IA =
Inari-Allarechen; IV = Imandar-Varzuga; LG = Lapland Granulite Belt;
P = Pechenga; 2. Karelian I~ovince (circles): KI = Kittilii Greenstone Belt;
LO = Lake Onega; PSP = Per~ipohja Schist Belt; VPB=Vetrenny-Poyas
Belt; 3. Archaean Karelian.Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian (horizontal
stripes): KSB = Kainuu Schist Belt; LL = Lake Ladoga; NOSB = Northern
Ostrobothnian; OU = Oulu; OK = Outokumpu; PP = Pielavesi-Pyh~ij~irvi;
4. Svecofennian (waved): BO = Bothnian; KO = Kokkola; SK = Skellefte~;
ST = Storavan; TSB and VMB = Southern Finland; VR = Virtasalmi-
Rantasalmi.
conductors rapidly b e c a m e very thin and shallow reaching the depth o f

about 1.5 km (Zhamaletdinov et al, 1993). The conductors in the P e c h e n g a
area can be associated with the metasedimentary rocks o f t h e Pilguj~irvi
Suite o f the P e c h e n g a Complex (the graphite-and sulphide bearing rocks Of
the so-called "productive pile") (Hanski, 1992). In the Imandra-Varzuga
44 Korja and Hjelt
Belt modeling o f the frequency sounding data (MHD generator as a source)

also has shown that conductors are southwestward dipping and reach a
depth of several kilometres (Zhamaletdinov, 1990).
POLAR (KGB, LG, IT}
SW NE
0 k ~ ~ "'rl' \~,.\l 0
4O 4O
5O 5O
0 2o ¢0 6o ao ~ ~20 ~ ~ ~0 20o ~20 ~ 0
disto'-ce ('/m)
SKELLEFTEA (SK) OULU I (BO, OU)

s N S W ......... NE
c~ (,-i GD C O
0I ,,..~ " J0 ~ 1 0' ''"
~ 1' 0, 0 = " 0
-~ 4 0 ~ ~ ",'~-'Y~. . . . . . . . . . . . }-40
o ~..~.../. ~~,%.....,.~ . . ~ i , ~ . , , ~ , ~ , ; . ~ .50 ,"-~"~ ; ~ ', , . , | 50
0 40 80 E0 ~ distance200(km240) o 20 40 60 8o ~ ~o ~o
distance (km)
OULU IV (KO, BO)

W • E
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180200

distcr~ce (km)
SVEKA (TSB, CFGC, KSB, KUHMO)

S- NE
o~ ~ ~ ~ > z3 o > . co.- c
0 l,\L\\~,&..t, ' ' r , I ' ' r ' 1 ~ ; x ; 3
2o ~ ~ " ~ .....:::.~! i~ - " , - ~ ~ - ~ I - 2o

30-~:;t'~":'~';7°::::' ::" " 7::::;:
4o~.::::i'-"
':;:L:: ...... j:.~;:::~i.~
"r, ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~
:~ ,~:~::::.~
i-~°
I-4O
0 50 100 tSo 200 250 300 3.50 400 450

c:stoqce (k-n)
~ >=5000 otrn m ~ 1000-5000 or,'n m [ ~ 100-1000 ot'Ym m
E ~ 20_100 c~.y.n m I ~ 1_20 ohm r n I~B -- 1ohm m
Fig. 6 The 2-D models POLAR, SkellefteA, Oulu I, Oulu IV and SVEKA
(from Korja and Hjelt, 1993, Fig. 5).
(ii) A NW-SE trending, southwestward dipping Inari-Allarechen conductor

(IA) along the northeastern boundary of the Lapland Granulite Belt. In
Finland the conductor is nearly vertical and reaches the depth of about 10
to 15 km according to the modeling of magnetotelluric data (Korja et al,
1989) (POLAR profile; Figs. 6 and 8).
(iii) A northeastward dipping conductor (LG) at the lowermost basal part
of the Lapland Granulite Belt and beneath it is situated between the
horizontally lying and surficial Kittif~i Greenstone Belt conductor (KI) and
the southwestward dipping Inari conductor (IA) (Korja et al, 1989) (POLAR
profile; Figs. 6 and 8). According to magnetotelluric data the entire granulite
belt is underlain by a good conductor with its upper surface reaching the
depth of about 15 km close to the northeastern edge of the granulite belt.
The rocks of the granulite belt itself have an average resistivity of 200-
1000 m which is much lower than the typical upper and middle crustal
resistivities found elsewhere in the Fennoscandian Shield (see below the
later section.).
Tanaelv Lapland Granulite Belt lnarl

Belt Sheared Anatectle Terrane
I ,~t(. ~ ..<.,,..~.~,,/,~/~/ ~ ttt~ ~ i.'~r-.l"--B~ ,
~'. ~ .r~~E'fJ I , , , ' t t,\\\ ~ '1/ 2
/'t,I / ~'~"t ///t!. tk/~ A !i i
[ I ' . . . A ~¢~'e t f f / v /tlL,~.":--L--lP"---._;-~
:YW t f ,' x,, ,.at, [ ls

c R 1 ~ S
) q.
___~..._-:: .ZS .... : _2 221;,4o

so " 2o " 40 6o " 80kin 11
km
Fig. 7 Geophysical models of the POLAR (from Korja, A. et al, 1993, Fig. 14).
(iv) The NW-SE trending zone of "sub-horizontal" and exposed upper

crustal conductors from the Kittil~i Greenstone Belt (KI) in northern Finland
to the Vetrenny-Poyas Greenstone Belt (VPB) and Lake Onega (LO) in
Russian Karelia in SE. In Finland the conductors have been studied by both
the AEM and MT methods whereas in Russian Karelia DC and AMT-MT
methods have been used. In the Kittil~i Greenstone Belt the conductive
Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal rocks above the Archaean craton have a
thickness of about 10 km according to magnetotelluric data (POLAR profile;
Fig. 6) (Korja et al, 1989). It seems that the Kittil~i conductor continues
beneath the Lapland Granulite bett where part of the basal conductor may
46 Korja and Hjelt
represent underthrust conductive metasedimentary rocks of the Kittil~i

Greenstone Belt. It is not clear, however, how far to the northeast the
conductive rocks of the KGB continue. The enhanced conductivity in the
Kittil~i Greenstone Belt is caused mostly by few tens of metres thin graphite
and sulphide schist layers and subordinate iron formations (Korja et al,
1992; Lehtonen et aI, 1985) within otherwise resistive (several thousands
to hundreds of thousands of m) bedrock consisting mainly of metavolcanics.
The conductors around the Lake Onega (LO) can be associated with shungites
(Golod et al, 1983; Golod and Klabukov, 1989) and they have a maximum
thickness of about 2 km. In both cases the resistivity of graphite-bearing
rocks is below 0.1 m whereas metasedimentary and metavolcanic ,host"
rocks have a resistivity of few thousands of m.
(v) Near-surface conductors (PSB) mapped by the AEM method and
associated to the Palaeoproterozoic Per~ipohja Schist Belt o f the Karelian
Province north of the Bothnian Bay in Finland and Sweden (Fig. 4).
(vi) A belt of discontinuous conductors coincident with the Archaean
and Svecofennian boundary zone including the Lake Ladoga (LL), Outokumpu
(OK), Kainuu Schist Belt (KSB), Pielavesi-Pyh~salmi (PP) and Oulu
conductors (OU). These conductors have been studied by various methods
including MV, AMT-MT and AEM methods (Rokityansky, 1983; Pajunp~i~i,
1989; Korja et al, 1986; Peltoniemi et al, 1992; Korja and Koivukoski,
1994). In the south the upper surface of the conducting Archaean-Proterozoic
boundary belt (LL part ) is located at a depth of about 10 to 15 km and
beneath Lake Ladoga the conductor turns westwards and finally becomes
unresolvable due to screening of the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover
(Rokityansky et al, 1981; Rokityansky, 1983). In the Outokumpu region
(OK part) the conductor revealed by MV method is located rather deep in
the upper-middle crust (10-15 kin; Pajunp~i~i, 1989) and is situated slightly
to the west of the Outokumpu formation proper, indicated by AEM data
(Figs. 4 and 5). In the north, beneath the Kainuu Schist Belt, the deep
conductor (KSB part) seems to dip southwestward (SVEKA profile; Fig. 6)
reaching a depth of 30 km about 100 km to the west, and terminates close
to the Karelian-Svecofennian boundary. The correlation between the deeper
conductor and the near-surface conductors of the Kainuu Schist Belt is not
straightforward since part of the supracrustal rock sequences of the KSB
may represent a nappe that was overth"ust from SW to its present position.
Further to the west several southwestwards dipping near-surface conductors
(PP) have been detected by the AEM and AMT (Kaikkonen and Pajunp~i,
1984) methods along the lithological Archaean-Proterozoic (Karelian-
Svecofennian) boundary. The PP conductor can be associated with the
Palaeoproterozoic rocks of the northern part of the Savo Schist Belt (Pielavesi-
Pyhajarvi region). Further to the NW around the Bothnian Bay a set of
conductors have been identified of which the nearly vertical Oulu-conductor
(OU) is located at the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary (OULU I profile;
Fig. 6). The resistivity of it seems to be as low as 0.5 m and a total

vertical conductance over 20000 S. Graphite-beating black schists, associated
with strong anomalies in the AEM surveys, have been identified northeast
of the Oulu conductor in the Northern Ostrobothnian Schist Belt (NOSB
conductor). The conducting black schists dip southwestward (Pernu, 1991)
and it may be that the Oulu conductor is caused partly by these conducting
schists. Therefore the OU and NOSB conductors may represent a single
conductor that dips south- and southwestwards. The seismic reflection data
(BABEL Working Group, 1990) show that the Archaean craton dips south-
westward under the Svecofennian schists and is associated with a band of
SW dipping reflectors.
(vii) A sub-horizontal Bothnian conductor (BO) at depths of 10 to 15 km
on the Finnish side of the Bothnian Bay (Oulu I profile; Fig. 6). It forms,
in fact, a core of conductors that is surrounded in the west by the northeastward
dipping Storavan-Skellefle~ conductor (SK) in Sweden, in the east by the
eastward dipping Kokk01a conductor (KO) in Finland, and in the north by
the nearly vertical Oulu conductor (OU). The application of the Horizontal
Spatial Gradient (HSG)-method to magnetovariational data yielded a thickness
of about 25 km for the Bothnian conductor (Pajunp~i~i, 1988) which is
comparable to the value obtained from magnetotelluric data (profiles OULU
I and IV; Fig. 6). The AEM data seem to indicate a complicated, conductive
near-surface part above the Bothnian conductor, possibly of shallow depth
extent. The MV and MT data seem to indicate a more resistive upper crust
above the middle crustal Bothnian conductor. This is probably the result of
inadequately large distance between measuring points.
(viii) A NW-SE trending and northeastward dipping Skellefteh-Storavan
conductor (SK, ST) in Sweden (Jones, 1981; Rasmu.ssen et al, 1987). The
conductor plunges deeper into the crust just south of the Skellefteh Belt and
extends to the north and northeast about 80 km where the upper surface of
the conductor reaches the depth of 35 km (SKELLEFTE]k profile; Fig. 6).
The conductor terminates close to the SW limit of the Archaean crust
inferred from the Sm-Nd isotope systematics (Claesson et at, 1993). The
depth to the Moho boundary in this region is about 40-45 km (BABEL
Working Group, 1990; Luosto, 1991) and thus the Skellefteh conductor
apparently penetrates through the entire crust. To the south of the Skellefte~
Belt the conductor is located close to the surface and has an extension of
at least 200 km. If the geoelectric 2D-model is projected along the geoelectric
strike towards the Bothnian Bay then the dipping part of the conductor
coincides with a dipping band of reflectors detected beneath the Bothnian
Bay by marine reflection seismic profiling (BABELWorking Group, 1990).
(ix) An eastward dipping Kokkola (KO) conductor on the Finnish side
of the Bothnian Bay OULU IV profile; Fig. 6) at middle to lower crustal
depths (Pajunp~i~i, 1989; Vaaraniemi, 1989; Korja, 1993). Magnetotelluric
data from the OULU IV profile indicate that the most conducting rocks
48 Korja and Hjelt
beneath the MV conductivity anomaly are observed at the depth of about

20 km and below. Moreover, the conductor dips eastward and terminates at
about 150 km to the east of the MV conductivity anomaly where the conductor
reaches a depth of 40 kin. This location coincides well with the conductivity
boundary delineated by the MV method (Fig. 3 and dashed line in Fig. 5)
(Pajunpaa et al, 1983). On the other hand, if we projected the KO conductor
to the west using the dip observed along the OULU IV profile then the
conductor would reach the surface somewhere in the middle of the Bothnian
Bayl There is no information concerning the crustal electrical properties or
exposure of conductors from the sea region and thus the exact relationship
between the Sketlefte~ and Kokkola conductors remains open. The geometry
of these conductors, however, suggests that the eastward dipping part of the
Kokkola conductor may represent the northeastward dipping part of the
Skellefte~ conductor and that the eastern end of the Skellefte~-Kokkola
conductor had been rotated to make an almost 90 ° turn.
(x) Near-surface conductors (VR) mapped by the AEM method and
associated to the western limb of the Savo Schist Belt in the Virtasalmi-
Rantasalmi region.
(xi) A 500 km long, E-W trending and nearly vertical conductor (TSB
& VMB) in southern Finland (Pajunp~i~i, 1989; Pernu et at, 1989; Korja and
Koivukoski, 1994) extends from the Outokumpu region in eastern Finland
to the western coast of Finland. MV data indicate that in the sea region it
may turn to the north. In the east the conductor is narrow (Pajunp~i~i,
1987) and has no surface expression according to AEM data. To the north
of the deep conductor, however, a region of near-surface conductors (VR)
is detected (Figs. 4 and 5). In the west the conductor becomes wider reaching
a width of several tens of kilometres, which, however, is still much less
than the width of about 200 km of the Skellefte~ conductor (which in
addition has 80 km plunging into deeper crust). Magnetotelluric studies
also indicated that the resistivity of the Southern Finland conductor decreases
with depth from about 100 m at the depth of 3 km to 0.i m at mid-
crustal depths. The uppermost layer has a resistivity of about 5000 m.
The ability to resolve smaller and smaller structures by decreasing the
lateral sampling distance is demonstrated by studies of the southem Finland
conductivity anomaly. Magnetometer array studies with a sampling distance
of about 30-40 km first detected a zone of strong current concentration
(e.g., Fig. 3). Magnetotelluric studies with much smaller lateral sampling
distance of about 5-10 km or even less, enabled the positions of the
boundaries of the conductor to be located more precisely with respect to
northern and southern geological units (Central Finland Granitoid Complex
and Southern Finland Migmatite Area, respectively).
Airborne electromagnetic survey showed that the entire region is
characterized by a number of long, thin conductors forming a very complex
conductivity pattern. Additional data (magnetic, gravimetric, AMT, DC,
and VLF-R soundings and profiling) confirmed that structures are nearly
vertical and may extend several kilometres towards depth (Pernu et al,
1989). The gradually increasing conductivity beneath the TSB and VMB is
evidently caused by a network of thin, long, almost vertical, several kilo-
metres deep and extremely conducting graphite- and sulphide-bearing
metasedimentary rock layers that were tilted and deeply buried during
convergence of two crustal terranes. The MT method images thin vertical
conductors as one 40 to 80 km wide conductor with a conductivity that
increases gradually with depth. The magnetotelluric block model apparently
indicates a depth of 3 km for the conductor, but AEM data suggest that the
deep conductor is exposed in the form of a complex network of thin elongated
conductors. Protoliths to the graphite-bearing rocks would have been carbon-
bearing sedimentary rocks deposited in a closed ocean basin between the
colliding crustal terranes. In addition to the graphite- and sulfide-bearing
metasedimentary rocks, shear zones and fractures filled with saline water
(0.25 ~ m ) may partly enhance the conductivity.
Interpretation of Upper and Middle Crustal

Conductors: Discussion
Conductive belts (Terrane boundaries)mProperties and geometries

The upper/middle crustal conductors described above may be grouped in
large scale belts and associate them with distinct tectono-geological units.
As we shall show most of the conductors represent boundaries of terranes
that were amalgamated together in the Kola-Lapland and the Svecofennian
orogenies. Some features common to many conductors are:
(a) Highly conducting structures with a conductance of several thousands
of Siemens indicate the presence of electronic conducting material and
excludes fluids from being the primary cause for enhanced conductivity.
On crustal scale the materials have to be graphite, sulfides and/or some
oxides.
(b) Conductors are usually caused by extremely conducting (>1 S/m)
graphite- and sulphide-bearing metasedimentary rock layers several tens of
metres in width; the layers are embedded in usually very resistive (few
thousands of m) "host" rocks; metasedimentary rock layers are
interconnected in a very complicated manner, forming a network of conducting
material./In addition there are several examples where shear zones may
have very high conductivities. In the North Karelia Schist Belt east of the
Outokumpu region several tens of kilometres long and very strong AEM
anomaly (several thousands of ppm) has been detected that is produced by
a sulphide-bearing shear zone (Kohonen et al, 1990; Kohonen, 1995). Within
the Lapland Granulite Belt several elongated AEM anomalies also are
caused by shear zones containing graphite of organic origin. Either the
carbon (graphite) concentrated into the shear zones during the tectonic
50 Kolja and Hjelt
process or thin carbon-bearing sedimentary layers enabled the shearing.

(c) The belts of thin conducting metasedimentary rock layers (i.e., large
scale crustal block conductors detected by MV and MT) have a variety of
geometrical orientations: they may by nearly horizontal (Kittil~i Greenstone
Belt conductors, Outokumpu nappe-conductor), they may be inclined
(Granulite Belt, SkellefteL Kokkola, Kainuu Schist Belt and Lake Ladoga
conductors), or they may be nearly vertical (Southern Finland and Oulu
conductor).
(d) In those regions where both magnetotelluric and seismic reflection
profile data exist (e.g., the POLAR profile and to some extent also the
Bothnian Bay region) it is evident that inclined good conductors and inclined
bands of reflectors coincide spatially. Evidently same large scale tectonic
processes formed both bands, but the origin of the enhanced reflectivity
and enhanced conductivity in the present bedrock may, however, be different.
(e) Most of the interpreted 2D-conductors (Fig. 6) are located in the
seismically defined upper and middle crust and do not penetrate into the
lower crustal layer as defined by high P-wave velocities. In those places
where conductors do extend into the lower crust (e.g., Sketlefteh conductor)
the high velocity layer is either absent or very thin.
(f) All conductors have been attributed to the presence of conducting
metasedimentary rocks where graphite originating from organic carbon and
sulphides being the major causes for enhanced conductivity. The sediments
were deposited in a variety of environments (extensional rift basins, continental
margins, shallow and deep sea oceanic basins). St~bducfion and collision
deformed sedimentary sequences between crustal masses, underthrust them
deep into crust.or emplaced them closer to the surface. Consequently most
of these conductors can be considered as tectonic markers of terrane
boundaries or "scars" of old collisionat zones.
In broad scale the conductors (i-xi) in the upper and middle crust described
in the previous chapter can be divided into four groups: (I) the conductors
within the Archaean Karelian Province including conductors from the Kittila
Greenstone Belt (KI) to the Vetrenny Poyas Belt (VPB) and Lake Onega
(LO), and probably also the Per~ipohja Schist Belt (PSB); (II) the conductors
within the Kola-Lapland orogen in the NE part of the shield including the
Lapland Granulite Belt (LG), Inari-Allarechen (IA), Polmak-Pechenga (P)
and Imandra-Varzuga (IV) conductors; the conductors within the Svecofennian
Domain which can further be divided into (III) the conductors at the
Archaean-Proterozoic margin including Lake Ladoga (LL), Outokumpu (OK),
Kainuu Schist Belt (KSB) and Oulu (OU) conductors and (IV) the conductors
within the Svecofennian Domain including the Southern Finland (TSB &
VMB), Kokkola (KO) and Skelleftefi-Storavan (SK-ST) conductors.
The conductors of the groups I and II and also partly of th e group III
share the same history during the first part of their development when the
carbon bearing sedimentary material that is now responsible for enhanced
conductivity was deposited around 2.0 Ga ago. Later the evolution of the
conductors differ depending on the position in the Archaean craton. The
conductors within the Svecofennian Domain have their own distinct evolution
although the main stages are very similar (deposition of sedimentary material
in carbon- and sulfur favouring conditions; metamorphism at a temperature
exceeding 400 degrees in order to produce graphite from carbon; complex
deformation and emplacement to current positions during the subsequent
tectonic processes).
The conductors of the group I and II took later part in the Kola-Lapland
orogeny. The conductors of the group II clearly represent a conductive
boundary between two Archaean crustal terrains (Central Kola and
Belomorian) whereas the conductors of group I more likely represent foreland
formations of the Kola-Lapland orogeny on the Karelian Province. The NE
termination of the conductors (Fig. 5), however, clearly indicates the thrust
boundary of the Belomorian Belt against the Karelian Province. It is not
yet clear, however, whether all the Archaean crustal terrains in the Kola-
Lapland orogen are exotic (i.e., terranes) or just crustal slices rifted off the
Archaean craton. Evidently at least the Karelian Province and the Belomorian
Belt have been juxtaposed at the end of the Archaean.
The conductors of the group III represent a terrane boundary between
the Archaean Karelian Province and the first island arc complex of the
Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian Domain. The nature of the group IV
conductors as a terrane boundary is not so clear although there is growing
geological evidence (e.g., Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993) that the
conductors separate two Svecofennian terranes as was proposed by Korja
(1990). In the following we consider the group IV conductors as a conductive
Svecofennian terrane boundary.
Conductive belts: Major stages of development

A synthesis of the development of the conductive formations can be given
in steps related to the four stages in the evolution of the Fennoscandian
Shield. These stages are: (1) extension and rifting of the Archaean craton
and deposition of sediments; (2) the Kola-Lapland orogeny and the
development of conductive terrane boundaries and foreland conductive belts
in the Kola-Lapland orogen and Karelian Province; (3) the first collision of
an island arc complex in the Svecofennian orogeny and the development of
the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary (Karelian Province--Svecofennian
Domain) conductor; (4) the second collision and the development of the
southern Finland-Kokkota-Skellefte~t conductor (internal Svecofennian terrane
boundary).
After the cratonization at about 2.5 Ga ago and before the final break-
up at about 2.0 Ga ago the Archaean craton experienced a long (500 Ma)
period of several extensional events and rifting during which several cycles
of sedimentation and volcanism occurred (e.g., Hanski, 1992; Gorbatschev
52 Korja and Hjelt
and Bogdanova, 1993; Vuollo, 1994). Several intracratonic extensional basins

were developed and some of them ultimately were opened to small and/or
large oceanic basins (e.g., Pechenga basin; Hanski, 1992, and the ocean
southwest of the Karelian Province) where the sedimentation continued
along the new continental margins. Voluminous accumulation of sedimentary
and volcanogenic material filled the basins. At first stages the conditions
were arid but later the sedimentation and volcanism took place in shallow
and in some places in deep sea environment (e.g., Hanski, 1992; Lehtonen
et al, 1992). Only the last phase of the extensional period between 2.1 and
2.0 Ga ago seems to have been capable to produce conductive sedimentary
sequences. Hence most of the sedimentary material, which is responsible
for the conducting formations, were deposited at shallow and/or deep sea
environment favourable for living organisms.
The conductive sedimentary sequence in the Pechenga Complex
(metasedimentary rocks of the Pilguj~vi Suite) was deposited slightly before
the last volcanic event which took place 1990 (_+ 66) Ma ago according to
Sm-Nd isotope data (Hanski, 1992). The entire Pechenga Complex was
deposited during four cycles of volcanism and sedimentation between 2.33
or more and 1.99 Ga ago but only the metasedimentary rocks of the uppermost
volcano-sedimentary sequence, i.e., the Pilgujarvi Suite, are conductive.
The same seems to apply also for the Imandra-Varzuga belt although the
stratigraphic correlation between these two belts is not conclusive. Similarly,
the supracrustal rocks of the Kittil~i Greenstone Belt were deposited during
several cycles of volcanism and sedimentation but only the Porkonen and
Kautoselka Formations of the Upper Lapponi Group contain conductive
material. These formations were deposited between 2085 (+85) Ma and
2012 (_+3) Ma (Lehtonen et al, 1992) which is roughly the same time
interval as in the Pechenga and Imandra-Varzuga Belts. The sedimentation
of conductive formations in the Lake Onega region took place between
2.115 and 1.98 Ga (Karhu, 1993). The deposition of the sedimentary material
of the Lapland Granulite Belt was more rapid but also took place around
2.0 Ga ago or slightly earlier, and definitely must have occurred before the
intrusion of mafic enderbites and granulite facies metamorphism at deep
crustal depths 1.95 Ga ago (see below). All these events of sedimentation
occurred when a strong positive shift in t~13C values of organic carbon (10-
15% between 2.3 Ga and 2.1 Ga) were returning back to more normal
values (0-5% since 2.1 Ga ago) (Karhu, 1993).
It is not, however, yet clear what kind of basins was developed in the
Kola-Lapland region. There are evidence that some of the volcanic rocks
in the Belomorian Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal belts are oceanic in origin
suggesting an ocean opening in Palaeoproterozoic time within the Belomorian
Belt or more likely between the Belomorian Belt and Karelian Provinces.
Some models suggests that the ocean was opened between the Central Kola
terrane and the Belomorian Belt (Pechenga-Imandra-Varzuga zone) or at
the site of the Lapland Granulite Belt and its counterparts in the Kola
Peninsula (Umba Granulite Belt and Kolvitsa Schist Belt) or that both the
Lapland Granulite Belt and the Pechenga Belt have been formed in a single
depositional basin (e.g., Ga~il, 1990; Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993
and references therein). Conductivity models may not alone solve the problem
but they show, however, that the conductors separate distinct crustal masses
(terranes). The Polmak-Pasvik belt seems to be minor compared to the
Lapland Granulite Belt: the conductors at the basal part of the Lapland
Granulite Belt extend to the depth of about 15 km whereas the conductors
in the Polmak-Pechenga belt flatten to very shallow structure (1.5 km)
beyond the Pechenga Complex, proper (7 km). This suggests that the Lapland
Granulite Belt, instead of the Polmak-Pechenga Belt, may represent a site
of a hidden suture.
The second stage corresponds with the time roughly after the peak of the
Kola-Lapland orogeny and the break-up of the Archaean craton in SW
(development of the passive continental margin to the SW of the Karelian
province) at about 1.95 Ga ago. The convergence in the Kola-Lapland have
closed the basins and the conductive sedimentary sequences were deformed
and emplaced to their current positions. The southwestward dipping Polmak-
Pechenga and Imandra-Varzuga conductors were produced when the
supracrustal sequences were upthrust northeastward onto the Central Kola
terrane. The Lapland Granulite Belt, however, was not yet exhumed at this
time but was uplifted later because of the last compression of the Kola-
Lapland orogen or the combined compression of the Kola-Lapland from
NE and the Svecofennian from SW and S at about 1.90 Ga ago or later. The
present day geometries of the Belt and the southwestward dipping Inari-
Allarechen conductor were formed at this stage. The conductor beneath and
at the basal part of the Lapland Granulite Belt most likely represents partly
the conductive rocks of the Kittil~i Greenstone Belt and partly conductors
developed during the upthrusting.
Within the Karelian Province the supracrustal sequences also were
deformed and metamorphosed during the Kola-Lapland orogeny and most
likely also later during the Svecofennian orogeny at least in the northern part
of the shield. The remnants of this huge volcano-sedimentary belt extending
from the Caledonian front in NW to the East European Platform in SW form
now sporadically distributed schist belts including the Kittil~i Lake Onega
and Vetrenny Poyas Belt conductors. The identification of ophiolites in the
Kittil~ Greenstone Belt (Hanski, 1995) combined with similar results from
the southern part of this belt suggests that the belt contains rocks formed
in oceanic environment. This in turn may indicate that there was an ocean
east of the Karelian Province between the Karelian and the Belomorian Belt
at the Palaeoproterozoic time. Consequently the conductive sedimentary
rocks (that seem to have been deposited during the last stages of the rifting
period) may have deposited at either one or both of the newly developed
54 Korja and Hjelt
continental margins. The Karelian Province therefore may have been a

foreland during the collision of the Belomorian Belt against the Karelian
Province. Hence, it may be possible to consider this belt of conductors also
as a "collisional conductor", an image of a wide foreland of a collision rather
than representing a terrane boundary.
The third stage represents the first Svecofennian collision. The conductors
along the-boundary between the Karelian Province and the Svecofennian
Domain, whatever their environment of deposition has been, were emplaced
at their current positions during the collisions of crustal masses of an
Palaeoproterozoic island arc complex against the Archaean craton. Tile first
terrane collision started soon after the final breack-up, first in the southwest
(Lake Lodoga region) at about 1.91 Ga ago and later in the northwest
(Kainuu and Bothnian regions) at about 1.90 Ga ago (Lahtinen, 1994). The
collision squeezed the extended cratonic margin and emplaced the.sedimentary
material and slices of rifted Archaean crust onto the Karelian province to
NE. In the Outokumpu region the conductors observed by the AEM method
represent overthrust sedimentary material whereas the deeper conductor (at
10-15 km) revealed by the MV technique west of the AEM conductors
most likely represent similar sediment~ary material at deep crustal levels.
The PP and KSB conductors further to the north may represent material
from the same basin if the younger part of the KSB was thrust over the
Archean Iisalmi blocks or from different basins if a small basin was
opened betwen the Karelian Province, proper, and the Iisalmi brock.
The last stage represents the second Svecofennian collision, again producing
crustal conductive belts. A new northward subduction south of the recently
accreated terrane consumed the oceanic crust and finally closed a basin
between the first and second terranes at about 1.88 Ga ago resulting in a
collisional accretion of the second terrane (Lahtinen, 1994). Because of the
geometry of the terranes the crustal shortening may have been much more
intensive in southern Finland than in central Sweden. This may explain
why the Skellefte~t conductor (SK) has much larger dimensions than the
Southern Finland Conductor (TSB). The SK extends almost 300 km (200
km of the sub-horizontal near surface part and about 80 km of dipping part)
whereas the TSB & VMB has been squeezed to its present width of 40-80
km. Moreover, the TSB & VMB is almost vertical and geological evidence
indicate a northward upthrust of sedimentary sequences over the volcanic
Tampere arc (Nironen, 1989) whereas SK was underthrust northward beneath
the Skellefteh volcanic arc. In other words, the collision may have ceased
at a rather early stage in central Sweden whereas in southern Finland the
push of the colliding second terrane caused an extensive crustal shortening
and intensive deformation.
Lapland Branulite Belt: Exposed deep crust

The Lapland Granulite Belt (LGB) in the northern Fennoscandian Shield
offers a large section of exposed and well-preserved, deep crustal (6-9

kbar) rocks, a classical example of deep crustal igneous intraplating and
deformation by shearing (Korja et al, 1996a). Therefore, besides the relevance
for more regional tectono-geological modeling of the northern part of the
Fennoscandian Shield, the studies in the LGB help to interpret geophysical
observations and to understand properties and processes concerning the
present day deep continental crust. The geophysical models produced during
the EGT/POLAR experiment (Fig. 8), consistent with geological structures,
yield a body whose basal surface dips 10-15 ° northeast and flattens at
15-20 km depth. The belt contains numerous NE dipping parallel reflectors
(Behrens et al, 1989) and the rocks have high seismic velocities (vp 6.2-
6.5 km/s; vs 3.6-3.8 km/s) (Luosto et al, 1989; Walther and Fltih, 1993),
a mean density of 2750 km/m 3 (Elo et al, 1989) and generally low
susceptibilities (10-4-10 -3 SI) (Marker et at, 1990). The belt has a basal
conducting layer of 1-10 m and its average resistivity (200-1000 m) is
much lower than the typical upper and middle crustal resistivities found
elsewhere in the Fennoscandian Shield (Korja et al, 1989).
Recently a combined geological and geophysical study was carried out
in the LGB to study lateral variations in the belt and to investigate structural
relationships between the various distinct units of the belt (Korja et al,
1996a). The key questions related to electrical conductivity were why the
resistivity of the belt is so low (200 m) and what causes the enhanced
conductivity. The following brief overview of the electrical and other
geophysical properties as well as the tectono-geological structure and evolution
of the granulite belt is based in this study. The data used in the study
included high (150 m) and low altitude (35 m) airborne survey data (provided
by the Geological Survey of Finland), new ground geophysical data from
VLF-resistivity, DC dipole-dipole, and self potential profiling and rock
property analyses (resistivity, susceptibility, carbon and sulphur content
and carbon isotope composition) of selected rock samples.
Interpretation of both airborne and ground geophysical data, in combination
with field mapping led to the recognition of four parallel NE-dipping thrust
sheets in the LGB. The first sheet in the SW margin is less than 10 kilometrcs
thick, contains abundant reflectors and is primarily composed of non-magnetic
and resistive khondalites (metasediments) and anorthosites. The khondalites,
however, contain several narrow, electrically conducting and graphite-bearing
shear zones. Strong continuous reflectors and a highly graphitic, about
150 m thick shear zone are present at the base of this sheet. The next sheet
towards the northeast is about I5 km thick and is composed of alternating,
rather continuous khondalite and pyroxene granulite layers which range in
thickness from one hundred meters to two kilometres. The pyroxene granulites
are ferrimagnetic due to the presence of magnetite, have an average density
of 2930 kg/m3 and are electrically resistive. Metaturbiditic khondalites are
paramagnetic, lighter (Pave = 2730 kg/m 3) and electrically resistive, but the
56 Korjaand Hjelt
a)
I North
o Io 2o 30 40 km
$w NE
i i- , !
Is
5 4 ~ ' J a "
4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
VLF-R
App.Res.
~ . . . . . . . . . . . Phase
c) -_~ ~~ ~ = ~ - - - - -
~ sp
VLF.R
App.Res.
45". . . . . . . . . . . .~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VLF-R

Phase
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Distance [rn]
Fig. 8. Airborne electromagnetic (location of the maximum amplitude of the major

airborne electromagnetic anomalies), self potential data and VLF-R data
from the southwestern edge of the Lapland Granulite belt (from Korja et
al, 1996a, Fig. 2).
khondalitic layers contain thin conducting horizons that may be traced for
tens of kilometres. Extrapolation of the seismic reflectivity data indicates
that this zone is reflective. The third sheet is composed of khondalites and
minor amounts of sheared anorthosite. This unit is paramagnetic, almost
entirely devoid of conductors and seismically nearly transparent. The fourth
sheet is composed of interlayered khondalites and enderbites, has geophysical
features similar to the second sheet, and has a steeply SW-dipping conducting
boundary against the Archaean Inari Terrane.
Airborne and ground electromagnetic surveys showed that the LGB is
mainly composed of resistive rocks (1000-10000 m; Fig. 9). In contrast,
its tow bulk electrical resistivity (200-t000 m), as obtained from
magnetotelluric data, is evidently caused by the presence of narrow parallel
conductive zones (< 100 m) within the khondalites (Fig. 9). Ground
surveys with much denser sampling indicate that the broad anomalous zones
detected by airborne surveys actually consist of several conductors ranging
from several metres to tens of metres in width, with apparent resistivities
(VLF-Resistivity data) well below 10 m. L a r g e self potential (SP) anomalies
(Fig. 9), even reaching a value of -1000 mV, indicate the presence of an
electron conduction mechanism and interconnection of a solid, conductive
phase.
Petrophysical and petrological studies showed that enderbites do not
contain graphite whereas khondalites may contain both graphite and sulphides.
Graphite occurs both as isolated, disseminated flakes and as continuous
bands. In the study no clear correlation was obtained between the carbon-
and sulphur-contents and electrical resistivity but instead a correlation between
resistivity and graphite texture. Enderbites, graphitefree khondalites and
khondalites with disseminated graphite are all resistive, whereas those
khondalites in which graphite is concentrated into continuous graphite-
bearing shear zones are less resistive.
According to the carbon isotope studies the ~3C values of graphite in
the lowermost thrust sheet range from - 19.7 to -16.3%, and the two
graphite samples from the second and third thrust sheets have even lower
S13C values o f - 29.7 and -33.2%, respectively. Above the lowermost
thrust sheet the 813C (fluid) values of graphite and cordierite compositions
are similar and fall in the range -27 to -22%. Based on the low ~13C (fluid)
values the mantle as a source for the carbon was excluded, and consequently
the hypothesis of granulite metamorphosis as a result of voluminous streaming
of mantle derived COz (Newton et al, 1980) also was rejected for the LGB.
From the geological and geophysical evidence Korja et al. (1996a) showed
that deformation and metamorphism of the belt and intrusion of enderbites
into the khondalites coincided and took place at deep crustal conditions.
They proposed a two step model for the development of the granulite belt.
At the first stage at about 1.93 Ga ago (Meril~iinen, 1976; Sorjonen-Ward
et al, 1994) enderbitic melts intruded into deeply buried metasedimentary
58 Korja and Hjelt
0
0
-O
eq
,.2
o... o
,_ E
y.
u.l
~6sz
C~
o 0..
..4!
~0 o 0
o 04 co
J
rocks (khondalites). Intrusion of melts and the partial melting of the mantle
and subsequent differentiation of the melts to anorthosites and some ultramafic
rocks (present now in the lower part of the belt) could have provided at
least part of the heat for the deep crustal anatexis and the granulite facies
metamorphism. Carbon isotope data indicated that the mantle component
of carbon has been insignificant. It was proposed that graphite, now partly
concentrated in shear zones, had been locally derived mostly from sedimentary
organic carbon in metasedimentary protoliths. Therefore they concluded
that most likely the graphite-rich conducting shear zones already existed and
hence enhanced conductivity in the belt during the deep crustal ductile shearing.
After deep crustal shearing the LGB was exhumed by thrusting at about
1.90 Ga ago. The termination of the granulite facies metamorphism by
thrusting is shown by the lack of younger U-Pb ages (Meril~iinen, 1976;
Sorjonen-Ward et al, 1994) and Sorjonen-Ward et al, (1994) concluded that
the metamorphism and uplift of the LGB was a relatively rapid process.
According to the model of Korja et al (1996a) the lowest thrust sheet of the
LGB was thrust along a major intracrustal and crust-mantle decollement.
The positioning of the major decollement was possibly controlled by deep-
seated graphite-bearing shear zones which would explain the large amount
of graphite at the base of the first sheet and a slight contamination by a
mantle-derived carbonic fluid flowing along the decollement.
The LGB appears to be an exposed and well-preserved example of deep
crustal igneous intraplating and deformation by shearing (Korja et al, 1996a)
and its structure may explain several geophysical observations commonly
detected in the deep continental crust. The model derived for the LGB
simultaneously explains both the enhanced laminated seismic reflectivity
and electrical conductivity while not conflicting the petrological arguments
on the dry nature of the granulitic deep crust. Increased laminated reflectivity
in deep crust may be caused by lithological contrasts such as those observed
between the khondalites and sheet-like enderbitic intrusions in the LGB,
and by shear zones.
Enhanced conductivity in the deep crust may be caused by an electron
conducting mechanism acting in ductile shear zones, that contain locally-
derived graphite, and to a lesser extent in those containing sulphides. The
rocks in the deep crust may generally be highly resistive and the observed
increase in conductivity may be a combined response from several thin, but
highly conducting layers distributed throughout the deep crust. There is no
necessary need for continuous graphitic films along grain boundaries. Data
of Santosh and Wada (1993) indicate that CO2 fluid infiltration is not
pervasive and rather occurs as episodic pulses along fractures. Neither is
there any evidence for common, H20-rich saline fluids in deep crust (Frost
and Bucher, 1994).
The model derived for the LGB may also explain observed temporal
variations (Jones, 1992) in deep crustal conductivity: In active regions
60 Korja and Hjelt
9
\ ,49 /
~, /~r'f-~ ~rchaean
"15 ( " 22 ,,./-" Domain
KB "2
"2 4o •2 \
. % .1 --
C •"400
33 140f ~__.-~..~161000,125
~
"~ 22. - 1 1 0 ~ 3 ~ 3 0 ~
\ CF
Sveco-~ 50*0~(I /
c \ ~fennian"k,,~w ( /
Caledinides (. ~ 1 Domai
5 ~ \n ~ "~,
Southwest "
Scandinavian v 500km
"- Domain i t i J |
Fig. 10 Estimates of the total conductance (in Siemens)of the lower crust of the
Fennoscandian Shield as determined from MV and MT data. Thin lines
show the boundaries of main tectonic domains of the shield. (Modified
from Korja and Hjelt, 1993, Fig. 9). Solid arrows show the most conducting
direction in regions where the magnetotelluric responses have an anisotropic
character. CF = Central Finland Granitoid Complex (Korja et al, 1996c);
KB = Kuhmo region (Korja et al, 1996b); SI = Siljan region (Pedersen et
al, 1989); VA = Viirmland region (Rasmussen, 1988).
enhanced conductivity is caused by continuous graphite-bearing channels,

shear zones and intraplated magmas (sills). In stable regions, where tectonic
activity has ceased, the fluid channels tend to close and graphite will crystallize
as larger grains. This would result in decreased conductivity, even though
lithological layering and hence seismic reflectivity remains constant. In
shear zones, however, the massive graphite will remain interconnected and
will retain its conductivity even after exhumation.
Lower Crustal Conductivity

The existence and origin of a conducting lower crustal layer has been
recently discussed widely (e.g., Haak and Hutton, 1986; Jones, 1992; Jrdicke
1992; Korja and Hjelt, 1993). In addition improvements in data acquisition
and processing have given indications of possible anisotropic features of
the electrical conductivity in the lower crust and the upper mantle (Rasmussen,
1988; Pedersen et al, 1989; Mareschal et al, t995; Korja et al, 1996a). The
main problems in these discussion are the definition of the lower crust, the
causes of enhanced conductivity as well as the existence and nature of the
anisotropy in the lower crust. In the Fennoscandian Shield the existing
resistive blocks between the conducting belts provide transparent windows
to address these questions enabling the electrical structure of the lower
crust and upper mantle to be determined (Korja and Hjelt, 1993).
If a distinct lower crustal conducting layer exists this layer could be
taken as an obvious definition of the conducting lower crust. The conductance
of this layer is easily determined if the resistivity decreases clearly at a
particular depth followed by a systematic increase beneath the conductor.
In the absence of distinct conductive layers, the approach used by Korja A.
et al. (1993) is preferable. They define the depth and thickness of the lower
crust from seismic velocity data so that the lower crust is the region where
7.0 km/s < Vp < 7.8 km/s (for alternative definitions of the lower crust, see
Korja and Hjelt, 1993). The total conductance of this portion of the crust
is estimated using resistivities obtained from MT models. Using this approach
the lower crustal conductance reflects both electrical and seismic properties
of the crust, i.e., the thickness of the lower crustal high P-wave velocity
layer and the average resistivity within this layer.
Estimates of the conductance and the resistivity of the lower crust estimated
using the approach described above are given in Fig. 10. The data show
rather large lateral variations in conductance within the shield and although
these are partly due to variations in the thickness of the high velocity lower
crustal layer it seems that the Archaean lower crust is more resistive than
the Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian crust.
The lower crust beneath the transition zone between the Archaean Karelian
Domain and the Svecofennian Domain also seems to be rather conductive
even though it is considered to be composed of Archaean material (Archaean
cratonic rocks beneath the Palaeoproterozoic Karelian supracrustal cover).
This might therefore indicate that the lower part of the Archaean crust in
the Karelian Domain was also affected by the Svecofennian orogeny, perhaps
by the additions of Palaeoproterozoic mafic material (Korja, A. et al, 1993;
Lahtinen, 1994).
The azimuths of the anisotropy (the direction of the maximum conductivity)
have been shown for these regions in Fig. 1!. The anisotropic region in the
central part of the Oslo-Uppsala profile (VA) (Rasmussen, 1988) is according
to modeling of magnetotelluric data at the depths between 10 and 30 km.
62 Korja and Hjelt
~=~ o
=
The crustal thickness in this region is about 40 km (Luosto, 1991). The

most conductive direction is N75W degrees. This azimuth is in conflict
with the azimuth of N15W obtained in the Siljan anisotropic region (SI)
although the two regions are only 150 km apart. The anisotropic area in the
Siljan region, however, is at depths below 30 km according to modeling of
magnetotelluric data averaged over 16 sites (Pedersen et al, 1989). In the
Siljan region the crust has a thickness of about 44 km with a rapid thickening
to over 50 km towards east. It should be noted, however, that in VA and
SI the anisotropic regions seem to be at different crustal (lithospheric levels).
Also, the Siljan region is an impact site about 360 Ma old.
The previous analysis of the magnetotelluric data from the SVEKA profile
(Koija and Koivukoski, 1994) led to inconsistent geoelectric strike directions
from site to site within the CFGC when the traditional Swift-rotation (i.e.,
minimization of the off-diagonal elements of the impedance tensor) was
applied to obtain the geoelectric strike direction. Because no stable strike
direction within the CFGC was found the strike direction of 90 ° (E-W) for
the southern part of the profile and 5 ° (from N to W) for the northwestern
part of the profile was selected based on all available information (e.g.,
results of MV studies). The tensor decomposition using the Groom-Bailey
(1989) method, however, recovered very consistent 2D regional geoelectric
strike direction of N60E within the CFGC for long periods (> 10 s) (Korja
et al, 1996c). At upper crustal depths (0.1 to 10 s) the geoelectric strike is
not very stable and hence no dominant strike exists.
Rotation of the decomposed impedance tensor data into the direction of
60 ° from N to E reveals that at long periods the E- and B-polarization
responses differ from each other, by more than an order of magnitude for
apparent resistivities and by about 40 degrees for phases at the longest
periods available (t000 s). The results indicate that upper crust beneath the
CFGC is isotropic and highly resistive in agrement to previous results
(Korja and Koivukoski, 1994). In contrast, the lower crust and upper mantle
beneath the CFGC are electrically anisotropic: electrical resistivity is more
than an order of magnitude lower in the direction of 60 ° than in the direction
of 150 °. The anisotropic splitting of phases begins approximately at periods
of 5 s, which according to preliminary modeling corresponds to depths of
about 30 km. Hence both the lower crust (crustal thickness is about 55 km
beneath the CFGC) and upper mantle seem to be anisotropic. No estimates
of the thickness of the anisotropic part of the lithosphere are yet available.
Similar results have been obtained from a magnetotelluric study in the
Archaean Kaelian Province in Finland and Russian Karelia (Korja et al,
1996b). The preliminary results indicate an anisotropic behavior of responses
below 10 s which corresponds to a depth of about 40 km according to
previous 1D inversions of determinant averaged data (Korja and Koivukoski,
1994). This depth corresponds to thickness of the Archaean crust (Luosto,
1991) i.e., the crust seems to be isotropic whereas the upper mantle is
anisotropic. The most conducting direction is NS.
64 Korja and Hjelt
Laboratory studies on rocks supposed to be typical of the deep continental

crust seem to indicate a much more resistive lower crust than inferred from
electromagnetic soundings (e.g., Jones, 1992) and hence an additional agent
is required to facilitate the flow of qelectric currents. The most commonly
proposed causes for the enhanced electrical conductivity in the deep crust
include: (1) H20-bearing fluids trapped at the top of the lower crust (at the
brittle/ductile transition) (Gough, 1986; Hyndman and Shearer, 1989; Jones,
1992) or being distributed over the entire lower crust in lamellae structures
(Sanders, 1991; Merzer and Klemperer, 1992); (2) crystalline grain boundary
phases such as carbon, sulphides and iimenite (Frost et al, 1989; Mareschal
et al, 1992; Jrdicke, 1992; Glover and Vine, 1992, 1994; Duba et al, 1994);
(3) underplated and intruded mafic magmas (Warner, 1990; Baker, 1990) or
(4) lower crustal ductile shear zones caused either by tectonic decoupling
(Haak and Hutton, 1986) or by an over all shearing (Sanders, 1991); (5) in
tectonically active regions partial melts are also a plausible source for
enhanced conductivity (Waft, 1974). One example describing enhanced
conductivity in the deep crust has been discussed in Sec. 4.3 in connection
with results from the Lapland Granulite Belt and are therefore not repeated
here.
The lower lithosphere may be genuinely anisotropic due to electrical
anisotropy of minerals but laboratory studies indicate that the detected
anisotropy of minerals is too small (e.g., Shock et al, 1990) in order to
explain an order of magnitude or even larger anisotropies detected by
magnetotelluric observations (e.g., Rasmussen, 1988; Mareschal et al, 1995).
Deep lithosphere may also be (apparently) anisotropic because of microscopic
or macroscopic properties of electrical conductivity and the mutual geometries
of conductive and resistive rocks. Siegesmund et al. (1991), for example,
studied deep crustal rocks from the Ivrea zone and found a slight electrical
anisotropy of rock samples depending on the rock texture. The anisotropy
produced by rock texture also seems to be too small to explain observed
anisotropies.
In large scale an appropriate configuration of conductive and resistive
material may result in an anisotropic behaviorof electromagnetic response
functions. Altemating conductive and resistive "layers", "dykes", representing,
e.g., cracks or shear zones filled with saline fluids or electron conducting
material (graphite, sulphides, oxides) may be responsible for observed
anisotropy. Anisotropic features may be caused also by inductive side effects
from surrounding conducting structures. The last case, called structural
anisotropy, can be distinguished only through dedicated 3-D modeling,
e.g., in the case of conducting belts surrounding the CFGC and elsewhere.
To be resonably free of side effects a resistive block of the crust must have
horizontal dimensions much larger than the depth to the assumed crustal
conductive structure.
Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary
The lower boundary of the lithosphere was originally defined rheologically
as an rigid layer above more plastic mantle layer located approximately at
a depth corresponding to a temperature of 650-700 °K (Andersson, 1995).
A seismic low velocity mantle' layer was thought to be caused by partially
molten material in the asthcnosphem. The detection of the electrical lithosphere
is based on the concept that the top of the asthenosphere, consisting of
partially molten material, is more conductive than the lower lithosphere.
Since each geophysical technique responds to true material at the base of
the lithosphere differently, these boundaries do not always coincide.
A recent summary of the electrical properties and the structure of the
lower lithosphere in Europe has been presented by Hjelt and Korja (1993).
The results demonstrate the ability of EM methods tO produce information
about a variety of lithosphcric structures in Europe. In Central Europe a
conducting layer indicating the top of the assumed electrical asthcnosphcrc
is on average at 100 to 130 kin. In the tectonically active areas, like the
Pannonian Basin depths between 40 to 70 km have been reported. When
traversing to the older East European Platform the depth increases rapidly
to about 200 kin. Results from analysis of global EM data indicate another
conducting layer deeper in the mantle (between 400 and 800 km, depending
on method and author).
Data for the Fennoscandian Shield were compiled from several sources,
and a complete reference list is given by Korja (t990). The major problem
in Fcnnoscandia and in its northern part, in particular, is the proximity of
the source of the magnetotelluric field. The closeness of the source may
produce evidence for a conducting layer in sounding responses even though
no such layer exists in reality.
The results from the more southern parts of the shield nevertheless indicate
the presence of conducting asthcnosphere in peripheral regions of the shield.
It is apparent, however, that in the central and southwestern parts of the
shield the asthcnospheric layer is absent or is electrically weak. Although
crustal conductors tend to screen deeper information, in the more favourable
locations, such as the Archacan in Finland, the Central Finland Granitoid
Complex, and the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt (TIB) in Sweden, the
total crustal and upper mantle conductance to the asthcnosphcric depths is
only a few tens of Siemens and hence the conducting asthenospheric layer,
which has total conductance of several hundred Siemens, should be detectable;
100 S corresponds for example, to layers of 50 km/500 m or 20 km/200
m).
Conclusions
The deep EM research of the Fennoscandian Shield has proceeded
methodologically almost ideally. MV arrays for regional mapping and MT
soundings across anomalous zones have been completed by selected controlled
66 Korja and Hjelt
source techniques, allowing a variation in the depths of investigation and

lateral resolution. The surface conductors have been traced from the unique
airborne EM data available in Finland. Thus it bas been possible to focus
from large-scale, elongated structures having dimensions of the order of
100 km and more to '.small-scale (few meters) local structures.
The electrical structure of the Shield is characterized by elongated belts
of mid-crustal conductors a few tens of kilometres wide. Theses belts surround
more resistive blocks and serve as markers of a variety of tectonic processes
over the geological time history of the shield. Most of the belts seem to
have been formed in association with collisional tectonics.
The main features of the terrain boundary conductors are:
I. High conductance (several 1000 S) which can be explained only by
electronic conducting mechanisms.
2. The internal structure of the condt]ctors is complex containing
extremely conducting graphite- and sulphide-bearing metasedimentary
layers hosted by resistive rocks.
3. Dipping conductors have often association with a band of seismic
reflectors.
4. Most conductors are located in the upper and middle crust without
penetration into the lower crust.
5. The conducting rocks are products of sediments deposited in a variety
of environments. Subduction and collision deformed sedimentary
sequences between crustal masses, underthrust them deep into crust
or emplaced them closer to the surface.
The electrical structure of the upper and middle crust is characterized by
numerous conductors. They apparently form several distinct conductive
belts that surround more resistive crustal blocks. Correlation of the conductive
belts with the geological units of the shield clearly show that most of the
conductive belts can be associated with terrain boundaries and were evidently
products of collisional tectonics. Preliminary analysis of the deposition
time of the sedimentary material responsible for the conductive material
indicate that most of the sediments were deposited during a relatively short
time interval between 2.1 and 2.0 Ga ago (conductors within the Karelian
Province and at its margins i.e., at the Karelian Svecofennian boundary
zone and within the Kola-Lapland orogen) or afterwards during the
Svecofennian orogen. The actual depositional environment of the conductive
sedimentary material is not fully clear yet.
The resistive regions between the conductive belts, on the other hand,
serve as transparent windows to probe deeper structures and properties of
the shield. The crust of the Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian crust seems to
be more conductive, in particular in the central part of the shield, than the
Archaean lower crust. A notable exception is the transition zone between
the Archaean Karelian Province and the Svecofennian Domain.
There are also a few indications that the lower crust and even the upper
mantle may be electrically anisotropic. Dedicated 3D modeling will be
started to address this question in particular (see e.g., Kaikkonen, this issue).
Studies in the Lapland Granulite belt, that represents an exposed section of
deep crust, have shown that the lower crustal conductivity may be caused
by interconnected graphite-bearing shear zones with no conflict with the
petrological evidence of dry deep crust.
The GGT transect project SVEKA in its final report (in preparation) and
some new research projects under planning will also shed new light on
some of the open questions of deep EM research in the Fennoscandian
Shield. Altogether with its abundance of high quality EM and other
geoscientific data, the shield with its complex--but partly well preserved
tectonical structures will be a treasure box for lithospheric research of quite
some time in the future.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Saurabh K. Verma for inviting to prepare this review.
All results are based on a decade and a half long intense work of the Oulu
Induction Group and many colleagues in Russia, Scandinavia and elsewhere.
Annakaisa Korja has been most helpful through her advice concerning the
tectonical and geological parts of the text. Major part of deep EM research
described here was financed by the Academy of Finland, the Russian (earlier
Soviet) Academy of Sciences and the Universities of Oulu and Uppsala.
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6. Magnetotelluric Technique
B.P. Singh and S.G. Gokarn
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Mumbai-400 005, India
Introduction
Magnetotelluric (MT) technique is a method for determining the electric
conductivity distribution of the Earth's interior from the surface measurements
of the naturally occurring electric and magnetic field variations. The time
variations of the electric and magnetic fields are measured at a wide range
of frequencies along the magnetic NS and EW directions and the frequency
variation of the apparent resistivity and phases are obtained by using a
computer. The depth to which an electromagnetic wave penetrates the sub-
surface is dependent on the frequency of the wave and resistivity of the
Earth's interior. Thus the frequency variations of the apparent resistivities
can be used to obtain the depth-resistivity profiles. At present prescriptions
are available for computing the depth-resistivity profiles using the digital
computers. However during the earlier days the graphic and curve matching
techniques were used for estimating the resistivities of the sub structure.
Some of these techniques are used even now for a quick estimate and also
for computing the initial models for some of the iterative refinement schemes.
With the rapid strides witnessed in the electronics and computers, the
MT technique has become more viable as a survey tool. A modem MT
field unit provides for the data collection, quality assessment and computation
of the depth resistivity profiles during the field work and still has a total
weight of less than 200 kg. Further the MT method has better resolution
than the gravity and magnetic and it is also inexpensive compared to the
seismic techniques. It is however pertinent at this point to note that MT is
not aimed at replacing any of the above techniques but should be viewed
as a complementary tool for the sub-structural investigations. Whereas the
seismic techniques deal with the elastic properties of the solid Earth, and
the gravity techniques are influenced by the density variations, the MT
method gives the insight in to the Earth's interior from the electromagnetic
(EM) point of view. This paper discusses some case studies in the Indian
region.
Theoretical Background
The Earth's magnetic field is continuously varying because of various
atmosphericphenomena. The lightening which is known to occur in some
or other part of the world on an average of about 200-250 days in a year
MagnetoteUuric Technique 75
contributes to the high frequency variations of the magnetic field (1.0-1000

Hz), the micropulsation activities in the mid frequencies (10-0.001 Hz) and
the polar substorms, solar daily variations and lunar variations in the lower
frequency regions of interest to MT researchers. These EM variations induce
the telluric currents in the conducting Earth. The magnetic fields thus form
the cause and the electric fields generated by the induced currents are the
effects. It is the purpose of this section to determine the relation between
these EM parameters and the resistive sub-structure.
The theoretical treatment of the MT methodology is dealt with using two
different approaches, the flat Earth model which is applicable for the studies
of the Earth's interior upto the asthenosphere and the spherical Earth model,
also known as the global model, where the basic interest is in the resistivity
variations in the lower mantle and deeper. The flat Earth approximation is
applicable for depths upto about 200-250 km and most of the resistivity
changes of interest are covered under this approximation.
The basic theory underlying the flat Earth approach was formulated
independently by Cagniard and Tikhonov in 1952-53 wherein a plane wave
front of unpolarised EM wave was assumed to be normally incident on a
horizontally layered Earth with no lateral resistive contrasts. These are
known as the Cagniard assumptions. Although these assumptions seem
very imposing in these sense that the Earth can never be horizontally uniform
and that the electromagnetic field cannot be a plane normally incident on
the Earth's surface, now it is widely accepted that a working theory based
on these assumption can still be appropriate in most of the cases and the
perturbations resulting due to the violation of these assumptions do not
affect the results to any appreciable extent.
In a horizontally layered Earth, the magnetic field, current and electric
fields are all practically horizontal regardless of the direction above the
Earth's surface because of the high conductivity of the Earth relative to the
air. The currents and electric fields induced are at right angles to the inducting
magnetic field. Thus, the electric and magnetic fields are interrelated by the
relation,
Ex = * H,
where Ex and Hy are the electric and magnetic fields measured along the
NS and EW directions, respectively, and Zxy is known as the transfer function.
Similar relation holds true for E~' and Hx. Since we have assumed that no
lateral resistive contrasts exist (one-dimensional or 1D Earth), Ex and Hx
have no interdependence. In tensor form
<r xl
Z,,x Zy J LH,J
with Zxx = Zy~.= 0 and Zxy = - Zyx for a 1D Earth. In the presence of any
76 Singh and Gokarn
lateral resistivity contrasts, the induced electric currents are channeled in

different directions depending on the nature and lateral extent of these
contrasts and thus in general, Zxx and Zyy are not zero (in other words, the
electric field may depend upon the parallel magnetic field component also)
and Zzy does not equal -Zvx. The entities, Zxx, Zxy, Zyx and Zyy form elements
of a tensor, known as the impedance tensor or the Z matrix (Sims and
Bosticks, 1969). In general, the elements of the Z matrix depend on the
sub-structural resistivity and its lateral variations and the frequency of
measurement. The details of the field techniques and data analysis procedures
are discussed in details by Gokarn et al, (1992).
The information about the dimensionality is obtained from the skew (S)
of the impedance tensor. As discussed earlier, for a one dimensional structure,
Zxx and Zyy are zero and Zxy and Zyx are non-zero and thus S = 0.
Z~ - Z~.y
S=
This parameter is rotationally invarient and is zero for the 1-D where Zxx
and Zr.v are always zero and 2-D structures where these can be minimised
by rotations (Swift, 1967). In practice, when S < 0.1 and the apparent
resistivities in the two orthogonal directions are equal, the sub-structure is
treated to be 1-D and with a small skew if the apparent resistivities are
different, 2-D assumptions are made. When skew is large (S > 0.3) the
three dimensional effects are assumed to be strong. In such cases the
impedance tensor is decomposed to find out whether the 3-D ef-fects are
local, ie., caused by some near surface 3-D inhomogenieties or regional,
caused by deeper seated inhomogenieties.
Magnetotelluric soundings have been carried out in the various geological
settings in the country such as the Deccan Traps in the south (Gokarn et al,
1992), Narmada Son Tapti mega lineament in the central India (Rao et al,
1995), the Himalayan foothills in the north (Gupta et al, 1994) and the
Precambrian Aravalli craton in the north-west (Gokarn et al, 1995). Some
of the case histories of the magnetotelluric studies are discussed in the
following section.
Case Histories
Studies in and Around the Killari Earthquake Affected Regions of

Latur and Osmanabad (Maharashtra State)
Subsequent to the Killari earthquake of 30th September, 1993, magnetotelluric
(MT) studies were undertaken in and around the affected regions with an
intention of studying the possible effect on the deeper strata of the crust
due to the seismic activity (Gokarn and Rao, 1995). The survey region is
in the Deccan Trap region and the gravity studies (Kailasam et al, 1972)
show that the epicentral region is not associated with any of the gravity
MagnetotelturicTechnique 77
anomalies. The data were collected over three parallel NE-SW profiles
separated from each other by 15-20 km with a central profile between
Ashta and Jawli, passing through Killari and Talni, the region of epicenters,
the second on the NW between Kilaj and Tungi and the third on the SE
between Gunjoti and Dhanora (Fig. 1).
Magnetotelluric data were collected in the frequency range, 100-0.01 Hz
at 18 stations over the three linear profiles described earlier by using a five
component MT system.
The skew of impedance (S) was observed to be less than 0.1 at all the
stations in the survey region. It was thus assumed that the geoelectric
18 ° 30'
I
I I I I
-s o s 10kin
) LATUR
BUD t
-- 180 15'
AUS • THO
t JAW
HIP ITUN " I JAJ
• •
i DHA
18 ° 0 ~
- LOH • CHI
• CHA
• SAL
• KIJ
• KOR IGOG
BHO
"~ UMERGA
ASH • ~ GUN
t17 ° 45'
ALA •
KAN •
........... I \ I 1~30'
76 ° 15' 76 ° 30' 76 ° 45' 77 ° 0'
Fig. 1 Location map of the MT stations in the Latur survey region showing some
important places and roads.
78 Singh and Gokarn
structure in the survey region is one or two dimensional. However, in view

of the fact that the apparent resistivities in the two orthogonal directions
were in general different, the substructure was inferred to be two-dimensional.
The impedance tensor was rotated to determine the strike direction. It was
seen that the stations located along an approximately NW-SE line passing
through the epicentral region show the major and minor rotation angles at
other stations were random and the ratio of the major and minor resistivities
at these stations was very small (typically between 1 and 2). The lineament
patterns (Arya et al, 1994 and Sounderarajan et al, 1994) are predominantly
aligned in the NW-SE direction. The preliminary reports of the microseismic
studies (Gupta et al, 1994) also showed that the epicenters were aligned
along NW-SE. In view of this fact the direction of the minor resistivities
(N30°W) was assumed to be the strike direction. The apparent resistivities
along this direction were assumed to be the E-polarisation values and those
perpendicular to this direction, the H-polarisation values.
The spatial variation of the major and minor resistivities at periods of
10s indicates two conductive bodies with a lateral extent of less than 40 km
along the N30°W direction explain the observed two dimensionatity over
the central profile. The profile on NW and SE of this region also show
some two dimensional effects. However, the exact nature of these could not
be understood due to the indadequate coverage over these proiles.
A qantitative picture of the geoelectric structure was obtained by two
dimensional forward modelling of the apparent resistivities on the central
profile. The preliminary results of this anslysis are shown in Fig. 2. The
Deccan Traps are conductive with a resistivity of about 20 ohm-m overlying
12-14 km thick granitic upper crust with a resistivity of about 1000 ohm-
m. A 5 km thick mid-crustal conductor was delineated below the upper
crust with a resistivity of about 30 ohm-m. The lower crust had a resistivity
of 500 ohm-m. The direct current electrical resistivity studies have delineated
a sedimentary layer between the Deccan basalts and the granites beneath
with a resistivity of about 300 ohm-m which were not seen in the MT
studies here (Narula, 1994; Per. Discussions). This disagreement may be
due to the fact that with MT measurements it is rather difficult to distinguish
between two high resistivity layers (300 and 1,000 ohm-m) covered under
a high conductivity (20 ohm-m) basaltic layer. Thus the present studies do
not rule out the possibility of sediments below the Deccan Traps.
It is evident from Fig. 2 that the Deccan basalts are thin (about 200 m)
at stations between BOS and LAM on the central profile which covers the
region of maximum devastation compared to the thickness of about 400-
600 m in the surrounding region (also Gokarn et al, 1992). The 5 mgal
gravity contours of Kailasam (1972) over the Deccan Traps show that this
region falls between -75 and -80 mgal contours. However, with a density
of 2.95 gm/cc for the Deccan basalts and 2.67 gm/cc for the granites below,
the gravity anomaly expected due to such an upwelling in the pretrappean
Magnetotelluric Technique 79
topography may be significant in understanding the tectonic history of this

region. The two conductive bodies with a resistivity of about 30 ohm-m,
delineated below Salegaon (SAL) and Lamjana (LAM), are located on the
SW and NE of the region of epicenters. They show a width of about 3 km
along the direction of the central profile and extend from about 1.5 km
below the surface to almost upto the mid crustal conductor at depths of
about 14 km. The signatures of these bodies were not obvious on the other
two proiles. Surveys are being projected for a more extensive coverage of
this region which would be useful in finding the shape and dimension of
the conductive bodies and also the variation of the Deccan Traps in this
region. The observed conducting bodies were believed to be due to the
fractured zones in the granitic upper crust during the seismic activity.
d ss0,°,~ ~ < = d < < H3OOE b
v ,,,,v ..............7 .................. v ............ v . v .

+++++++ +++++++++++++++++
+ + + + + + + ~ ÷ + + + + + + + + ~ ++++
+++++++188~+++++++++~t++++
5
+++++++lgg~+++++++++B£~l++++
+++++++IS~+++++++++B~I++++
+++++++ ~os~++++++++~l++++
+ ++++++
+ + + + + + +
~ 1 +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++++~ 8_ b~o o1l ++ ++ ++ ++
#ool
+ + + + + + + + ~ 8 8 + + + + + + + ~ 8 ~ t +o0 o0+o0 + +
10 + + + + + + + + ~88L___+ + + +' + + ~080 080Lo + + +
++++++++ ~ 8 8 ~ 8 5 + + + + + ~888881 +' + +
£ + + + + + +, ~oooooooooooooo~ 0000o
~ 8 8 8 ~ + + + + + ~ooooo~
~8~88[ ++
+ + + + +~oooooooooooooo1+ + + + ~oooool + +
pooooooooooooool ~ooooobool
I ooooooo0oooooo1+ + + + booooooool+ +
~0~0000000000000000000000000000000000000|
15 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000[~
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 ~ ~ _
~%~-pO00000000000000000000ooo00000000oooo0
~~-~OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
~-~pO00OOO00000000000oo000000000000000000
~~-~O000000000ooo00000000000000000~OOOO~
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
aO OHM-M I000 DHM-M 30 DHM-M 500 I]HM-M
Fig. 2 Geoelectric cross section below the central profile (Kilaj-Jawli) obtained
by two dimensional modelling in the Latur region.
Summary
The magnetotelluric studies in and around the region of epicenters of the
1993 Killari earthquake in Maharashtra have delineated two conductive
bodies at depths of 1.5-14 km onthe SW (below Salegaon) and NE (below
Lamijana) of the region of epicenters between Killari and Talni. Apreliminary
80 Singh and Gokarn
analysis of the data using a two dimensional modelling technique indicates

that these bodies are oriented along N30°W with an approximate dimension
of less than 40 km in this direction and 3 km in the direction perpendiclar
to this. The Deccan Traps in the region of maximum devastation were
rather thin (200 m) compared to the thickness of about 400-600 m in the
surrounding region. Data were collected at a station spacing of 5-10 km.
However, a closer station spacing may be necessary to map the conductive
bodies in detail.
Crustal Structure in Southeast Rajasthan

Rajasthan region of the western Indian shield is of importance in the studies
on thc tectonic featuresof thc Precambrian era which are exposcd in this
region. Most of the tectonic activity is manifested in the form of strike-slip
fault and fold belts in the Aravalli, Delhi and Vindhyan sedimentary sequ~es
and havc occurred, in the middle and late Proterozoic times (Sinha Roy,
1989). These supra crustal formations are located over the archcan granitic
upper crust. The Aravallis consist of the volcano sedimentary Hindoli rock.
Earlier the Hindoli sequences were grouped as the pre-aravalli rocks but
subsequent to the revised geological map (Gupta et al, 1980) these have
been regrouped as the Hindolis.
Another prominent feature in the Geological and tectonic map of Rajasthan
is the 800 km long great Boundary Fault (GBF) on the SE of the Aravalli
sequences. This NE-SW trending fault zone with a width of 10-20 km
extends up to the Moho depths and probably deeper and separates the
Aravalli sequences from the Vindhyan sediments on the SE (Banerjee and
Sinha, 1981 and Pascoe, 1959). The Vindhyan sediments show increased
foldings in the vicinity of the GBF indicating the presence of strong tectonic
activity along the GBF during the Vindhyan sedimentation (Sinha Roy et
al, 1986).
The gravity studies show a negative Bouguer anomaly of about -80
mGal over the Aravalli and Vindhyan sequences in the NE-SW direction
with a very long wavelength of about 150 km with the minimum value of
-90 mGal in the Bundi-Kota region. On the basis of this the Aravallis are
supposed to represent a horst-like feature. However, since no deep crustal
information is available here, the nature of this horst block is rather uncertain
(Tewari, 1993).
Magnetotelluric studies were undertaken over a 120 km long linear profile
between Kota and Kekri region in SE Rajasthan (see Gokarn et. al, 1995).
The study profile covers Vindhyan sediments on the SE and the Aravalli
sequences on the NW. It also passes through the GBF and hindoli sequences.
Entire profile is located in the negative Bouguer anomaly region over the
Aravalli and Vindhyan region. Data were collected at 19 stations on this
NW-SE trending profile in the frequency range 0.01-100 Hz. The location
map of the MT stations along with the surface geology is shown in Fig. 3.
The data collected at three stations were contaminated by cultural noise

and hence the data at the other 16 stations were used for further analysis
and discussions. Large skew values (0.3) were observed at BOG, DEO,
KUC, BAS and KAC indicating some three dimensionally in the vicinity
of these stations. At the station GUD, the higher skew was observed at
frequencies 2 s whereas at low frequencies the skew was small indicating
some shallow three dimensional effects at this station.
74 ° E 75 ° 76270
N
26 °
N
25 °
74° E 75" 76°E
Fig. 3 Geological map of Rajasthan showing magnetotelluric survey stations in

the Kota-Kekri region.
Rotation of the impedance tensor showed that the major axis (the direction
of rotation along which the apparent resistivity was maximum) was aligned
along N50°E + 10° at stations NW of ITU whereas at KAC and the stations
SE of HAR the major axis was aligned along N40°W + 10 °, almost
perpendicular to those on the NW o f ITU. It was also observed that the
apparent resistivities on the NW 0 f l T U were in general larger than those
on the SE. It was thus concluded that a strong lateral resistivity contrast
82 Singh and Gokarn
exists in the vicinity of FlU aligned along N50°E direction with the resistivities
on the NW higher than those on the SE. This observation corroborates well
with the geological and tectonic studies which indicate that all the major
features in this region are aligned approximately along the NE-SW direction.
The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) which is a prominent feature in the SE
Rajasthan is also aligned along this direction. In view of the foregoing, the
apparent resistivities and phases rotated along N50°E were assumed to be
the E-polarisation values and those perpendicular to this as the H-polarisation
values.
Geoelectric Cross Section and Deep Structure

On the basis of the observed electrical resistivity distribution a geoelectric
cross section was proposed as shown in Fig. 4. The mid crustal conductor,
a characteristic feature of the stable continental shield (Jones, 1987), is
continuous throughout the region at depths of 7-12 km except between
ITU and KAC where it shows a discontinuity. The lower crust below the
mid-crustal conductor had a resistivity of 700 ohm-m. The base of the
lower crust could not be probed because of the absence of data at frequencies
below 0.01 Hz.
Shallow Structure
At shallow depths on the NW of ITU two layers could be delineated above
the mid-crustal conductor. The top layer with a resistivity of about 70 ohm-
m was about 800 m thick below MAL and IND and its thickness decreased
on either side of these stations to about 100 m below MOL on the NW and
BAS on the SE. This seems to be due to the weathering of the Precambrian
sequence but the large thickness of 800 m below MAL and IND indicates
that weathering alone may not be adequate to understand (Fig. 4). The top
layer has not been classified in Fig. 4. The second layer was highly resistive
with resistivities greater than 3000 ohm-m and had a thickness in the range
9-12 km and is due to Mangalwar complexes in this region which are
granitic in composition.
On the SE of RAM, the Vindhyan sequence were delineated with a 50-
80 m thick top layer of alluvials overlying a 1000-1200 m thick resistive
upper Vindhyan sediments having a resistivity of about 300 ohm-m. The
lower Vindhyans were delineated at depth between 1.2 and 3.5 km and
were conductive (50 ohm-m). The higher conductivity of the lower vindhyans
may be due to the marine conditions that prevailed during their deposition
in the Precambrian period (Sinha Roy et al, 1986). The granites below the
Vindhyan sequences had a resistivity of about 500 ohm-m and were about
5 km thick.
The MT studies indicated that there are no appreciable resistivity variations
associated with the GBE However, on the basis of the difference in the
layering on either side of this fault and also the discontinuity in the mid-
Mag~CetotelluricTechnique 83
crustal conductor between ITU and KAC, the approximate location of the
GBF could be identified as indicated by the thick dashed line in Fig. 4.
D ~ ~ <
0.01
0.1
==
t.0
)
10.C
4 0 4 8 Km
[]
ALLUVIAL UPPER LOWER HINOOU GROUP JA R ? SEE TEXT
VINDHYANS VINDHYANS GRANITIE
MAflGALWAR UNCLASSIFIED
m
MIDCRUSTAL GREATBOUNDb,RY
COMPLEX SANDMATA/MANGALWAR CONDUCTOR LOWERCRUST FAtET(GSF)
COMPLEX
Fig. 4 Geophysical interpretation of the Kota-Kekri profile inferred from

magnetotelluric studies.
On the NW of the GBF a complex shaped block was delineated extending

up to ITU and having a resistivity of about I00 ohm-m. The thickness of
this block varied from about 6 km below GUD to about 9 km below ITU.
Further NW, this block showed an extension into the Mangalwar complexes
at depth of about 3 kin, a 1.5 km thick trapezoid shaped resistive zone with
a resistivity of 500 ohm-m was observed to be embedded in this complex
shaped block. This resistive zone extended from the surface to a depth of
about 1.5 km and had a leteral extent between CHO and ITU almost about
15 km. This was interpreted as the Jahazpur sequences embedded in the
Hindoli sequences. Hindolis being volcano sedimentary in nature may be
conductive due to the high sulphur contents. The large skew values at BAS,
KUC and DEO indicate that the extension of the Hindolis on the NW into
the Mangalwar complexes may be three dimensional in shape.
Summary
Magnetotelluric studies in the SE Rajasthan between Kota and Kekri showed
the presence of the upper and lower Vindhyan sedimentary sequences on
the SE and the Mangalwar complexes on the NW part of the study profile.
In the central part, Hindoli and Jahazpur sequences were delineated. There
was no detectable resistivity change associated with the Great Boundary
Fault. However, this fault zone could be delineated as the demarcating line
between the Hindoli sequences and the Vindhyan sediments. The discontinuity
84 Singh and Gokarn
in the mid-crustal conductor between Itunda and Kachuda could be associated

with the Precambrian tectonic movement.
Upper Crustal Structure in the Torni-Purnad

Region (Central India)
Narmada-Son-Tapti lineament zone is one of the most prominent features
on the tectonic and geological map of India. This ENE-WSW trending
mega lineament is a line of weakness with the regions on the north and
south moving vertically as well as laterally (Ravishanker, 1987). The Satpura
range forms the prominent Satpura horst block flanked by actively subsiding
grabens: the Tapti-Purna graben on the south and the Narmada graben on
the north and extends in almost an EW direction between the longitudes
75°E and 78°E. The Bouguer, free air and isostatic anomaly maps indicate
a positive anomaly as against an expected negative anomaly on this mountain
range, indicating\an anomalous crust below the Satpura horst structure.
Verma (1985) carried out gravity modelling studies and observed that this
could be explained under the assumption of a higher upper crustal density
of + 0.06 over the normal value. He has justified the assumed higher
crustal density on the basis of historically different evolution of the crust
in the Satpura range from that in the surrounding region.
Major parts of the Tapti graben and the Satpura range is covered by the
Deccan basalts of varying thickness overlying the Gondwana sediments. In
some parts however a thin layer of recent alluvial deposits may be encountered
overlying the Deccan basalts. Intense faulting is observed in this region due
to the long history of tectonic activity, most of the faults being along the
ENE-WSW direction (Ravishankar, 1987).
The deep seismic sounding studies (Kaila et al, 1985) across the Satpura
and Tapti region have delineated 400-1000 m thick Deccan traps covering
about 1.7 km thick Gondwana sediments. The direct current (DC) resistivity
studies have reported about 300-600 m thick basaltic cover over the
Gondwana sediments (Nayak et al, 1985). However in the central part of
the Satpura horst, they have reported less than about 300 m of Gondwana
sediments.
With an intention of probing the deeper electrical resistivity structure
magnetotelluric studies were undertaken along a 100 km long linear profle
between Torni and Purnad (see Rao et al, 1995). Data were collected at 18
stations along this line with an interstation spacing of 3-10 km in the
frequency rage 128-0.01 Hz (Fig. 5). The entire survey profle is in the
Decean trap region.
Regional Strike Estimates

The skew of impedance averaged throughout the frequency range of
investigation was smaller than 0.01 at all stations and the largest value of
skew at any of the frequencies was 0.25 at all stations. Further the apparent
resistivities in the two orthogonal directions were in general different. In

view of this fact the geoelectric substructure was assumed to be two-
dimensional.
76 3 0 , ,
r
22 00 N
ii
TOR
ES
HE
MOK
2~04s ~us
oKUM
~,DAH
v% pHAS .... 21"3d
ASRe f
21015' 21015'
7600'E 76%' 7
Fig. 5 Location map of the MT stations over the Torni-Purnad profile.
The major and minor axis were predominantly aligned along N30 ° +
10°W and N60 ° + 10°E, respectively, at most of the stations. The regional
strike direction was assumed to be along N60°E and the apparent resistivities
and phases along this direction were assumed to be the E-polarisation values.
O n e - D i m e n s i o n a l Inversion and Static Shift Correction

The depth variation of the electrical resistivity was determined using a one
dimensional modified Marquardt inversion technique (Marquardt, 1963)
using the apparent resistivities and phases in the E-polarisation. These values
are less influenced by the deeper lateral resistivity inhomogeinities than the
H-polarisation values. The depth-resistivity profile at all the stations were
86 Singh and Gokarn
plotted together and interpolated to obtain a preliminary geoelectric cross

section (Fig. 6). Some static shift is evident at stations PER, ZAI, KAR,
CHA and SUK. The preliminary geoelectric structre shows a top conducting
layer of 20-80 ohm-m overlying a resistive (150-300 ohm-m) layer. The
depth to the bottom of the second layer is about 2000 m in the central part
(below HAS and ASR) and decreases to 300 m on the north and 800-1000
m on the southern part of the profile. The direct current resistivity studies
(Nayak et al, 1985) have reported 1600 m thick Deccan basalts in the
central part decreasing on the north and south to 300 and 900 m respectively.
Thus it was decided to correct for the static shift by smoothening the base
of the second (resistive) layer in the observed geoelectric structure by using
bottom of the Deccan traps as the 'Key layer parameter' as suggested by
Jones (1988). It may also be noted here that the bottom of the resistive
layers is a well resolved parameter in the MT response functions. The
depth to the bottom of the Deccan traps between the stations on either side
of the static shift affected station was linearly interpolated and the corrected
depth at the affected station was estimated. Now the problem of correcting
for the static shift reduces to determining the constant for the station by
which all the apparent resistivities at the station are to be multiplied. To
find out this constant, a method based on graphical estimation of the depth-
resistivity profiles described by Kaufman and Keller (1981, pp. 541-542)
was adopted.
Two-Dimensional Modelling
A finite difference two dimensional forward modelling program working
on the principles similar to those described for a three-dimensional modelling
scheme by Madden and Machie (1989) was used for obtaining the final
geoelectric cross section (Fig. 7) using the static shift corrected data. Here
a two-dimensional model was formulated on the basis of the preliminary
geoelectric structure obtained earlier and the model parameters were changed
so as to obtain a good fit between the observed and computed spatial and
period variations of apparent resistivities in both the E- and H-polarisations
at all the stations and at periods 1, 10 and 100 sec.
The geoelectric substructure (Fig. 7) along the survey profle indicates a
t50-200 m thick top conductive layer (40 ohm-m) overlying a more resistive
(150 ohm-m) second layer. The thickness of second layer is about 2000 m
between SUK and BAS in the central part of the profle and decreases to
about 300 m on the north and about 1000 m on south. Both these layers
seem to be due to the Deccan basalts with the top layer showing some
sporadic weathering. Studies of basaltic outcrops in the Mandaleshwar-
Pipaljopa region about 50 km west of the present survey area identifed 28
distinct basaltic flows of which the top 12 flows with a total thickness of
about 100 m show sporadic weathering which is absent in the lower flows
(Sreeniwasa Rao et al, 1985). Pal and Bheemasankaram (1976) have reported
,1~ ,1= u") ,I~ .,II ~ or"
t~ Q"r" ,~ O. N m N t.,) -- ~
0.01 i I 1 t .............. i I : ! ! I l I I ..... t t ! ~ !
2o
--¢
', 20 70 :30
0.1 - ~--~ 5o ~ ~o ........ N-"-.6o-~ ......... -~ ...... ~o . . . . . . . I_o ~
if; --~.v., • m. ~..%1 LIJO I~ ~ t \ , ,.w,

1.0 - - "'. 20 ............... . , 'IO0 -'" .,100, - m ' - . $ - -
"'" "" ~ I L ' " : ' ~ - ~ I ~ .) .". . . . . "" ~,n 20 -- 20
;" "--'.. ".3~S ~x~." .,' ., ",IS . . 15

. . . . li . . . - - - ' = ' " " "
'" ......
10.0 • l o " ~ ' " ~ " ' ~ ....... r : " ---"T~ " T'~"~")--°°-zo
1~
100-0
60 6 12K.,
Fig. 6 Preliminary geoelectric structure obtained from one-dimensional inversion

of the E-polarisation data. Stations marked by (*) were chosen for static
shift correction.
the presence of 27 flows in the region north of of ASR. However there are
no reports on the chemical composition or the physical state of these layers.
In view of these studies it seems reasonable to attribute the top two layers
to the Deccan trap. Below the Deccan basalts a conducting layer (20 ohm-
m) was delineated with thickness varying in the range, 200-2000 m which
could be due to the Gondwana sediments. The strong variations in their
thickness reflects on the long history of tectonic activity in this region
(Ravishanker, 1987). This fact is also supported by the complex pretrappean
topography which is evident from the strong undulations of the top of the
granitic upper crust underlying the Gondwana sediments. The granitic
basement had a resistivity of 300 ohm-m and thickness in the range, 10-
12 km. Two vertical resistivity contrasts were delineated, one below the
stations, CHE and MOK and the second below BAS and ZAI located in the
close vicinity of the Khandwa lineament and the Burhanpur tear. The
sensitivity studies indicated a large degree of nonuniqueness regarding the
shape, extent as well as the resistivity of these conductors. However, the
spatial variation of the resistivities do indicate the presence of conductive
bodies at these locations. Thus it was not possible to determine the electrical
character of the Khandwa lineament and the Burhanpur tear from the present
studies. A prism shaped conductive feature having a resistivity of 20 ohm-
m was delineated below the stations RUS and BAS. The top of this conductive
body was about 8 km wide extending from DAH to ASR and located at
depth of 3.5 km from the surface. At its base 14 km below the surface, this
88 Singh and Gokarn
0 v
0
0 0 o o.,,
o 0 0
I Ill
"0
°~.
t.,
ca
i ........ |
co o
t i i !
Z w~t 'qldecl
conductive structure had a lateral extent of 40 km in the NS direction. The

structure seemed to be composed of two distinct conductive zones rising
from the lower crustal depths to the surface, one from between the stations
RUS and DAH and the other between BAS and ASR and converging towards
each other at shallow depths. The heat flow data in this region indicates
that the entire survey region has a heat flow in the range 100-t80 roW/n12
(Ravishanker, 1988). However, there are no reports regarding the variation
of the heat flow over the present profle. The conductive feature observed
here is located on the gravity low (Fig. 7) on the northern part of the
Satpura range and may be due to entrapment of fluids in the fractured
zones of the granitic upper crust in the course of the long tectonic history
of this region.
Summary
The magnetotelluric studies across the Satpura range and Tapti basin have
been presented here. The Deccan traps are observed to be about 2000 m
thick in the central part of the survey profile with their thickness decreasing
to 300 m on the north and 1000 m on the south of the profle. The Gondwana
sediments.below the Deccan basalts were observed to have thickness varying
from 300-2000 m. The strong variations of the thickness of the Deccan
traps and Gondwana sediments are indicative of the long history of tectonic
activity experienced by this region. A conductive feature was delineated at
depths between 3.5 and 14 km located in the granitic crust coinciding with
a local gravity low of 25-30 mGal. The survey region falls in a high heat
flow zone with heat flows of about 100-180 mW/m 2. In view of these
facts the observed conductive feature was attributed to some lower crustal
fluids which might have been released in to the fractures in the granitic
upper crust.
Deep Crustal Geoelectric Structure in Rohtak Region

Over the past 30 years, the region around Delhi has been experiencing
sporadic seismic activity with tremors of magnitude up to 5 on the Richter
scale. This region has experienced seismic activity in the distant past, as
indicated by the 1720 earthquake (magnitude 6.5) near Delhi and the 1803
earthquake (magnitude 6.5) near Mathura (Verma, et al, 1995). A large
number of earthquakes were experienced in the Delhi-Sonepat region during
1963, subsequent to which the India Meteorological Department, Govt. of
India, set up a chain of microseismic stations in this region. In the following
ten years about 1000 shocks were recorded and the results (Kambte and
Chaudhury, 1979) indicate that the epicenters causing the Seismicity in this
region can be broadly grouped into three clusters, the first on the west of
Delhi in the Rohtak-Jhajjar region, the second near Sonepat on the NW of
Delhi and the third near Bahadurgarh, on the SW of Delhi. The epicentral
cluster in the Rohtak-Jhajjar region seems to be rather active in terms of
90 Singh and Gokarn
the density of the epicenters and also the number of large magnitude shocks.
There are a large number of faults in this region, the prominent ones being
the Delhi-Hardwar ridge, Moradabad fault and the Aravalli fault. Figure 8
shows location of these faults and also the regions of epicentral clusters
surrounding Delhi. Most of these lin~amtents show a NE-SW to NNE-SSW
trend where as, the epicentral distribution in the Rohtak-Jhajjar region is
along an approximately N-S direction.
76' 15' 76' 30' 76 o45' 77* Off 77' 15' 77' 30' 770 45' 78°00 '
29o 3-' ~.9o3d
29 o 1.= .>9= 15'
29°00 29o0ff
280 45' .~8*45'
28 o 3d Z8* 30'
28 ° 15' zs* 1~;
280 00' 28* 00'

76* 15; 76* 3d 76* 45' 77 ~ 00' 77* 15' 77* 3d 77* 45' 78* Od
Fig. 8 Lineament map of the Delhi and surrounding region showing the regions
of epicentral zones and the magnetotelluric stations.
The region of interest is in Punjab plains located in the SW part of the

Indo-Gangetic foredeep with a rather thick cover of Alluvials, Tertiaries
and Siwalik sequences making it difficult for delineation of the faults using
the geological methods. The region has already been investigated using the
gravity, aeromagnetic and seismic techniques. The Bouguer anomaly map
(NGRI, 1975) shows rather unsystematic contours in this region. The
aeromagnetic studies (Agocs, 1956; Ahmed and Alam, 1978; Karunakaran
and Ranga Rao, 1979) have indicated the depth to the basement of 500-
1000 m on the west of the epicentral region and about 2500-3000 m on the
east. The NE-SW trending Delhi-Hardwar ridge is a prominent feature in
this region and is known to be a horst associated with a regional gravity
high (Verma, 1991; Sati and Nautiyal, 1994).
Magnetotelluric studies were undertaken in the Delhi-Rohtak region with

an intention of determining the geoelectric substructure in the zone of
epicenters in and around the Rohtak region which could be of help in
identifying the possible deep seated faults. Data were first collected over
a linear, approximately NS trending profile between Jind and Bahadurgarh.
The field observations at the 11 stations on this profile indicated a possible
NS oriented conductive feature. To investigate this feature, a 50 km long
EW trending linear profile was surveyed along the Latitude, 29.2 degrees.
Data were collected at 7 stations over this profile with an interstation
spacing of 5-10 km. The station locations are shown in Fig. 8. Four component
magnetotelluric data were collected at 18 stations in the survey region with
an interstation spacing of 5-10 km in the frequency range, 320.0-0.0005
Hz during December, 1995 using the Phoenix V-5 magnetotelluric system.
The NS and EW components of the magnetic field variations were measured
using the induction coil magnetometers where as the lead-lead chloride
electrodes with an interprobe distance of 80-100 m. were used for measuring
the electric field components in the NS and EW directions. The data were
analysed using a combination of the fast Fourier transforms and cascade
decimation techniques to obtain the signal amplitudes and then the auto and
cross power spectra were computed. These were used to compute frequency
variation of the apparent resistivity and phase.
Results and Discussion

As discussed earlier, the surveys were undertaken on an almost N-S profile
between Jind and Bahadurgarh. The response functions (apparent resistivity
and phase variations with frequency) showed a two imensional behaviour
with the major and minor axis along E-W direction and perpendicular to it
respectively, indicating that the source of the observed two-dimensionality
is either along N-S or the E-W direction. However from the observed
spatial variations, it was evident that there was no indication of any E-W
oriented resistive inhomogeniety in the survey region. Thus the two
dimensional effects were attributed to a possible N-S oriented resistivity
contrast.
Response functions at all the stations on E-W profile indicated major
and minor rotations along the E-W and N-S directions, respectively. In
view of the observed N-S resistive inhomogeniety, the apparent resistivities
along this direction were assumed to be the E-polarisation (E-pol) values
and those in the E-W direction, the H-polarisation (H-pol) values. The
spatial variation of the apparent resistivity at 100 and 0.01 Hz is shown in
Fig. 9. There is no appreciable spatial variation in the apparent resistivity
at 100 Hz. Further both the E- and H- pol values are similar at this frequency
at all the stations. At frequency of 0.01 Hz, rather strong spatial variations
are observed in both the E-and H-lJol resistivities. The apparent resistivity
in the H-pol at this frequency was about 2 orders of magnitude larger than
92 Singh and Gokarn
the corresponding E-pol value in the central stations (Stations 1 and 15).
This difference decreases gradually on either sides of these stations on the
E-W profile, indicating that the response functions may be strongly influenced
by the presence of a N-S oriented conductive feature located near stations
1 and 15. In view of the fact that the apparent resistivities did not show any
significant spatial variations at higher requencies (100 Hz) and also that the
E- and H-pol values were similar at all the stations at this frequency, the
proposed conductive feature is expected to be burried under a top conductive
alluvial cover.
18 17 16 1 15 14 13 12
10 3 • Y Y Y • • Y
W E .
~x at 0.01 Hz
...... % at 0.01 Hz
..... ~J.&~n at 100 Hz "
~' 10~
, • I ]
i101
• • . . -. - . . ~. : - . ~" .. . . . --~ ". . . . "~ *~ 7.: ":'.-:.--~ . . . . . 4
10~
Fig. 9 Spatial variation of the apparent resistivity at 100 and 0.01 H z over the
E - W profile.
Preliminary depth resistivity profiles were obtained by using an Occam's

one-dimensional inversion scheme. This was further refined using a two-
dimensional forward modelling scheme based on the finite element technique
(Wannamaker and Stodt, 1987) procured from M/s Interpex Ltd. of USA.
The shallow and deep geoelectric cross sections are shown in Fig. 10 (a)
and (b), respectively. The geoelectric structure shows a five layered sequence
overlying the resistive upper crust delineated at depth of 3 km. The top
layer of the alluvials was 25-60 m thick and had a resistivity of 1.4 ohm-
m, overlying a resistive (30 ohm-m) sedimentary layer with a thickness of
25-50 m. Underlying this, a 150 m thick conductive layer was delineated
with a resistivity of 1.2 ohm-m. Both these layers seem to be due to the
Siwalik sedimentary sequences. The UpperSiwaliks were deposited in fresh
water conditions and are thus more resistive than the underlying Middle
Siwaliks which are essentially the brakish water deposits. There was no
indication of the Lower Siwalik sequences. These may either be absent or
could not be distinguished from the Middle Siwalik sediments. It may be
noted here that both Middle and Lower Siwaliks were deposited in the
Brakish water environment and thus may have similar resistivities. The
bore hole studies (Ahmed and Alam, 1978) about 200 km NW of our study
area have indicated the absence o f Lower Siwalik sequences in the Zira
borehole which has a basement configuration almost identical to the one
W E
'= 17 16 1 15 14 13 12 =
0
• . ,..:
................................ ii~:- ...... : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ..... :., ,..

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
,::• . . . .
................................ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.. ....... :,,.;,.
E
Y ................................. ?~!i!~!!iii!iii!~i~!i~!~!i!!ii!!!iiii~iiii!!~
..£:
0.5 :::i:i::~ii:i:i:i:i2:i::i:::::i'. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: .............
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~.m .................
(1) i: .............................. : : : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . .::. .:.".t.°D..~/n.:
. . . . . . . . . .:...... .. .. ......... .. ...... :::;:'
:~
....... ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. . . . . . . . . . . . o.,. . . . . . . . . . o . . o , . .
:::::::::...:: .................. ::::::::::::::;
i!~iiii~ii~iii!i!!i~!!!!iiiiiiii!i~i!!ii!!!!"
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . o
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
|,o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o H , . . . o o . . . . . °°°o,|
| "Y
1.~ ~ i ['"';";";"i";";'-"','"
0 t0 20 30 40
Distance (Kin) ~ ~s 5' Km~
....... ~ Alluvium ~ MiddleSiwalik ~ M e t a m o r p h o s e d Basement
Upper S,walik [ 1 Fault (N-S) 14 MT Station (Station Number)
(a)
W E
: 17 16 15 14 13 12
0~ .... T. , ,~ r. t v, • ,
2 r~ii::ii~i! i!ii::~::iiii::iii::::iii~i~::i::::iiiiiii!iiii::::::ii~.
: :il ~i~:: :iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~iiiiiiiiiiii
A
8 I J~,
E
t-
0 20 10 30 49
Distance (Kin) 25 5 Kin,
Metamorphosed Basement ~ Fault (N-S) ~ M i d Crustal C o n d u c t o r

Unconformity (?) ~ Crystalline Basement MT Station
(Station Number)
(b)
Fig. 10 (a) Two-dimensional geoelectric model (shallow section) proposed from
the present magnetotelluric studies; (b) Two-dimensional geoelectric model
(deep section) proposed from the present magnetotelluric studies.
94 Singh and Gokarn
expected in the present study region. Below this sequence, a resistive layer
was observed with a resistivity of 100 ohm-m and a depth extent of 3000
m on the western part of the profile. This layer was thicker (4500 m ) o n
the eastern part of the profile. Underlying this was 500-1500 m thick
conductive layer with a resistivity of, about 1 ohm-m. There are reports of
metamorphic rocks below the Siwalik sediments (Karunakaran and Ranga
Rao, 1979) in some parts of the Punjab plains which are separated from the
underlying granitic upper crust by an unconformity. In view of this the 100
ohm-m layer was interpreted as the metamorphosed layer overlying a
conductive unconformity. The granitic upper crust was delineated at depths
of 3500-4500 m.
A high conductivity layer was delineated below the upper crust at depths
of 16-18 km corresponding to the normally observed mid-crustal conductor.
The conductivity of 10 ohm-m observed at these depths is some what
higher than the normally observed value of 30 ohm-m. The upper crust
seems to be thinner at 16 km On the western part of the profile compared
to the thickness of 18 km on the east. The Bouguer anomaly map indicates
a seemingly weak gravity high on the westem part which may indicate a
minor upwelling of the lower crust here.
The observed two-dimensional effects discussed earlier were related to
the presence of a vertical conductive structure delineated below the stations
1 (Lajwana Khurd) and 15 (Mehrara). This feature had a resistivity of 1
ohm-m and extended from shallow depths of less than 25 m to about 18
km. The sensitivity studies of this vertical contrast indicated that this feature
may be extending even beyond the depth of 18 km reported here. This
structure with a width of 5 km is aligned almost NS. The apparent resistivities
and phases observed at the stations on the NS profile have shown
that the rotation angles at all the stations on the southern part of this
profile are influenced by the presence of this conductive feature. However
the rotation angles at the station 4 (near Jind do not show any such trend.
Thus it is felt that the conductive feature may be truncated in the vicinity
of Jind or altematively it may have changed the direction near this station.
It can be however concluded that this feature extends well beyond the
southernmost station (station 11, near Bahadurgarh). The microseismicity
studies (Kamble and Chaudhury, 1979) have shown that the epicenters in
the Rohtak region are located in a 50 x 25 km rectangular block. The
conductive feature reported here marks the western margin of the zone o.f
epicenters.
The Delhi-Hardwar ridge is a well known feature in the survey region.
The response functions showed a weak signature of this feature in the
form of a different rotation angle at measurement frequencies in the
vicinity of. 1 Hz at the stations 7 and 9. However the electrical manifestations
of this ridge were not sufficiently strong for any quantitative
interpretation. It may be inferred that the MT survey profile crosses western
edge of the Delhi-Hardwar ridge between stations 7 (Bamhanwas) and 9

(Barana).
Summary
Magnetotelluric studies in the Rohtak region have delineated a N-S aligned
conductive feature along the longitude, 76.5 degrees, extending in depth
from 25 m to more than 18 kin. This feature is atleast about 100 km long
and has a width of about 5000 m in the EW direction. This conductive
body seems to demarcate the western edge of the epicentral cluster in the
Rohtak region. The granitic upper crust was delineated at a depth of 3000-
4500 m underlying about 25 m thick alluvials, 175 m thick Siwalik sediments
and a 3 km thick layer of metamorphic rocks. An unconformity was observed
between the metamorphosed rocks and the granitic tipper crust. The upper
crustal thicknesses were lower (16 km) on the western part of the profile
compared to the value of 18 km on the eastern part.
Conclusions
Over the last three decades~ Magnetotelluric technique has become one of
the most viable survey tool and many groups worldover adopted this technique
for exploration studies. The theoretical and cxperimental advances have
established the efficacy of MT as an inexpensive tcchnbique for thc structural
studies. MT studics in the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) were
initiated with Short Period MT system (upto 100 Hz) and long pcriod
(2-4096 s) system. With the procurement of a wide band Phoenix V-5
magnetotelluric system (frequency range 320-0.0005 Hz), MT studies have
been effectively carried out in the Killari Earthquake affected regions, wherein
two conductivc bodies at depths of 1.5-14 km wcre dclincatcd on thc SW
and NE of the regions of epicenters between Killari and Talni. We established
that the damage due to the earthquake was most in the areas where Deccan
Traps are thin. In Southeast Rajasthan, the Great Boundary Fault could be
delineated as the demarcating line betwccn the Hindoli sequcnccs and the
Vindhyan sediments. The studies also showed the presence of upper and
lower Vindhyan sedimentary sequences, the Mangalwar complexes and thc
Hindoli and Jahazpur scquences. MT studies in the seismically active Rohtak
region have delineated a 5 km wide, 100 km long N-S aligned conductive
feature extending in depth from 25 m to morc than 18 kin. Thc granitic
upper crust was delineated at a depth of 3-4.5 kin. Though the case histories
presented here are very fascinating, nevertheless we need quantitative
intcrpretational skills, viz. 3-D modelling techniques, to make thc
interpretation unique. In a nutshell, MT studies of the interior of thc earth
holds the clue for earthquake prediction and offers a great promise and
challenge for the future.
96 Singh and Gokarn
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Department of Science and Technology, Government
of India, for supporting financially most of the studies reported here. We
would also like to thank Mr. C.K. Rao and Mr. Gautam Gupta for field
work and analysis of data. Special thanks are due to Prof. K.K. Roy for his
generosity in inviting us to contribute to this volume.
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Verma, R.K., 1991. Geodynamics of the Indian peninsula and the Indian plate margin. Oxford
and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp 30-56.
Verma, R.K., Roonwal, G.S., Kamble,V.E, Utpal Dutta, Narendra Kumar, Yogesh Gupta
and Sanjay Sood. 1995. Seismicity of'north-western part of the Himalayan arc, Delhi-
98 Singh and Gokarn
Hardwar Ridge and Garhwal-Kumann Himalaya region: A synthesis of existing data.

Mem. Geol, Soc. India, v. 30, pp 83-99.
Wannamaker, Philip E., and Stodt. John A. 1987. A Stable finite Element Solution for
Two-dimensional Magnetotelluric Modeling. Geophys. J. Royal Astron. Soc., v. 88,
pp. 277-296.
7. Rotation Invariant Magnetotelluric

Tensors: A case study from West
Singhbhum (Bihar, India)
K.K. Roy, S. Srivastava and A.K. Singh
Department of Geologyand Geophysics,Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur, India.
Introduction
Behaviours of the magnetotelluric impedance tensors were known from
1960 onward (Cantwell 1960). Berdichevskti and Dmitriev (1976) defined
two pairs of rotation invariant tensors, i.e. Paverageand ~average and Pdeterminant
and ~detenninant(defined in the next section). Since then the rotation invariant
tensors have become a known subject in magnetotellurics. Eggers (1982)
discussed about the information content in the different components of the
MT impedance tensors through eigen state formulation where ~+ and ~- are
two eigenvalues of the MT tensor
I Zxx Zxr .
Zrx Zrr ( 1)
Each of these MT tensor elements are complex quantities. Some of the
behaviours of the MT tensor elements are discussed. Since then a series of
workers, viz. Ranganayaki (1984), Spitz (1985), Eatorraca et al, (1986),
Yee and Poulson (1987), Ingham (1988), Park and Livelybrooks (1989) and
Lilley (1993) have contributed towards understanding the rotation invariant
tensors. In this paper the authors have highlighted a few points of principle
after analysing the field data collected from the Goitkera area of West
Singhbhum, Bihar, India.
One point became evident during the period of development of MT that
the concept of E-polarization and H-polarisation, which was also treated as
an important stage of development in late 1960's and early 1970's, remains
valid for an ideal two dimensional or in practice for an approximately two
dimensional structures. For these structures, for an optimum rotation angle
(Swift 1969, Vozoff 1972), the diagonal elements of the rotated impedance
tensors should be zero or nearly zero. In reality, specially while working in
the Archaean and Proterozoic terrains, it was observed that the structures
are in general three dimensional, i.e., Zxx and Zrr are nonzero and non-
trivial after optimum rotation and Swift (1969) skew and Bahr (1988) skew
100 Roy et al
are nonzero. For three-dimensional structures, E and H polarisation lose

their significance. Therefore, using Cagniard (1953) impedance, the interpreter
will deliberately forego the information content in Zxx (= Ex/Hx) and Zyy
(= Er/Hr). Since each element of the impedance tensor is a complex quantity,
therefore, eight components must be used in amplitude/phase or real/
quadrature form to extract the maximum possible information. That is how
these rotation invariant tensors have come in magnetotellurics.
Magnet0telluric field work was conducted near Goilkera (Fig. 1, Dunn
1942) area, West Singhbhum Bihar, India to have some geoelectrical signatures
of the Singhbhum shear zone. Secondly, Singhbhum shear zone is well
known for its metallic and non-metallic mineralisation. Therefore searching
a good conducting zone was also one of the reasons for choosing Goilkera
as the base camp for the MT field work.
R o t a t i o n l n v a r i a n t Tensors
Berdichevskii and Dmitriev (1976) have defined two pairs of rotation invariant
tensors. They are
1
(i) Zaverag e - -~ (Zxr- Zyx) (2)
(ii) ~average= Phase of (Zxr - Zrx) (3)

(iii) Zdeterminan t = (Zxx Zrr - Zxr Zrx) (4)
1
(iv) ~detenninant = "~ phase of ( Z ~ Zvv - Zxv Zpx) (5)
The apparent resistivities are given by
/9averag e - 1 0 I Zav 12
0)/A (6)
and ]9determinan t = ~ 1 [Zxx Zyy - Zxy Zrx] (7)
Eggers (1982) defined two rotational invariant parameters

Zt = (Zxr - Zrx)/2 = Za~er~ge (8)
Z2 -- (Zxx + Zrr)/2 = Zdiagonal (9)
and the two eigenvalues ~÷ and Z - o f the impedance tensor matrix, Eq. (1).
These two eigenvalues are given by
-+= Z1 + [Z~ - d e t ~ u2 (10)

Since Z l and det Z are rotationally invariant, ~+ and Z- are also rotationally
invariant. The two apparent resistivities are
1 i/~ +12 (11)

P,t+ = ~/.t o
Rotation Invariant Magnetotelturic Tensors 101
_ 1 IA_I 2 (12)
P~- - w/~0 "
Both the ~+ and ~.- contain information from all the elements of the impedance
tensor, p~ + and p~_ generally give respectively the higher and lower estimates
of the apparent resistivity at a particular frequency.
I~ O' 15' ['30' t,$' [
÷ \~ \ ~ v v \ \
\\\ ~. v \ /~li .+.4- .,,) -t- + + + + \ ' x<
>~ ~.): ~,\\:,~,,x ~ x :,,,, : , , ~ . ~ > %~A::<,~,~, ,.\\~ + ~ +

'~ \ ~ "~ Gol|ktr* " • " 4+ .
, , "'--+..-, ", \ "~'-,,'~-~ ' ~, ,,..+-.~. ;G+-'~ "~, \ ." "-.,% \ "+ -, ~ + - " ~ ~ , -
~-?\\\,\~N~i,",\~, + ~,t>x ~_I.>\ , \ ~ • ";4~ +'+'~%,~'~k '°
" \ X ~X \\
,? ,, , ~ " ',,,
X,.,
.x . . . . .
. ~ .+. ÷ "4,+
STATE' \ x \\ ~,.\ ~ \ "X NX \ * *• * ." • + ÷ + + ~. "+ +~

! ** \\\ \\ ,..'.'. + +. ,. + + +
III ~ > ~ , ~ o a ~ \ \,\\~,~ ~-~'<-~ . 3" • ,~"/'L~ + + +++++ I"
\ \\
I L.>,2C.+\ <" N,~ > \'+,,&.Y ~ ~ \ >L\~,.I \'\ • . .
.. -.'.~,. : S + ~ . ' ~ o,++. . . . ~ + 4 + .
' ",', X\\~X\\\\~" ( . . . , . . . . . .(+k.~+~,. + . *",...+ +.it. + i s '

~lS' ~iir,,~ X \ 2 + + ,+~+ , \ \ \GuO \ " ' Koigarh ° " 1+..i . . .
,, ", ,+,°- ' ++, .s
," >'t : , \x.
" ~ 1 \ , % . ~ . ~
"" + ~ .... ,~,+
. . . . . . + + +vm~'+ + ,
\\ ,\ . .,. + + + + ++
,~ / . \x .,l.,i,&ll,
\ , , ,~~ oI'+\ \ '+ N ~ ara • ~ " ~ ~ I~ ~ :+++~+
'" ," ,\" \ ,~:. \. \ L ~ , + ~ ~ , ~ + ~ +/+I+ + + +\+
v, \ x ,~ - ~ . _ . J \v \ ,x'G + ..++,_,,_',._++7+ ~+ + + + +++ ,,,+- ++
"'XX\\\X ",,- \~.X~'X. X,.~ ^ ~ - +~'+/ + I : ++ 7
"x'x:\:~\ ' , ~ \ - ~ V I,\ .~'Xx. I ,'\-~-~ , + - ~ + , + i+ z~+'-.+- +f + +
'\\>x~\+~ ,~, ^^lt~ ' <" ' > x o -~]^ .'\ xJ' ,BO/OblIL '~"~-e~'+w
.,,"--~
< ,+ +r<+ / ' + " '+~
÷ N~/iThamPlO +L
+ // + -I-
211is" .,i. .+..is -)- i \ ' @/',% i ~'/\'\\; ~<~,~ ~+ + ~ /+\ " T / 2Z"
°' Io' .. 15 ~ 30 ' t,5 ' 0"'
t'~ Kothan series ~ Basic rocks in iron ore series, in parf pre- Bolma
~fironites ~ Iron-ore stoge (series) :
nongpur series Iron-are series
Oelrna hlvo ~ Chaibaso stage (series) / ( syste m )
Fig. l(a) Geological map of the western part of the Singhbhum shear zone:
location of Goilkera and Porahat.
Lilley (1993) defined the rotation invariant tensors Zcentra l and its phase
(~Central. This pair is given by
Zcentral _ IX 2 + y2] (13)
and (~Central = tan-: (Y/X) (t4)

102 Roy et al
where X -~ 1 [[Zxxr 4- Zyyr]2 4" [Zxy r + ZYXr]2] 112 (15)
1
and Y = "~ [[Zxx i + Zyyi]2 + [Zxy i + Zyxi]2] 1/2 (16)
where r and i, respectively stand for real and imaginary quantities. Zcentra 1
and ~0centra1are powerful parameters for MT data analysis and interpretation.
All the eight components of the impedance tensor constituted these two
parameters.
Fig. l(b) Singhbhum shear zone map showing widening of the SSZ on the western
side of the Archaean craton.
Yee and Paulson (1987) defined the inequality
1 o.22(eo)< pa(¢o) < 1 cr2(eo) (17)

~/J-o - ~0
where o-2(0.)) and o-22((.o)are the two eigenvalues of Z'Z, and * the complex
transpose of the nonnegative Hermitian operator.
1 1(7 1 (18)
P°~ = a~,Uo
Rotation Invariant Magnetotelluric Tensors 103
and 1 Icr~l
P~r~ = 0/20 (19)
p~r2 and Pcr~ give the upper and lower bounds of the apparent resistivities.
But P~r? ~: P~+ and pa2 ~ p~_. The squared principal impedance of the
moduli are given by
(20)
and cr2 = 21--IIZ I I 2 - ldet zl IIZIlZ]2-1detZI2 l (21)
where II Z I1v is the Frobenious norm of Z and is equal to

11 Z [1F = ( [ Zyy 12 + I Zxx 12 + I Zxy 12 + [ Zyx 12) (22)
All the three parameters are rotation invariant tensors.
Ingham (1988) defined two rotation invariant tensors
Plngh = 0.25[pxr + Prx + 2(pxr Pyx) 1/2 + cos (~xr - ~YX)]
and
~Ingh = tan -1 [ [(Pxr) 1/2 sin Oxr + (p~)1/2 sin Crx] [(Pxv)1/2 cos ~xr
+ (prx) 1/z cos Crx]:l]
From Eggers (1982) we obtain
Pdiag = ~ 011 Z 2 12 and ~diag = phase of I Z2 I
1
where Z 2 = "~ (Zxx + Zyy). Pdiag and ~diag are respectively the apparent
resistivity and phasaes computed from the rotated diagonal elements of the
impedance tensor.
There are more rotation invariant tensors. The authors have examined
only thirteen such tensors, viz. Pay, q~av,Pdet, ~det, Pcentral, ~Central, P~. +, P;t-'
Pa2, Pa2, Pdiag, ~diag and PFrob.
Field W o r k
Figures l(a) and (b) show the geological map of the Singhbhum shear zone
(SSZ) prepared by Dunn and Dey (1942). The total stretch of SSZ and the
widening of the SSZ in the western sector is shown. Fig. 2 shows the
location of the MT field sites. MMSO2E (Germany) was used for the
magnetotelluric measurements. Induction coils are used for measuring Hx,
H r and Hz and Ag-AgC1 electrodes are used to measure Ex and Er. Ex, Hx
104 Roy et al
es°12S 10 85* 30'
22" ~ d ~ APOKHAyJ O
JR
522
3
Fig. 2 Location map of the m a g n e t o l e l l u r i e stations near Goilkera.
and Er, Hr are respectively north-south and east-west electric and magnetic
components. Hz is the vertical magnetic component. Both the monovariate
and bivariate (predicted) coherencies are used for selection of data. Metronix
softwares were used for processing of data. Out of the three bands LFI (256
seconds to 4096 seconds), LF2 (8 seconds to 256seconds) and LF3 (0.25
seconds to 8 seconds), observations were taken mostly in the LF3 and LF2
bands. In the presence of high level of cultural noises due to high voltage
power lines, busy railway tracks, most of the longer period signals had high
level of uncertainties and therefore they are rejected. MT signals considered
for further analysis did not exceed 100 seconds. For many stations, the
signals only up to 32 seconds could be considered. For rotation invariant
analysis ruthless editing of the raw data was necessary because both apparent
resistivity and phase values try to show the erratic nature for the high error
bar data. This western end of the Singhbhum shear zone appears to be a
highly conducting zone. Our field data with the maximum frequency limit
ranging from 32 to 100 seconds did not see the earth beyond 10-15 km
from the surface. Information from the stations Khuntpai, Tuniya, Bari
Nuwagaon, Gotampa, Kuira, Arjunpur, Porahat, Bhalurudungri are analysed.
A profile of 16.4 km length is taken to present a 2D model across the
probable western extension of the Singhbhum shear zone. Data from the
station Arjunpur is presented in this paper to show the detailed rotation
invariant analysis.
Singhbhum Shear Zone

Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ) is a two hundred kilometer long convex
crescent shaped curve with the convexity northward. This shear zone marks
the boundary; between the Archean craton of Singhbhum granite batholith

and iron on group of rocks in the south and Proterozoic mobile belt of
Singhbhum group of formation in the north. According to Dunn and Dey
(1942), SSZ is about 25 km wide on the western side near Goilkera and
Porahat (Fig. tb) (Sarkar 1982). Its thickness reduces down to 1 km near
Rajkharswan (Fig. la) and it widens up again near Ghatshila-Mosabani on
the eastern side with the thickness of about 5 km. SSZ extends upto
Baharagora further south east of Mosabani. SSZ has steeply dipping thrust
plane. The dip varies from 45 to 75 ° (Bhattacharyya 1992) and is dipping
northward.
The latitude and longitude of the two extreme ends of the shear zone are
22°16 ', 86°4Y for Baharagora and 22°35 ', 85025 ' for Porahat. Fig. lb shows
the width and branching of the SSZ.
Dunn (1929) and Dunn and Dey (1942) classified the Precambrian rocks
of Singhbhum into two subdivisions: iron ore stage and Chaibasa stage.
According to them the rocks of the north Singhbhum belong to both the
stages and those of south Singhbhum to the iron ore stage only. Sarkar and
Saha (1962) classified the rocks as Chaibasa stage and Dhalbhum stage of
rocks (Saha 1994, p. 181).
The Singhbhum group of rocks consists of pelitic schists, micaceous
quartzite, mafic to ultramafic volcaniclastics. Singhbhum group has higher
gradation of metamorphism. Different phases of metamorphism generated
kyanite, staurolite, silliminite and andalusite (Bhattacharyya and Sanyal
1988).
On the southern side of the SSZ the rocks are mainly from iron ore
group of rocks and Singhbhum granite batholith. The iron ore group of
rocks are made up of low grade metasediments including phyllites, tuffaceous
shales, banded hematite Jasper (BHJ) with iron ore, ferruginous quartzite,
acid-intermediate and mafic volcanics (Saha 1994). On the eastern side of
the SSZ, Dhanjori volcanics exists just south of SSZ.
All along the SSZ the mylonites are exposed indicating it as a ductile
shear zone. SSZ is famous for its copper sulphide and uranium oxide
mineralization. According to Bhattacharyya (1992) copper mineralisation is
confined to about 130 km long stretch along the SSZ. It extends from
Baharagora in the east to Kharswan on the west. The major ore minerals
are chalcopyrite, pyrite and pyrrhotite. Minor and accessory minerals are
magnetite, covelite, pentlandite galena, sphalerite molybdenite etc. Besides
native gold, silver, bismuth and a large uranium oxide deposits also exist.
D.C. resistivity coltinear dipole traversing across the copper belt thrust
zone near Ghatshila and Mosabani (Roy 1995) and Rajkharswan (Roy and
Mukherjee 1994) show that shear zone is highly conducting. This conductivity
is due to the presence of minerals and fluids. That prompted us to take up
Goilkera-Porahat area as the field site for geoelectrical survey. The present
study area comes under the iron ore stage rock (Dunn and Dey 1942).
106 Roy et at

Figure 3 shows the apparent resistivity (Pxr and p ~ ) and phase (~xY and
~rx) curves with off diagonal elements for E and H polarisations for the
station Kuira. Fig. 4 shows the apparent resistivity and phase curves for the
diagonal elements (Pxx, PYr and Cxx, ~Yr) for E and H polarisations for the
station Kuira. Raw data are made available in the form of real and imaginary
components of all the elements of the impedance tensor with their level of
uncertainties. The data, which crossed the monovafiate and bivariate coherency
threshold and have smaller error bars are considered for further analysis.
Tables 1 and 2 show the values of the rotated (swift) Cagniard impedances
and their phases for both E and H polarisations for the station Arjunpur
within the period, range of 0.25 to 16 seconds (T).
Apporent resistivity ond phose
2
10
X
>-
(L,
101
1
10-1
ee
X X
•
XX
¢#
£ol
TT i
" "" ~xy " ±1
lO-z
x
lg3
10=1 10 ' i0 2 10 3 10 L,
"e"
• 30
0
/ i:itt i
" "~ d'xY
x-~÷yx
10-1
1
1 10
::""f "
I llI¿ll
10 2
lIIl
I II It IT
10 3
..... I I
10 t,
I
I
Period [sec)
Fig. 3 MT apparent resistivity PxY, Prx and phase ~xr and ~YXsounding curves
for the rotated off diagonal elements: station Kuira.
Rotation invariant tensor (RIT) computations using the formulae given

in Section 2 are done in two stages using the components Zij and Zij + AZij.
Here Zij represents Zxx, Zxxi, Zxr, Zxn, Zrxr, Zrxi and Zyrr, Z ~ . A Zij is
the uncertainty levels. Subscripts 'r' and 'i' respectively stand for real and
imaginary components. It is observed that uncertainty levels for all the
rotation invariant tensors, reduce significantly and both the apparent resistivity
and phase curves become much more acceptable with less statistical
fluctuations.
Figures 5(a-j) are the apparent resistivity and phase plots for conventional
Cagniard impedance PxY and ~xr, Prx and #rx and the plots with rotation
invariant tensors (Pay, ~av), (Paet, ~aet) and (Pcentral, t~Central)" Figs. 6(a-c)
Rotation lnvariant Magnetotelluric Tensors 107
Apparent resis¢ivity and phase diagono|s

10 3
• "4" ~ X X
>,, 101 "}'1

>.,
Q..,
X
1o-a ,,--]:
t I_
>¢
o..,
io-5
'lI}
10-I 10 10 2 10 10 ~
1801 - - ~ . ! '[
I • It 111
II 11
I
l
4
I
10 -~ 1 10 10 2 10 3 10 L.
Period {sec }
Fig. 4 M T apparent resistivity Pxx, Pry and phase q~xxand Or',"sounding curves
for the rotated diagonal elements: station Kuira.
show the apparent resistivity plots for pz+, PFrob and p ~ . It is observed
that all the rotation invariant plots are much more smooth than the plots of
conventional Cagniard impedances specially when the data are contaminated
with noise. Figs. 5(a-d) show that some of the data have larger error bars.
These error bars have significantly gone down in the RIT plots.
Table 1 Magnetotellnrie rotated Cagniard impedances p ~ and phases CxYwith

their uncertainty levels (E-polarisation) (Station: Arjunpur)
4"T Pxr ,aPxr Cxr A CxY

0.500 19.80 1.010 73.3 1.46
0.577 29,40 1.250 73,0 1.22
0.707 31.30 1.100 74.1 1.00
0.817 22.10 1.020 69.0 1.33
1.000 17.20 1.110 68.8 1.85
1.153 14.50 1.290 68.3 2.55
1.414 11.00 1.790 67.9 4.67
1.636 9.68 1.950 66.8 5.77
2.000 3.47 1.620 60.9 13.30
2.309 2.96 1.320 69.6 12.80
2.828 1,99 0.394 81.6 5.67
3.271 1.23 O.199 83.6 4.65
4.000 0.902 O.108 88.4 3.43
Table 3 shows the values of the magnetotelluric apparent resistivities for

rotation invariant tensors Pav, Pcret, P2 +' P;t-' Pcr~' Dog' /9Central,PFrob and
108 Roy et al
0
0
c~ "d
n
• • ,,,
.-.e.-
I/I . 4.
ot
t.
E
4-
o_
E
-++++
I--
4,
IN
I I I ( i i I I I i i i 0 c~
m m
R a~l~J6ap) N ,-- ( a~6ap} -,+ N ( am6ap} ~t
+~x - o q d x,~- O q d eô - Oqcl

• o 0
,e.
o~
++4-.
® ,,
E E
E
I-- iT.
e e
• 04 N N
h,, , , ~. . . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . C~,
i .... , I ........ t. . . . . . . . c~
C) C+ -" e-
t%
{w-wq0) { w-wqo} o e,. " ( 11~-wqo)
a ~x - 0 q N x / , - Oq~l e o ^ o - oq~l
t.,
° . 0
=
0
1 -.,-
° --D-
_o
r~
E
o--
o E =
I--
J.--
° ~O
4 °m
ga,
r~
t..,
I,J,lt , ....... C~
o 3aJ6~p) .m
A
"~ep - o q d 'ue~-0qd
"kg
°~
o~
o
,r
° o~
" E
~ I,m
I--
L,
(,M
h,,~, I........ t........ h,,,, I ........ l........ ¢:~
I'~ ~ ( ~ - I.gq"~ 0 r.- ~(w- ) o

lap - 0 u ~ "ue~ -oq~
"T'
110 Roy et al
Table 2 Magnetotelluric rotated Cagniard impedances Pxr and phases ~xv with
their uncertainty levels (I-I-polarisation) (Station: Arjunpur)
Pxx Zlpxr Cxr zl¢~

0.500 40.10 1.200 83.1 0.859
0.577 32.60 1.060 87.7 0.937
0.707 21.50 0.982 88.2 1.3t0
0.817 23. t 0 1.370 89.3 1.700
1.000 15.20 1.490 86.3 2.810
1.153 11.00 1.710 85.9 4.470
1.414 7.05 2.200 86.1 8.950
1.636 4.06 2.270 86.0 16. I O0
2.000 4.57 3,220 70.3 20.200
2.309 2.97 2.050 57.1 19.800
2.828 1.28 0.551 76.7 12.400
3.271 1.35 0,305 89.7 6.470
4.000 1.16 0.179 87.5 4.420
Pdiag without considering the uncertainty levels. Table 4 shows the values
of the magnetotelluric phases for the PIT impedances without considering
the uncertainty levels. The parameters are ~av, ¢oet, Cx+, C a - ' t~Central,and
Cdiag. Tables 5 and 6 show the apparent resistivities and phases based on
computed PITs using the uncertainty levels. Comparing Tables 3 with 5,
and 4 with 6 one can see that the uncertainty levels in RITs reduces when
the entire information collected from the field are used for estimation of
apparent resistivities and phases. The following results are obtained:
(i) [&+ + &_ ]1/2 = P~t

(ii) [q};t+ + Ca-]/2 = Cde,
(iii) [Pa2 JOo-2] 112 ----Pdel
(iv) &? > & *
(v) p,,~ < &

(vi) PFrob > Pdet or PCentral
(vii) Pcentral = Pay + Pdiag
(viii) Pa~" < Pa- < Pdet or Pce,t~al
(ix) ~mean= 1 (~av + ~det + ~ + + ¢~-) = (~Central

(x) All the rotation invariant apparent resistivities and phases describe
perfect circles irrespective of the data quality.
(xi) Traces of irppedance element Zxx, Zrr, Zxr, Zrx describe perfect
ellipses of same size and eccentricities (Eggers 1982)
Both the rotation invariance plots and the ZTrace plots show that even if
a data have large error bar, RITs are perfect circles and the ZTraceS are
perfect ellipses and these ellipses are of the same siz, Therefore the authors
could not use the rotation invariance plots and Z,rrace plots to judge the data
quality. However, this issue is under further investigation.
70
(o) • • .
¢
10 t
°
0 ° ¢
~I °~ •
,-o
r~
0.1 T I t ] IIII I I I I I IIII I I I J I Ill
012 I 10 9O
Time (sees)
(b)70 i • •
i ¢
,,'rE
o
,.-'~ I ¢
0.1 , i I , ,1,1 I n I t I fill I I I I I llJ

0.2 I 10 9O
(c) Time (secs)
70
4~ • •
I:I
I
t E
t,
0,1 . . . . | II I ! I ' t '''1 1 !
..it 1 I I Ill
0.2 1
10. 90
T i m e (secs)
Fig. 6 The rotation invariant plots for p~ ÷, P0-2 a n d Rrrob for the station Arjunpur.
Figure 7 shows the rotation invariance plots of Zav, $av, Zdet and ~det,
Za÷, Z0.~. They formed perfect circles irrespective of the data quality.
Other RITs examined by the authors viz. Zx., ° x . , Zx_, ¢;t-, Zdiag' Za~'
20-2, Zcentral, ~Central show similar rotation invariance.
Figure 8 shows the ZTrace diagrams for Zxx, Zrv, Zxr and Zyx. All the
traces are of same size and ellipticity (Eggers 1982). Most of the cases, the
ellipses are of the same size and'ellipticity.
112 Roy et al
Table 3 Magnetotelluric rotation invariant apparent resistivities

(without uncertainty levels) (Station: Arjunpur)
Pay Pdet P)I.+ /92 - PO.2 PO.2 Poem PFr Pdiag
0.500 28.885 30.632 35.639 26.328 46.371 20.235 31.836 66.605 2.951
0.577 30.474 31.194 40.121 24.254 45.035 21.607 32.320 66.642 1.847
0.707 25.664 25.497 36.094 18.012 40.775 15.944 27.083 56.719 1.419
0.817 21.838 21.129 33.457 13.344 37.964 11.760 23.310 49.724 1.471
1.000 15.440 14.574 24.968 8.507 28.672 7.408 16.599 36.080 1.159
1.153 12.016 10.978 20.415 5.904 23.477 5.134 13.059 28.611 1.043
1.414 8.473 7.285 16.109 3.294 18.425 2.880 9.373 21.306 0.900
1.636 6.391 5.356 12.647 2.269" 14.034 2.044 7.170 16.079 0.779
2.000 3.971 3.247 8.103 1.301 8.385 1.257 4.184 9.643 0.214
2.309 2.922 2.452 5.811 1.035 6.261 0.960 2.995 7.222 0.073
2.828 1.607 1.590 1.239 2.041 2.088 1.211 1.622 3.299 0.016
3.271 1.287 1.416 1.021 1.964 1.980 1.013 1.454 2.993 0.167
4.000 1.027 1.182 0.779 1.793 1.850 0.754 1.263 2.605 0.237
Table 4 Magnetotelluric rotation invariant phases (without uncertainty levels)

(Station: Arjunpur)
3IT Car ~det ¢,~ + ¢~- ¢Cent ~}diag
0.500 79.076 80.196 65.689 94.702 78.938 102.334

0.577 80.543 81.988 70.595 93.381 79.123 114.935
0.707 80.491 82.035 73.130 90.941 77.438 129.781
0.817 79.988 81.844 73.677 90.011 74.809 143.085
1.000 80.868 82.714 75.723 89.705 73.608 153.775
1.153 80.299 81.498 77.517 85.479 71.300 168.491
1.414 79.477 80.617 77.598 83.638 69.195 1.337
1.634 74.276 72.990 76.157 69.833 65.5.12 8.449
2.000 65.977 65.156 67.075 63.237 62.848 178.613
2.309 63.358 65.170 60.719 69.621 62.379 28.575
2.828 79.419 78.901 74.732 83.070 78.245 23.613
3.271 87.074 83.679 63.578 103.780 79.029 57.084
4.000 87.895 82.479 5%724 107.234 75.845 55.974
Figures 9 and 10 show the TE mode apparent resistivity and ¢det (phase
determinant pseudosections) along the 16.4 km profile from Kuntpai to
Kuira. The field stations are Kuira, Nuvagoan, Gotampa, Bari, Tunia, Kuntpai
(Fig. 2). The #det pseudosection is a powerful tool for mapping the subsurface
(Ranganayaki 1984). Figs. ll(a, d) show 2D model of the Kuira-Kuntpai
section obtained using the 'Rapid Relaxation Inversion' algorithm of Smith
and Booker (i991). The algorithm uses the information from Pxr, (~xr and
Prx, #rx. Figures l l ( b , c, e, f) show the apparent resistivity and phase
pseudosections for both T E and T M mode. These 2D sections and
pseudosections are plotted based on the data collected from the said stations.
Figures l l ( a , d) show that highly conducting zone exists below the
Table 5 Magnetotelluric rotation invariant apparent resistivities (with

uncertainty levels) (Station: Arjunpur)
3fT Pay Pdet PA * P~t - Per2 Per2 PCent PFr Pdiag
0.500 29.002 30.57i 36.211 25,810 45.606 20.493 31.696 66.099 2,693
0.577 30,613 31,098 41.459'23.325 45.773 21.127 32.344 66.900 1.732
0.707 25.618 25.162 37.606 16.835 41.979 15.081 27.026 57.060 1.408
0.817 21,655 20,694 34.480 12.420 39,222 10.918 23,222 50.140 1.567
1,000 15.184 14.072 25.831 7.665 30,249 6.547 16,557 36.791 1.373
1.153 11.665 10.372 21.025 5,116 25.658 4.192 t3,133 29.850 1.468
1.414 7.992 6,461 16.6t8 2.512 22.225 1.878 9.780 24.104 1.788
1.636 5.639 4.060 13,297 1.240 18,675 0,882 7,621 19.558 1.983
2.000 3.180 2.253 7.767 0.653 12.850 0,395 4.740 13,244 1.560
2,309 2.462 1.898 5.505 0,654 8.915 0,404 3.377 9.319 0.915
2,828 1,457 1.371 2.303 0,817 2.548 0,738 1.493 3.286 0.036
3.271 1.238 1.336 1.195 1.493 1.722 1,036 1.306 2.758 0.068
4.000 0.999 1.124 0.818 1.545 1.592 0.794 1.152 2.386 0.153
Table 6 Magnetotelluric'rotation invariant phases (with uncertainty levels)

(Station: Arjunpur)
~av ~det ~ + q)~t - ~cent ~diag

0,500 78.998 80,203 66.207 94,200 78.40 106.781
0.577 80.450 82.040 71.041 93,038 78.43 120.946
0.707 80.528 82.261 73.583 90.940 76.63 t36.895
0,817 80.157 82.209 74.051 90.366 73.63 151.603
1.000 81.217 83.373 76.092 90.653 71.72 164.54
1.153 80.908 82.339 78.127 86.551 68.53 0.354
1,414 80.653 82,105 78.807 85,404 64.08 15.666
1.634 76.374 73.931 78.515 69,347 59,30 23,080
2.000 68.583 63.760 72.475 55.045 54.40 29.465
2.309 65.071 6t.714 68.578 54,849 57.63 40.427
2.828 81.411 82.580 77.979 87.181 80.84 67.559
3.271 88.087 87.176 71.182 103.170 84.02 64.199
4.000 88.621 85.035 63.334 106,736 79.00 58.697
station Kuira. Figs. 10 (b, e) show that a sharp contact in electrical conductivity
exists in between Nuwagaon and Gotampa. We are suspecting this signature
as the signature of the western extension of the Singhbhum shear zone. It
may be a highly mineralized and fluid filled zone. Further investigation is
necessary to settle this issue.
Concluding Remarks
Rotation invariant resistivities and phases are more powerful parameters
than the conventional Cagniard impedances. Most of the Archaean and
Proterozoic terrains are essentially three dimensional where the diagonal
elements of the rotated impedance tensors are nozero. Therefore,
m a g n e t o t e l l u r i c d a t a analysis, k e e p i n g fifty p e r cent o f the i n f o r m a t i o n
114 Roy et at
(Z'
lol Zove (ohm) Ibl pha- rive (deg.)
- 00~ 0 200.0 -0+5 0 0.5
-0.5
-200.00~ ' , •
200.0 O.S
|tl Zdet (ohm) lal pho-det (deg)

- 4oooo.o II ,,,oooo.o -1.+ .0 0 1.o
-/.0000.0 |
Q
40000.4 t.O
Station: Nuwngaon {Frequency /.Hz)
le)
z ,,~.+ | ohm ) If! Frob. Z (ohm)
-I00.0 0 100.0 -SOO.O o SO0.O
-100.o ', -SO00
100.0 SO00
@
(g)
Cen. lmp.lAeol)(ohel (hi Cert.Imp.( fmgl Iohml
- 00.0 0 2OOo - 200.0 0 200.0
- 200.C - 200.0 , ,
oQ
200. 200.0
Stnlion: Nuwagaon (Frequency 4MHz)

Fig. 7(a-h) The rotation invariance plot of Zave, Cave, Zaet, Cdct, Z z+, ZFrob, Zcem~
(real) and ZcentraI (imaginary), respectively, Station: Nuwagaon
aside, may turn out to be inaccurate. Rotation invariant apparent resistivity

and phase plots have lesser error bars, lesser statistical fluctuations and
more information content. Most of the parameters discussed in this paper
have perfect rotation invariance irrespective of the data quality. ZTrac e also
describe perfect ellipses of equal areas.
z xy zyx
- 200 - ~00 0
-400 - 400 l
100 100
zxx zyy
200 100 0 100 200 100 0 100
- 4 0 0 -- i I 'i -400 , , I
-200 - -200
0- 0-
200 - 200 -
Stotion: NuwagQon ( at the frequency 4Hz )
Fig. 8(a-d) Zrr~, plot for Zxr, Zyx,Zxx, Zrr at frequency 4 H~ Station: Nuwagaon
(Pdet, Sdet) and (Pcentrat, ~Centrat)are the two strong pairs of MT parameters
for data analysis and interpretation. (Pmean, ¢mean)can also be used as robust
estimates. It is observed that Px ÷,P;t-, P(rl2,Pot, Pdet are inter-related so also
are the phase values ~)~+,¢~t-, ~,12, $cr2:, $det. These relations existed for
the data with moderate error bars. It is .observed that both the P~t*, P~- and
pal2 and p(r22 give the upper and lower bounds for the apparent resistivities
116 Roy et al
z
O
7~ <~ <
n
<
et"
:)
o
Da ~-- Z V"
0.25
5.25
I 10.25
'~ 15.25
~A
to
.y 20.2 c"
I-.-
25.2!
30.2!
1.0 6.0 11.0 16.0
DISTANCE 1N km
Fig. 9 Apparent resistivity Pxr pseudosection along the profile Kuira-Kuntpai
(16.4 km long); Stations are Kuira, Gotampa, Nuwagaon, Tunia, Bari,
Kuntpai.
a l t h o u g h Pa~ # Pz ÷, Pa~ # Pa-" It is observed that p~rl2> pz+ and

Pa~ < P;t- but [Pcr~P~r~]U2= [Pz + P~t-]In= P~t. For framing an inverse
problem these bounds may be useful. PFrobenioushas much larger value than
p ~ . Therefore this parameter can be rejected for any kind of use although
1
it has shown perfect rotation invariance property. Pdiag (= ~ (Zxx + Zry))
has one property. If the structure is nearly two dimensional the rotated Pdiag
values will be less. Here in this Singhbhum shear zone, for the station
Arjunpur the values of the Pdiag are found to be less. It is an approximate
indication that the structure near Arjunpur is approximately two dimensional.
~diag does not have much significance. Pay and ~av have information from
four components only (Zxr, Zx~, Z~r, Z~i), therefore they are considered
Rotation lnvariant Magnetotelluric Tensors 117
-- Z
:_ ~ 7. ~: p_ :
1 6 11 16
DISTANCE IN krn ,~
Fig. 10 Phase determinant (~det) pseudosection for the Kuira-Kuntpai section.
Fig. ll(a, d) The 2D MT model for Kuira-Kuntpai section for both E and H
polarisations (TE and TM mode); b, c and e, f, respectively the apparent
resistivity and phase pseudosection for both TE and TM mode.
118 Roy et al
inferior to (Pdet and ~Pdet) although they show perfect rotation invariance
property and they are used (Berdichevskii and Dmitriev 1976, Eggers 1982,
Park and Livelybrooks 1989).
High conductivity is noted below the stations Kuira and Arjunpur. Sharp
contrast in resistivity exists in between Gotampa and Nuwagaon. It may be
the signature of the western extension of the Singhbhum shear zone. However,
more geological and geophysical field work are necessary to consolidate
our view point.
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New
Delhi for providing facilities for research. Thanks are due to Prof. John
Booker, Head of Geophysics Department, University of Washington, Seattle,
USA for providing 'Rapid Relaxation Inversion' algorithm for interpretation
of data.
References
Bahr, K., 1988, Interpretation of the magnetotelluricimpedance tensor: regional induction

and local telluric distortion, Journal of Geophysics, 62, 119-127.
Bahr, K., 1991, Geological noise in magnetotelluric data: a classification of distortion
types, Physics of the earth and planetary interiors, 66, 24-38.
Berdichevskii, M.N. and Dmitriev, V.I., 1976, Basic principles of interpretation of
magnetotellurie sounding curves, in Adam, A. (Ed.),. Geoetectric and Geothermal
Studies, Akademai Kaido, Budapest, 165-221.
Bhattacharyya, D.S., 1992, Early Proterozoic metallogenic, tectonics and geochronology
of the Singhbhum Cu-U belt, eastern India, Precambrian Research, 25, 71-83.
Bhattacharyya, D.S. and Sanyal, P., 1988, The Singhbhum Orogen--its structure and
stratigraphy, in: D. Mukhopadhyay (Editor), Precambrian of the eastern Indian shield,
Geol. soc. Ind., Bangalore, 85-111.
Cagniard, L,, 1953, Basic theory of the magnetotelluricmethod of geophysical prospecting,
Cantwell, T,, 1960, Detection and analysis of low frequency magnetotelluric signals--
Dissertation, Mass. Inst. Tech.
Dunn, J.A., 1929, Geology of northern Singhbhumincludingparts of Ranchi and Manbhum
districts, Geological Surv. Ind. Memoir, 63 (pt. 1), 280.
Dunn, J.A. and Dey, A.K., 1942, The geology and petrology of eastern Singhbhum and
surrounding areas, Mem. Geol. Surv. India, 69, Pt. 1.
Eggers, D.E., 1982, An eigen state formulation of the magnetotelluric impedance tensor,
Geophysics, 47(8), 1204-1214.
Ghosh, S.K. and Sengupta, S., 1987, Structural history of Singhbhum shear zone in
relation to northern belt, in: A.K. Saha (Editor), Geological Evolution of Peninsular,
India, Researches in Geology, 13, Hindustan Publication Corporation, Delhi, 31-44.
Ingham, Malcolm, R., 1988, The use of invariant impedances in magnetotelluric
interpretation, Geophysical Journal International, 92, 165-169.
Latorraca, G.A., Madden, T.R. and Korringa, J., 1986, An analysis of the magnetotelturic
impedance for three dimensional conductivity structures, Geophysics, 51, 1819-
1829.
Lilley, EE.M., 1990, Magnetotelluric analysis using Mohr circles, Geophysics, 58, 1498-
1506.
Park, S.K. and Livelybrooks, D.W., 1989, Quantitative interpretation of rotationally
invariant parameters in magnetotellurics, Geophysics, 54(11), 1483-1490.
Ranganayaki, R.E, 1984, An interpretative analysis of magnetotelluric data, Geophysics,
49, 1730-1748.
Roy, K.K. and Mukherjee, K.K., 1995, D.C. resistivity traversing across Singhbhum
shear zone near Rajkharswan, Indian Journal of Earth Sciences, 22(4), 177-182.
Sarkar, A.N. and Chakraborty, D.K., 1982, One orogenic belt or two? A structural
reinterpreetation supported by Landsat data products of the precambrian metamorphics
of Singhbhum, Eastern India, Photogrammetric, 37, 185-201.
Sarkar, A.N., 1982, Precambrian tectonic evolution of eastern India: A model of converging
microplates, Tectonophysics, 86, 363-397.
Sarkar, S.N. and Saha, A.K., 1962, A revision of Precambriar stratigraphy and tectonics
of Singhbhum and adjoining regions, Quart. J. Geol. Min. Met. Soc. India., 34, 97-
136.
Smith, T.J. and Booker, J.R., 1991, Rapid inversion of two and three dimensional
magnetotelluric data, Journal of Geophysical Research, 96(3), 3905-3922.
Smith, T.J. and Booker, J.R., 1988, Magnetotelluric inversion for minimum structure,
Geophysics, 53(12), 1565-1576.
Spitz, Simon, 1985, The magnetotelluric impedance tensor properties with respect to
rotations, Geophysics, 50, 1610-1617.
Swift, C.M. Jr., 1969, A magnetotelluric investigation of an electrical conductivity
anomaly in the south western United States, Ph.D~ thesis, MIT.
Vozoff, K., 1972, The Magnetotelluric method in exploration of sedimentary basins,
Geophysics, V. 37, 91-141.
Yee, E. and Poulson, K.V., 1987, The canonical decomposition and its relationship to
other forms of magnetotelluric impedance tensor analysis, Journal of Geophysics,
61, 173-189.
8. Magnetotelluric Model of Singhbhum

Granite Batholith
K.K. Roy, A.K. Singh and C.K. Rao*
Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur-721 302, India
*Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Nanabhoy Moos Marg, Mumbai-400 005, India
1. Introduction
A magnetotetluric survey was undertaken across the Singhbhum granite
batholith primarily to characterise the electrical structure of the Singhbhum
Orissa Iron ore Archaean craton. Metronix MMS02E MT equipment having
operating frequency range of 4 Hz to 2.44 x 10-4 Hz was used. Two
dimensional model of the subsurface based on one dimensional and two
dimensional inversion are presented to show the common features.
1D inversion was done following the approaches of Bachus and Gilbert
(1968, 1970), Ridge Regression (Hoerl and Kennard, 1970a, 1970b;
Marquardt, 1963; Inman, 1975) Simulated Annealing (Kirkpatrik et al, 1983
and Sen and Stoffa, 1991) and Schmucker's p* - g * algorithm. 2D inversion
was done using the algorithm of Smith and Booker (1991). Electrical model
of the subsurface below the Singhbhum granite batholith is presented.
2. Geology of the Area

The Indian subcontinent is subdivided into three proto continents, viz.
Singhbhum, Dharwar and Aravalli. These are Archaean and Proterozoic
cratons and carry the signature of some of the oldest phases of the crustal
evolution. Since the present investigation is restricted to the Singhbhum
area only, a brief description of the geology of the area is presented (Saha
et al, 1984; Saha et al, 1988; Saha, 1994)
The Singhbhum Orissa iron ore craton (Latitude 20o45 ' to 22°45 ',
Longitude 84°30 ' to 86o45 ') is bounded to the north and northwest by the
200 km long curved copper belt thrust zone (CBT) and to the south by the
Sukinda thrust, which has a nearly cast-west strike (Figure 1). The major
componcnt of the craton is the Singhbhum granite batholith (8000 km2)."
The iron ore craton is surrounded to the east and north east by the relatively
high grade Satpura belt and to the south by the Eastern Ghat belt. The
oldest rock within the craton is the older metamorphic gneiss (OMG),
which consists of medium grade pelitic schists, para and ortho amphibolite
and calc schists. OMG covers an area of about 200 km 2 to the wcst of
Champua. These rocks were intruded by biotite, tonalite gneiss grading to
Magnetotelluric Model of Singhbhum Granite BathoIith 12t
trondhjemite (900 sq km). The rest of the batholith is made up of at least

twelve magmatic bodies of biotite granodiorite granite which evolved in
two distinct phases (SBGA and SBGB). Recent geochronological studies
suggest that SBGA and SBGB are of different age (3.3Ga and 3.1Ga
respectively). SBGA rocks are relatively potash poor granodiorite--
trondhjemite while SBGB are granodiorite grading to adamellite granite.
SBGB occupies nearly two third of the total surface area of the Singhbhum
granite batholith (Figure 1). SBGA and SBGB granites have distinctly
different physical properties.
1, aider Hefamorphic GroL.qP; 2, Older HetQmorphic Tonalite Gneiss= 3. Gronitised Order MetQmorpn~cs;
~,,Sinohbhum Granite-Phase 1;5, Singhbhum Granite-Phase I l l Banal Granite,Nilgiri Granite;
6, iron Ore Group; "/, iron Ore Group Lavas; E. lOG B~H.J & Ot~ortzites; 9. Sighbhum Granite-Phase l l l ;
10. Singhbhum Group; 1t Ohonjori Group ; 12, Dhonjori Group Orthoquortzite; 13, OhQnjori Group Lavos ;
1L,.Kolhon Group;IS. Gobbro-anorthosite;16. Hayurbhanj Granite;Soda Grani:te; Arkosoni Granite;
[hakrodharpur Granite; 17. Gondwono; A.Khondatite; B, Charnochite; C. Unclassified Granite-Gneiss;
O. Unc|ossified Rocks
Fig. ! Geological map of the study area and maggetote||urie observation sites.
122 Roy et al
Older metamorphic tonalite trondhjemite (OMTG) mineralogically
comprises of plagioclase and quartz with accessary biotite and hornblende.
They show rather a small range in their chemical composition. OMG and
OMTG are about 3.4Ga old and are the oldest group of rocks which form
the Singhbhum protocontinent.
3. Field Work
A series of single site magnetotelluric soundings were undertaken across
the Singhbhum granite batholith from Bangriposi to Keonjhar. Observation
points are shows in Fig. 2. Separation between the field sites ranged between
5 and 15 kin. The MMS02E MT system (Metronix, Germany) was used for
the field observations and has a frequency range of 4.0 to 1/4096 Hz.
Induction coil magnetometer and silver-silver chloride non polarisable
electrodes were used for me~uring the magnetic and electric fields. Signals
up to 628 sec could be retrieved from the overnight continuous observation
of 12 to 24 hrs. These signals sense structure upto depth of about 100 kin,
since they pass through the highly resistive granite batholith. Mono and
bivariate choherency threshold of 0.8 was set as the criteria for acceptance
or rejection of signals. Rejection of signals due to weak geomagnetic activity
was about 60%. North-south and east-west electric field measuring dipole
length varied between 60 and 100 meters. Metronix softwares were used
for processing of the MT data.
4. Results and Discussion

Figures 3 to 10 are apparent resistivities (Pa~. and Pa~x)and phases (q~xYand
~ ) and the qD inverted models with their uncertainty levels using p* - g*
algorithm of Schmucker for the unrotated and rotated values for the stations
Tangavilla, Kadvani, Bubuyajora, Nuvagaon, Dudura, Dari, Badposi and
Turumunga. Here northsouth and eastwest components are, respectively, the
X and Y components. The apparent resistivities and phases are, respectively,
given by
Paxr = 02T Hr
•
Ex 2 (1)
Ey 2
Payx = 0.2T ~ (2)
S°IEx/Hr I[ (3)
~xr = tan-1 ~9~tEx/Hr I
IS¢IEy/Hx lIt (4)

~rx = tan -1 ~ I E y / H x
Magnetotelluric Model of SinghbhumGranite Batholith 123
In the dead band (near 1 to 10 Hz) the signals failed tocross the coherency
threshold. Therefore, there are some gaps both in the apparent resistivity
and phase data.
O
~o ~ ¢d
_=
>
0 0
E ~
e~
®
o
~t
o
o.
¢q
at
0
tt
~9
124 Roy et al
Four layer earth models are obtained for all the models to show the order
of resistivities of the upper crust, lower crust, upper mantle lithosphere,
upper mantle asthenosphere.
(a) (bl
I0 S
Zxy{nO rotation ) 10 S Zy x ( no rotation)
E
10 &
q '~ ~'?; f*,,l I0/~ I-
.5 lO 3
o
0., 102
t '°I
.c t., 5
'°I
4s "~ "'i !
I
- o [ I I IJ
I0 -I I0 0 I01 10 2 1 I0 -I 10 0 101 II0 2 103
(c) (d)
101 ~ :Turumunga
.¢: 3~lOtl
L__ ----]
" 10z , :Tr:.--.---,V "" , ,

10 2 103 10 4 105 102 103 10L. '105
1-D inversion resislivity in J~-m I-0 in,,~erslo~resistivity in Pl.-m
(el (f)
E
10 5
l°S I Zyx(with rotation
: ro
i % 1. ~j.
cI 1°~
lOZ' f
o103 Zxy (with Â~lion) 7 *°;ql
102 I I I, I 1o3L , , ,
a,
¢J 9O
"o ,,.'"h .... IIt
.5 4s
t tI '° I I I I I ....
g. 0 I I ~ I 0
10-1 100 101 102 103 10"1 100 101 102 103
(g) (h)
10 1
.x L
° ,o I
10 2
. . . . ,. . . . . . .
103 104 10 5
t-D inversion resistivity in ~ - m
t ,0zL
102
Fr
103
:vz:v
10/.' 105
1-D inversion resis'tivi~yin eL- m
Fig. 3 Magnetotelluric apparent resistivity and phase curves and their inverted
section for the Turumunga MT station, a, b shows the unrotated P~xY and
PaYx apparent resistivity and phase field curves and c, d show their 1D
inverted sections, e, f shows the rotated PoxY and P~rx apparent resistivity
and phase field curves and g, h show their 1D inverted sections.
Magnetotelluric Model of Singhbhum Granite Batholith 125
(a) [b)
E 105
I Zxy {no rotation) 10S f +,>o.41~4~'IT'+'+'~+£
o 1
l+J+., zyx (no rototi~)
/ I + a~
103 m ~ J Tr'~ 10 3 | , , J j
90 ....
.C l+S 45
"~ 0 L I ! t I I I 1, I
lo-+ ~00 +01 ~02 103 +0-~ 100 +0~ to2 ~03
{c) (d}
E I
'°+I i- +'
= ;0 2 ............. .........
~
lo2L~ ~ lo 3 i'
,1 t
102 103 10~" I0.S 10 2 10 3 104
1-O inversion resistivity, CL-m I-D inversion resistivity , ~ - r n
{e) (f)
i 61°d, 1
q+
.E t 03 +t It 104
O~ 10 2 xy (withl rotatlon}l
t I 10 3 yx (withl rotation)lI "hll
'it +il
+o tt'r+l,lht ,+,..+J+
"=- 4 4
cu t.......+'+
~ t + 1 1 .~ I
I0-I 100 101 102 10 3 I0-I 10 0 101 102 io 3
(g) (h)
+o~L ;0 3 '~! ,
10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
1-O inversion resistivity ,/L-m 1-0 inversion resistivity,J'|.- m
section for the Badposi MT station.
Unrotated values are the MT tensors obtained for the geographic north-
south and east-west orientation of the electric and magnetic fields. Rotated
values are obtained after mathematical rotation of the M T impedance tensors
such that at optimum rotation angle, the sum of the squares of the diagonal
elements of the tensor
126 Roy et al
i.e., Z~:2 + Z ~ becomes minimum and Z~:2 + Z ~ maximum (Swift, 1969)

and is known as Swift rotation angle (Vozoff, 1972). Z' are the rotated
impedance tensors. Eggers (1982) described these rotated and unrotated
tensors in detail. Since the trace of the elements of the complex impedance
tensors are elliptic and traces of all the elements are of equal size and
ellipticity, it is better to work with the maximum value of the impedance
(o,) (b)
iOS[ , ,, 1o4i
I 10/~ ~ (,+~'=(,(,
(,$, ¢')
11(+
:o IO
0;l=.,ooroooo,
zL , ,
'lit)
, i'll
. ,ooooo
io2 |Zyx
)
I I i
*--
l,,'I+'i 4
f I l I I I i i
10 -1 100 101 102 103 10"1 100 101 102 103
Period in see Period in s e c
(c) (d)
i I°11 I1 -
. . . .
3xi011 J
" 103/ I i Io2m
102 103 104 105 t02 103 10 4 10 5
1-O inversion res. in ~ - m I -O inversion res. in ~ - m
E
10 5(e)
l "
lO 4 ( f )
l .... "Lit ~T,
- 1° 3
! T,
T'" i,
"T I03 °",?jg)
o F Z x y ( w i t h rotation) 1 0 2 / Z y x (withl ir°tati°n)l

102[ I I ~ I #
~' ...'"H "111~1~ ~ r'""l~' T
/ I I i
-- 10-1 100 101 102 103 10.1 10 0 101 10 2 10 3
Period in sec. P e r i o d in see.
(g) (h)
10 1 10 1 ......
.5 ~ j
°
o
10 2
102
t- . . . . . . . .
iF...:- ......... J
103
J [ i
1-O inversion res. in Yl.-m

10 4
'I I 10 2
I0 2
........
,~;- -- "-I. . . . . . .
103
l-O inversion res. in .O.-m
"*
,
104
I
section for the Dart MT station.
(al (b)
,E l°k I ' It I, t- 1°41 ""+TTI ,..
o Zxy(nO roto n) ttt+ttTtfl t Z y x (no rotation) I

/ l
102 I J i , i 102 • 1 , ~ , I
+,,,+'++q+'+l+ .............. +
' +++I
,E 45 45 " '
e, 0 ,,I...... I 1 I 0 I i I I I
=. 10-1 100 101 102 103 10"1 100 101 102 103
Period i n sec Period in $ec,
(c) (d)
/°'l
; ,,1o1 o:;;22--;:_r,
J °i +,i J
=-
g / q~". . . ...........................
I,----- I,
o
10 t,hI ,
2
. I
102 103 10& 102 I0 3 10 A
1-0 |nversion res, in J l - m 1-Dinversion res in .rl.-m
(e) If)
E 1°41 10/ I ++'" ~'
I +'~T, +.
.~. I03 b T " ""ll,,l.£l,,~
e lZ=v( w i t h rotation) " lOz izy, ( ~with fr°tati°n)= i

102 I I. I l
'~ l, ,,v++,,/l~
.E 4 L,
1 I I I I I .I I
10-1 100 101 102 103 10-I 100 10i 10 2 10 3
~+ 1°~ gl
Period in sec
'°'I (h) Period in sec
3x lolI
0,o,,
102 103
......
:!:,,
104 10 5 10 2 10 3 10 4
I-D imRrsion res in £L-m 1-0 in~rsion res'. in N - m
section for the Tangavilla MT station.
tensor if we do not go for rotation invariant tensors. That is why optimum

rotation is used to have the E and H polarisation values for interpretation.
This concept of rotation works nicely for two dimensional problem. For
three dimensional earth, this optimum rotation lose its significance to a
great extent because Z~x + Z~ do not tend towards zero after mathematical
rotation.
Figure 11 shows the plots of the Swift Skew
128 Roy et al
{0} (b)
E I0/" I ~"%1 ]
c to3p
~o 1 0 2 / Z x y {-no r,t~tion)
l',t,.,,,++,,,
I | Z y x (no rotofion } ]
"0
c_ 4
o.
'!L i .
I
I
I !
I . -
1,4.,,~Zl
l
~
[ 1
I
........
l
~o2L
~s
0
t
I
,ql, H
[
, ,
,+,:il+)
+i t
I0-I 100 101 102 103 10"1 100 101 102 103
Period in sec Period in see
+ol (c)
i xI01 L "1
I I
r-- I
~' lo2| :l,--+ ....... ~ - , " ,, 1 0 2 ~ _ _
1(~2 • 103 10z, 105 102 103 10z, 105
1-D inversion res, in J'L -rn 1-O inversion fez.in .el.- m
104 (e) ....................... I0~ I f ) """ l
E "'n 4
103 10 3 ~ ~ ~'P %4~+,
Q_o
'10 2
cn 9O
.c
0
4S
Zxy (wi th rototion )
, ~ ,
~l~ .lR t
,t :,ilIIIII
1 ,oil l Z Y x (with rctotion)
10 2 / = t t t
I
I
1
a. 0 t t i 0 t I t
"+t
10°1 100 101 102 103 10-1 100 101 102 103
Period in sec. 101 (h) Period in see.
Io+ (g)
i
3x101
"~ 102 1 ;0zL_ t---:,. ---::

. . . . . .
: : : ±~ J ~ J'
102 1O3 IO 4 105 102 t03 104
1-0 inversion res. in a"=.- rn t - D inversion res. in ,.q.-m
sections for the Dudura MT station.
S k e w = l ZI xZx +xZ Zrx

rrr
for all the frequencies. The Swift Skew plots indicates that the structure is
mainly two "and three dimensional with several patches of high skews.
There are some sites where the skew is low. Along the geological contacts
(contacts of SBGA and SBGB, contacts of the Mayurbhanj and Singhbhum
granite phase-III i.e., SBGB) skewness plot shows a higher trend. Figures
12 and 13 show the apparent resistivities Paxr and P~rx plotted along the
profile for different periods. At contacts, Paxr and p ~ separates out. Figure
14 shows the TE apparent resistivity and phase pseudosection. Major contacts
are revealed from this figure. Phase pseudosection shows that it is not the
case for the static shift.
• (b)
lO" I....
.~ lO~ ~ rrr, tt 10 3 ~- "*T~Tt "T*%.. ~
¢ o,1 z.,,o: ,o,=,ooT,..,.

,,, |Zyx( no rolotion )
10~ L,, ~ ~ I
9O
~"
n. I I I I
10-I 10 0 101 10 2 10.3 10"I 10 0 101 10 2 103
Period in sec. Period in see,
1° 1 (c !,,, ~° I (d)
I ..............
Jli
~3~10I" 3~° 1 ~_L........... ~, I]
/ r ......... "~ i ~
c~ 10 2 | lO 2 I: ,
101 102 103 lO`6 105 102 103 106
1- D inversion re$. in.~L- m I" D inversion reF. in ~ -
4re) (f)
10' I
103 ~ - 11 ~o. 10 3 t *'rlt~ t..~..

"=" t Z=y(wilhrotation ) ""'Jtl" Zyx ( with rolotion) "%
102/ a l I ! 1021 l . I ~ z
o, 90
y, lll ,'"','"~l ,S ttlt~l :"""*
.E 6S
0
,, 0 ~ i
I0-1 I00 101
I ,L
102 103
,°t
o I , I t I
10"1 100 101 102 103
(9) Period in s e e (h) Period in s e e
101[ ~. ~ ~ . ~ ,
E 1011
I L. l -"-':.-.'--::; -" "1
.s~l~[- .......... : , 3'1°1~ . . . . . . . . . . . J 't:
.~ I. ........... ]I
102 ,~I I .....
102 t03 106 10 5 102 103 I0'

1-O'inver$ion res. in J3.-m 1-D inversion r e s . in £t. - m
Fig. 8 Magnetotelluric apparent r~istivity and phase curves and their inverted
sections for the Nuvagaon MT station.
Since the skewness for the Tangavilla station is very low, we tentatively
assumed the subsurface structure to be one dimensional. We inverted the
TE mode data of this site by Bachus-Gilbert (1968, 1970); Ridge Regression
130 Roy et al
(Inman, 1975); Simulated Annealing (Kirkpatrik et al, 1983 and Sen and
Stoffa, 1991) and Schmucker's p* - g* algorithm.
1041o1 (b)
E ~t~ 6
Oo lZxy(nO rotolion ) "~ /Zyx(no rotollon ) /
tlJ It
.c
"I
l,S
O,
,
10"I
Period
100
, r
101 102 i03
in so¢
J
'°I
,~5
0 I
TT,~"tT
I
10"I 100 101 102 10]
Period in s e c
-..
** ......
I, ,, I
....
I
I
lO1 c~l 1o,1(dl
io z L ~ IO 2 / -~.~}
102 103 10/,* 105 102 103 104
1-O inversion res. in ~ -m 1-D inversion res. in CL-m
(el (f)
1°31 "',rl .....,. ,o3~ ~I ~".....

0"° I 0 2 1 zxY (with
r ° t o l i l° n ) l t l I~I, 102 IIZYx (with
r ° l a l i °l n ) , , , *~'1
,~ ...... J .,,,""r,Tl
..= 4 s t~~ 4 ~ ~''"
~: 0 I I I I ......I I I ,
n 10-I 100 101 102 103 10-I 100 101 102 103
• (g) Period in sec (h) Period in sec
:~
0"3x101I 3:'101
o 102 I ~ 102
102 103 104 102 103 104
1-O inversion ms. in ."1.-m 1-0 inversion res. in $). - m
sections for the Bubiyajora MT station.
Figures 15 and 16 show the flow charts for the Ridge regression and
Bachus-Gilbert inversion. Roy and Routh (1994) have discussed about the
procedure adopted for writing the Simulated Annealing algorithm.
Figure 17 shows the apparent resistivity data and initial choice of the
model parameters, the Bachus-Gilbert inverted resistivity values, B-G spread
function and the B-G averaging kernels for the real field data. Figure 15
shows the depth upto which the MT data could see from the surface. Beyond
that depth the B-G spread function starts increasing rapidly. It is also reflected
in Fig. 17d which shows how the averaging kernel is losing its deltaness
criteria rapidly with depth and it can even be bimodal.
(a} b}
E 10~ [ lo" ,~,rtt ....
"~
1o, [-
1 | Ip N t,t]
Z y x ( no rolallon )
O. 102tZxy(nO, rotation)lI J II,
103 t !
•£ t. t~H' "
till 1,,.TI r~"tLH
.c
o. I I ,l, , I I f I l........
10-1 100 I01 102 103 10-I 100 101 102 103
Period in se¢. Period in sec,
(el (d)
101 I
"~3~I01 F-" ~ ' - - ~ - - ' - " ,- 3x101
° 10 2 t02
101. 102 10 3 10/. 10 2 10 3 10/`
t3D inversion res. in .~- m 1-0 inversion res. in J~-m
(e) (f)
t0/. I tT~ "* ~*.1.

10 3 "'6~ =~,
O~ ,o fz "lI xy (with rotation ) ,,,.,.,..,., *;I Zy x ( w i f h rotation)
I I ,,, I I } 10 2 ....
90
"0
l TT,",.,t'"~ ..11 '~°'""~*rr~
4S [ k5 II
¢k
'°I tl'
0 ! I
10-1 100 101 10Z
I. |
103
0 I I I
I0-1 100 101 10 2 10 3
I
(g) P e r i o d in see. Period in $ec.

101 ' ';1: "' 101 ( h) .. ;!;
II
"~3 xlO1 - 13x1011
lo z l L:-_-_':_-_-_-:~Jd 102 |
10"2 10 3 10 6 10 5 102 10 3 104
I°D inversion res, in .l').-m 1-O inversion res, ln.(I.-m
sections for the Kadvani MT station.
Figure 18 shows the 1D inverted models obtained by the four different

inversion approaches mentioned above. Lower conducting crust is reflected
and the depth of the electrical lithosphere boundary at a depth of 60 km and
132 Roy et al
<[
0
n~
× ~ ~
I~ jJ~
z
el:
liii ,-I -<.1-~--'1~--f--'T I I I
m ~. --
I I I I I I I I Ii I~ I' -
|o --- "-,
""b- ~ ~..
_]o7 -£
~.o.~
~ ;~ 1-~o ..~
~- .~
I I I L~
0 0 0 0 ~
0 0 0 ~
0 0 e'-
•- ..,,--.-- ,,,-wqo NI ,kJ;!AI.I.SIS]~I "ddV E-,

134 Roy et al
c~ ~
• //
W
r~
<~,
%\\
z m
N
x• x
N
t
I + I
t
<~
I--
C~
r~
I,, , I I
0 0 0 0
O 0 0 0
0 0 0
0
"" ..----.w-wqo NI ),LIÎ.I.SIS3~I ddV
((] ) HE GOD TUR BAD OAR "rAN DUO NUV BUB KDVKAD BAN IHA
_o.oi X - ~ ~i ~ :i-
!
10 30 50 70 90 110 130
Cb) D i s t a n c e { kin)
-:I ]
NE GOD TUR BAD DAN TAN DUO NUV BUBKDVI~AD BAN JHA
10 30 sb 7; 9b 1~0 1;o
Disfance (km )
Fig. 14 TE apparent resistivity (a) and phase (b) pseudosection across the
Singhbhum granite batholith showing the location of the major
geological contacts.
Tangabila MT site. Figure 19 shows the apparent resistivity and apparent

phase plots for the sites Tangabila, Badposi, Kadambeda and Bubuyajora.
Although the apparent resistivity plots shows a frequency independent vertical
shift but the phase curves rules out the case for a static shift (Jones, 1988).
136 Roy et al
Figure 20 shows the 2D section of the Singhbhum granite batholith

based on the 1D inverted data (Model-A). The structure below the Singhbhum
granite batholith is broadly a four layer structure. Granite and granodioritic
upper crust extends upto I0 to 15 km from the surface. It is underlain by
a conducting lower crust of about 10 to 20 km thickness. The upper most
mantle (about 25 i~mthick) lies below the conducting lower crust. Below
the upper most mantle lies the conducting asthenosphere.
DIGITISATIONOF
FIELI) CURVE
INPUT
N=NO OF LAYER
M=NO OF DATAPOINTS COMPUTEATA1
FREQUENCY
APR RESISTIVITYVALU.ES
WEIGHTS (STD DEVIATION~
• • ~0MPUTE~ETE~ COMPUTE I
,N,T,ALO"O'OE E,GE, V,LUE,,D TRACE ~ M ~ R ' X l
.... , FOR ~ Y E R ~RAMETERS EIOENVEDTO~ M |
~ _ ~ COMPOTE F O R W ~ O J'
RESPONSEFOR COMPUTE
COMPUTE L~ ~1 B 0) RESOLUTION COMPUTE
RESlDUALVARIANCEU
I. I~--~'~"
T ~v~r
- T - E""- I , • MATRIX DETERMINANT
OF THE MATRIX
GENERATE NUMERICALOR V VT M
O-2: ~GT W-1 AG
~ AN~,CAL
OER,VAT,VE
MATHX A
~ O%~j
(N-M) $ COMPUTE ........
.......... I COMPUTE AT A AT COMPUTEDATA
I EIGEN VALUEOF
..... ~t COMPUTE ] EIGENVECTOR
COMPUTE ~ COMPUTE ~3CALING ELEMENTSI ~O,U
CO-VARIANCEMATRIX [ AT W-1 A OH=[ (AT W-1 A) / I COMPUTE~¢ [
COV(P)=O~(ATW-1A) t | }INFORM/~rlON t
COMPUTE I ~ M~P DENSITY MATR1XI
E2(I)= E(N_---E~-
~ i CO UTE | UUT I
NO I (DAT W-I AD)
I COMPUTE I ~ 1~
I CORRELATIONMATRIX ~ ~ -~ "t COMPUTE 11 COMPUTEt~(t)
I-~"'"COv'P',
COv'P'-----, ~ s ~ ,l ~,~-,~ J
IMPOSECONSTRAINTON [[ IMPOSEC(~STRAINTSI t 11 IM'POSECONSTRAINTON~P'I

UPPERANDLOWERBOUNDS~FORNON-NEGATIVITYOF~1B (I)=B (I) + AP (I) ~--I MATRIXDURINGM00EL
IFANY II rXEPARAMETER II I LM0p,=FIcATI°NIFNEcEssARYI
Fig. 15 Flow chart for the weighted ridge regression algorithm.
Park (1983, 1985) mentioned that 1D inverted MT data in the vicinity

of the 3D structure will show unusually increase the electrical conductivity
of the lower crust. Therefore, these enhanced conductivities may be due to
the defects in the artifacts.
"Rapid Relaxation Inversion" (minimum structure algorithm) is used for
inverting the TE and TM mode apparent resistivity and phase data. Figure
Magnetotelluric Model of SinghbhumGraniteBatholith 137
/ READ:'RHO(i), i=l,n!
t ( i ) , i =1,hi
Ro(i). i =t,n|
vl(j), j =l,ng
gl(j), j =l, ng
/
l
SET ;TER ; o I Jwm
!WroTE /
I .......... ~AMBO~=,,0.01
l"
-1 ~,,TER,L AMBDA
;us OEP~HI'----- t CALL DEPTHI _/WR~T~ /

I MAX
CALCULATE Z ( 1 ) } ~ _ ~ . t Z { i ) ,
MAX
i= 1,nt I ~i. z(~), ~ --1,~,! .....
l
CALCULATE t I CALL-SPLINE
i-~------- l i
l
I
soB E,-Ec, -L___jC LL ELEC l
l CALCULATE e ( i , p f ~
~er=(;) L---J
~" ") J I......
WRITE e(i } ) , ] = l , n t l
CALCULATE
;=1,.~ I
..,!i~.d.~.) j
t
j
ERROR=~t Z ( d e r ( ; ) '
I WRITE: ERROR
l.,. LAMBDA
su8 ~REC.ET L I"i
iCALCULATEg ( i , j ) ~
FROM e(i, il,d,,re(i!j
CALL FRECHEI
=i g(i,j),i :! nt.]= t,nt
YES .~
'"SUB MOOPERT L,~___JCALLMOOPERI "' I
I
CALCULATEddm(i)I I CALCULATEdelta(1) I
;:l.nt [ I delta (|) : 0 . 2 s ddm(;" 1 ) I
FROM g (i,~) ~ *0.S delrn(i)*0 2Sdelrn(i.})J
CALL GAUSS I ........... ~ ......
CALL MATINS J [ .. .
' ' ' IRHO(i}=EXP{Ioq(RHO([)}odetm(i)~ ........
IlF RHO,(;)(TURES RHO(~).,-,IURES |
I ;TER=;IER*I .... I ~JWRITE
/RHO(Ib
I= 1.nt/
I
SUB SPREAD ].~-~CALLSPREA0 1..
]
II It=lSPdtl}'ave(i)'Z(MhntF Spd (i 1,Qve(i),Z(i)t/
ovek (i,]node),,,,i : I • n,t L/WRITE
"1 i = h n t ]
] avekIi,inod=) /
l i =T, nt ,,,/
Fig. 16 Flow chart for the Bachus-Gilbert inversion approach.
21 shows 2D inverted models for TE mode (Fig. 21b, c, d), Till (Fig. 21e,
f, g) and TEM mode (Fig, 21h, i,j) data. it is observed that all the 2D section
for TE, TM and TEM modes are not approximately similar. It indicates that
the structure is basically three dimensional.
138 Roy et al
.=.
UJ
uJz: o o
l.z,.
L~C~
8
I I I I !
0 ~
( ~-BOl ) poa~d$
-$
o
m
C~, ~-
i
.~.~ ~~
,-J ¢,t* ¢, ,,,o
o~y_,. -_.o~
'$" ,,~ £t'} tn
W E
I I I I
'" 0
=...,
[ w-wqo ) '~aH'ddv 6o"1
K] X.
. . . . . . . . ~ ~ "o o
E,.4 ~ d o d d ~ =
E s a p n l ! l d u a v PaS!l°~UJ°N
o ~
"~r~ LL-I/~ tt'r~
t ,I ,
( ~-~q0 ] -sa~ "ddy 00'3
Ib,,
10 3 i
!
i:
• !
I I
10 4
r-
QI ~ t--"
Ii'
Schmucher PP-g* model
..... Ridge regression model
-- Simulafed anneQling
Backus 5ilberf model
lo",i,10 2 Ii ....... I
103
I
10 4 10 5
R=sisfivity ( ohm-m }
Fig. 18 Resistivity depth section for the Tangavilla MT station using:
(i) Schmucker's p* - p* algorithm, (ii) Weighted ridge regression,
(iii) Bachus-Gilbert approach and (iv) Simulated annealing.
Figures 20 and 21 reveal following three important features:

1. Thinning of the lithosphere and rising of the mantle material near
the station Nuvagaon, which is also there in the section obtained by
1D inversion. Features are Sharper in the 2D inverted model.
2. Modei-B shows that SBGA i.e., Singhbhum granite phase II (3300
my) is much more resistive and more deep rooted than the SBGB,
the Singhbhum granite phase III (3140 my).
3. Lower crustal conductor, which was so prominent is the model-A
(Figure 20) appeared only in small patches in model-B (Figure 2 i)
4. Depth of the electrical lithosphere below Keonjhar is about 80 km
in model-A and 130 km in model-B. Depth of the lighosphere below
Bangriposi is around 60 km in model A and 70 km in model B.
Depth of mantle plume is around 45 to 50 km in both the models.
4.1 Singhbhum Granites SBGA and SBGB

The depth of the Singhbhum granite Phase II (SBG-A) is about 22 km deep
and its bulk resistivity is of the order of 18000 f~-m and above. SBGB is
about 3 to 4 km deep covering a large area and its resistivity is of the order
of 3500 to 7000 f~-m.
140 Roy et al
~. 10 4
E O0
0 e I0
I
8 A •
E
t-
O lwltl
&4
!
J
I
> 10 3 j ....
4--
Locotion
¢Q
• - Badposi I I XX
t-- t - Tongobilo III
,4 • - Nuvogon
x - Bubuyajodo
'~ 10 2 I
90
O0 O0
I, ,T! *, IIIIII ×X
tA x Oil
xlex
O
e-
n
30
10-I 100 10 102 103
Period (see)
Fig. 19 TE apparent resistivity (a) and phase(b) curves for Tangabila, Badposi,
Bubiyajora and Nuvagaon stations.
Thus, from magnetotelluric modelling it appears that SBGA and SBGB

are two granite bodies originated from two different parent magma (Saha,
1994). Densities of SBGA and SBGB are, respectively, 2.63 and 2.68 gm/cc
(Verma and Mukhopadhyay, 1989). Many geologist believe that SBGA and
SBGB actually stand for one granite body. However, geochronology (Bakshi
et al, 1987), gravity survey (Verma and Mukhopadhyay, 1989) MT survey
and DC resistivity survey (Roy et al, 1993; Roy, 1996) and trace element
geochemistry indicates (Saha et al, 1968 and Saha et al, 1984) the existence
of two separate granite bodies.
4.2 Mantle Plume

Significant thinning down of the lithosphere and rising of the mantle material
below the station Nuvagaon, is apparent both in Model-A and Model-B.
Features are sharper in Model-B (Figure 21). It may be a mantle plume.
Simlipal volcanics and several dolerite dyke swarms exist very near to this
plume type structure. Longitudes of the Dhanjori volcanics, Simlipal volcanics
and Sukinda ultramafics are more or less along the same longitude and
Magnetotelluric Model of Singhbhum Granite Batholith t41
•,~ o,
++<+++!t++
= : +=+ ++ _ +
+~ .'._ +c. ~ +.,,,

+ o ""
0+ • "~ lp E
.x
+~ ~ z : :.,+ c.':_
+++++.+ .
++++ +++°+
:+,
+ |
I
<+
In
p
o
c+
o
o o
..+
o ¢+ c c
C+
o •
e c 8
o • I+
o ii o "0
ii
oc, l o
o t:
c+ o 0
o
t+
o o
o o
..=
o
c
u~
z o
o
o
t- o •
o o
Z
o ° o
i- o 0
< c
mt
o 0
o
,+e, "+ o ,+,J
o
o ©
o
o i~ o
z
o CoC +, ++
D c
o o o
.J a o
e ° ~ o o
0
004~ oo'~
o
o o o' o o • <3)
oo° oooQc.
+i+
o o ° ~ o ° oo
OoO o o
o ° o¢ °°
° 0
o°o ° o°ao
o°r) ° oO
o • e o o •
+,+ .
+I" I I + I l t I I ! ~.
~ NI + ' H L d ~ O
142 Roy et al
2D MAGNETOTELLURIC MODEL ACROSS SINGHBHUM

GRANITE BATHOLITH
Fig. 21 TE, TM and joint TE and TM mode 2D section and apparent resistivity
and phase pseudoseetions obtained based on 21) rapid relaxation inversion
algorithm (RRI) of Smith and Booker (1991).
right above the plume head. Banerjee and Ghosh (1994) have proposed the
plume type of structure for Simplipal complex. Their conceptual geological
model is roughly matching with the subsurface electrical conductivity model
below the Singhbhum granite batholith. Figure 22 shows Bouguer gravity
anomaly of the Singhbhum area, prepared by Verma and Mukhopadhyay
(1989). It clearly shows the relatively high gravity over Dhanjori, Simplipal
volcanics and Sukinda thrust i.e., over the mantle plume.
Possible existence of a mantle plume below the Singhbhum granite
batholith is a new concept. Simplipal and Dhanjori volcanics and Sukinda
ultramafics are Proterozoic events. It seems the plume existed below the
Archaean craton throughout the geological time. To establish this concept,
extensive heat flow survey, deep .seismic sounding and array type MT
survey for 3D modelling and inversion should start. Elevation difference
between the plume head and base of the lithosphere should be studied in
t..
¢.
~ea
z ~ "4
0 o
| =,.~
~1~, ~
e,i
144 Roy et al
perspective of the isostatic compensation over the geological time period.

Since the geological and geophysical work converged towards the mantle
plume issue. This problem must be given further attention.
4.3 Asthenospheric Temperature from MT

An attempt was made to estimate the temperature of the asthenospherc
approximately based on the available high pressure tempcratue experimental
clcctrical conductivity data. High pressure and temperature electrical
conductivity data for the crust mantle silicates are taken from the following
papers" Bradley et al. (1964), Chanishvilli et al. (1982), Constable and
Duba (1990), Constable et al. (1992), Duba ct al. (1973) Duba et al. (1974),
Duba (1976), Duba and Shanldand (1982), Shankland (1982), Duba and
Nicholls (1973), Dvorak (1973), Kobayashi and Maruyama (1971), Kariya
and Shankland (1983), Lastovickova (1975), Lastovickova and Kr0pacek
(1978), Lastovickova (1979), Lastovickova (1981), Lastovickova et al. (1987),
Mackwell and Kohlstedt (1990), Olthoeft (1977), Omura et al. (1989), Rai
and Manghnani (1978), Schock et al. (1989), Shankland and Duba (1987),
Shankland and Duba (1990), Tyburczy and Roberts (1990).
Figure 23 shows a compilation of the electrical conductivity of different
crust mantle silicates at different temperatures. Tiffs diagram is based on
the publishcd results. We have assumed garnet peridotite as possible
composition (as an approximation) of the mantle at the asthenosphetic
depth. The mostabundant mantle xenoliths reported from all over the world
are spinel lherzolite (Nixon, 1987). Only Rai and Manghnani (1978) reported
some electrical conductivity data on garnet and spinel lherzolite. A thorough
study on the electrical conductivity of spinel/plagioclase/garnet lherzolite
should start. In an olivine-orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene triangle, lherzolit¢
and peridotite have major overlapping areas. Therefore their electrical
conductivities may or may not be different. Since electrical conductivity
follows a different path while heating and cooling (Lastovickova, 1983)
and samples of crust mantle silicates collected from different parts of the
world show different electrical conductivity, therefore the electrical
conductivity of a particular silicate vary over a wide range at a particular
temperature. Figure 23 shows the range of resistivities of the crust mantle
silicates. The electrical conductivities, of the samples studied, extend over
a several order of magnitude at a particular temperature. As a result the
estimated temperature of the asthenosphere was within the range 1000 to
1400°C. With more information of high pressure temperature electrical
conductivity of the crust--mantle silicates and 3D inverted conductivities
from MT survey, this kind of exercise can be made more accurate and
meaningful in future.
4.4 Lithospheric Thickness

Lithospheric thickness has become a debatable issue. Magnetotclluric method
RESISTIVITY RANGE IN ohm-m
TEMP CRUST MANTLE SILICATES l, xl0110 t 102 103 104 105 10 (~ 107
Upper GRANITE !i
cru~tot
silicates GRANODIORITE
BASALT
GABBRO m
Lowe,- GRANULITES
u
Z,O0 * C
crustal AMPHIBOLITES
silicates
ECLOGITE
ANDE$1TE
GARNET PERIDOL[TE
Upper OLIVINITE
mantle DUNITE
siticates PYROLITE
LHERZOLITE
GRANI'[E I*
BASALT
GABBRO
500"C GRANULITE
ECLOGITE
GARNET PERIDOLITE
OL.IVINITE m
GRANITE
BASALT
GABBRO Q
6 00 °C GRANULITE
ECLOGITE
GARNET PERIDOLITE
OLI VlNITE
GRANITE
BASALT
GABBRO
700"C GRANULITE
ECLOGITE
GARNET PBRIDOLITE
OLIVINITE
GRANITE / I / l l l i
BASALT
GABBRO
I~O0*C .GRANULITE
EELOGITE
GARNET PERIDOLITE
OLIVINITE
GRANITE
E,ASALT
GABBRO
900*C C.,RANULITE
ECLOGITE
GARNET PERIDOLtTE
OLWINITE
,GRANITE
BASALT
GABBRO
100O*C GRANULITE
ECLOGITE
GARNET PERIDOLITE
OLIVINITE
Fig. 23 High pressure temperature experimental data.
certainly is a powerful tool for determining the thickness of the electrical

lithosphere. But none can be sure whether he has measured the depth of the
lithosphere. Because seismic, thermal, chemical, petrological, seismic and
electrical lithosphercs exists in the literature and the depths of thc boundarics
are not same. The general idea surrounds the following points: (a) as the
146 Roy et al
LA boundary should be a brittle-ductile transition boundary, this is the

depth where a sharp change in the rheological property should exist; (b)
this is the depth where low velocity zone starts and (c) this is the upper
limit of the whole mantle or upper mantle convection cells. The fact is, if
the hardness of the mantle rock suddenly changes at a particular depth then
seismic velocity (P and S) and electrical conductivity should also change
significantly. In reality the reported estimates of the lithospheric thickness
by magnetotellurics are lower than that obtained by seismics. What can be
the possible answer?
If the discrepancy between the seismic and electrical lithospheric depth
is very large then the sudden rise in the electrical conductivity at a depth
of around 50 to 150 km in the absence of the seismic signature may be due
to some reasons other than change in the rheological properties. The authors
are proposing mantle metasomatism as on of the reasons for enhanced
electrical conductivity at a depth of 50 to 150 km. Hydrous minerals like
serpentine, epidote, phlogopite, dolomite, amphibole can originate due to
the reaction of the mantle volatiles with the silicates. Serpentinisation may
be the most probable cause. The following chemical changes can occur in
the upper mantle depth (Fyfe, 1981).
2H20 + MgSiO3 + Mg2SiO4 --->Mg3Si2Os(OH)4
Water Pyroxene Olivine Serpentine
6MgSiO3 + 3H20 ~ Mg3Si4Olo(OH)2 + Mg3Si2Os(OH)4

Pyroxene Water Talc Serpentine
2Mg z SiO 4 ~ Mg 3Si 20 5(OH) 4 + Mg(OH) 2

Forsterite Serpentine Brucite
Mg2SiO4 + MgSiO 3 --~ MgaSi2Os(OH)4

Olivine Pyroxene Serpentine
The authors propose that serpentinisation or accumulation of other hydrous
minerals can increase the electrical conductivity where seismic velocities
may not have any significant variations. In other words, the depth of the
electrical and seismic lithosphere may or may not be the same. Reported
lithospheric thicknesses based on magnetotelluric survey are on the lower
side in comparison to that obtained by seismic methods on an average. The
lithospheric thickness obtained in this study varies from 130 to 60 km.
Pollack and Chapman (1977), based on the global distribution of heat flow
data, has prepared the lithospheric map of the world. In that the thickness
of the Indian lithosphere is shown to be below t00 Km. Lithospheric thickness
obtained by other organisations in India from magnetotelluric studies are of
the order of 100 to 120 Km (Gokern et al, 1992).
Thickness, of the lithosphere in the Singhbhum craton approximately
varied from 130 to 50 km.
Pollack and Chapman (1977) prepared the global heat flow and lithospheric
map on the basis of the 12 ° harmonic plot of the heat flow data. They have
shown that the heat flow near the Singhbhum craton to be 60 mWm -2 and
the lithospheric thickness is 75 km. One available heat flow result from the
copper belt thrust zone of the Singhbhum, is 54.5 + 5 mWm -2 (Shankar,
1988). Anderson (1995) hinted at the chemical enrichment and metasomatism
within upper mantle as the probable cause of enhanced electrical conductivity
without bringing in the appreciable changes in seismic velocities.
It is an important question to be answered in future. If Lithosphere and
Asthenosphere boundary is a boundary of brittle-ductile transition, if viscosity
of the brittle lithosphere is 2 to 3 order of magnitude higher (Anderson,
1995) than that of the asthenosphere then both seismic velocities (lip and
Vs) and electrical conductivity should change sharply. In other words estimated
lithospheric thickness by MT and deep seismic sounding should be closer.
In reality if the two estimates differ widely, then what can be the possible
reasons. It is due to
. ID interpretation of 3D MT data.
2. Poor data quality.
3. Chemical enriched relatively shallower portion of the lithospheric
upper mantle becomes too conductive to allow MT signals with
reasonable resolving power to go further down to detect the
lithosphere--asthenosphere boundary. This chemical enrichment may
be due to serpentinisation, presence of continuous phase of graphite
and mantle fluids H20-CO2-S.
4.5 Lower Crustal Conductor

Although 1D interpretation by four different approaches show the presence
of the lower crustal conductor, 2D model obtained by Smith and Booker
(1991) RRI approach did not show the lower crustal conductor as a prominent
feature. It is present in patches at three places.
Wyllie (1988), Fyfe (1986), Fyfe (1988), Haak and Hutton (1986),
Shankland and Anders (1983), Hyndeman and Hyndeman (1968), Hyndeman
and Shearer (1989) have discussed on the possibility of having fluids in the
lower crust. Besides meteoric water which percolates down to 15 km from
the surface, fluids from within the earth's mantle are continuously moving
upward as volatiles. These H20-CO2-CH4-Svolatiles can generate significant
amount of fluids to form a continuous phase. At lower crustal depth the
temperature is generally of the order of 400 ° to 500°C with a pressure
range of 8 to 10 Kb. Unless there is strong underplating and accretion in
the crust by mantle plumes, the environment is suitable for green schist
facies to amphibolite facies metamorphism. Generally the crustal rocks do
not melt at this temperature. Therefore the presence of fluids is more likely
to increase the conductivity of the lower crust.
Some discussion are available in the literature on the possible existence
of graphite at lower crustal depth (Haak and Hutton, 1986; Duba and
Shankland, 1982; Shankland and Anders, 1983, Fyfe, 1988). Mareschal et
148 Roy et aI
al. (1992) have proved the existence of grain boundary graphite in

Kapuskasing uplift, which can enhance the lower crustal conductivity. Field
work in the array form and 3-D MT modelling in future will throw further
light on the possible existence and geometry of these lower crustal conductors
(Park, 1985; Ranganayaki and Madden, 1980)
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New
Delhi for sanctioning the projects SP/S2/P20A/85 and ESS/CA/A8-02/89.
Authors are grateful to Mr. A. Chattopadhyay for participating in the field
program and collecting field data. Authors are grateful to Prof. John Booker
for providing the INV2D program. Thanks are due to Mr. P.K. Hazra for
drafting the diagrams neatly.
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9. Telluric Field Observations During the

Earth Tremor Activity Near Gandipet
(Hyderabad, India)
S.V.S. Sarma, T. Harinarayana and
C.V.G. Krishna*
National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad-500 007, India
*Oil India Limited, DuIiajan,Assam, India
Introduction
Amongst several geophysical parameters identified as useful precursors in
earthquake prediction research, the 'electrical and electromagnetic precursors'
are known to play a significant role. It is often reported that the earth's
electrical resistivity in and around focal region undergoes systematic changes.
Investigation of precursory changes in subsurface resistivity is generally
realized by carrying out conventional resistivity measurements [1-6] and
also by electromagnetic techniques such as magnetotelluric (MT) methods
[7-10]. A review of these studies can be seen in the literature [11-13].
There were some attempts to use telluric currents in earthquake studies,
but most of the attempts laid emphasis on the search for characteristic
precursory changes of internal origin in the earth current signals itself.
Reviewing these studies Yamazaki [14] pointed out that no convincing
evidence could be found on this aspect. But recent studies report that
anomalous changes in the telli~ric field are indeed detected as precursory
phenomena in the case of a few earthquakes [15, 16]. Notwithstanding the
results of attempts in search of an evidence for such precursory changes of
internal origin, it may be pointed out that, since the telluric field at a place,
when normalised with respect to a base station, is a function of subsurface
resistivity, the telluric method, in principle, can be used to detect time
dependent subsurface resistivity changes which may occur in the epicentral
zone. On this basis an attempt is made here to examine the possibility of
utilising the telluric currents in monitoring time-dependent subsurface
resistivity changes, if any, related to earth tremor phenomena, using the
data obtained during an earth tremor activity reported from an area near
Gandipet, Hyderabad during January 14 to February 23, 1982.
Data and Analysis

The telluric field experimented study [17] included simultaneous and
Telluric Field Observations During the Earth Tremor 153
continuous recording of telluric pulsations in the 0.02-0.05 Hz frequency

range at two stations, the field and the reference stations. The field station
located at Wattinagulapalli (near Gandipet) is inside the epicentral region
of the earth tremor activity (Fig. 1) and the other at the Geoelectric observatory
(Choutuppal) of the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) located
about 70 km east of the focal zone and is free from earth tremor activity.
Both the stations are located in the granitic region of the Indian peninsular
shield.
;'8" re" 12o'
\
""~TTI NAGULAP&LL;~ J " ",," NANAKP'~MGUDA

..... ,.#, . •
17" ":'" !qo s u A H SA G A R DAM IT
~ "' ' 30"
78* It' 3o 78" lo'
Fig. 1 Location map of teiluric and seismic stations nearOsman Sagar water
reservoir, Gandipet village, Hyderabad. Five seismic station network operated
from January 27 to February 22, 1982.
Telluric field observations at Gandipet were started on 6th February

while the second telluric field station located at the Geoelectric Observatory,
Choutuppal could be operated only from 12th February 1982 and served as
a reference station for normalization of the telluric field amplitudes.
The telluric signals are recorded on analog chart recorders with a chart
speed of 20 mm/min. At each station, although both NS and EW components
of telluric field were recorded, the NS component recording at Choutuppal
(reference station) was interrupted rnore often and as a result, continuous
data for a meaningful comparison between the two stations are available on
the EW component only. Accordingly, the data on the EW telluric field
154 Sarma et at
records of both the stations were time synchronised, corresponding signals

identified and their amplitudes measured. For each half an hour portion of
the tellurograms 5-10 amplitude measurements were carried out and the
values of a simple ratio Rx = EW Gandipet/EW Choutuppal, were computed.
Although attempts were made to record the data for about a month the
analysis could be carried out only on the available simultaneous recordings
(~150 hours) covering an eight day period between 12 and 21 February
1982.
Timg Dependent Changes in Telluric Field

The normalized telluric field ratio, Rx values, are plotted against local time
separately for each of the eight days. The times of occurrences of the earth
tremor events reported during this period of telluric field experiment as
shown in Table-1 [18] are also marked on the time axis of these plots.
Typical examples of these plots corresponding to the two days (17th to
18th and 20th to 21st February) for which reasonably continuous data at
both the stations were aVailable are presented in Fig. 2. A careful examination
of this plot (as also other plots corresponding to other days not shown here)
points out at the first instance that the Rx parameter shows a broad local
time dependent change. This is characterised by a fairly long wavelength
variation which tends to repeat on almost all the days indicating the presence
of a regular local time dependent diurnal component in Rx variation and
hence can not be ascribed to any time dependent subsurface resistivity
changes.
Table 1 Details of earth tremor activity discussed in the present study
(from Rastogi et al, 1985)
S1. Date Local time Lat. Long. Depth

No. H M S N E (kin)
1. 07-02-82 16 59 56.59 17-25.23 78-18.49 0.08
2. 16-02-82 19 44 21.99 17-25.35 78-18.41 1.25
3. 17-02-82 15 33 36.01 17-25.04 78-18.t5 1.00
4. 20-02-82 17 45 18.63 17-25.50 78-17.89 1.03
5. 20-02-82 18 25 47.44 17-25.47 78-18.38 0.62
6. 20-02-82 05 10 54.33 17-25.12 78-18.66 0.62
7. 21-02-82 19 30 07.76 17-25-40 78-18.19 1.32
Superimposed over these long period variations, are the short spells of
disturbance in Rx values, limited to a short time interval, say half to one
hour. Interestingly, some of these apparently sporadic changes of short
duration in Rx coincide very closely with the "time of occurrence' of the
reported earth tremor activity. For example, the tremors occurring at 1745
hrs and those at 1825 hrs on 20-2-1982 find associated disturbance in Rx
values and similar feature can be noticed for the event at 0510 hrs on 21st
February 1982 (Fig. 2). A closer examination of such events with more
detailed Rx plots covering a time interval of about 1 to 1t/2 hour on either
side of the earth tremor event, has brought out, in some cases, certain
characteristic changes in Rx, with reference to the time of occurrence o~
seismic event. For example, the two events occurring at 0510 and 1930
hours on 21st February 1982 (Fig. 3), the Rx value decreases before the
occurrence of the earth tremor event and then rises immediately after the
event after which it tends to regain its original pre-event level.
(a)
• , ', °
3
t7- 2 " 82 " ':." ' : ' ?. ".:..:.:-.
"--:":..:,.": .~ : .-.-.:.,,• "18"2"82
0 I - I':""~'~" I I I l I [': '""":":1I ":' I

12 14 [/'l 18 20 22 0 02 04 06 08 10 12
15~3
(b)
2 • ..." ::%: . . . . ~L' "" *.!.~" • "' .: .:.:.

Rx
0 1 : I"~ xlx I 1 1 I I x I ! I " 1
2 0 - 2 - 82 ~ ~ 0 ~ 21- 2-82
1745 1825 0510
Fig. 2 Telluric field amplitude ration (Rx) at Gandipet (normalized with respect
to Choutuppai) for two days 17-18, and 20th-21st February 1982 indicates
occurrence time of earth tremor near Gandipet.
These short period changes (1 to 11/2 hour) may be considered as

manifestations of temporal changes in subsurface resistivity expected to be
associated with the build-up of an earth tremor. Such precursory changes
in subsurface resistivity are reported in the case of a few earthquakes. It
may be also recalled that dilatancy models [2] postulate a gradual decrease
in the electrical resistivity prior to the onset of a seismic event and this
decrease is generally attributed to availability of more microfractures filled
with water resulting in the lowering of overall resistivity in the focal zone.
It may be conjectured that in the present case since the focal depths are
very shallow [19], changes in the subsurface resistivity could be expected
to be significant because most of the microfractures that develop during
dilatancy are located at shallow depths into which groundwater can have
easy access to percolate through and reduce the subsurface resistivity.
Observation of High Frequency Telluric Signals

A feature of significant interest observed in the present study is the occasional
appearance of minute spike like features, on the telluric field records obtained
at the station in the epicentral zone. After a close examination of these
signals it is inferred that these should represent a regime of high frequency
156 Sarma et al
" (o)
4 ' ~
" °
. \.':,...
Rx 3"-- :: .
.. .... :.. :::........:'~..... . /.'.'..-.'....

2 .u.'.'.-. • ""
• ° ".••. .~ .% o.••.g,~ i.
• "% ,,I •., .. "
0 ! i I i i ~ i ~ I X t ! , I t ~ Jhrs(LT)
0350 0400 0500 0600 0630
~n
21-2-82 o.~io
4, (b)
3.
. .'.':. -:-"
Rx 2' - ...: • • .. -....
• •
1. : .,." " "" " • ...':-.,;..:~

"" "1 "
'v~.-.."-. ~.. .o .
0 1 ~ t ~ ~ 1 1 ~ ~ ~, ~ I Iv~ ~ | I I hrs(LT)
,Boo ,9oo 2o50
1930 2004
21-2-82
Fig. 3 Tellurie Field amplitude ratio (Rx) on February 21, 1982 during:
(a) 0330-11670 hour and (b) 1750-2050 hour local time (LT)
telluric field signals and their onset and development are seen to have a
close relationship with the reported occurrence time of a few earth tremor
events. It is observed that the density of these spike like features, as they
begin to appear will be less in the beginning and with progress of time it
increases and this manifests in an apparent thickening of the telluric field
trace on the analog chart records. This feature intensifying to a maximum
just before the occurrence of actual seismic event disappears immediately
after the seismic tremor. The association of this feature can be seen clearly
in the case of the seismic events (marked SER on the record) occurring at
1659 hr and 2017 hr on 7th February, 1982 (Fig. 4a and 4b) as also for
several events between 2200 hr and 2400 hr on 6th February, 1982 (not
Shown in the figure) while it is not noticeable in a few other cases. The
local network of the five seismic stations that operated near Gandipet [18]
recorded a total of 106 events between 1st and 23rd of February. The
histogram for these events is shown in Fig. 5. It is of interest to note that
the seismic events preceded by high frequency telluric signals mentioned
above (6th arid 7th February) correspond to the events occurred during the
maximum of the seismic tremor activity.
It may be pointed out in this context that there exists the possibility for
emanation of electromagnetic emissions preceding some of the earthquakes
occurring in the regions of piezoelectric rocks [20-22]. This has also been
observed during the laboratory experiments [23-24]. Against this background,

the high frequency signatures on the telluric records preceding some of the
earth tremors observed in the present study may b e considered as
manifestations of such electromagnetic emissions generated whilst
microfractures developed in the wake of the earth tremors in the granitic
(Piezoelectric) rocks of this region.
GANDIPET 6p~1¢.
NS
ONSJ:OF
'T"HIGHFREOU•NCY
SIGNALS
(a)
~ ~ G A N D I P E T l
HIGHFREQUENCY EARTH NORMAL

SIGNALS TREMOR SIGNALS
(b)
Fig. 4 Telluric field signals recorded as both NS and EW components near Gandipet
on 7th February 1982 showing the onset of high frequency signals. The
high frequency signals (spike like features) can be seen more prominently
during the intervals (a) 16 : 50 : 00 and 16 : 59 : 50 hr. LT and (b) 20 :
11 : 00-20 : 17 : 00 and 20 : 19 : 30-20 : 26 : 40 hr LT. Record speed is
10 mm/60 sec.
158 Sarma et al
20
09
z 16.
ILl
>
LU
LL
0 12-
0
Z
4-
0" •
27 29 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 2t
JANUARY ~ FEBRUARY
1982
Fig. 5 Aftershock pattern as recorded and located from the local seismic network
stations in Gandipet area.
Conclusions
Results of telluric field observations made at Gandipet, near Hyderabad,
during an earth tremor activity are presented. The study indicates that tellurics
could be used to carry out effective and continuous monitoring of resistivity
changes related to earth tremor activity. The observations also brought out
a significant features of interest, namely the onset of high frequency telluric
field signals in the case of events which occurred during the peak phase of
seismic tremor activity. These high frequency telluric signatures are interpreted
to be the manifestation of electromagnetic emissions that might be generated
during seismic activity occurring in the granitic terrain of the shield area.
The results of the study, thus point out to the possibility for deployment of
"Tellurics"---a simple geophysical tool, for detection and monitoring of
subsurface resistivity changes on a continuous basis as also for detection of
possible electromagnetic emissions associated with seismic phenomena
including earth tremors and other shallow events like rock bursts occurring
particularly in granitic (Piezoelectric) rocks.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. H.K. Gupta, Director, NGRI for according permission
to publish the results of these studies. We express our grateful thanks to Dr.
V.K. Gaur, Ex-Director, NGRI and Dr. P.V. Sankernarayan, Ex-Dy Director,
NGRI for their keen interest in these studies. We are also thankful to Sri
M.V.C. Sarma for his help in operation of the station at Geoelectric
Observatory, Choutuppal.
References
1. Rikitake, T. and Y. Yamazaki. Bull. Earthquake Res. Int., 1969.47, 99-105

2. Schultz, C.H., L.R. Sykes and Y.R Aggrawal. Science, 1973, 181 (4102), 803-810.
3. Barsukov, OM. Tectonophysics, 1972, 14, 273-277.
4. Mazella, A., and H.E Morrison. Science, 1974, 185,855-857.
5. Yamazaki, Y. Pagoph, 1975, 113,219-229.
6. Nayak, RN., S.N. Saha, S. Dutta, M.S.V. Rama Rao and N.C. Sarker, Geoexploration,
1983, 21, 13%157.
7. Reddy, I.K., R.J. Philips, J.H. Whitcomb, D.M. Core, and R.A. Taylor. J. Geomag.
Geoelect., 1976, 28, 165-178.
8. Honkura, Y., E.R. Neblett, and R.D. Kurtz. Tectonophysics, 1976, 34, 219-230.
9. Kurtz, R.D. and E.R. Niblett. J. Geomag. Geoelectr., t978, 30, 561-577.
10. Meyer, K. Earthquakes Res. in China, 1992, 6, 315-322.
11. Rikitake, T. Developments in Solid Earth Geophysics, 1976, 9, 357.
12. Asada, T. Earthquake prediction techniques: University of Tokyo, 1982, 1-317.
13. Stephen K. Park, MJ.S. Johnston, T.R. Madden, ED. Morgon, H.E Horrison, Rev.
in Geophysics, 1993, 31, 2, 117-132.
14. Yamazaki, Y., Geophysical surveys, 1977, 3, 123-142.
15. Varotsos,R and K. Alexopoulos. Tectonophysics, 1984, 110, 73-98.
16. Varotsos,R, and K. Alexoponlov. Tectonophysics, 1984b, 110, 99-125.
17. Sarrna, S.V.S., C.V. Gopalakrishna, T. Harinarayana and Rakesh Kumar, NGRI Tech.
Report 1985, 85-EMDS-9.
18. Rastogi, B.K. et al, NGRI Tech. Report, 1985, No. NGRI-85-SEISM-240.
19. Rastogi, B.K., C.V. Ramakrishna Rao, R.K. Chadha, and H.K. Gupta. Tectonophysics,
1987, 138, 17-24.
20. Gokhberg, M.B., V.A. Morgounov, T. Yoshino and I. Tomizawa, JGR, 1982, 87, 89,
7824-7828.
21. Hitoship Mizutani. Edited by Toshi Asada, Univ. of Tokyo, 1982, 21%246.
22. Dmowska, R. Geophysical Surveys., 1977, 3, 157-174.
23. Nitsan, V. Geophy. Res. Lett., 1977, 4, 333-336.
24. Oike, K. and T. Ogwa. The 23rd General Assembly of IASPEI. Abstracts, 1985, 2.
10. Deep Electrical Conductivity

Investigations in Some Geothermal
Areas of India
T. Harinarayana and S.V.S. Sarma
National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad-500007, India
1. Introduction
Among various groups of hot springs distributed over different regions of
India, four provinces have been identified as having geothermal significance.
These are Himalayan belt region, where the hot springs are reported to
occur at 72 locations, Konkan province occupied by Deccan traps along the
west coast region, in which hot springs emerge at 23 locations, the hot
springs associated with the Narmada-Son lineament zone and the groups of
hot springs distributed in Bihar and Bengal which are associated with Rajgir-
Monghyr belt (Krishnaswamy, 1976; Gupta et al, 1976; Ravishanker, 1988).
Amongst the four regions, the Himalayan belt regions has thus far received
the maximum attention of earth scientists, while the remaining regions
have recently gained importance (Ravishanker et al, 1991). Various groups
of hot springs and geothermal provinces distributed in India are shown
in Fig. 1.
Since most of the geothermal fields are closely associated with the high
conductive zones, owing to occurrence of hot fluids and associated minerals,
deep electrical and electromagnetic methods like tellurics and MT are useful
in delineating the geothermal regions (Combs and Wilt, 1976; Long and
Kaufman, 1980; Hutton et al, 1989). Since both telluric and MT methods
depend on the same physical property, namely, the electrical conductivity,
joint field studies should provide a better understanding of the subsurface
condition. In the present study, results of telluric and MT field investigations
in northern part of the Konkan province and telluric field investigations in
Tatapani hot spring area are presented.
2. Data Acquisition and Analysis

For the telluric field measurement, the dipole length was 200m and signals
were recorded along two orthogonal directions oriented along magnetic
north-south (Ex) and east-west (Ey) directions. Telluric field signals in the
frequency range 0.02-0.05 Hz were recorded simultaneously both at the
base as well as at the field stations on portable strip chart recorders.
Indigenously developed analog telluric field instruments (Virupakshi and
Deep Electrical Conductivity Investigations 161
Murthy, 1988) were used for data acquisition. Detailed description of the
field procedures followed in the present study can be seen in Harinarayana
(t984).
68* 72* 76" 90 ° 84 ° 88* 92* 96 °
36 `=
.w
Hi~Dyo
~
/ . -
i"
".
F}A ',
SegS VC~|ley
~=,,,=,o. GEOTHERMALPROVINCES
32*
32 =
Y'. : "°-
/ oeLgrT-' , -"- / ' 28*
t / I/ , "~s"1
.~4"
•
24 =
20*
...~.Unkeshwor i , . t
)i.~ ~/ nOdiC~r~ln
~ Konko~Prov,nce ':~.,.)
NS~"~boy | God~ori{;roDeO,,, % - 16"
16"
'~lro~e
~ =
MADRAS An~arnon ~
f ~"%t',,1 12"
m=,,, Ch*i~ ~/,"
Botce.ISl0ndf'~,% s)
t t ~8"
72* 76* 80* 84* 88* 92*
Fig. 1 Groups of hot springs and geothermal provinces of India

(from Pandey and Negi, 1995)
The analysis of teUuric field data involves obtaining a parameter

representing #, the telluric field ratio between the field and the base stations.
Several procedures are discussed by Berdecheviskii (1965) to obtain the
telluric field parameter. In the present study amplitude ratio method has
been used, considering the spectral amplitudes of telluric fields (Sarma et
al, 1978). Modeling of the telluric field data along selected profiles have
been carried out using the 2-D forward E-pol and B-pol algorithms (Jupp
and Vozoff, 1977).
For MT measurements, the analog equipment developed at NGRI
162 Harinarayana and Sarma
72 ° 45' 73: 00' 73 ° 15'

.) t l
_ ( ~ ~ /~Tt},~r~ rE 16 o TELLURIC MAPPING STATION(PHASE-I}
i.kl" ,~arapur ~ #'k._..,~ --fi~.r, TE 41 UTELLURIC MAPPING STATION(PHASE-II)
A ~ ,4 ~ ~ Tt~,8 ~ MT 2 • MAGN-ETO-TELLURICANDTI~LL-OgIIC
~ ~k. J ~# /' STATION
",4 ". ~ ~, / 1 i / I + HOT SPRINGS
<T i ~.b.' \ ( I ~RIVER, ROAD - - RAILWAY
"~ ( ] ~] IE,, "~ I 0 5 10 Km
," \ ~,i,,, X ~ '.(': \ % "
]MBAY ~U ~ .
/ ~,.'.-'~%::~E_"+'~o~ ~3 *.".'.'
- / ,,+II"++ N " =
72 ° 45' 73 ° 00' 73°15'
Fig. 2 Location map of telluric and MT stations of Konkan province
(Virupakshi and Murthy, 1988) was used. The MT assembly consists o f

magnetic sensor coils, the magnetic and telluric field instruments and an
analog recorder. The natural signals (Hx, Hy and Ex, Ey) were recorded
simultaneously for several hours in the low frequency range 0.1-0.01 Hz.
Classical tensorial technique (for eg. see Vozoff, 1972) was used for processing
the data obtained through manual digitization of the records with an interval
of 3 sec. Modeling of the data using effective impedance (Ranganayaki, 1984)
has been carried out. The data thus obtained at three stations (Fig. 2) are
subjected to 1-D modeling using linearized inversion scheme of Jupp and
Vozoff (1975). In the following section the results obtained in both the regions
are discussed.
3. Konkan Geothermal Province

This province spreads nearly a few hundred kilometers in Deccan basalt
along the west coast of India. In this region, hot springs are known to be
located at 23 locations, 9 located north of Bombay and 14 in the southern
part. The entire province is covered by basalt of upper Cretaceous--Paleocene
age. It is believed that the water from the springs is of meteoric origin.
Originated from the steep hills of Western ghats situated at a few kilometers
away from the springs towards the east, the water must have seeped into the
subsurface through deep fractures and got heated up down below due to
anomalous geothermal gradient and emerge to the surface through suitable
conduits to appear as hot springs. Regional geophysical studies have indicated
several basement features near west coast (Kailasam et al, 1972, 1976;
Krishnabramham and Negi, 1973; Kaila et al, i981). From regional gravity
studies over Deccan traps, Kailasam et al, (1972) have indicated a major
lineament along the west coast. Krishnabramham and Negi (1973) suggested
the possible existence of two rift valleys, Koyna and Kurduvadi rifts. In
Koyna region, deep seismic sounding (DSS) studies by Kaila et al, (1981)
provided the crustal structure. From deep electrical soundings in the south
east of the present study region, Kailasam et al, (1976) obtained a thickness
of 500 m for the basalt and a resistivity of about a few hundred ohm-m. The
traps are reported to become thicker towards the west, the thickness reaching
a value of about 1.5 km. Most of these studies are of a regional nature.
A reconnaissance telluric field study in the northern part of Konkan
geothermal province has indicated a distinct subsurface~conductive anomaly
(Sarma et al, 1983) as shown in Fig. 3a. Further work has been taken up
with additional telluric and a few experimental MT measurements (Fig. 2)
in the area. These studies have not only confirmed the presence of the
conductive anomaly near Sativili-Koknere group of hot springs, but also
helped further in extending the earlier telluric field anomaly. Typical
hodograms constructed from digitized data of Ex, Ey components are shown
in Fig. 4 for both the base and field stations. The analysis of the data shows
that the telluric field parameter, '/.t' varies from 1.0 to 0.7 in the southern
part of the study area near Ganeshpuri-Akloli group of hot springs and tend
to decrease northwards to about 0.2 towards the Sativili-Koknere group of
hot springs. It is observed that this decreasing trend continues even further
towards north of Koknere as shown from the tetluric field contour map
(Fig. 3b). The contour map also indicated that the telluric anomaly representing
a subsurface conductive anomaly is not a localized feature but covers a
large region.
2-D modeling along a profile AA' across the telluric field anomally (Fig.
3b) has been carried out using forward algorithm of Jupp and Vozoff (1977).
In its simplest form the anomaly may be explained by a near surface
horizontally extending conductive zone (2-5 ohm-m) located at shallow
depths (< 1 km) as shown in Fig. 5. But for the reasons discussed in greater
detail (Sarma et al, 1983; Harinarayana and Sarma, 1996) and from the
observation that it is improbable that such a high conductive zone could be
explained from any known geological or any hydrological considerations,
it is inferred that the anomaly should be attributed to deeper source.
Accordingly, from a detailed modeling studies, it is concluded that a deeper
conductive zone with a t km thickness and a resistivity of 4 ohm-m and
located at a depth of about 2 km (Harinarayana and Sarma, 1996) would
account for the observed telluric field anomaly in addition to the shallow
conductors indicated (Chatterjee et al, 1976) from deep electrical resistivity
sounding results (Fig. 6).
From modeling of the MT data (1-100 sec), it is observed that an electrically
"m o
),o
r ~~ ~~ ~
~A
,'..,?
O(
,~ # .=.
g
\
~o
•~ =i g l)
I
I.LI0 ®z o
I-- el
...,..
:-.~- ,~,
~ - ~I~., ~=~ = /
I--
~-~ "~
f
/ ,~ ',~ m o -_ .
,#,I
"o
ii i ii iiiii iiiiiii
72"45' 73"00' 73"15'
I •/. . 80.,, i
'I(
?./ ,< 04[• T|LLURtCFtlrLID/I YALUI[
t
0,,.
I
I/o.,, "
0 5
I
CONTOUR INTERYAL : 0 ' 1 P

I
lOKm
I
,q 0 0 0'17
45 0
~A IO 21t~0"11 • -28
0,91 O'41
0.3~ i \, o-~
• 0"45
\ -¢1, °"2 I I
[ I
~o.'2"2 o..I
] ~,'~KEYMAP 2-$
\ o:, ?
0.4
"°O..o,
e • • ;
o. POe
I-I
I")2 0*'7 0.7,0", 0"$ ; . ; B A S E
72"45' 73[00. 73"i5'

i ii , H
Fig. 3(b) Telluric field low anomalous indicated from phase I and II studies.
high resistive basement lies below all the three stations. The MT curves
located in the anomalous zone (MT2 and MT3 in Fig. 7a) show relatively
lower magnitudes of apparent resistivity values with a gentle gradient
BASE FIELD STATION TE-4

,.r. J
In "1-
I--
n,-
Z 0
4 Z
=,
j
I I I I ~!> l I I I ~ ,>
EAST EAST
Fig. 4 Telluric field hodograms constructed from digitized data of telluric field
Ex, Ey components, Konkan province, Maharashtra.
compared to that of MT1, located near the telluric base station. This indicates
that the MT apparent resistivities also corroborate the presence of the
conductor in the area corresponding to conductive anomaly delineated from
telluric field studies. No attempt has been made to estimate the parameters
of the conductive zone as this cannot be resolved since the MT data considered
in the region is limited to a narrow frequency range. The thickness of the
Deccan traps estimated through 1-D modeling of the limited MT data is
about 1.7 to 2.5 km.(Fig. 7b).
1.0 [J~'~"O
_1
I¢1
Ix.
_o 0-5 \~x "~ ." J t
fl::
::)
._1
.J
bJ 2 5 K m'-H
I-
E
v A A
FREQUENCY: O.033Hz
Z
w
o-.--o B"20hm-m
"r
I-- X- - -.X B , , 5
[L
~--.)(, B,=IO
E
A =- 2 5 0
E" 5000
Fig. 5 2-D modeling of the teHuric field data considering surface conductive feature:
4. Tatapani Hot Spring Area

Tatapani hot spring area in Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh is considered
to be associated with Narmada-son lineament (NSL) zone. The NSL stretching
nearly a few hundreds of kilometers in E-NE and W-SW direction across
the Peninsular India, forms a major tectonic feature in Indian geology.
There are several groups of hot springs located towards south of Damodar
graben, Cambay graben (Tawa hot springs), etc., in which Tatapani group
of hot springs occupies a significant place (Ravishanker and Prasad, 1988).
This area is considered to be important in view of the relatively high
temperature (60-80°C) of the discharged water (Ray, 1974; Krishnaswamy,
1976). Tatapani group of hot springs are distributed at 23 different locations
lying in a zone oriented nearly in an EW direction. Extensive geological
Deep Electrical ConductivityInvestigations 167
g.
1.0
121
_1 I
I I
| I
0.5 Io ]o
I1:
12)
_l
1
W ~--25 Km-~
1 I
E
A
Z FREQUENCY: 0 . 0 3 3 Hz
T o o o Observed
I--
D.
2 ------ Computed
W
D A ,- 250 Ohm-m
E B ~- 30
3-- C,- 20
D,-4
E -" 5000
Fig. 6 2-D modeling results considering the deep conductive feature and also the
shallow aquifer indicated from deep resistivity sounding results
and geothermal studies were carried out by the Geological Survey of India
(Ravishanker et al, 1991) in this region. Several shallow drill holes were
also carried out in order to assess the geothermal conditions of the area. In
one of the bore hole (480 m) near the hot spring a temperature of about
110°C is reported from a depth of about 70 m (Saxena and Prasad, 1983).
The study area is occupied mostly by Archaean and partly by Gondwana
rocks. The possible occurrence of a fault striking approximately in EW
direction near the springs has been reported (Ravishanker and Prasad, 1988).
The Archaean rocks in the area comprise granite gneisses, pegmatites,
metamorphosed basic rocks such as hornblende schists, pegmatites, granite
bearing amphibolites etc. The strike of the schists and gneisses varies over
a wide range of directions with the east-west strike being more common.
The gondwana rocks, towards the west and northwest in the study area,
consist of Talchirs and Barakar formations, mostly coal bearing (Modak,
1961; Ravishanker and Prasad, 1988).
A total of 30 telluric field stations at intervals of about 2 km were
established covering the study area. The stations were distributed roughly
in the NS direction along the road connecting the Chandarpur and Bohla
villages (Fig. 8). Relatively more number of stations are located near the
10 5 -
E OBSERVED
E
¢... ___ COMPUTED
0 MT1
>-.
!--
I---
03 Jo'-
o'3
LO
n"
t'-- J.l/~ "" ~'''~ MT3

Z
LtJ "L I.(~MT2
13..
103 I
10 t I0 z
PERIOD (Sec)
(a)
MT1 MT2 MT3
O__
i///i
r..izl
.11.
f///J
lm ill/~
I I / / 1
IE fllll
v ¢'111/
¢.l.I /.J
-r-2w [¢/llJ
l--- ÷+.+
IX.
LL!
C:15~
.wI
,+-t-.
.[~;:~TRAP
-t-+.
t-+-I-
m~ ++. ~]BASEMENT
+ +1 !'+'+'4 t-4.+
(b)
Fig. 7 (a) Observed and computed MT data from all the three stations and
(b) model obtained from 1-D modeling of MT data using linearized inversion
scheme
hot spring in order to obtain the details of the anomalous zone. The base
station was established at a location situated between the Chandarpur and
the hot springs. In Fig. 9, the hodograms constructed from the digitized
data are shown. The telluric fields are dominantly polarized in NNW-SSE
direction both at the base as well as at field stations, indicating a regional
stricke in ENE-WSW direction. This closely agrees with the strike observed
from geological considerations.
83.°30' 35' 45' 83°45
23m' ,. . . . .
5¢ ~- i5C
8ANKI NA I E
T,~ I
TI0:
%'~
~5 45
!79
T27T5 i
T13',I T23i T8 T17
T14.T26 tj T24.~-';. T'29
2o J 4~11T25~ •
T21 ~XTATAPANI,T16
TI~ T2.7~.T4 T15
TI~( • 40
j T3
BASS~
]..Y
~5' 35
rr" j.
MAPSHOWINGTHELOCATIONOF FIELDSTATIONS
NEARTATAPANIHOTSPTINGAREA,MADYAPRADESH
0,12
~ :..,." MILES
• TELLURIC FIELD STATION
<i .--ROAD
Oi .~RIVER/NALA
3~ ~. I 1 30'
0 '~3°30' 35' 40' R~
83°45 '
Fig. 8 Locationmap of telluric stations in Tatapani hotspring area, Surguja district,
Madhya Pradesh
The telluric field parameter '#' computed from the data for each station
in the area is shown in Fig. 10. It is clear that the field values are fairly
high in the north as well as south of the hot springs, where it ranges from
0.6 to 1.0. For the stations located near the springs and also for those
located along EW direction, the values are comparatively lower. Although,

the stations are not located in a grid fashion, contouring of the data has
been attempted considering the relatively closely spaced station values near
the springs. From the contour map an elongated EW trending telluric 'low'
is indicated reflecting presence of a conductive feature in that direction.
The contours tend to close towards the eastern end, but show a tendency
to continue towards the west of the springs, indicating the extension of the
conductive zone towards the west. Sharp gradient of the contours both on
the northern and southern sides may also be seen. Considering the nature
of the anomaly and its location, one can infer that it is closely associated
with/he hot spring zone.
NS ,NS
- FIELD STATION NO,TtO
I!,L!r
I
, 0"5
0 0.15
0~ mvlkm--
I I
E
>
E
t t
1 ~v/km,
I EW
mv/km
Fig. 9 Hodograms constructed from digitized telluric Ex, Ey field components,

Tatapani hot spring area
In order to understand the EW trending conductive anomalous zone, and
to arrive at a model, 2-D modeling of the data along a profile BB', roughly
in NS direction, has been attempted using Jupp and Vozoff's (1977) forward
scheme. The nature of the geological conditions such as the presence of
fault zone near the springs, as also the results of earlier resistivity soundings
(Singh and Gupta, 1986) were considered while constructing models. After
several attempts, a model which shows an acquifer at 200-400 m depth,
together with a vertical fracture zone having resistivity of 100 ohm-m as
shown in Fig. 11 is found to fit the field data very closely. It is thus inferred
that the Tatapani hot spring telluric conductive anomaly is associated with
83°30 ' 35' 40' 8~45'

z£
50' 50'
BANKj BOHL A c~.
P
1"4e
=1"0
=0"43
4~ 4,5'
sO-7
!1
/'1~
*0"82
40' ¢ *O'S 40'
I.O, BAsEO,S5 ~=~

*1"1 ~ 1
35' i 35'
CONTOUR I N T E R V A L = 0 - 2 / U
0 I 2 Miles
! 1 I
0"2 • Telluric F i e l d / u Value

-,; - Ri.ver/Nola
. Hot sprincj
1 Fz3
30'
83 30*
o 4o'
30
~5 ~ 83 45'
Fig. 10 Telluric field low values around the Tatapani group of hot springs.
The trend of contours are in E-W direction
a narrow conductive fault/fracture zone extending to deeper levels in addition

to the shallow localized acquifer with a width of about 3 km.
3. C o n c l u d i n g R e m a r k s
Telluric field investigation in Konkan province carried out in two phases
(Sarma et al, 1983; Harinarayana and Sarma, 1996) has brought out a well
defined broad telluric low near the Sativili-Koknere group of hotsprings,
possibly related to the geothermal conditions of deeper source. MT data

although limited to a narrow band of 1-100 sec, have supported the telluric
field results besides indicating a resistive basement at a depth of about 1.7-
2.5 km in the study area. 2-D modeling of the telluric field data indicated
presence of a conductive zone possibly related to a deep hot water acquifer
at a depth of about 2 km (Fig. 6). The deeper acquifer is interpreted to be
closely related to the geothermal conditions of the area. Based on the earlier
concepts and also from the results of present telluric, MT field investigations,
a schematic section has been prepared and presented in Fig. 12.
1'0 . . . . . . . . . . . 7"r~"- ~ "/
..J
~ 0"5 --
!
W
30KM.
o .... I I I I I I I
- ? DISTANCE
x
v.
z z
-o--- OBSERVED CURVE
-r . . . . THEORITICAL CURVE
2
0. H- POLARI'SATION
t.d
a FR,EO. ==0"055 Hz
BLANK == I000 Ohm-metres
C = 250 - -
0== 100 - ,,
J
J
Fig. I1 2-D modeling of the telluric field data considering the subsurface acquifer
and a narrow deep conductive zone.
The telluric field study in Tatapani hot spring area clearly delineates an
EW trending conductive anomalous zone. The hodograms in the area at
both base and several field locations have shown a dominant NS polarization
trend, indicating a regional EW strike for the formations. The contours of
the telluric field parameter also trending in EW direction gave an evidence
for the presence of a narrow, deep conductive zone near the hot springs and
gave an indication of its further extension towards the west. From modeling
results in Fig. 11, it is clear that there exists a shallow acquifer with a width
of about 3 km connected to a deep but narrow fault/fracture zone near the
hot spring area. It is presumed that this zone is related to the tectonics of
the well known Narmada-Sone lineament, which might be associated with

several sympathetic fracture zones.
"' SCHEMATIC "GEOLOGICAL SECTION PNEC IPITATION

I'
BASED ON II ~ I t |1t l~l I
Itittlll
[, TELLURC AND MT STUDIES t I,'~t
~/',~ I WCSTERN
t t.~ .,,"~1 I GHATS
HOT SPRINGS
° 2 ;; ~'.;-%~,'~%%
XX + + + +
~X+++++++÷ + + +
DECCANTRAPS ~ DEEPFRACTURES ~ NA
~
tRDWJUINT S
BASEMENT ~ SEDIMENTSFILLED
w,,..o. ,,A,ER
[=-=7 AE'FERS
Fig. 12 A schematic section constructed based on telluric and MT studies and

present concepts of Konkan province.
From comparison of the two geothermal areas--namely, the Konkan

province in Maharashtra along the West coast and the Tatapani hot spring
area, Madhya Pradesh--it is concluded that both the areas are characterized
by well defined subsurface electrically conductive zones. However,
considering the magnitude, nature of anomaly and modeling results it may
be inferred that the Konkan province is associated with broader conductive
zone extending to several kilometers and is located at a depth of about 2-
3 km. On the other hand, the extension of the conductive zone associated
with the Tatapani hot spring area as inferred from the present study is
relatively small.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dr. H.K. Gupta, Director, N.G.R.I., for his kind permission
to publish the manuscript.
References
Berdichevsky,M.N., 1965,Electrical prospecting with the telluric method, Q.J. Colo. Sch.
Mines, 60, 1-208.
Chatterjee, D., RD. Venkateswarlu, R. Vaidyanathan, Lakshmi Singh, 1976, Report on

geophysical investigations in the hot spring areas, Maharashtra state field season 1975-
76, Unpublished GSI report.
Combs, J. and M. Wilt, 1976, Telluric mapping, telluric profiling and self potential surveys
of the Dunes geothermal anomaly, Imperial valley, California, II UN symposium on the
development and use of geothermal resources, California, USA, May, 1975, 2, 917-
928.
Gupta, M.L., Hari Narain and V.K. Gaur, 1976, Geothermal provinces of India as indicated
by studies of thermal springs, terrestrial heat flow and other parameters, II UN symposium
on the development and utilization of geothermal resources, California, USA, May, 1975,
1,387-396.
Harinagayana, T., 1984, Telluric and magnetotelluric field studies in parts of geothermal
areas of peninsular India, Ph.D. thesis, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, 260pp.
Harinarayana, T. and S.V.S. Sarma, 1996, Geophysical evidence relating the geothermal
activity in Konkan province, West cost of India, Jour. Geomag. Geoelec., (communicated).
Hutton, V.R.S., D. Galanopoulos, G.J.K. Dawes and G.E. Pickup, 1989, A high resolution
magnetotelluric survey of the Milos Geothermal prospect, Geothermics, 18, 521-532.
Jupp, D.L.B. and K. Vozoff, 1976, Stable iterative methods for the inversion of geophysical
data, Geophy. J. Roy. Astr. Sot., 42, 957-976.
Jupp, D.L.B. and K. Vozoff, 1977, Two dimensional magnetotelluric inversion, Geophy. J.
Roy. Astr. Soc., 50, 333-352.
Kaila, K.L., RR.K. Murthy, V.K. Rao and G.E. Kahretchko, 1981, Crustal structure from
deep seismic soundings along Koyna II (Kelsi-Loni) profile in the Deccan Trap area,
India, %ctonophysics, 73, 365-384.
Kaltasam, L.N., B.G.K. Murthy and A.Y.S.R. Chayanulu, 1972, Regional gravity studies of
the Decan Trap areas of Peninsular India, Curr. Sci+, 41,403-407.
Kallasam, L.N.,A.G.B. Reddy, M.V. Joga Rao, Y.K. Satyamurthy and B.RR. Murthy, 1976,
Deep electrical resistivity soundings in the Deccan Trap region, Curt. Sci., 45, 9-13.
Krishnabrahmam, N. and J.G. Negi, 1973, Rift valley beneath the Deccan traps (India),
Geophy. Res. Bull., 11,207-237.
Krishnaswamy, V.S., 1976, A review of Indian geothermal province and their potential for
energy utilization, II UN symposium on the development and utilization of geothermal
resources, sanfrancisco, USA, May, 1975, 1,143-156.
Long, C.L. and H.E Kaufman, 1980, Reconnaissance geophysical of known geothermal
resources area, Weiser, Idaho and Vale, Oregon, Geophysics, 45, 312.
Modak, G.K., 1961, Systematic geological mapping in parts of Surguja district, Madhya
Pradesh, Unpublished G.S.I. report.
Pandey, O.E and J.g. Negi, 1975, Geothermal fields of India: A latest update, Proc. of world
geothermal congress, Vol. I, Italy, t63-171+
Ranganayaki, R.R, 1984, An interpretive analysis of magnetotelluric data, Geophy., 49,
1730-1748.
Ravishanker, 1988, Heat flow map of India and discussions on its geological and economic
significance, Indian Minerals, 42, 89-110.
Ravishanker, S.K. Guha, N.N. Seth, K. Muthuraman, U.L. Pitale, B.L. Jangi G. Prakash,
A.K. Bandhopadhyay, and R.K. Sinha, 1991, Geothermal atlas of India, Sp. Pub. No.
19, Geo. Sur. India, 144 pp.
Ravishanker and J.M. Prasad, 1988, Thermal regime and Geothermal potentials in Tatapani
area, Surguga district, Madhya Pradesh, Geo. Sur. India, 117, 93-107.
Ray, D.K+, 1974, A geological geochemical and hydrological study of Tatapani thermal
springs, Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, India, Ph.D. thesis, Jadavpur University.
Sarma, S+V.S., T. Harinarayana, M.L. Gupta, S.R. Sarma, Rakesh Kumar and P.V.
Sankarnarayan, 1983, A reconnaissance telturic survey in northern parts of Konkan

Geothermal Province, India, Geophy. Res. Bull. 21, 91-99.
Sanna, S.V.S,, Rake sh Kumar and RV. Sankarnarayan, 1978, On the use of spectral methods
in the telluric current data analysis, Abs. volume, A.E.G, Waltair.
Saxena, R.K. and J.M. Prasad, 1984, Report on the Geothermal investigation of the
Tatapani--Jhor hot spring belt in Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, G.S.I. unpub, report,
143.
Singh, S.B. and M.L. Gupta, 1986, D.C. resistivity survey in Tatapani geothermal area,
M.R, India, Geophy. Res. Bull., 24, 114-120.
Virupakshi, G. and D.N. Murthy, 1988, MAGTEL--An analog magnetotelluric system,
Abstract volume of int. workshop on 'deep electromagnetic exploration', Dec. 19-21,
NGRI, Hyderabad.
Vozoff, K., 1972, The magnetotelluric method in the exploration of sedimentary basins,
I1. Frontier Technologies for Hydrocarbon

ExplorationmElectrical Conductivity
Reference Exploration (ECRE)
R. Karmann, J.L. Seara and U. Jensen
Metronix/Geometra GMBH, Neue KnochenhauerstraBe 5,
38100 Braunschweig, Germany
1. Introduction to ECRE Method

The magnetotelluric method is based on the simultaneous recording of time
series of the natural time varying earth's magnetic fields B, and the earth's
electrical fields E, in perpendicular directions x and y (Fig. 1). When the
time series have been transferred to the frequency domain the so called
impedancies Z, are computed for the frequency range of interest:
(1)
The purpose of all the electromagnetic exploration techniques is to delineate

the resistivity over depth structure along a profile by accurately determining
the Z impedancies at each measurement site,
Magnetotellurics are influenced by static distortions to the same extent as
seismics, and these can be delineated by an extra static distoration tensor
d:
Z x't"
(2)
Due to the static distortions the Z impedancie,s cannot be determined without

additional information in the form of another set of equations. ECRE uses
the known relations from geomagnetic depth sounding (GDS):
Bx Bxref] ~hn
By Byr~fl = dH do \By refJ (3)
Bz gz ref } ~,Z H ZD
where Bx, By and Bz are the magnetic field components of the moving
station number of the array; Bxref,Byref and Bzrefthe corresponding components
of a fixed reference station as shown in Fig. 2h; d and z are complex
Frontier Technologiesfor Hydrocarbon Exploration 177
frequency dependent numbers. In a 2-D case only h/./and ZH differ from

zero. In most cases the reference station should be located in a 1-D area.
In this case it is Bzref = 0.
ECRE SURVEY PROCEDURE
/
............--.
..
IPORTABILE
IMO~NG I
/
I STATIONS I
lmad
/R~E2qCE I
I
' -
ISl?t°n
t ] ~ ~
002 ; ; : L, ~,r~ ~ ~ ~ :
HI/O]" , l ~ t v - - v - *
Bz.,;!! . . ~ i i
[rnV/kmJl ', : . : i ' J !
~Y~_ ~ : : ._ , : , . . :
Tracking ~14:0:0. '0 ,. ,14:4:16. " ": 1 4 : 8 : 3 2
Time
4
-i~E """"-"~.~v v Vv v v v
~ ^ EVAPORITES
SALT
/~------'/~ / ~ ++ + BASEHENT
++ + +J + . + X ~
+ , +--7-7/+
-----" /
+÷+÷
+
,
+ + +
• ++~'+ + 4. .F -
Fig. 1
Equations (2) and (3) demonstrate that the Z impedances which contain
information about the resistivity to depthdistribution are properly determined.
This is the basis of the ECRE method which combines M T and GDS in one
interactive forward modelling technique. Figure 3 shows ECRE software as
178 Karmann et al
compared with standard MT software. The combination of MT and GDS

parameters results in the 2-D modelling technique. Initial model has to be
modified until the best match of all the measured parameters to the calculated
model parameters is obtained. Accuracy of the model is significantly increased
by the addition of seismic, well log, gravity information etc.
F.!k.._m ,,
REFERENCE F--- MT ARRAY --.t

SITE t
" .. ~
Fig. 2
It is important to emhasise the fact that all ECRE stations use conventional
five component MT measurement techniques with the only modification
being the use of extremely accurate time synchronization. This extension of
the MT technique enables ECRE to be used for highly complex 3-D structures
as well as for 2-D structures.
2. ECRE Case History

In electromagnetic reconaissance exploration ECRE's ability to increase
structural resolution as well as accurately defining static distortion corrections
is a vast improvement on previous methods which usually failed to produce
additional geological information. ECRE is also suitable for use in target
exploration in areas where the application of seismics is unsatisfactory.
Figure 1 shows a variety of problems that could be solved by the ECRE
technique. The high structural resolution of ECRE is demonstrated by the
following example of the delineation of a complex salt structure in northern
Germany, which could not be resolved with seismics alone.
Figure 4 shows the available seismic cross sections. It is apparent that
only the top and the basement of the salt structure could be properly delineated.
. . . . . . . . . .
PROCESSEDSPECTRAOF ALL
THESURVEYSTATIONS
STANDARDMT ECRE
I
t CALCULATEkit t CALCULATEMT l t CALCULATEGDS ]
PARAMETERS I PARAMETERS .... PARAMETERS
1 1 I
I '-°~°°~"° ] I '-° = ~ ' ~ ° I ~°~c~c~~,~l~,
~ ~-o~oo~.oI J 2-D MOO~,,NO 1
+
I
PARAMETERS PARAM~'|'~S
I , ~ ~-o ~oo~ I
GEOLOGICAL
INTERPRETATtONl [
~'mu'r 2-o ~OOELI
BEST FIT ]
I
1
GEOLOGICAL
Fig. 3
2
I .3
3
? -4
I
5"
5
7 ~
7
Fig. 4
180 Karmann et al
This left some doubt as to whether there was a salt pillow or a salt wall
with an extended root as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. The ECRE technique was
applied, using one reference station 15 km away from the salt structure and
eleven stations moving over the structure.
6 ~ ~ ~.6
7 ~ ~- ~ 7
Fig. 5
The initial results produced by conventional magnetotelluric interpretation

are given in Fig. 7. No features of the salt structure could be identified in
either the E or the H polarization. This is mainly due to the strong static
distortions caused by current channeling around the salt structure.
Next, the ECRE interpretation was applied to the same data using the
Electromagnetic Data Processing System EMDP 883.
2, "'--------'~-------='
~5 ~ ~ ,¢ 2
~ ~ II
• ,~ ~; .3
5., 1 ~ \ ..5
7 ,~ ~. ~ f ~ f .
Fig. 6
Frontier Technologiesfor HydrocarbonExploration 181
0 ® ¢% ®
w: ¢o
, V~ V . v : w w 909
v : w :®® q w: : :
4 / 9. 6 6.2 6" 6 6. 2.5

5 9"1 " " 7.5
6
7
8
I..65
9
12
10
11
17 1/ 0 . ~
12
../m
1"I 30. 15.
26. 30.
14 27. ?S.
35. &4. 35,
1E
"rlefe
0 . v ~.. :v: v: v..v:vv ~ v: : ,
1 " 2 17. 2 1 08 05
2
3 12 ~ 75 '
," 13. 15. --
4 ~3 yz. 1.8
~ 2.8
5 6.6. /
6
7 9.2
9.9
8
9 30.
1(3 9.1
90. 17.6
11 I 12.1
12 21.
115.
137. /*2.
14
-- 31
30
23.
Tlefe 6.1
[km]
Fig. 7
182 Karmann et al
Starting with a simplified model (Fig. 8), the operator of EMDP 883 had
to modify the model with interactive modelling to obtain optimal match of
the model and the measured parameters of all magnetotelluric and GDS
transferfunctions. This had to be done for the entire period range of interest.
Fig. 8
The EMDP 883 uses a split screen technique (Figs. 9 and 10). The symbols
(and) refer to the measurements, and the continuous dotted line to the
model. After calculating approximately 50 different models, the final model
Fig. 9
Frontier Technologiesfor HydrocarbonExploration 183
Fig. 10
(Fig. 11) was produced. Numbers in the model refer to the specific resistivities
in ohm-m. The result demonstrates effectiveness of the ECRE method, with
its integrated seismic information, in defining complex structures properly.
In this example it was proved that there was no salt pillow but a salt wall
stufionac~: 1 2 3 ~. S 6 "/ 8 9 10 1t
V 7 7, V ~ 'TV ,7,,,7 7 7
2 z, 6 8 10 [ km
I I ,I ' 'I' I
1 J
1
__ e'#" -
2 -" 2
..,.¢ , J¢ .
5 I,
.3
4 .4
5"---" .5
-6
;2 ~, ~ ,~
f ,r
-7
Fig. 11
184 Karmann et al
with a core of high resistivity salt, 200 to 600 ohm-m. The core is surrounded
by a mixture of salt and sediments which gives a lower resistivity of 10-
40 ohm-m. Finally the resistivity of the layered sediments was properly
determined as ranging from 1 to 8 ohm-m for the different layers. The
excellent matching of the final model and the ECRE parameters, the apparent
resistivity and transfer functions ht~ and z and for three different periods
T = 32, 64 and 128 sec is shown in Figs. 12 and 13. In electromagnetic
exploration the electromagnetic waves with longer periods penetrate to a
greater depth. Therefore, in a first approximation the period T is proportional
to the exploration depth. Fig. 13 demonstrates that the minimum ht-/accurately
loc~ites the centre of t h e salt structure and that this minimum point is
consistent over the period range and therefore over the depth range as well.
The same thing can be seen from the maximum and minimum of z in
relation to the boundaries of the salt structure.
stotion no.: 1 2 34 5 67 8 9 10 11
V V VV V VV V V. V V
£~(f2m) PHASE
101 , , , , , 1 , , , , ,
100 _ ~ 60
45
10 -1
~"~- .~_.~.. , _~,.~ "4-4--*- . . . . 30
10 - 2 i i i i ~}-r -- rr i , i i l
0 1Okra
101
10 0
45
10 -1
10 -2
101 / 0 1Okra
100 t
"-- 45
10-1 t
10-2/
0 1Okra
Fig. 12
3. E C R E Hardware and Software

With the development of the ECRE technique a new tool for the
electromagnetic exploration is provided. The measurements described above
have been carried out using the Metronix MMSO2e MT-system which
covers a frequency range from DC to 4 Hz. The MMS02¢ is a micro power,
station no.: 1 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 10 11 1 2 34 5 67 8 g 10 11
V V VV V iV V V V V v v iv v vv v v V V
hH a
Z H
+.I
....~-'e--3.--]']- . $ . ~.. .1 ~ 1".~Z,2, ' '1 . . . . . .J,'lm
.o5 [: L..~-~-*'-t" J
-.I T-32s . . . Re oI
-.05
0 10kin 0 10kin
.05
~5.,_.~:-~-'--'-<,4--.; .; • .. as f,:6,, L+- ,
0 0 I- ,r . ..~-~5"
-.05 ¢ .,
-64=L ~
0 10krn 0 10km
.as ~ ~.,~, ~ -~. . . . . . .
0 lOkm 0 lOkm
(a) (b)
Fig. 13
battery operated instrumentation for long term unattended recording of

MT-signals (Fig. 14).
Meanwhile the new sixth generation Multi Method Network Geophysical
Measurement System GMS-06 has been launched to the market by Metronix.
The GMS-06 is a light weight and very portable battery powered instrument.
Fig. 14
186 Karmann et al
It can either operate as stand alone instrument or several receiver units can
be run in a network using simple and inexpensive coaxial cable. The
electric and/or magnetic field sensors are connected directly to an ADU-06
(Analog/Digital Signal Conditioning Unit) which is the core unit of the
system. When a laptop computer is connected to an ADU-06, real time data
acquisition and quality control is possible. Each single receiver unit contains
a highly stable GPS-clock for synchronisation purpose. This allows to operate
multiple ADU's Synchronised as required for ECRE-or Remote Reference
method.
The wide frequency range from DC to 24 kHz allows a versatile usage
of the system and opens a wide application range as, for instance, Hydrocarbon
or mineral exploration, environmental studies and groundwater exploration
or deep crustal studies. Various methods as MT, AMT CSAMT, TEM or
resistivity measurements are possible.
The menu oriented, user friendly, system software for the GMS-06 runs
under Windows 95TM or Windows NTTM operating system. The channel
configuration and assignment, necessary in a multi-channel system, is
simplified by it.
The software allows real time processing and display of all important
EM-parameters. The collected raw data as well as the processed results are
stored in a database which eases the handling of data in multi-channel
systems. Fig. 15 shows a picture of the instrument.
Fig. 15
4. Conclusion
The advantages of ECRE may be summarized as follows:
• minimization of man-made noise
• elimination of static distortion
• improved productivity
• improved accuracy and resolution
• resolution of complex structures.
The hardware and software are based upon years of successful research and
development and on the feed-back from satisfied customers around the
world. ECRE has made magnetotellurics ready for routine application in
the exploration industry.
12. Technology and Some Results of Deep

Electromagnetic Soundings in the
Former USSR
I.S. Feldman
The Russian Ac. Sci. Institute for High Temperature, Izhorskaya Str., 13/19,
Moscow, 127412, Russia
Introduction
In the former USSR the volume and amount of deep electromagnetic studies
have been recently increased, what can be explained by growing exploration
for oil and gas, the use of powerful sources and up-to-date digital computer
methods. The result of deep investigation has supplemented specialized
studies of sedimentary cover. Detail and quality of research have also
significantly changed. Now a days we have at our disposal many examples
of spatial survey carried out by means of rather dense observation network,
as compared to traditional MTS profiles with long spacing between stations.
Interesting results have been obtained by controlled source electromagnetic
sounding, using the transient electromagnetic methods. Such technique became
possible owing to the use of more powerful generators (I = 360 A) as well
as unique source-pulse MHD generators (I = 4-20 kA). Application of new
methods of data analysis and interpretation, techniques of spatial data analysis
allowed a more detailed study of deep geoelectric anomalies, thus changing
our concepts of conductivity anomaty's nature.
The present work considers some new results of the Earth's crust in deep
electromagnetic studies in the former USSR. These results were obtained
using both traditional and recent techniques.
The author took an active part in the work carried out in the Eastern
Siberia mainly. Based on generalization of the available results and their
geological analyses, the author attempts to make a genetic classification of
the most typical features of the Earth's crust geoelectric structure.
Some characteristic features of the used research method and techniques
are given.
Deep Controlled Source Transient Electromagnetic Sounding

The study has been done by 8 and 16-channel CES-MHD stations placed
into dense observation network with 100-200 m spacing.
Special methods of data processing and interpretation allow to receive
uniform geoelectric parameters of the section regardless of the distance to
Technology and Some Results of Deep ElectromagneticSoundings 189
the receiver and in the wide time range of transient process. Observation
was done within the range of fixed electric dipole (L = 10-12 km) at a
distance of 50-60 km from it. Total dipole resistance was several one-
tenths of ohm.
Powerful source like "Polygon-2" and pulse MHD generators "Pamir-2"
and "Sever-l" were used. "Polygon-2" provides current 360 A dipole with
current cut-off duration ofO,015 s [1]. MHD installation has the following
parameters: current amplitude 4-5 kA, pulse duration 6-7 s; current cut-off
duration not more than 0,015 s [2]. Repeated control measurements helped
to establish the maximal time of the 2-3% signal registration accuracy as
15-20 seconds (R = 25-30 km). That corresponds to 30 km of efficient
sounding depth.
Various techniques based on different methods of signal transformation
and its derivative are used for presenting the results.
Figure 1 examplifies scheme of conductivity at effective depth of 13 km
and the temporal section of conductivity parameter. Approximation error
for large time ranges does not exceed 2%. As the graph of deep geoelectric
section shows, at the supposed depth of crystalline basement we observe
unusual quasi-stratified structure. Separate local conductive bodies are
identified [3].
Detailed Spatial MTS

Considerable growth of information for the Earth's crust geoelectric studies
is related to the recent detailed MTS on space and along profiles. (Statio n
spacing of about 1 km). Location of station network allows the use of more
advanced methods of spatial analysis and data interpretation. These works
showed that complex structures of MT-field can be explained by not only
distortions of subsurface inhomogeneities but with considerable horizontal
inhomogeneity of the Earth's crust conductivity [4].
One of such examples is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. spatial MT soundings
were carried out on a small territory within one of the best pronounced
conductivity anomalies--the Southern Tien Shan [6].
The comparison of the obtained data and results of electric logging from
the available boreholes allows to state that the major contribution into the
formation of complicated MT field structure belongs to thin layers of graphite
schists with anomalously high conductivity (p < 0.1 [2).
Tectonic transformations have resulted in the formation of complicated
folded nappes. Similar phenomena are observed in other i'egions, where
studies with sufficient details have been arranged.
Complex Studies of Ancient Formations

In some regions (Pre-Cambrian shields, large anticline) long-term uplifting
and deep erosion expose the rocks which usually occur at greater depths.
That explains interest to the study of these ancient formations. Electromagnetic
190 Feldman
~ 0 1 4 ~e
o~
Technology and Some Results of Deep Electromagnetic Soundings 191
t. e~
E
0
0
4
L
0
0
g
0
O
fl_ °~
03
J
192 Feldman
(a)
C.G,
:a
A A.C, ~,T. c. I',H
Z BI /2" lr Irr
! ! ! i
""[ I ' t
o.]
,z . . y 0 / j0..
Z,~
(b)
Fig. 2 Geoelectrical parameters of Middle Asian crust conductivitive anomally
[6]: (a) resistivity transform at depth of 4 km: 1-exposures of Paleozoic
basement, 2-observation points, 3-isolines of resistivity in ohm-m, 4-area
of high conductivity, 5-area of detailed survey shown at Fig. 3; (b) resistivity
section (Niblette transformation): 1-top of Paleozoic basement, 2-resistivity
isolines in Ohm-m, 3-high conductivity area, 4-deep faults, 5-detailed area.
studies of ancient rock exposures are done by various methods and techniques
with the purpose of mineral resourses exploration. Detail mapping allows
a better study of fine geoelectric structure of such formations.
Technology and Some Results of Deep ElectromagneticSoundings 193
Such studies were carried out in the Baltic Shield [5], Ukranian Shield
[8], Anabar Anticlise (Siberian Platform) [9], The Baikal Mountain Province
[4] and other regions. Figs. 4 and 5 show two of such examples.
4 0 4 8 '12 KM
~603 615 628 642 656 669 682 695 708 721 .~
l'_ _5_' JL__..L_' - - ' " '_ _ . . _ _ _ L _ _ _' .<'
.>=o,....-.= I,o
"'l / ' 2<V<b" r>15 I7
-9{ . 0 4 8, 12 1Skin i9
..,J,H,km ' ' '
tx hm
c 5.815,86 59160.1 612 62,5 639<653 666 679 692 705 718 ,e
oi 2~p<5., , v..2<,c.<5 ~2 p 5 t
.I~>~o~-~>~'":. ~ ;~ =.; p>sp,~.~"~m>~o[
°
-6.1 t ' P 0.5-2 - ', ' I -- /

.81 P>IO ~ : I P>IO 18
-10,].1"I.1~ 2~5"" '~ g h ~
Fig. 3 MT results at one of the Tian Shang conductivity anomaly area (Uzbekistan)
(Merkulov, Basov, personal connection): (a) scheme of occurence of top of
well-conductive layer (with MT points and profile lines); (b) geoelectrical
sections along AB and CD profiles as a result of maximum MT-curves.
All the available examples reveal a common feature manifested at various

degree, i.e. the presence of graphites responsible for their conductivity. The
shape of the resultant geoelectric objects depends on the ,character and
degree of tectonic transformation in originally sedimentary rocks.
194 Feldman
"~" ,,,"~rid I[/,ff.z~.A]t~h ~1 -
A B
(c)
Fig. 4 Results of the detailed MTS at one of the Kirovograd anomalous conductivity
areas (Ukrainian Shield) (Ingerov A.K., Ph.D. Thesis, 1990): (a) Map of
values of Pt MTS for T = 150 s. Dashed area is the detailed survey; (b)
Schemes of geoelectrical parameters within the area of detailed survey
(shown at Fig. 4a): 1-pl of sedimentary cover, 2-p~ MTS for T-150 s, 3-
resistivity of basement; (c)pseudo-geoelectrical sections Pk -- f(~/-T) along
the profiles AB and CD.
Some Results of Deep Electromagnetic Soundings in

Siberian Platform
Let us consider some, typical examples of the Earth's crust conductivity
studies. They are based on electromagnetic data from various regions of
• ~, ..... :~,
,.,, ~'>. ~ ".v.??.~
4c
. . . . :J r
-..- - f T ~ , ~ . . ' ~ \ ' ~ , ~ -.,- - -.:=_£_--,

i2(
--~.. E~ CZD E:Z} [:Z) EE~I rry~ 166

k))
(a)
(b)
- oo . -9"0 - 60
20
30
4O
5o
~v ~v
-~o -50 -zlO. ~rr,.
(c)
Fig. 5 Structure of anomalous conductivity of Baltic shield according to A.A.
Zhemaletdinor [7]: (a) scheme of conductivity of the upper p a r t of
the crust; (b) scheme of conductive zones of North-Western p a r t of
Cola peninsula whose contours are shown on Fig. 5a. 1-stripes of anomalously
high conductivity, 2-conductive zones, 3-axis of conductive anomalies; (c)
scheme of conductivity anomalies of Pechenga structure (contours are shown
on Fig. 5b)" 1-profiles of conductive anomalies on aeromagnetic data, 2-
anomalous conductivity correlated with geological survey results.
196 Feldman
Siberian Plateau and its framing. These results are well known to the author
as he himself took part in collecting, processing and interpreting the data.
Anomalies in Siberia could be divided into the following types:
Type 1: Late Proterozoic (Riphean) thick sedimentary complexes in the

basement of large troughs. As a rule conductivity in such structures comprises
several hundreds of Siemences. These sediments accumulated during the
preplatform stage of evolution. The total conductivity in such structures is
defined by the role and volume of terrigeneous layers in the entire section
of the sedimentary sequence (Fig.l).
Type 2: Narrow strip-like zones with anomalously high conductivity usually

forming echelons or chains of anomalies. Here the total conductivity reaches
several thousands of Siemens, though it would be more correct to refer to
integral conductivity (Q = cy x S) comprising 106-108 ~2-1 m-1.
In some regions combinations of type 1 and 2 were observed. Figs. 1
and 6 show some of such anomalies. Geology and logging data prove the
relation between high conductivity anomalies and ancient (Pre-Riphean)
rift zones (sometimes referred to as aulacogenes) wherein sedimentary-
volcanogenic compounds enriched with organics were accumulated. Later
they were transformed into graphitized schists.
The Yenissey anomaly has been traced along thousands of kilometers
crossing the present boundary of the Siberian Platform and extending into
the West-Siberian plate. Here numerous ore-mineral deposits were discovered
within the Yenissey ridge and its extention under the sedimentary cover.
Within the West-Siberian plate such anomalies and similar anomalous zones
can be related to the formation of oil and gas fields.
Type 3: Figure 7 demonstrates the third type of anomalies. They are also
formed as layers in volcanogenous-sedimentary rocks and are considerably
enriched in graphite. Simultaneously they are enriched with sulphide minerals.
Being comparatively thin (tens and hundreds of meters) they are characterized
by conductivity of tens of thousands of Siemens.
The above anomalies refer to the Late Proterozoic though there are
cases, wherein similar high conductivity is associated with graphitized schists
of similar composition, but of a younger age. Permian-Carboniferous
formation within the near Yenissey part of the Siberian Platform can serve
as an example of such structure. It is oialy l - l , 5 km deep, a lot of borehole
data is available. Graphite mines are constructed where these formations
come closer to the surface. This zone is several hundred kilometers wide.
To the North from this region, similar formations preserving high
conductivity submerge below the Yenissey-Khatanga trough down to the
depth of 1'5-25 km. They are overlain by a thick Mesozoic sequence. Here
we likely encounter with the only case, where the 15-25 km high conductivity
layer is associated with graphites.
9~
9
J" ~o
198 Feldman
o
I= ~ 0
t
f
g ~.. . . .
~ o "~
"i'~l~ (i~'',~ ...... e
o . t .'
°°
"1-
"~ ?'2.
t'~
t-
t~
i_
O)
e,,D o 4
he:
tO
E
ii
m
gl
CO @
¢q
o 0
-=
Nleq ~
E
~ ' r - v - v-,~,- v - v - "1"
r~
200 Feldman
Type 4: This type includes, may be, the most interesting anomalies--the
conductive layer under the intramountaineous Minusinsk Basin (Southern
framing of the Siberian Platform). Here the conductive layer is 7-12 km
deep, characterized by uniform conductivity of 1500-2000 Siemens and
underlies the entire basin (400 km across).
It occurs somewhat below the basement roof (folded basement) and is
associated with the exchange waves from distant earthquakes.
The fact is rather important for a better understanding of this phenomena
that this layer goes beneath the mountain framing of the basin where the
basement is high. The origin of these conductive formations still does not
remain clear.
Geological Interpretation
To sum up, I would like to emphasize that in all the examples presented
here, there are either direct or indirect evidences of the graphite nature of
the anomalies, except in one case--a high conductivity layer of uncertain
origin under the intramountaineous basin.
Analysis of geological structures and their evolution allows to propose
the following origin mode of conductive layers in the Earth's crust (Fig. 8).
The process can be divided into three stages:
1. Accumulation and diagencsis of organic compounds.
2. Catagcnesis.
3. Tectonic transformations.
(1) Organic-rich sediments are formed in shallow seas, in the area of
active derivation and intensive volcanic activity. Volcanic components strongly
decrease the oxidation activity and increase greatly the preservance of buried
organic material. Amount of organic material within the basin increases
significantly in the viscinity of volcanic arcs. Such conditions are typical
for rifts or throughs of both intracontinental and geosynclinal systems [11 ].
Thus it has been proved that even at the first stage there is the extremely
heterogeneous character of organic matter accumulation along volcanic arcs.
(2) The next stage is connected with the formation of graphite. Here at
least two possibilities should be identified: shallow high temperature
metamorphism, like in Siberian platform, where such formations of Permian-
Carboniferous age occur at the depth of 1.5-2 kin; regional metamorphism
at the depth of 10-15 kin. Active transformation of organic matter into.
graphite begins already at the stage of grecnshist metamorphism. The
subsequent higher metamorphic stages transfer the remaining part of organic
mat[er into graphite.
Anyway, migmatization and graphitization resulting in rcmclting of
matcrial, dcsolve graphite and withdraw it from the systcm. Conductivity
is seldom reduced.
(3) The final stage is the formation of structures at subsequent tectonic
Technology and Some Resultsof Deep Electromagnetic Soundings 201
i °
~t ~. .=.
+.4- °m
@
\ +
°°1 '4- q.
@___-®__.__.@
202 Feldman
• , + %; 1~ +
Ii
t.
.m
.I
Technology,and Some Results of Deep Electromagnetic Soundings 203
transformations. A great variety of forms might appear, ranging from preserved

structures of primary sedimentary basins to complete folding and cleavage
of relatively soft graphitized layers.
Spatial configuration of conductive anomalies reflects from my point of
view three main types of ancient rifting (Fig. 9).
Single rifts as a rule are echelon-like located and united into elongated
systems.
Scattered rifts is an echelon-like graben system which is either elongated
or spatially scattered.
Marginal systems. Rift systems in the marginal parts of continental blocks.
They migrate in the course of continental spreading thus forming wide
graphite-rich bands.
Conclusions
Thus the concept based on the significant role of ancient organic compounds
in the formation of conductivity anomalies in the Earth's crust can explain
practically all the known anomalies [7, 12, 13, 14, 15].
It should be noted, that basing on the given concept we got an opportunity
to study the most important features of ancient tectonogenesis by means of
electromagnetic methods, what is of great importance for exploration for
ore deposits, oil and gas fields.
Conductivity anomalies under mountain systems, island arcs and volcanic
provinces are known. Paleogeographic data allow the supposition that many
of such structures have thick organically rich layers in their basement, the
character of conductivity under such structures could also be related to the
presence of graphite.
The goal of this paper was not to discuss all the exsisting concepts on
the Earth's crust conductivity nature as a great many of publications is
dedicated to this purpose. One of such paper was made by myself and I am
quite critical about it [16, 17].
To Sum up I would consider important to propose the idea of organizing
an international research project aimed at the study of conductivity anomalies
for the purpose of direct prospecting for ores and hydrocarbons using deep
electromagnetic sounding. As such a project could be of certain practical
value, I hope geoscience community and geological exploration services
would grant financial support.
References
t. High-poweredcontrolled source for deep exploration; Polygon-2,IVTAN, 1989,

1-2.
2. AitovN.Z., VelikhovE.P.,ZhukovB.P. et al; PulseMHD of"Sever-l" for searchfor
oil and natural gas in Eastern Siberia~
204 Feldman
3. Vetikhov E.E, Zeigamik V.A., Feldman I.S. et at; MHD sounding in the Siberian
Platform; Worshop on Electromagnetics; Encenada, 1990.
4. Feldman I.S., Okulessky B.A., Sheinkman A.L., Shpak I.E; Conductive anomalies
of the crust: a conductive layer or zone? IX workshop on electromagnetic induction
in the Earth and Moon. Abstracts, Moscow, 1988, 100.
5. Geoelectrical models of the Baltic Shield, Eds S.H. Hjelt and L.L. Vanvan. University
of Oulu, department of Geophysics. Report No. 16, Finland, 1989, 1-249.
6. Babadzhanov T.L., Basov M.D., Gatina R.M. et al. The south Tien Shan anomaly of
electrical conductivity, Physics of Earth, N 7, 1986, 79-90.
7. ZhamaletdinovA.A,; Model ofthe lithospheric electric conductivity: results ofthe
study with power controlled source. Leningrad, Nauka, 1990.
8. D'yakonova A.G., Ingerov A.N., Rokityansky I.N.; Electromagnetic sounding in the
East-European platform, and in the Urals. Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1986, 1-135
9. Feldman I.S., Okulessky B.A., Sybgatullin B.O.; Earth crust conductivity anomalies
in the Siberian platform, X workshop on electromagnetics, Encenada, 1990.
10. Poltaraskaya O.Z., Pakarin V.E, Popov G.X.; The West Jakutsk Electrical conductivity
anomaly. "Crustal anomalies of the electrical conductivity", Leningrad, "Nauka",
1984, 116-122, (in Russian).
11. Carbonaceous deposits of early stage of development of earth. Leningrad, "Nauka",
t990, (in Russian).
12. Zhamaletdino A.A., Seneevov A.S.; Electron-conducting rocks in that crystalline
basement are the object of deep electrical soundings. "Crustal anomalies of the
electrical conductivity", Leningrad, "Nauka', 1984, 3-10 (in Russian).
13. Duba A., Huenges E., Nover G., Will G. and Jodicke H.; Impedence of black shale
from Munsterland and 1 borehole an anomanously good conductor? Geophys. J., 94,
4t3-419.
14. Duba A.; Electrical conductivity of black shale implications for crustal conductivity
anomalies. "IX Workshop on electromagnetic induction in the Earth and Moon",
Abstracts, Moscow, 1988, 87.
t5. Jodicke H.; Interpretation of conductivity models. "X Workshop on electromagnetic
induction in the Earth", Encenada, 1990, report 1-20.
16. Zumbimova E.A. and Feldman I.S.; Heat flow, temperature and electrical conductivity
of the crust and upper mantle in USSR, Tectonophysics, v. 10, 1970, 245-281.
17. Feldman I.S.; The nature of conductive layers in the Earth's crust and upper mantle
"Geoelectric and Geothermal studies". Kapg. Geophysical monograph. Budapest,
1976, 721-730.
13. Direct Current Resistivity Traversing

Across Singhbhum Shear Zone Near
Ghatshila-Mosabani (Eastern India)
K.K. Roy 1, L.K. Das 2, H. Das 2, K.K. Mukherjee 2,
M.K. Sen 3, P.S. Routh 4, D.K. Saha 2, M.K. Rai 2,
D.C. Naskar z and R. Chunduru 3
~Department of Geology and Geophysics, liT, Kharagpur-721302, India
2Geological Survey of India, Ratnakar Building, t0th Floor, 4, Chowringhee Lane,
Calcutta 700016, India
3Institute for Geophysics and Department of Geological Sciences, The University of
Texas at Austin, 8701 Mopac Expressway, Austin, Texax 78759-8397, USA
4Department of Geophysics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada
Introduction
Direct current resistivity traversing were carried out across the Singhbhum
shear zone near Ghatshila-Mosabani using c o l l i n e a r d i p o l e - d i p o l e
configuration to prepare the subsurface map of the shear zone. Because,
electrical methods are the most powerful tools for mapping the lateral
heterogeneities, tectonic contacts like shear zones, suture zones, collision
zones etc. A traverse along the Ghatshila-Mosabani is chosen because, this
is one of the geologically most well studied area.
Considering the degree of heterogeneity prevails in real earth situation,
no structure is two dimensional in a real sense. This is true for Archaean and
Proterozoic terrains. But, one can, as a first order approximation, assume the
long linear structures as two dimensional structures ignoring the small scale
heterogeneities exist at the contacts of these structures. If the broad geology
of an area on both sides of the contact remains more or less the same, we can
call those structures as two dimensional structures approximately. Singhbhum
shear zone is a contact between the Archaean Singhbhum granite and iron
ore group of rock and the Proterozoic north Singhbhum fold belt (Fig. 1). It
is a 200 km long arcuate geological contact zone and is treated essentially as
a two dimensional structure on a local scale.
One dimensional D.C. resistivity forward modeling, inversion of data
and field applications are established subjects. Two dimensional problems
in D.C. resistivity method is yet to be an established and widely used area
to
0
O~
Fig. 1 Geological map of the Singhbhum Orissa iron ore craton and north Singhbhum proterozo~ mobile belt showing the extent of
Singhbhum shear zone; alignment of the dipole-dipole profile across Ghatshila-Mosabani.
DC Resistivity Traversing Across Singhbhum Shear Zone 207
of geoelectricity. Since the level of nonuniqueness is much more severe in

2D inverse problems, the level of uncertainties in the interpretation of data
is more. These nonuniqueness comes from data quality, data inadequacy,
2D interpretation of 3D structures, numerical methods used in 2D forward
modeling, coarseness in the forward model to reduce computation time as
well as from the inverse problem itself. Many geophysicists have expressed
doubt about the credibility of the 2D work, authenticity of interpretation
and its usefulness in handling the real field problems. The attack was from
two sides. One group believes that D.C. resistivity work should remain
restricted in the 1D domain only. If it goes beyond that the interpretation
will be unreliable. The other group believes that nothing in this world is
really two dimensional, therefore 2D work may not have much credibility.
Therefore this paper is directed towards one issue, i.e., what to trust and
what not to trust in 2D resistivity work. That is why the same data are
interpreted in three different places to assess the common features in the
interpretation. If several interpretations have something common, earth must
have that property (Bachus and Gilbert 1967).
Singhbhum shear zone is a ductile shear zone with mylonites exposed on
the surface: Contact mineralisation is also a prominent feature. Chalcopyrite
deposits of Mosabani is one of the important copper ore deposits in India.
Crushed rocks with entry of lots of fluids along with mineralisation should
make the shear zone highly conducting in comparison to those of the rocks
in the adjoining areas. That made the electrical conductivity mapping of the
shear zone a viable proposition.
The necessary infrastructure for 2D forward modelling and inversion
were developed by Coggon (1971), Madden (1971), Dey and Morrison
(1976, 1979); Mufti (1976), Rijo (1977), Pelton et al. (1978), Pridmore
(1978), Mwenifumbo (1980), Smith and Vozoff (1984), Tripp et al. (1984),
Narayana (1990), Chunduru et al. (1995).
Finite element, finite difference, integral equation and transmission line
theories are used for forward modeling. Ridge Regression (RR), Singular
Value Decomposition (SVD), Simulated Annealing (SA) minimum norm
algorithm for an underdetermined problem and Very Fast Simulated Annealing
(VFSA) are used for inversion.
Field Work
Direct current collinear dipole traversing was done with 500 meter long
current and potential dipoles. Fig. 2 shows the electrode configuration, the
geometric factor for the electrode configuration and the Hallof's (1957)
pseudosection net. Scintrex 10 KW transmitter for current upto 15 ampere
and IPR-8, RDC-10 receivers were used. To measure the potential difference
copper-copper sulphate electrodes were used. Metallic container of about
0.3 m diameter were inserted in 0.75 m deep hole. Lot of salt and water
208 Roy et al
were spread to reduce the contact reresistance below 50 ohm. The apparent
resistivities are computed using the relation
Pa = K(ZW/b (1)
where K is the geometric factor and is equal to rCan(n + 1) (n + 2); A V is
the measured potential difference and I the current sent through the ground;
a is the current (AB) and potential (MN) dipole lengths; na is the dipole
separation with n varies from 1 to 10. n is gradually increased from 1 to
10 or more till the measured potential goes below 500 microvolts.
Fig 1 shows the alignment of the 9 km long resistivity profile line across
the shear zone.
A B
Fig. 2 Collinear dipole.dipole configuration; geometric factor; pseudosection net.
Busy railway tracks, roads and strong winds create more problems in
MT/AMT than in DC resistivity field work. But high tension wires should
be avoided in all the geoelectrical survey.
Since the starting electrode separation is 1.5 km (L = 3AB), the minimum
depth of investigation (Roy and Apparao, 1971) is about 400 m. Therefore,
surface small scale heterogeneities did not have any effect in this survey.

Figures 3 and 4 are, respectively, the apparent resistivity data and the
pseudosection contour. The interpretation work was done in three phases.
Phase A, B, C interpretation works were, respectively, done at I.I.T.,
Kharagpur, UBC, Vancouver and University of Texas at Austin.
PhaseA: In this part of the work, Dey-Morrison algorithm for finite difference
two dimensional modeling (RESIS 2D, Dey and Morrison, 1976, 1979) and
ridge regression inversion (Inman, 1975) were used. The trial and error
(3
Usoo~ >=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5 9 10 11 t2 13 14 15 16
I ,,, I i ~ Ill I I , I I , ,I, I 1 1 I I ,I ,, I,,, I , I I
713 944 481 190. 962 1219 1783, 1326 952.. I066, 762 996. 928 4725
n= !
Z 983 1025 497 31 1219 13~2 3029 813 1606 3645 1336 1317 4051 1604
3 643 14.14 85 116 1664 3592 1439 !471 3750 3902 1187 4474 1696
POll 795 277 135 2909 1834 2511 3290 4642 4186 3694 1255
4 O~
546 5~3 386 249 1480 2864 4658 4166 3639 1277-2 963
5
493 2.24 6ZJ 18.4 2251 6!o 65o5 3525 ~0252 3 o 4 6
6
539 347 118 391-4393 7957 5023 9283 23.41
7
931 579 586 N.R, 5586 612 14229 2124
8
Field DoIo
c~
I'-,)
Fig. 3 Collinear dipole-dipole DC resistivity field data across the copper belt thrust zone c~
D.C, collinear dipole-dipole pseudosection
Across copperbelt thrust
LQt. 22 ° 25'2&'22°35'30"
Long. 86°26'18" -86 ° 29'12"
--- DHOBANI GHATSILA
ASOOmF
-1 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 & IS
o=,,I, I I ,,I I I I ..I,

....I I
12 ,
Fig. 4 Apparent resistivity pseudosection of the profile showing the signature of the shear zone.
adjustments for resistivities and shape of the blocks were done till the
misfit was minimum. At this stage the derivative matrix needed for ridge
regression inversion were developed with respect to the resistivities of the
different blocks only. No change is made about the geometrical shapes. The
results are presented in Fig. 5. It is the 2D forward model of the shear zone
obtained using Dey-Morrison (1979) algorithm. 9 blocks of resistivities
were used for framing the model of the subsurface. At this stage, the weighted
ridge regression inversion was done to modify the resistivities of the different
blocks. That reduced the misfit function (discussed later) significantly. Fig.
6 shows the computed apparent resistivity values obtained for the finally
inverted model. Smith and Vozoff (1984), Narayana (1990) have shown
from the theoretical computations that unlike in one dimensional case, the
percentage discrepancy between the field and the synthetic data can be high
at some nodal points of the pseudosection net. Here also the discrepancies
are quite high for some observation points.
Judicious guess was done to choose the resistivities as well as geometrical
shapes of different blocks. Several trial and error adjustments of block
resistivities and geometrical shapes were done to reduce the field and model
apparent resistivities at different nodal points.
The block A (Fig. 5) of resistivity 34 ohm-m is the signature of the
Singhbhum shear zone. The dip of the shear zone is gradually increasing
with depth. Thickness of the block A is about 300 m. Block B has an inverted
resistivity of about 20 ohm-m. It has a thickness of about 700 m. Both the
blocks A and B form the Singhbhum shear zone of about 1 km thick. Blocks
D, E and F having inverted resistivities of the order of 1117 + 170, 1320 +
476 and 1912 + 633 ohm-m maybe the Dhalbhum formation, it may be quite
appropriate to mention here that we attach some weightage on the order,of
the resistivity values and neither on the inverted resistivities and nor on their
level of uncertainties.
Block H having the resistivity of the order of 2327 + 626 Ohm-m may
represent the soda granites and volcaniclastics. Geological inputs are available
for the traverse (Saha 1994). The block J represents the Singhbhum group of
formation (Chaibasa stage). Its resistivity is of the order of 13000 ohm-m. It
is a kyanite, staurolite, garnet, quartz schist. It is a large highly resistive body
extends parallel to the shear zone for about 100 km (Dunn andDey 1942,
Roy and Mukherjee 1994). Block E having the resistivity Of the order of 894
+170 ohm-m does represent the iron ore group of sediments as per the
conceptual model of Sarkar et al. (1977) (Fig. 7).
Phase B: This interpretation of the same field data was done at the University
of British Columbia, Vancouver. Fig. 8(a) shows the 2D geoelectrical model
of the shear zone. Fig. 8(b) and (c) show the observed and predicted
pseudosections. These are based on the basic data presented in Fig. 3 and
UBC 2D resistivity softwares. Fig. 8(b) and (c) are remarkably similar and
to
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i I i , illll J ] J I[ n m,,,u i ~ I ~ ~ I l 1 I I ~ I ! )1 I
. . . . . . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . l ~ ~ ................, " " " ~"'" " " " " .~....... " " ' "1,'.
~50 "- m~ 60 ~ - m ~ 4 0 0 ~-m~800 .-m~ O00~-mE~]1500.-m~3000-Q-m~7000.-~10000 .- m
FORWARD l 1 1 l l t i l i
MODEL:50 ohm-m 60 ohm-m 400 ohm-m 800 ohm-m 1000 ohm-m 1500 ohm-m 3000 ohm-m 7000 ohm-m 10000 ohm-m
INVERSE MODEL.'.34.68 + 11.93 20.57 -.+.18.06 494.65 .',-200.75 1117.66 ± 170.91 894.2 ± 104.92 1320 ± 476.59
1912 ± 633.30 2327 ± 626.96 13634 + 2056.23
Fig. 5 Two dimensional geoelectric model of the copper belt thrust zone obtained by Phase A interpretation shows the
signature of the shear zone and other major geological features.
f3
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ¢%
o
,I I ..... I, I I I I I I I I I I,, I I I I i
821 1196 749 162 509 1216 1222 1364" 1213 1541 1476 1510 1155 2243
rt = I
1072 788 180 169 :534 1483 1452 1769 1796 1961 2099 1811 3175 1291
2
610 191 170 220 519 1714 1841, 2600 2198 2699 2258 4800 1661
3
149 .177 217 . 231 539 2103 2608 3039 8868 2659 5470 2312
4
142 Z50 228 282 627 2890 2945 3823 2685 6106 2500
5 ¢%
188 242 288 368 825 5141 3567 3426 5900 2679
6
199 515 380 517 865 3679 3084 7271 2512
7
2 62 414 53l 562 984 3086 6356 5022
o~
8
2-D Model Date after inversion

f~
t~
Fig. 6 2D apparent resistivities obtained from the inverted models.
214 Roy et al
DHANJORI CBT DALHA
\.. s\
L E GEND
, [ I StMA 5I DF 9 ~ wo
2~ SIAL 6 ~OH tO s 4" CBT

3 ~IOG 7 ~OL
~~CF
Fig. 7 Conceptual geological model of the Singhbhum shear zone near Ghatshila-
Mosabani (Saha, 1994)
the signature of the shear zone is clearly reflected. Figure 8a shows that the
Singhbhum shear zone is about 1-1.5 km thick. It's resistivity is of the
order of 25 to 50 ohm-m. The central green block of about 25000 ohm-m
resistivitY is the block of Singhbhum group of formation (Chaibasa stage).
The yellow patches surrounding the green block stands for the soda
granites and Dhalbhum formation. The yellow patch on the southern side
of the shear zone is the iron ore group of rocks. These inferences are from
the geological input.
Phase C: Fig. 9a, b and c are the three models obtained with the same data
using the softwares of the University of Texas at Austin. The forward
model part of this software is based on the net work circuit theory and
cubic spline interpolation and the inverse problem is based on very fast
simulated annealing (VFSA) (Chunduru et al. 1995). The structure of the
VFSA is based on tl~ work of Rothman (t985), Sen and Stoffa (1991),
Chunduru et al. (1994), Ingber (1993) and Sen and Stoffa (1995). The
structure of Very Fast Simulated Annealing (VFSA) used for 2D inversion
is discussed in Appendix A. Three models are based on the three different
initial choices. Splines are used to describe the models. The resistivity and
location of the splines are the model parameters. Resistivity at each grid
point is computed from the model functions determined by inversion
algorithm. For all the three examples 10 nodes "in the X and 10 nodes in
the Z-directions are taken. For the first and second models, the locations of
Fig. 8 (a) Two dimensional geoelectrical model obtained from the same data using
UBC softwares; Phase B interpretation showing the location of shear zone
and other major features. (b) Observed pseudosection of the copper belt
thrust zone. (c) Predicted pseudosection of the copper belt thrust zone.
216 Roy et al
Fig. 9 (a,: b, c) Two dimensional geoelectrical models of the copper belt thrust
zone using three initial starting points; Phase C models are obtained using
the softwares of the University of Texas at Austin; all the models are
Showing the signature of the Singhbhum shear zone and other major
geological features.
the nodes were fixed and only the resistivity of the nodes~were variable.
For the third model, the location of the nodes were allowed to vary. A wide
search range of 50 to 10,000 Ohm-m of resistivity at each node location
were used to have a very broad range of apriori assumptions. The first and
second model are the same set up except that they were started with models
picked at random from the wide model search range.
To represent the misfit between the synthetic and real data for use in
nonlinear inversion schemes, a mean square error used is given by the
equation
ND
E = - ~ 1 i~
.= (R~ - Ri) 2 (2)
where Rs and Ro are the synthetic and observed resistivity data vector and
ND the length of the data vector, i.e., the number of locations where the data
are recorded. Synthetic data, those are the nonlinear functions of the model
parameters p(x, z), are computed by the forward modeling scheme of Madden
(1971). The function E, in general, can have a complicated shape requiring
the use of nonlinear inversion algorithm for locating the minimum (Chunduru
et al., 1994).
Figures 10a,b, 1la,b and 12a,b are, respectively, the misfit function versus
iterations and the respective synthetic data for the three models presented
here. By VFSA, the misfit level could be brought down to 30% of that
obtained by trial and error forward modeling and inversion presented in
Phase A. Fig. 13 shows the density model of the Singhbhum shear zone
along the same profile done by Verma and Mukhopadhyay (1989).
For ID field observations and inversion the match between the observed
and synthetic data can be quite close for good.quality data. For 2D forward
modeling and inversion however, the discrepancy between the observed
and model data can be quite large (Satyendra Narayana 1990, Smith and
Vozoff 1984) for some points. For this case also the discrepancy between
the observed and synthetic model is found to be significant for some points
in the pseudosection.
Discussion and Conclusions

The three models from the three different interpretations reveal some common
major features. These are: (i) the nature, width and electrical conductivity
of the Singhbhum shear zone near Ghatshila-Mosabani, (ii) dip of the shear
zone, (iii) the approximate size and order of resistivities of the Singhbhum
fold belt (Chaibasa stage) along the profile, (iv) the order of resistivities
and approximate size of the soda granite and volcainclastics along the
profile and iv) the order of resistivities and approximate size of the iron ore
group of rocks.
Since geology of the area is well known, the interpretation could be
stretched to connect geological formation with the different blocks of different
218 Roy et al
resistivities. The order of resistivity of all the four important geological

units came more or tess the same in three different interpretations although
the individual inverted resistivities and their geometrical shapes are different.
Important signals about the subsurface geoelectrical structure crystallised
out from the data. Thus it is demonstrated that there is something which
can be trusted in 2D modeling and inversion.
APPARENT RESISTIVITY PSEUDO SECTION

---1---2---3---,---$---l-- 7---8--$ 10- ti, 12-- 7 3 - - - 1 6 - - . 1 5 - - ~
N:| ll2 271 471 1323 l l g & I l l s 119? 91, 1105 761 1565 1866
N:2 1002 , 9 2 307 2301 I S , , , , & , 9 6 , l&&O 2 9 2 , 1558 2019
H:3 13,7 27, $83 1669 3206 V.l~ 1&?1 )23t. ,616 1557
N--.& 7,8 292 25? 29S& 1011 2 1 5 1 1257 & ¢ , I t,120
N:S 731 190 t.20 l&0L 28Y' & I l l , &S&, 177&
N:l &83 298 197 2~00 61S2 IS~t 352/.
H'-'-? ?SO 13& 283 .&&l$ ~ ~J3G
0.0t2
0.010
O.oo$
4-
O.OO6
0.002] ~
0 l I i I I I _ I. i i i
o 1ooo 2000 3oo0 t,000 5000 6000 7000
Iferatiobs
Fig. 10 (a, b) Predicted pseudosection and change in the misfit functions with
iterations for the model 9a.
Nonuniqueness and uncertainty levels are much more severe in two
dimensional inverse problems. Therefore the geology of the study area
shQuld preferably be known and the interpretation should be done with
much more caution.
For 1D problems, 100% (or nearly so) of the inverted models are used
for interpretation. For a 2D case we can use 50-80% of the model. Many
small features of the model which are not common in all the three
interpretations are not accepted for further studies although they may be
signals.
Those who believe that DC resistivity work should remain restricted

only to 1D problems should feel now that 2D forward modelling and inversion
is a big step forward towards analysing more complicated geological
structures. We could give some idea to the readers on what to trust and
what not to trust. One can accept these models as crude, approximate and
robust models. Since the D.C. resistivity method has a limited resolving
power, only broad features in the interpreted models should be used. There
are still some problems to be taken up next.
APPARENT R E S I S I t V I T Y PSEUO0 SEETION

I .... i -3 .... 4-- 5.-.6---7---8-.-9.--10---11---12---I'i---14---15--
N:I 265 472 317 1274 1199 1013 1257 137 953 726 1769 2186
N:2 952 517 225 1322 1476 2540 932 1424 2799 1321 2026
N:3 619 351 205 1454 3421 1525 1477 32496 4480 1321
H:4 552 307 201 2969 1695 2379 3207 4626 z.09S
N=5 455 312 366 1490 2979 4976 #,304 3659
N:6 456 $62 171 2232 6057 6440 3432
N:7 796 255 245 4330 7601 4961
0.012
0,010
0.008
O,OO6
11:
0,004
0 002
t i I ,, I 1 { ,1.... I t
'lO00 2000 3000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Iterations
Fig. I1 (a, b) The predicted pseudosection and the change in the misfit function
with iterations for the model 9b.
Those who believe that nothing in this world is strictly two dimensional
and every bit of interpretation work should be done in the 3D domain, must
admit that although ideal 2D structures may not be there in real earth
situation, long linear structures can be taken as 2D structures for all practical
purposes.
The 200 km long Singhbhum shear zone can approximately be treated
220 Roy et al
as 2D structures keeping in mind that the structural geologists have mapped

recumbent folds and reclined folds in these areas.
DC dipole-dipole traversing with AB = MN = 500 m cannot see the
superficial inhomogeneity exposed on the surface. The first information
will start appearing from a depth of about 500 m (Roy and Apparao 1971).
The observations are continued u p t o n . = 10.
APPARENT RESISTIVITY PSEUO0 SECTION
N=I 943 436 446 1526 t353 1273 130~i $~? 986 77~ "~71 t896
N=2 190 t91 463 1657 2080 Z&gS ~18 1GI0 259ra 1301 l.~t.S
N=3 393 295 378 199t, I/,55 I/,78 1539 3/,55 lggO 1187
N=4 613 258 600 2925 1875 2~$~ 31t.3 /,785 3426
N=5 512 309 5&O I/.59 3091 51,r,6 6223 3788
N=6 609 4z,9 253 228/* !;268 $933 3218
N:7 86? 218 379 46(,5 8236 s186
0 Ol
0.012
0._Ol0
•.- 0.008
z 0.006
O.OOt,
0.002
0 I I I t ! I
0 1000 2000 3000 t0(X) 5000 6000 7000 ~000 9000 10000
Iterations
Fig. 12 (a, b) The predicted pseudosection and the change in the misfit function
with iterations for the model 9c.
Definitely the 31)forward modeling and inversion will improve the

acceptability of the interpretation i.e., the inverted model may reach nearer
to the truth. But no work with successful field application is seen so far.
Once D.C. theory and application becomes well established in 2D domain,
the use of 3D field data for successful interpretation will come along the
same path, because the mathematical modeling and inversion technology
are more or less the same for 2D and 3D problems.
Remarkable advantage has been achieved in inversion of 2D geoelectrical
data with the advent of the nonlinear random walk techniques and its entry
G DISTANCE ,KM G
20 40 60 80 100 120
=E -30 L
iEl ./.0 ~
4O
30
:=E
-~ ~ / REStDUAL • COMPUTEDVALUE
~ .j 20
f~~DISTANCE ~ /
, 20 ~ 440"
p\. 60
. / . f Qn
ov . ~-. . ~ / 120
-, _
:3 G ".~j,f G'
0
m -10
SW SURFACE GEOLOGY NE
~III==II¢/~/H,~iPI~
~II~l'l~l~l~,, ~
tOT
~ = ~ =~
DISTANCE KM
2o 3;os 49 z~8 6p Q.os Bp,,2.63 loo, . l.zo
~" r " 4 "

4
• So, + BASEMENT
6 . + . 2. ~ 2.68
"r
8
2.68 I . - SINGHBHUM •
I.,d 10
(3 + THRUST
12 ÷
INDEX
[ E E ~ ULTRABASI C S SINGHBHUM GROUP
DHAN JORI GROUP IRON ORE SEDIMENIS
MAYURBHANJ GRANITE/
QUARTZ/CONG~OMERATE KUtLIPAL GRANITE "
[ ~ DALMA LAVA F~ SODA GRANITE (So,G)
BASEMENT;DT -- DALMA THRUST .
2.68 DENSITY IN GM/CM J
Fig. 13 Two dimensional density model of the Singhbhum shear zone across
Ghatshila-Mosbani obtained from Bouguer gravity data (Verma and
Mukhopadhyay, 1989).
into the arena of global optimisation. There are many advantages in using
these nonlinear inversion techniques like: (i) Genetic Algorithm (GA), (ii)
Simulated Annealing~(SA), (iii) Ve~ Fast Simulated Annealing (VFSA)
222 Roy et al
and (iv) Neural network (NN). The remarkable advantages of these techniques
are as a follows:
(i) It reaches to global minimum and does not fall into the trap of the
local minima.
(ii) The inversion do not need the derivative matrix. Therefore, the
algorithms do not suffer from instability problem due to zero and
very small eigenvalues of the sensitivity matrix. If the forward problem
work, inverse problem will work automatically.
(iii) Random walk techniques search the entire model space rather than
restricting the movement in a very narrow space.
(iv) A good apriori assumption is not a must in these global optimisation
techniques. Some randomness and stochastic approaches are
maintained in these algorithm.
The only constraint in SA is the computation time. That point also is
well taken care of in VFSA.
In the present study, the geometrical shapes of the different blocks,
except Singhbhum shear zone, came different in three different interpretations.
This aspect becomes a future topic of research. Three dimensional forward
modeling and inversion may improve the situation. Electrical resistivity
model is based on the limited resolving power of the geoelectrical tools.
Whether the geoelectrical model will be of any use to the structural geologists
trying to map a Precambrian terrain is a topic of the future.
The main limitation of the D.C. resistivity approach is the limiting depth
of penetration. Over the conducting zone, the potentials recorded drop down
below 500 micro volts and the level of signal and noise becomes comparable.
As a result we could not increase the dipole separation beyond n = 10 and
could see the Singhbhum shear zone upto about 2 km. We could not map
the depth extent of the shear zone. In future, Magnetotellurics. (MT), Audio
Frequency Magnetotellurics (AMT), Controlled Source Audio Frequency
Magnetotelluric (CSAMT) profiling should be taken up to map the depth
extent of the shear zone.
Acknowledgement
K.K. Roy is grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New
Delhi, for financing this work through the DST sponsored project ESS/
CA/A8-02/89. He is grateful to the then Director General of Geologicai
Survey of India, Dr. D.K. Ray for sanctioning the joint I.I.T., Kharagpur-
GSI, Calcutta field project for two consecutive years. We are thankful to
the Director General of GSI, Calcutta, Mr. D.B. Dimri who encouraged us
at all the stages of the work. Mr. K.K. Mukherjee is grateful ~to Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi for granting CSIR Junior and
Senior fellowship for carrying out this work at I.I.T., Kharagpur, Dr. M.K.
Sen is grateful to the Computation Incharge, University of Austin at Texas,
USA for providing the facilities for computation. Mr. ES. Routh is grateful
to the Software Library Incharge of the Department of Geophysics and
Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada for having
al the necessary softwares for 2D forward modeling and inversion of data.
K.K. Mukherjee and K.K. Roy are thankful to the system incharge of
Cyber 840/180 I.I.T., Kharagpur for providing adequate facilities for
computation. Dr. L.K. Das, Mr. H. Das, Mr. D.K. Saha, Mr. M.K. Rai and
Mr. D.C. Naskar are grateful to the Director general and Deputy Director
General of the Geological survey of India for their permission and
encouragement to take up the work. They are grateful to the supporting
staff of Geological Survey of India who helped in surveying of the traverse,
in proper maintenance of the high power generator and transmitter, for
driving half a dozen vehicles to the field site and for laying and winding
up of several kilometers of cables daily. Authors are grateful to Mr. EK.
Hazra for drawing the diagrams neatly.
References
1. Backus,G. and Gilbert,E, 1967, Numericalapplicationof a formalismfor geophysical

inverse problem, Geophys. Jour. Roy. Astro. Soc., 33,247-276.
2. Chundum, R.K., Sen, M.K., Stoffa, EL., 1995, Nonlinear inversion of resistivity
profilling data for some regular geometrical bodies, Geophysical Prospecting, 43,
979-1003.
3. Chunduru, R.K., Sen, M.K. and Stoffa, EL., 1995, 2-D resistivity inversion using
spline parameterizationand SimulatedAnnealing, Geophysics, 61(1), 151-161.
4. Coggon, J.H., 1971, Electromagnetic and electrical modeling by the finite element
method, Geophysics, 36, 132-155.
5. Dey,A. and Morrison, H.E, 1976, Resistivity modeling for arbitrarily shaped two
dimensionalstructures,part I: Theoreticalformulation,LawrenceberkeleyLaboratory
Rep. no. LBL-5223.
6. Dey,A. and Morrison, H.F., 1979, Resistivity modeling for arbitrarily shaped three
dimensional structures, Geophysics, 44, 753-780.
7. Duma,J.A. and Dey, A.K., 1942, The geology and petrology of estem Singhbhum
and surrounding areas, Mem. Geol. Surv. India, 69, Pt. 2, 281--450.
8. Hallof, P.G., 1964,A comparisonof the various parameters employed in the variable
frequency induced polarisation method, Geophysics, 29,425-434.
9. Ingber,L., 1993,SimulatedAnnealing,Practiceversustheory:Statisticsand computing
(in press).
10. Inman, J.R., 1975, Resistivity inversion with ridge regression, Geophysics,40, 788-
817.
11. Kirkpatrick, S., Getatt, Jr., C.D. and Vecchi, M.P., 1983, Optimization by simulated
annealing, Science, 220, 671-680.
12. Metropolis, N., Rosenbluth, A., Rosenbluth, M., Teller, A. and Teller, E., 1953,
Equation of state calculation by fast computing machine, Jour. Chem. Phys., 21,
1087-1092.
13. Mufti, I.R., 1976, Finite difference resistivity modeling for arbi~arily shaped two
dimensional structures, Geophysics, 41, 62-78.
224 Roy et al
14. Mwenifumbo, C.J., 1980, Interpretation of MISE-A¢-LA-MASSEdata for vein type

bodies, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
15. Narayan, S., 1990, Two dimensional resistivity inversion, M.S. thesis, University of
California, Riverside.
16. Pelton, W.H., Rijo, L. and Swift, C.M. Jr., 1978, Inversion of two dimensional
resistivity and induced polarisation data, Geophysics, 43,788--803.
17. Petrick, W.R., 1977, Ridge regression inversion applied to crustal resistivity sounding
data from Sourth Africa, Geophysics, 42, 995-1006.
18. Pridmore, D.E, t978, Three dimensional modeling of electrical and electomagnetic
data using the finite element method, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Utah, USA.
19. Rijo, L., 1977, Modeling of etecrical and electromagnetic data, Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Utah, USA.
20. Rijo, L., 1977, Interpretation of apparent resistivity data fromApodi valley, Rio Grande
de Norte, Brazil, Geophysics, 36, 943-959.
21. Rothman, D.H., 1985, Nonlinear inversion, statistical mechanics and residual statics
estimation, Geophysics, 50, 2284-2796.
22. Roy, A. and Apparao, A., 1971, Depth of investigation in direct current methods,
23. Roy, K.K. and Mukherjee, K.K., 1995, D.C. resistivity traverse across Singhbhum
shear zone near Rajkharswan, Indian Journal of Earth Sciences, 22(4), 177-182.
24. Saha, A.K., 1994, Crustal evolution of Singhbhum, North Orissa, Eastern India,
Memoir 27, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
25. Sarkar, S.N. and Saha, A.K., 1959, A revised correlation of the 'Iron Ore Series'
north and south of the copper belt thrust in Singhbhum and Adjacent areas, Q.J.
Geol. Min., Met. Soc,, India, 31,129-132.
26. Sarkar, S.N, 1984, Geology and ore mineralisation of the Singhbhum copper uranium
belt, Eastern India, Jadavpur University, Calcutta 263p.
27. Sarkar, S.N. and Associates, 1986, Geology and Geochemistry of sulphide ore bodies
and associated rocks in Mosabani and Rakha mines sections in.the Singhbhum copper
belt, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, 128p.
28. Sen, M.K. and Stoffa, EL., 1991, Nonlinear one dimensional seismic wave from
inversion using simulated annealing, Geophysics, 56, 1624-1638.
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resistivity sounding data, Geophysics, 58, 496-507.
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Appendix A
VERY FAST SIMULATED ANNEALING (VFSA)
If the error function is multimodal nonlinear optimization methods become

very useful. Following the work of Kirkpatrick et al (1983) a nonlinear
optimisation method called Simulated Annealing has been used in
muttiparameter optimization problems including those of geophysical
inversion (Rothman 1985, Sen and Stoffa 1991, Sen et al. 1993, Chunduru
et al. 1994). A review of the various SA methods are given in Ingber
(1993) and Sen and stoffa (1995).
Unlike Metropolis SA (Metropolis 1953) in which each new model is
drown from a uniform distribution, VFSA draws a model from a Cauchy or
Cauchy like distribution, which is a function of temperature (SZU and Hartley
1987, Ingber 1993) and then a decision is made as to whether to accept or
reject it. The advantage of using such a scheme is that at high temperatures
the algorithm allows for searches far beyond the current position, while at
low temperatures, it looks for improvement in the close vicinity of the current
models. In its more general form, a multi-dimensional probability distribution
can be used for model generation such that each model parameters may have
a different temperature associated with it (Ingber 1993). This temperature is
called the model temperature. The algorithm starts with a model chosen at
random, say, mi. Synthetic data are generated for this model and the error
(also called energy). E(mi) for this model is computed using Eq. (2). Then,
mj is perturbed to obtain a new model mj for which the error E(mj) is computed.
For zlE = E(mj) - E(rni), if AE < 0, mj is accepted. However, if AE > 0, the
new model is accepted with a probability P = exp (-AE/Ta), where Ta is a
control parameter called the acceptance temperature. The generation acceptance
process is repeated several times at a fixed temperature. Then the temperature
is lowered following a cooling schedule and the process is repeated. The
algorithm is stopped when the error does not change after a sufficient number
of trial. The acceptance step of the algorithm is the same as that used in
Metropolis algorithm (1953) and the acceptance temperature can be different
from this model temperature. This algorithm allows for fast cooling schedule
(Ingber 1993) as given below:
T(K) = TO exp (- C K l/N) (3)
wheee T(K) is the temperature at iteration K. To is the starting acceptance
temperature and N gives the number of model parameter values. Cooling
schedule as given in equation (3) is used. The initial temperature T,, is
usually chosen by Trial and error by making a few short test runs. The
parameter "C" is called the decay factor. For most of our application 1/N
was replaced by 0.5 in equation (3). Simulated Annealing based optimization
226 Roy et al
techniques offer the following advantages. They do not require the

computation of derivatives and inversion of large matrices; they can easily
employ objective functions with arbitrary constraints; computer coding of
the algorithm is extremely simple; most SAs are statistically guaranteed to
find an optimal solution i. e, the instability problem is absent and they need
a little apriori knowledge about the model. The disadvantage of this method
is that they are computationally intensive.
Synthetic apparent resistivity data are generated using a 2D finite difference
method for a 2D subsurface model parameterised by 45 grid points in the
X direction and 10 grid points in the Z direction (positive downward). In
the mesh, each cell is assumed to have constant electrical conductivity .and
cell sizes vary from top to bottom. The size of the cell is small in the top
portion of the mesh and large in the lower portion to obtain a better resolution
in the shallow part of the section. The subsurface is parameterised using 10
spline nodes in the X direction and 10 spline nodes in the Z direction
reducing the number of model parameters from 450 to 24. Initially the
spline node locations are held fixed and the inversion is applied to obtain
the resistivity values of the node locations. The X and Z positions of the
sptine nodes could be made unknown variables. That increased the number
of model parameters to 72.
All the VFSA examples have a starting temperature of 1.0 with a decay
rate of 0.98 and 2 moves per temperature. The search suits for the resistivity
of the spline nodes were set from 50 to 10,000 ohm-m. The starting
temperature is dependent upon the initial error of the starting model.
Optimisation of the cubic spline 2D model is discussed by Chunduru et al.
(1995).
III
Ocean Floor Electromagnetics
14. Oceanic Mantle Conductivity Structure

Determined from Magnetotelluric Data:
Hollister revisited
Wenjie Dong, Randall Mackie and
Theodore Madden
Department of Earth,Atmosphericand PlanetarySciences, MIT, Cambridge MA
Introduction
This study is a follow up o f an earlier study (Mackie et al., 1988) that we
will call Hotl-1. That study used telluric data from around Hollister, California
in conjunction with magnetic variation data from Fresno, California to
determine long period magnetotelluric responses. In the original study there
was a very limited set of magnetic data, but with time the magnetic data
set has expanded. Both the Fresno magnetic observatory and the Hollister
telluric array were unmanned and suffered gaps in their data, although the
telluric array had longer gap-free segments. Unfortunately, the telluric array
was closed down in 1989, so there are limits to the data sets that can be
used in this study. Figure 1 shows the location of the telluric and magnetic
stations, and Fig. 2 shows the telluric array details. The telluric lines labeled
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are ficticious lines as each electrode site (Wa, Bo,
Ho, SJ, Ci, Sa, Pa) was actually connected to the recording site in Hollister
by a telephone line, and the voltage differences between the telephone lines
were recorded. Because of local magnetic induction effects, these voltage
differences are not quite the same as the voltage that would have been
measured along a straight line connecting the dipoles. The ocean effect on
the TM mode, however, dramatically increases the electric field values and
at the periods used in this study the local induction effects are less than 1%.
Dipoles D and C are basically along the San Andreas fault, while dipole
F is basically along the Calaveras fault. Dipole A, which is SW of the San
Andreas, is overlying granitic rocks, while all the dipoles northeast of the
San Andreas overlie marine sediments.
The basic concepts and procedures used in this study are the same as
those used in Holl-1, so we will focus on changes in the procedures and the
results. We will reiterate the basic concept of these studies, however, which
is that the ocean-continent TM mode edge effects allows us to study the
ocean mantle conductivity structure to considerable depths even though our
data is all from the continental side. This is because the ocean MT electric
230 Dong et al
currents that come on shore at the long periods are almost two orders of
magnitude larger than the normal continental MT currents.
1
125 =
t~..nt m,nn,u t b d i m ~ n t a r y rOCkS
-- 42"
~ntary rocks
:~ry rocks
~ Knoxv~l|e ~roup
rtiOry VOlCOnlC rocks

ond Modoc PIateou
: metamorphic
ecent ~rock complex of

S MoJove ~ CdorodoDeserll
ic province boundary
37" unit boundary
Fig. 1 Simplified geologic map of Caliornia showing the location of the Hollister
telluric array (H), and the Fresno magnetic observatory (F).
Data Analysis
The Holl-1 study was based on telluric data from dipoles A and C. In this
study, we use data from dipoles C and E as well as data from A and C. The
A-C data are analyzed with 30 days of magnetic data from 1987. Later that
year, dipole A was lost because the telephone cable connecting Hollister to
Salinas (S) was taken out of service. For 1988, we have a 57 day magnetic
data set that we used to analyse the C-E telluric data. The magnetic data
are recorded once a minute, while the telluric data are recorded once every
five minutes.
The digital recording system used to collect the telluric data did not have
a correct absolute time (the relative timing was adequate), so we had to make
a manual absolute time adjustment based on aligning impulsive events in the
magnetic and electric signals (the dominant TM mode had a low E/H phase
at shOrt periods that tends to make the E and H field rapid variations similar).
By limiting ourselves to periods of one hour or longer, the phase errors due
Oceanic Mantle Conductivity Structure 231
to incorrect time alignments are probably only a few degrees at the shortest
periods and decrease with period.
GANTA CLARA
SAN B E N I T O
Bo
MONTEREY BAY
s~r
Ho
o f
A
(3- Ci
Set
0 5
"•ALINAS I0 15 20 Mrles
?"' ~ ~ I I f Ill i
L o 5~ Jo
I
+5
t ....
20
I
e5
"'l
30 KM'
Y
Fig. 2 The Hollister telluric array. Electrode sites at Wa, Sa, Sj, Bo, Ho, Ci and
Pa were connected to the recording site in Hollister just north of Ho by
telephone lines and the voltage difference between these lines were treated
as dipole signals. The ficticious dipoles A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H are
shown as straigth lines. C and D are along the San Andreas.
Unfortunately, the data sets are not noise free. The electric signals have
the biggest noise problems. The tidal motions in the offshore regions create
local electric fields that are detected in the near shore regions. Having local
sources, these fields have different E/H ratios than is the norm for MT data.
The largest telluric signals are the diurnal signals and their lower harmonics,
but despite this, the MT impedances obtained at these periods are found to
be a bit irregular, which can probably be attributed to the tidally-induced
noise. Electrode potential drifts are another noise problem that become
worse at longer periods since the telluric field variations decrease for periods
longer than 24 hours, while electrode noise tends to have a 1/f spectrum.
These data sets are longer than the data set used in Holl-1, which helps a
bit, but we made further improvements in the data analysis by using remote
references. For this data, the remote references were telluric data from
other dipoles of the telluric array. For the A-C signals, dipoles E and F
232 Dong et al
were used as remote references, and for the C-E signals, dipoles G and F
were used. Unfortunately, these references are not remote enough to eliminate
the tidally-induced noise.
After transforming the data into the freqency domain, and rotating the
data into north and east components, the magnetotelluric impedance Z is
determined from the following equation where we use the notation E for
the telluric signals, R for the reference signals (either telluric or magnetic,
and H for the magnetic signals, and the averaging is done over frequency
bands.
<Ex l
<Ey RIH> <Ey Rff>j
Z~y
=Z,,x z, L<..R1 <.:R.">J

The superscript H used on R stands for the complex conjugate transpose.
When the E signals are used as the reference signal, Z is overestimated
if there is noise in the E signals, and when the H signals are used as the
reference, Z is underestimated. Remote references whose noise is uncorrelated
with either the H noise or the E noise lead to unbiased Z estimates. For our
remote references we used other telluric signals from the Hollister array,
We suspect, as mentioned above, that our remote references had some
noise correlated with the E signal noise that would lead to an overestimated
Z, but which would be less biased than what one would obtain using E
signals as the reference. For this reason, we used both the remote reference
Z estimate and the H reference Z estimate.
After obtaining an estimate of the impedance tensor Z, we deconvolved
it into its major and minor eigenvectors and eigenvalues. If we had a true
2D conductivity structure, these eigenvectors, would correspond to the TM
and TE modes. For the A-C telluric signals, which are on the granitic
terrain southwest of the San Andreas fault, the major electric field eigenvector
(43 degrees east of north) is close to being perpendicular to the fault (126
degrees east of north) and is also close to being perpendicular to the major
magnetic field eigen~cector (145 degrees east of north). The vector also had
little ellipticity. Since most geologic features in central California, including
the San Andreas fault, are roughly parallel to the coastline, it is quite
reasonable to treat this data as coming from a 2D environment. However,
the impedance tensor from the other side of the fault (using the C-E telluric
signals) does not have this simple behavior. There, the major electric field
eigenvector is actually 110 degrees east of north. For this data set, we,
therefore, chose the electric field direction that was most closely correlated
with the major electric field component on the other side of the fault. This
direction turned out to be 95 degrees east of north. The change in direction
of this current system across the fault is in keeping with the differences for
the upper crustal resistivities on the two sides of the fault: The magnitude
of the electric field on the northeast side of the fault was also corrected for
the current spreading that occured because of the change of the current
direction across the fault. Then using the magnetic field variations in the
direction of the TM mode H field as determined from the A-C analysis, we
computed a scalar impedance estimate. The ZE estimate used the F dipole
signals as the remote reference. The apparent resistivity and phase obtained
from these data are shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
"I 0 5
A-C TM Mode Estimates
E °ee"
c-
o •
e~
104~(1 I i I I till I I I t I i i~
I 10 100
period (haurs)
(a)
(P
-22
"{3
o'I
o -45
r-
r~
-67
Ld
0
-90
I I0 I00
period ( h o u r s )
(b)
Fig. 3 TM mode MT response obtained from dipoles A and C. The ZH response
was obtained using the H signals as the reference signals, and t h e ZE
response was obtained using the telluric dipoles E and F as remote references.
234 Dong et al
~E I 0 0 0
C-E TM Mode Estimates
0
, ZH
• ZE.n
I i Ir I i 1 i i r I I I I J i I J i b a
IO 0
I I0 I00
(a)
0 ~ II i
q3
"
cn -15
G)
no
v -50
U
.c
CL -45
-r"
•,.. -60
b.I
d'
-75
-90 , , , ,I I I r i*~ , , ,I T I , ,,, ,,I

I I0 I00
(b)
Fig. 4 T M mode M T response obtained from dipoles C and E. This was a scalar
impedance with fixed E and H directions. The E direction was that which
was most coherent with the T M mode E field south west of the San Andreas
(A-C), and the H direction was the same as that used in the A-C analysis.
Dipole F was used as the remote reference for the ZE estimate.
Data Inversion
The procedures used for finding models that predict the observed MT
responses are the same as those discussed in Holl-1. This procedure, which
we call the maximum likelihood inverse, is the one proposed by Tarantola
& Valette (1982). In this procedure, one obtains the solution that minimizes
the sum of the squares of the misfit to the observed data and the misfit of
the final model to an appriori model. The misfits are weighted by the
inverse of covariance matrices, so that we minimize
[d - g(m)] H R~ [d - g(m)] + [rn - m0]n Rm~ [ m - m0] (2)

where d is the data, g(m) the final model prediction, Rdd the data covariance,
m the final model, m0 the apriori model and Rmmthe model covariance. The
superscript H stands for the complex conjugate transpose. We actually input
the covariance inverse rather than the covariance. Finding the minimum to
(2) is a non-linear problem, so, as usually done in geophysical inverse
problems, we linearize the problem around some model m i and make an
approximate correction to m i to update it to mi÷1 and continue the procedure
until we come close to satisfying the minimum criteria. The linearization
is given by
g(mi+l) = g(m i) + A Am (3)
where A is the sensitivity matrix and Am the model changes that one is
trying to determine. The terms of the sensitivity matrix are the derivatives
of the predicted data values with respect to the model parameters, which
are known as Frrchet derivatives. These terms can be represented as the
effect of sources in the zone that is being perturbed and, using reciprocity,
they can be determined by solving for the effect of a source at the observation
point on the perturbed zone (Madden and Mackie, 1989). Substituting (3)
into Eq. (2) and setting the derivative of (2) with respect to m equal to zero
gives us
Am = mi+ 1 - m i
-1 -1
= [A[4 R~ A + Rmm ] [Ain R$~ ( d - g(mi) + Rm~ ( m o - mi)] (4)
Both the model parameters and the data are logarithmically parameterized.
This helps the inversions to deal with large changes in the model values
efficiently, removes the bias associated with the magnitude of the model
parameters, and guarantees that the model parameters, which are conductivities
or resistivities, remain positive. It also makes a natural separation of the
amplitude and phase of the data. The data inverse variance that we use is
simply a diagonal matrix whose terms are inversely proportional to the data
term variances that we estimate from the scatter of the impedance estimates
around the local frequency. The model parameter inverse variances are
more subjective. In general, these terms are made much smaller than the
data inverse vaiances, but when some parameters are thought to be well
known, one can constrain their modifications in the inversion by assigning
them large inverse variances. One can also implement other constraints
such as smoothness of the spatial variations of the model parameters or
correlations between certain parameters, by the use of off-diagonal terms in
the model inverse variance.
Because of the strong non-uniqueness of these inversions, it is important
to examine different solutions in order to gain some understanding of this
problem. The sensitivity matrix A gives one important information as it
236 Dong et al
identifies parameters that do not influence the results. This matrix, however,
is based on a linear analysis and may sometimes be misleading. It is very
important therefore to explore different areas of the solution space, which
can be done by using several different apriori models.
Data Analysis Results

Fig. 5 shows an apriori model and Fig. 6 the inversion results using rather
modest inverse model variances except for the ocean conductivity, which
was strongly constrained. The inverse data variances were dictated by the
scatter of Z estimates. The model predictions are compared to the observed
data in Figs. 7 and 8. Figs. 9 and 10 show the RMS values of the contribution
of each model parameter to the sensitivity matrix. The amplitude sensitivity
is strongest for the crustal resistivities under the receiver dipoles, which is
not unexpected, but the ocean and the ocean crust and mantle are also strongly
involved even thousands of kilometers from the coast. The lower crust
throughout California up to the Sierra Nevada mountains is also involved.
This is due to the fact that the amount of ocean current that comes on shore
depends to some extent on how easily this current can be leaked back into
the mantle across the terrain on the continental side of the telluric station.
Phase data are somewhat influenced by the local conductivity structure under
the dipoles, but the dominant features controlling the phase are all oceanic.
Referring to Figure 6 we find that the biggest changes in the model
parameters from the apriori mode to the final model occurred in the ocean
segments. (Features that do not influence the data will be left at their
apriori values). The oceanic crustal resistivities were increased, although
some decreases were imposed in a narrow region close the shore. The
biggest changes were in the oceanic mantle where the conductivity increase
with depth of the apriori model was reduced by more than a decade, and
a sharp conductivity jump was imposed at about 700 kin. These featres
became less dramatic as one approached the coast, but the sensitivity data
shows these regions to be less influential. In Fig. 11 we show another
inversion where the oceanic mantle was constrained to be more one-
dimensional. For this case, the loss of the conductivity gradient was even
more dramatic as well as the conductivity jump at 700 km. The fits to the
data of these two inversions are virtually indistinguishable, but we would
tend to favour the second result as the near shore results of the first inversion
were basically the apriori values. Finally, Fig. 12 shows one more inversion
where the one-dimensional constraints were also applied to the oceanic
crust as well as the oceanic mantle. These results were similar to those
shown in Fig. 11 except that the changes of the oceanic crustal resistivity-
thickness product moving from the deep ocean toward the shore were
somewhat reduced. We are less willing to make a choice about this feature,
but there are tectonic reasons for expecting some lateral changes. The ocean
crust is younger as one moves in towards the coast.
I ~ I I I I 1 I t I I I I I I I I I
(
|
..~°o'g ~ ....... ~........
a: o
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"i
~
Z o
o _ -
* 0 o
~,, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~, ~- . ~ . ,
i o :
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o, o o ~ o Oo o o .,° g o_ ,, ~,
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*
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, o,, ~ 8_ o_ ,, - o
" |
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0
t) ~ 6 o o " o ~, ~, o - o E
.;
o .... ~o~Io~o~o~oo~ ~ .... e
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. . . . .° °. ' ° °
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1
~ o s o a I °° °° °° ~ ° ° ° . . . .
• ,,,. ,
238 Dong et aI
L
0 -- N ~ m
t.
i i i t l l I l l I I I I I I I t l
I 0
i 0
! c~ ~ 04 t~ O ~
=
I
I
=.- ~ m N _ - - 0
..
0
I
I
I
Z
U)
!
!
N
!
l
t|
I
>
L)
I11 ~ IP 0 *'11 I~ I ~ -- II~ I0 N
l
o
eb ~ , : ~ o
~<
1
: ° ~"
I_~ ~ "~"~ "~
I ..=
I ",~ ~-
- "~
I =
I 0
I
I
I 0
I
I
i
0
I .=
I
{la
1" @
m -- O i~ 0 0
o
r4 _
=
=
o
I.
O N0 0 0 0
m
e~ l :| --
~
--
. . . . .
°o;o;~
o
-':~'--_ - .
u
10 5
,E C-E TM Mode Estimoles ond Model Prediclions
E
t-
o
6)
t'~
< ,,[ , ~
lO z , i t i , ,,I J , l I I i i
I IO IO0
period ( hours )
(a)
A
-15
ea
-50
13
v
-45
v)
~O
aIc
O. -60
-r
-75
bJ
-90 I L~II I I, I I ~ Ill[ [ I I 1 i I I I i

I IO IO0
period (hoursl
(h)
Fig. 7 The observed MT TM mode response from the data of the A-C dipole and
the predicted response for the block just southwest of the San Andreas
using the inversion model shown in Fig. 6.
Discussion of Results
There are three major features of these results that relate to the oceanic
crust and upper mantle. The first result is that the oceanic crust and the top
of the mantle have a resistivity thickness product from between 2 x 109 and
4 x 109 ohm-meter s. This feature is responsible for the strong oceanic
effect on the telluric fields as seen in Hollister. These results are in good
agreement with estimates derived from controlled source soundings made
on the ocean bottom in the Pacific by Cox et al. (!986).
The second feature that comes out o f the data analysis is the very low
gradient in conductivity seen in the mantle at depths between 90 and 700 kin.
240 Dong et al
5
I0 /t ' ''/ ' ' ' ' ' ~"~i ' "" ' .....
- C TM Mode Estimates and Model Predictions
, 0 e"
0
v
< 104
I 10 100
period(hours)
(a)
q~
f,*~ [ 5
L-
"O -50
I/)
O -45 ~ ~ " ~ e • _
c-
O.
"1" -60 .j
IM -75 ~e~ e
6~
-90 .... I I i i i I i ill i I 1 I I i ,I

I I0 I00
period (hours}
(b)
Fig. 8 The observed MT TM mode response from the data of the C-E dipoles and
the predicted response for the block just north-east of the San Andreas
using the inversion model shown in Fig. 6.
The depth at which this low gradient commences is not well constrained, and
the large jump in conductivity put in the apriori model at 89 km was always.
maintained in the inversions. Table 1 lists the results for the oceanic mantle
resistivities of a number of different inversions., We also list the mantle
condi~ctivity predicted using the estimates of ocean mantle temperature (Jordan,
1975) and laboratory measurements on olivine (Duba et al., 1974) considered
appropiate for the upper mantle olivine composition, 10 percent fayalite
(Fe2SiO4) and 90 percent forsterite (Mg2SiO4) ~. Other minerals, which are
probably more conductive, also are present in the upper mantle, but unless
they form a connected frame, which is unlikely, they will have minor effects
&
°~
t_
e~
t.,
e~
°~
gl,,~
N
242 Dong et al
0 - N ~' ill -- N I~1 ~P q In @ I'..
x I I I I I I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I I
o -- -- 1 ~ o ot .. o
0 o
0
I o o o ~ ~• o - l° , °. ~ ~ ~ ~ °• °. °• °• °. , •
C~
0 . . . . ° . * • . ,
!
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(/)
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244 Dong et al
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0-
. . . . .
~l ~
- - _
,-- o
]- ._=
o ~
It.
I'-~1, ~ | 'q"
i E
i
i
, ~
I
i
,
i tI :1 ~-=.
I
i
, g
i I Z ~.I '~
!
., I I
246 Dong et al
on the effective conductivity. Basaltic melt, however, seems to have a low

enough wetting angle with olivine to be able to form a grain edge tubular
system (Tyburczy and Waft, 1983) that is quite efficient for electrical
connectivity, although not as efficient as a grain surface system. Since basalt
melt is much more conductive than olivine at upper mantle temperatures, a
small amount of melt could account for the discrepency between the electrical
properties obtained from the MT data inversions and those predicted from
the olivine properties. A melt fraction estimate is also included in Table 1.
These estimates are probably lower bounds as we assumed a very uniform
tubular distribution of the melt. Since we have not incorporated other possible
conductivity contributions, such as grain surface effects, these estimates can
also be thought of as upper bounds. We tend to favor the interpretation that
it is a melt effect, since the inversion results close in on the olivineresistivity
values at the deeper depths. These melt estimates do not show dramatic changes
with depth, but the uncertainty of the estimate grows with depth. Temperature
is of course a dominant factor in the electrical properties and since the true
temperature distribution is not that well known we have to be a bit careful
in our claims. The difference in the gradients of the log of the inversion
resistivities and the predicted olivine resistivities are maintained over a large
depth range, however, which makes it less likely that it is all due to small
errors in the temperature estimates. Lower gradients of log resistivity vs temp
(l/T) are obtained from olivines with less iron, but their resistivities are aiso
higher, which would lead to larger melt estimates if we modified the estimated
olivine (Fe/Mg) ratio.
The third feature of the data inversions is the conductivity jump that
occurs in the models at depths between 650 and 800 km. Given that our
data cannot be expected to resolve depths to better than 10%, the exact
location or thickness of the transition zone is not well defined, but can
probably be identified as the 670 km discontinuity. (At these depths one
should also begin to see effects due to the spherical geometry, which was
not accounted for in the modelling). This discontinuity is thought to represent
a phase transition from olivine to perovskite. Our MT data seem to assign
a conductivity jump of more than a decade for this transition. Our data do
not seem to show any discontinuity at arond 400 km where olivine is
thought to modify its structure to the beta-phase.
Pressing for more interpretations from these results is probably improper
as we must remember that many zones in the model affect the MT response
as observed at Hollister, and without more geographically distributed data
we are not in a good position to constrain their values. Nevertheless, we do
believe that the general results we have discussed are fairly robust.
There are some ocean bottom MT data sets from the Eastern Pacific that
should be relevant to this study (Oldenburg, 1981), but these data are far
from being minimum phase and thus cannot be treated as MT data.
Acknowledgement
All the acknowledgements mentioned in Holl-1 are valid for this study as
well. These include the very professional work of the Pacific Bell Telephone
Co. and A.T. & T. whose telephone lines were used as our antennas. Pacific
Gas and Electric Co. provided us secure space for our recording system,
and Tom Wilbur kept an eye on or system for us and mailed us data on a
routine basis. All these contributions allowed us to run this experiment
from the other side of the continent. The telluric array was set up under the
auspices of the U.S.G.S. earthquake hazards program, to monitor possible
changes in crustal resistivities that would be relevant to phenomena associated
with the behaviour of the San Andreas fault system, and none of these
studies would have been possible without their support.
References
1. Constable, S.C., Chave, A.D., and Webb, S.C., 1986. Controlled-source electro-
magnetic sounding of the oceanic lithosphere, Nature, 320, 52-54.
2. Duba, A., and Schock, R.N, 1974. Electrical conductivity of olivine at high pressure
and under controlled oxygen fugacity, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 1667-1673,
3. Jordan, T.H., 1975. The continental tectosphere, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., I3,
1-12.
4. Mackie, R,L., Bennett, B.R., and Madden, T.R., 1988. Long-period magnetelluric
measurements near the central California coast: aland-locked view of the
conductivity structure under the Pacific Ocean, Geophys. J., 95, 181-194.
5. Madden, T.R., and Mackie, R[L., 1989. Three-dimentional magnetotelluric
modeling and inversion, Proc. IEEE, 77, 318-333.
6. Oldenburg, D.W., 1981. Conductivity structure of the oceanic upper mantle mantle
beneath the Pacific plate, Geophys, J.R. Astron. Soc., 65, 359-394.
7. Tarantola, A., andValette, B., 1982. Generalized nonlinearinverse problems solved
using the least squares criterion, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 20, 219-232.
8. Tyburczy, J,A., and Waft, H.S,, 1983. Electrical conductivity of molten basalt and
andesite to 25 kilobars pressure; geophysical significance and implications for
charge transport and melt structure, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 2413-2430.
15. Methods for the Analysis and

Interpretation of the Sea Floor
Electromagnetic Fields
O.N. Zhdanova I and M.S. Zhdanov2
1SovietGeophysicalCommittee
2Geophysical ResearchCenter, Russian Branch of World Laboratory,Moscow,Russia.
1. Introduction
During the last decade sea floor electromagnetic observations have been
done in several areas of the World's Oceans. The most exciting experiment
has been done in the Pacific ocean close to California in the framework of
the EMSLAB project (Booker et al, 1989). As a result of these observations,
the sea bottom array data have been collected. It seems very important to
process these data in the same way as we process the data of geomagnetic
array study on the land. In the latter case, according to the main approach
developed in the book by Berdichevsky and Zhdanov (1984), we use the
different methods of EM-field space-time analysis, including separation of
the normal and anomalous deep and surface parts of the fields and the
different methods of the solution of the inverse problem.
This article develops the theory of deep electromagnetic profiling on the
sea bottom, analogues to that on the land and is based on three main stages
of interpretation: (i) separation of the electromagnetic field at the sea bottom
into normal and anomalous parts, (ii) separation of the sea bottom
electromagnetic anomalies into the close-to-bottom and deep parts and (iii)
inversion of the sea-bottom data.
The main aspects of this theory have been described in our previous
publications in Russian (Berdichevsky, Zhdanova and Zhdanov, 1989). It
was shown that horizontal components of the magnetic field and the vertical
component of the electric field appeared to be the most informative in the
ocean bottom study. So, the most interesting case for the sea bottom EM
profiling is the case of H-polarization. The detail theory of the inversion of
the sea-bottom data for this case is described.
2. Separation of H-polarized Field, Measured at the Bottom

of the Sea, into Normal and Anomalous Parts
Let us examine the model of oceanic geoelectric section shown in Fig. I.
In this model a horizontal layer of sea-water of thickness D and with
Interpretation of the Sea Floor Electromagnetic Fields 249
dl-cr
ff0:O Air z=-d
EQrth - -
--_z=O
---X
o'ncz)
Y z
Fig. 1 Model of geoelectrical section used for the separation of EM field into
normal and anomalous parts.
electrical conductivity cr separates nonconducting atmosphere (a0 = O) in

which extrinsic current jex is localized from nonuniform earth with arbitrary
two-dimensional conductivity distribution
a(x, Z) = adz) + aa(x, z)
where an(Z) is normal electrical conductivity (depends on Z only) and Aa
is anomalous electrical conductivity that describes geoelectric heterogeneities
of the ocean bottom. Plane Z = 0 coincides with the bottom of the sea. The
problem is formulated in the following way: distribution of electromagnetic
field E, H is given at the bottom of the sea (where Z = 0); it is necessary
to separate this field into normal and anomalous parts.
In accordance with the definition given in Berdichevsky, Zhdanov (1984)
normal field is a field E h, H h generated by extrinsic current jex in normal
geoelectric section or,, (in other words, in the absence of anomalous electric
conductivity: Act = 0). Anomalous E a, H a is the part of a field which
appears as a result of heterogeneity Aa, that is, an anomalous field can be
determined as the difference between complete and normal fields:
H a=H-H"; E a=E-E" (1)
The theory of separation of electromagnetic field into the normal and
anomalous parts in three-dimensional and two-dimensional cases (the latter
being for E-polarized field) has been developed in a monograph written by
Berdichevsky and Zhdanov (1984). Theoretically, the anomalous general
theory can also be developed for electromagnetic data detected at the bottom
of the sea. In order to separate fields in three-dimensional cases, it is
250 Zhdanova and Zhdanov
necessary to make array bottom measurements that are now difficult to do

because of limited number of special sea instrumentation. In this connection,
as it has already been mentioned above, the most interesting, from the
standpoint of practical use, is the technique of separating H-polarized fields
obtained while profile measurements. In case of H-polarization the task of
separating fields E z, Ex, H~' into normal and anomalous parts becomes much
more simple as compared to three-dimensional problem. Indeed, it should
be first mentioned that vertical component of electric field E z is of pure
anomalous character when measured at the sea bottom:
Ez Iz=0 - Ell z=0 (2)
It is connected with the fact that in normal field within model for only
inductional excitation of the earth vertical component of electric field is
identically equal to zero everywhere in the earth
n
Ez = 0 (3)
where - d < Z < + to.
At the same time, in case of H-polarization it is possible to restore the
other two components E~lz=_0 and Hyl z---0 on the basis of one of them,
namely, vertical component of anomalous electric field E a, measured at
the bottom of the sea, using correlations resulting from Maxwell equations.
To solve this problem let us take the first Maxwell equation written for
normal and anomalous fields in the layer of sea-water:
rot H n = o'E n (4a)
rot H a = erE a (4b)
As it is known, in case of H-polarization the following components of
the field are equal to zero:
Hx = Ey = Hz = O
Besides, all field components do not change along the axis Y, that is, all
derivatives applying to Y are also equal to zero. Hence, equations (4a, b)
bring into formulae
OH~./Ox = a E z = 0 (5a)
~gHy/ OX = a E z (5b)
It follows from formula (5a), in particular, that

n
H,,I z=const= const (6)
that is, normal magnetic field does not alter in the horizontal direction.
From the fourth Maxwell equation div E n = 0 and condition (3) it is easily
concluded that the field E~ is also constant at each level z = const. In

other words, in case of H-polarization normal field is described by plane
homogeneous electromagnetic wave. Thus, all declinations from a certain
constant level of horizontal components of a field in case of H-polarization
are determined by anomalous field. This significantly simplifies the task of
separating fields into normal and anomalous parts provided that in the
limits of observation area, fields get their normal values on the left as well
as on the right side. Neverthless the problem--formulated above---of direct
calculating anomalous horizontal component of the field, using measured
vertical component E z at the bottom of the sea, is rather interesting. In
order to solve this problem let us pass from electromagnetic field component
Ex~, H i, E z to their spatial spectra
h,a(z). = f = HI(X, Z) exp (iKxX) dx
ex(Z) = Ex(X, Z) exp (iKxX) dx
foo
ea(z) = J_= E~(X, Z) exp (iKxX) dx
where - d < Z.
Then using spectra, Eq. (5b) can be written as
- i K x h ; = ae~
Hence hi(-0) = i(cr/Kx)ea(-o) (7)
Let us now examine the fourth Maxwell equation for anomalous field in
the layer of sea water:
div E a = 0
In case of H-polarization this equation according to (5) assumes the
following form:
c)E~/c)x + ~?Eff/Oz = 0 (8)

or, using spectra language:
exa = _ (i/Kx)ez" (9)

where prime means spectrum differentiation with respect to Z.
Let us calculate the value of vertical derivative of vertical component of
the electric field ea'z. In order to do so let us write down Helmholtz equation
for anomalous electric field in the layer of sea water
A E a + K 2Ea = 0 (lO)
where K 2 = ia)P0(r.
In case of H-pola~sation this equation is written as follows:
3 2 E xa t9 2 E~a
OX--------y+ ~ + K2E a = 0 (tla)
6~2 a o~2Ez
Ez + + K2Ez = O (llb)
ax-----r
Passing to spatial spectra in the latter equation we obtain the following:
(e xa),, = 112e x (12a)
(e~)
,Z
" = 112e~
Z
(12b)
-d<Z<-O
where 112 = K 2 _ K 2.
The general solution of Eqs (12a) and (12b) can be expressed in the
form of exponents. In particular, for (12b) we have
e'](Z) = a exp (11Z) + b exp (-r/Z) (13)

where a and b are unknown constants that should be easily determined
when the values e~ at the sea level (when Z = - d) and at the bottom (when
Z = - 0 ) are known
e ~ ( Z - - d) = 0; e a ( Z = - O) = e z ( - 0) (14)
Introducing (13) into (14) we obtain a system of two linear equatlon~

relative to two undeterminates a and b:
0 = a exp (- 11d) + b exp (0d)
ez(- O) = a + b (15)
Solving (15) we obtain
a = [{exp (11d)}/(2shlld)]ez(- O)
b = - [{ exp (nd) }/(2shlld)]ez(- 0) (16)
IntrOducing (16) into (13) we, finally, write down the following:
ea(Z) = ez(- O) [{sh11(d + z)}/(shlld)], - d < z < - 0 (17)
Differentiating (17) with respect to Z we obtain
(ea)" = ez(- O) [{ch11(d + z)}/(shlld)] (18)

In particular, in case of the sea bottom:
[ez(- 0)]' = [ea(- 0)] ' = ez(-O)rlcthrld = e~(-O)ocht~Td (19)
Now, writing (9) for the case of sea bottom and taking into consideration
(19) we, finally, obtain:
e~(- O) = -(i/Kx) ea(- O) = -iez(- O) (rl/Kx)cthrld (20)
Thus, formulae (7) and (20) solve the problem of determining spectra of
anomalous component of H-polarized field on the basis of measurement of
vertical electrical field component. In order to determine the anomalous
fields themselves it is necessary to make inverse Fourier transforms
Hy(Xt - 0) = [1/2zl)] h~a(- 0) exp (-iKxX) dKx (21)
E~(X 1 - 0) = [1/2zl)] ~.
+~
exa(- 0) exp (-iKxX) dK x (22)
According to (t) normal fields can be determined by simply deducting

the anomalous fields from measured complete field components.
3. Separation of Electromagnetic Anomalies Detected at

the Bottom of the Sea, into Surface (Near Bottom) and
Deep Parts
In practice, when studying geoelectric section of the sea and ocean bottom,
it is necessary to bear in mind that anomalies of conductivity usually have
surface part connected with heterogeneous layer of bottom sediments and
deep part conditioned by the structure of deep layers of the earth's crust
and upper mantle. In this connection, at sea as on the earth, it is necessary
to separate electromagnetic anomalies detected at the sea bottom into surface
(near bottom) and deep parts. The solution of this problem is likely to be
possible only if we have information on heterogeneities at the bottom sediment
layers.
To formulate this problem mathematically let us complicate the model
of geoelectric section given in Fig. 1. Let us assume that the area of anomalous
conductivity Act(X, Z) consists of two parts: (i) near bottom heterogeneous
Price thin sheet with the conductivity S(X, Y) = $1 + AS(X, Y) and lying
on conducting bottom with normal electrical conductivity cr,(Z). This thin
sheet approximates a heterogeneous layer of bottom sediments. (ii) The
deep heterogeneity D with electrical conductivity Crd(X, Z) = an(Z) +
or(X, Z) (Fig. 2).
In this model an anomalous electromagnetic field according to the study
(Berdichevsky and Zhdanov, 1984) can be represented as a sum of surface
(near bottom) anomaly H s, E ~ (S-component) and deep anomaly H a, E a

(d-component):
H a = H s + H ~l
Ea = Es + Ea
(Yo: 0 Air z:-d
d l - O- _Earth
S = S1 + AS ~ -- z=-O--
_-- x
/////////////////////////////////. - _ _
O-n (Z} Z:+O
Fig. 2 Model of geoelectrical section used for the separation of the EM anomalies
into the surface the deep parts
In this case d-component is excited by excess cmTent which flows at

J a = AcrE density in the deep heterogeneity and S-component is excited by
the excess current distributed at surface density equal to I s = A S E r in
heterogeneous Price thin sheet (E:horizontal component of complete electric
field in the thin sheet, that is when Z = 0).
S-component everywhere outside the thin sheet satisfies equations
0 Z<-d
rotH s = ere s -d<Z<-0 (22)
crnE s + O < Z < +oo
rot E s = iogpoH ~
As it is known for H-polarized field on the thin sheet S the following

boundary conditions are realised:
[E~]z_-0 = 0 (23a)
[E~ ]z=o = S~ES Iz=0 + I s (23b)

according to which a horizontal component of electric field is continuous
when crossing the thin sheet S, and a magnetic one undergoes the discontinuity
that can be determined by surface current density in the thin sheet.
When crossing the thin sheet S, vertical component of magnetic field H i
is continuous, and that of the electric field E~ is subject to discontinuity,
the value of which can be determined with the use of equation (5b). Writing
down this equation for the upper (Z = 0) and lower (Z = + 0) sides of the
thin sheet S and deducting the equalities term wise one from another and
taking into consideration boundary conditions (23b) we obtain:
O
a E f t ( - O) - alES(,+ O) "- . - ~ [H;]z= 0 = S 1 ol X [z=0 4.-
: -Sl -OE[
~ - + OI;
a--Y (24)
where the fourth Maxwell Eq. (8) for surface anomalous electric field is
used, and al is the conductivity of the first homogeneous layer of normal
section underlying the thin sheet S.
Introducing spatial spectra into (24) we obtain
aeS( - O) - aleS(+ O) = -Sle zS' z=0 - iKx Js (25)

where
J~ = ~ I~(X) exp (-iKxX) dx = ~f~ A S(X)Ex(X) exp (-iKxX) dx (26)
According to a well known Lipskaya formula (Berdichevsky and Zhdanov,

1984 [8], p. 262) the specter of vertical component of surface electric field
e~ on the lower side of the thin sheet Sis expressed by its vertical derivative:
aleS(+ O) = (1/Z ngx)e zs' Iz_-0 (27)
This formula is true for S-component of electric field because this

component, everywhere in the medium below the thin sheet (Z > + 0), satisfies
according to (22) the same equation that normal field does. In (27) Z g* is
a galvanic spectral impedance, which confirms to a normal deep section
an(Z) and is determined by the following formula:
Z~g* = - (1/o"1) [1/(/~*)] (28)

where R _ c t,h f ~ A arcth cth
--th t l / l t * l "l'artch[(T/1]TI2) ( a z / a l ) t h {TIzd2 + ..-
q_arcth
~ch (71n-l/rln) (aN~aN-I)'" }]} (29)
crl, dl, or2, d2. . . . ¢y, are the parameters of normal section cry(Z) tmderlying
the thin sheet S.
Introducing (27) into (25) we write down the following:
o'er(- 0) + eS'l z=0 (Si - 1 / Z g*) = iKxJSx (30)
It should be noted that for the surface anomalies formula (19) is true: it
has been obtained for anomalous field eaz spectrum, because e~ satisfied (in
the layer of sea water) the same equations as anomalous fields do:
e~" tz=o = e~ ( - O)rlcthrld (31)
Introducing (31) into (30) we obtain
creW(- O) + e z ( - O)rlcthrld(S1 - 1/Z~*) = - i K x J s (32)

and, using it, finally obtain
e~z(- O) = - iK~J~x[a - {(t - s~zg*)/Z~,*}rlcthrld] -1 (33)
The spectra of horizontal components of electric e~ and magnetic h i

fields are determined according to el(- 0) by means of correlations analogous
to foLxnulae (7) and (20) for anomalous fields because equations for anomalous
field and S-components coincide everywhere above a heterogeneous thin
sheet. They are
hS( - O) = i(cr/Kx) exS(- 0) = CrJxS[cr- {(1 - sizg*)/Z~*}Tlcthrld] -~ (34)
eS( - O) = - i ( rl / Kx)cthrld e~(- 0)
= -J~rlcthrld[cr- {(1 - SlZf,*)/Zg*}qcthrld] -1 (35)

In order to obtain the values of surface anomaloffs field themselves it is
necessary to realise the Fourier inverse transformations according to formulae
of (2t) type.
Thus, measuring hQrizontal components of electric field at the bottom of
the sea, the distribution of anomalous longitudinal conductivity of bottom
sediments being known, it is possible to determine surface component of
electromagnetic field at the bottom of the sea. Excluding this component
from anomalous field we can find a deep component E:~, a Hy,
d E~, which
give information on deep geoetectric heterogeneities of the ocean's bottom.
4. Solving Inverse Problem of Bottom Electromagnetic

Profiling
Ratio (33) can be used for solving the inverse problem of determining the
longitudinal conductivity of bottom sediments layer. Indeed, let us assume
that there are no deep heterogeneities in the model of geoelectric section

(Fig. 2). Then the surface anomaly coincides with complete anomalous field
and, in particular, according to (2):
e zs = e z~ = e z (36)
Introducing (36) into (33) we obtain

g* g*
j s = (i/Kx) [ o ' - {(t - S t Z n ) / Z n }rlcthrld]e~(- 0) (37)
Applying the Fourier inverse transforms to the left and right parts of
(37) and taking into consideration (26) we write down the following:
+~ g* g*
AS(X) = [21rEx(X)] -1 (i/Kx) [a - {(1 - S1Z n ) / Z n }rlcthrld]ez(- O)
x exp ( - iKxX ) dK x
= [2rCEx(X)] -~ f f ~ (iaez(- 0)/Kx] exp ( - i K x X ) dKx
= [2~Ex(X)] -1 [(irlcthrld)l(gxZn )]ez(- 0) exp ( - i K x X ) dKx
+ S1[2~Ex(X)1-1 ~*~ [(irlcthrld)/Kx]ez(- 0) exp (-iK~X) dKx
(38)
According to the first Maxwell equation and formulae (7) and (1) we
obtain
[iaez(- O)]/Kx = h~(- O) = B y ( - 0) - h3~(- 0) (39)
and following the fourth Maxwell equation and formulae (19) and (1) we
have:
[irlcthrld)/Kx]ez(- O) = - e~(- O) = - ex(- 0) + exn(- 0) (40)
Introducing (39) into the first integral and (40) into third integral (38)
and making the Fourier inverse transforms we obtain:
AS(X) = [Hv(X)]/[Ex(X ) - [H ylz=_o]l[Ex(X)]

.
- [2~E~(X)] -~ [(rtcthrld)t(K~Z n )]ez(-0)
x exp (- iK~X) dK~ - S1 + S~[E~Iz=_Ol/[E~(X)I
Hence we can lay down a formula for calculating summary longitudinal

conductivity S(X) of the bottom sediments:
S(X) = SIAS(X ) = [Hy(X)I/[Ex(X)] + [S1E~ - H~lz=_o/[Ex(X)]

_ i[2zEx(X)] -1 [(rlcthrld)/KxZgn *)]ez(-O ) exp (-iKxX) dKx (42)
Let us note that if electromagnetic field variations are measured in the

periods' interval corresponding to interval S for normal field, then
H~IE~ = St
Hence, the second term in (41) under the integral sign disappears and we
have the following:
S(X) = [H,.(X)]/[Ex(X)]
_ i[2zEx(X)] -1 [(rlcthtld)/KxZ, )]ez(-O) exp (-iKxX) dKx (43)
Thus, the value S(X) being determined by formulae (43), consists of two
parts: (i) the main part having sense of the apparent admittance (this part
is equal to S1 in the Tikhonov-Kanjar model), (ii) integral correction which
takes into consideration the heterogeneity of Price thin sheet.
Let us examine the integral correction structure in the model with infinite
homogeneous conducting bottom with o'l conductivity. Then, according to
(28) we have
Z~* = - r]llo- 1 (44)
where
S(X)=HdEx- i[27rEx( X)] -~ [(rlcthrldo-1)/Kxrh )]ez(-O) exp ( - iKxX) dKx
(45)
At last, in case of nonconducting bottom (o'1 = 0) the integrated or
overall longitudinal conductivity of the bottom sediments layer is determined
directly according to the admittance
S(X) = [H~.(X)]/[Ex(X)] lz___o (46)

Generally speaking, the latter formula can be obtained directly from
boundary conditions (23b) and a well known fact is the horizontal component
of magnetic field on the roof of insulating bottom is reduced to zero.
Hy(X) Iz=+0= 0
Conclusion
1. For the sea bottom electromagnetic anomalies we have the situation that
differs from the continental anomalies: the horizontal components of the
magnetic field and the vertical component of the electric field appear to be
most informative in the oceanic bottom studies.
2. For the sea bottom data the methods of field separation and inversion
could be developed similar to those of interpretation of the continental
anomalies.
3. The methods of the sea-bottom data interpretation developed in this
paper, are planned to be used for the analysis of the results of the EMSLAB
experiment.
References
1. Berdichevsky,M.N., Zhdanov, M.S., 1984,Advancedtheory of deep geomagnetic

soundings, ELSEVIER,Amsterdam.
2. Berdichevsky, M.N., Zhdanova, O.N., Zhdanov, M.S., 1989, Marine deep
geoelectrics, NAUKA,Moscow.
16. On the Design of Ocean Bottom

Electrometer
R.V. Iyengar
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Colaba, Bombay-400 005, India
Introduction
Measurement of the electric field at the ocean bottom presents formidable
problems. To begin with the magnitude of signals for an electrode separation
of several meters is very low--only a couple of micro volts. Large scale
movements of water mass generates relatively strong voltages at lower
frequencies that make isolation of induced voltages difficult. On the other
hand, for the higher frequencies the attenuation of signals by sea water makes
induced signals smaller. These facts are borne out in Figure 1 (Filloux, 1973).
What can be observed is a narrow band of freqencrieSbetween 0.1 to a few tens
of cycles per hour (cph). The instrumentation is geared to cover this range. Its
various elements are described below.
The Electrodes
The electric field measurement at two points A and B in a conducting
medium like sea water needs a pair of matched electrodes which can establish
electrical contact with sea water at that point. The electrical contact is not
purely ohmic but electrochemical in nature. Such a situation gives rise to
a contact potential that varies with the structure of electrode, the area of
contact, the type and composition of electrodes, the salinity of water and
its temperature, etc. These call for a pair of matched electrodes to measure
the potential difference. The contact self potential of the pair itself is about
100 micro volts. Further, such a contact potential has a noise component
that increases towards lower frequencies (Fig. 2). It can be seen in the
figure that in the frequency range .001 Hz to 01 Hz (which spans the range
of 0.1 cph to few tens of cph) the electrode noise becomes a dominating
factor.
Several types of electrodes have been used in such measurement. The
Ag-AgC1 electrodes and PbC12 electrodes give least noise and show a
better long term stability. The electrodes behave like pure resistive sources
of few hundred ohms resistance.
The set up shown in Figure 3 has proved useful in potential defference
measurements. The two electrodes, placed in close proximity, arc electrically
insulated from each other. The electrodes are connected to two long insulating
On the Design of Ocean Bottom Electrometer 261
I I l l I
t-
(73.
l
¢y l'Y
i
>.>,. n," l~J
U << <1:< =:) ~._
WW
_
>.>- Q Q 0 E)
--u'I -I" Z
E 6 - -E
DiurnaI and Semidiurnol -
?i i, F'I, I>,,,
>
E 2 I \ K ,"Oceanic Tides
! i
" ill_ \
>- - Solar Daily
I--
~' Variation
o
t~ Large scare
Z
Ld oceanic motions ,~ Sturbed
t~
.,~/\' Time
>- -2
~D
y k \ \ _ Quiet
n~ Internal Waves \\ ~Time
Ld and Tides
Z
Ld -4 Deep Oceon ' \ ~x'~ 5
0 Tur butence'--" \
\ \
o \
._J -6 \
II II I
-8 ............... i , L I I I p
-5 -4 -2-3 -I 0 I
LOG lo FREQUENCY~ CYCLE IHOUR
Fig. 1
tubes which open out into sea water at points A and B. The water channel
within the tubes connects electrodes 1 and 2 to points A and B respectively.
The water channel has a resistance of the order of a kilo-ohm. These tubes
are termed as salt bridges. The above arrangement makes the source appear
100
/--GRAPHITE
J r - BRASS- STELL
t
,.,
u
10 " ' ' ~ i--///--Cu-Cu SO/~/Cd-CdCI2 -
> .
--.... y~//r-A~-A~Ct i
Z Pb- PbC[2
tat
o
z
0.1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 2
262 Iyengar
5 to 10 Meters
~ ...........
A B
0
Insulated Tube D Tube
is Salt Bridge Salt Bridge
Ag -Agcl Ag -Agcl
El| E|2
+ ~ . A m p Gain i =
(For simplicity )
Fig. 3
as a voltage source with an internal resistance of about 1 kilo-ohm. The

equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.
,,,,, , /V~Vv ~,
Rs I~ I [ >
^ EO
ESA( O/P EOI= ( ESB-EsA) + ( ENI- EN2)

O/P EOII= (EsA-ESB)+(ENI-EN2)
n
T
EOII - EO! = 2 (EsI- ES2)

Fig. 4
The Water Chopper

The signal is a slowly varying DC voltage. However, the electrodes self
potential too is drifting slowly in a random fashion. To eliminate the electrode
drift potential from measurement, a water chopper is interposed between
the salt bridge and the amplifier as shown in Fig. 5. The chopper connects
clcctrodc 1 to poin~ A and 2 to point B initially as shown in Fig. 6. After
a certain interval of time, the chopper switches to connect electrode 2 to
point A and 1 to point B (inferred from Fig. 7). The system is similar to
a chopper stabilised systcm, whereby the noisc is eliminatcd. Howcvcr, the
limitations of chopping action across here are two fold:
AI, _i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ']B
m
.-WATERCHOPPER
ELI~" ~ EL2
Fig. 5
P O ~ N II
ESA~ ~ ~ ESAFROMA
ESBFROMB
Fig. 6
Electrode Potential
EO
(,~ El Potential
V
T EO=(Es1-Es2)+(EN1-EN2)
Fig.7
264 Iyengar
(1) Due to chopping action, the upper frequency is limited by Nyquist's

rule. Thus, if we alternate contacts every minute one can measure signal
with periodicities of 2 minutes or more. In practice one can only measure
periodicities of 5 minutes or more at this chopping rate with good fidelity.
(2) The periodicities being very large such sea bottom electric field
measurement necessitates that the instrument be used for observation for an
extended l~eriod of time. The long period of observation and great depths
necessitates that the instrument be battery powered. With every switching
of water chopper a finite amount of power is consumed, thus, limiting the
period for which observation can be carried out. Secondly fast switching is
ruled out as power available is limited. However, attenuation of signal of
high frequency in sea water renders rapid switching useless.
Water Chopper Design

The salt bridge and the electrodes present a net source resistance of 1 kilo-
ohm. The water chopper acts like an electrical switch which connects the
electrodes to points A and B, respectively, through salt water channel as
shown in Fig. 8. This switch is not an ideal switch in that the closed channel
does not have infinite resistance. When the chopper is moved to left piston
X allows water from point A to reach electrode 1 and prevents water from
point B reaching it. Similarly piston Y allows water from point B to reach
electrode 2 only. Though the piston closes the water channel, it does not
isolate the electrical contact completely. As a result, signal from the other
channel also reaches the electrode. Such an intermixing of signals is called
as the cross talk. The salt bridge resistance introduces 1 kilo-ohm in series
with the source and hence increases the cross talk. In order to get -40 dB
attenuation of cross talk the resistance of chopper switch should be 100 kilo-
ohms or so for a source resistance of 1 kilo-ohm. Therefore, the main problem
to concentrate on in the design of Ocean Bottom Electrometer (OBE) is to
design a good water chopper switch. For getting a -40 dB attenuation in
cross talk the water channel should be closed with 2-3 kilogram force.
Structure of Water Choper

Figure 8 shows the structure of the water chopper. The channels connecting
points A and B to water chopper are seen. The chopper consists of a linear
motor assembly made of ring magnets 1, 2 and coils c-c clad with mild
steel covers. The same linear motor can drive shafts on either side and does
facilitate simultaneous measurement of voltages from points C and D in a
direction perpendicular to the direction A-B.
When a current is passed through a coil the ring magnets are repulsed
whereby they move to the opposite side, eventually attaching to the other
coil face. Thus, by giving a current pulse the magnets can be moved back
and forth to bring about linear movement of piston which results in chopping
I...-
Z
X
o
11.
c~ I •
7,
I
¢r
Z
--J
n~
o
o
u.
tl.
X
266 Iyengar
action. It may be noted here that the chopping action consumes power only
for a brief period.
The Electronics
The chopping action gives rise to following outputs in its two positions as
shown in figure
Output in position I, Eol = (EA + EN1) - (EB + EN2)
Output in position II, Eo2 = (EB + EN1 E) - (EA + EN2)
Hence Eo] - Eo2 = 2(EA - EB)
It is seen from above equation that the process of extracting of signal
involves certain amount of computation which is best done by a processor.
The processor and electronics used are designed to consume as little power
as possible. As the system makes measurements once a minute, a timer is
used to run the system. The entire system comes "on" at every minute for
only a few seconds which is necessary for digitizing the signal and storage
thereof is conserved. The timer is the only item which is continuously
powered and is a CMOS variety, consuming low current. Block diagram of
the electronics which can be used is shown in Fig. 9.
A/D STATUS~ ).1P 2F7 V >

I/P I CONVERTER TR(OUT} BOARD 13 ROM t28K-ROM
PAIR .(:. .IN. MAIN 'ADD > WR-STEP . . .?/DO
. " STOR~E
BOARD CONTROL WRT BOARD +2t'7 V
CHOPPER 2 +SV [+I2V,+SV 8 +SV
t l +5V ~-5V
/
BUFF " DATA-BBIT
I
/
/ ADDRES
I I°,P AMP ~ c.oPPE-'~ POWER
L.~ ....
• - [ DRIVECKT SUPPLY
I TIMER
AND
PAIR l "PSV B ¢- "1"12 V SUPPLY
+5V,-SV |(_~SVorl"Zv] i +5V ,-SV CONTROLCK
TOBEFINALIZED
Fig. 9
A Modified Algorithm
The modification suggested below is expected to improve the cross talk
performance of the chopper as used by Filloux (1973). At depths of 3
kilometers or more where OBM's are deployed, signals of frequencies higher
than 10 cycles per hour are attenuated. At such depths, the frequency range
of interest is limited to the band of 0.1 to few cph. The electrode noise is
dominant as we proceed towards lower frequencies i.e. from 1 to 0.1 cph.
In this range one can operate water choper in the following way:
In position 1 points A and B are connected to the electrodes 1 and 2

respectively. The output then is given by:
Eol = (E A + ENt) - (E B + EN2) (1)

when the chopper is switched to position 2 the water chopper shuts off the
water channels from A and B from reaching the electrodes. In this case the
coutput is given by
Co2 = (eN~ - EN2) (2)

From above Eol - Eo2 -- (EA - EB).
Now (EN1 - EN2) is a very slowly varying function, due to which it may
be sampled at 10-minute intervals. This is advantageous since: (1) the
power requirement goes down, for the chopper now switches once in several
minutes and 2 the bandwidth of measured signal increases.
An added avantage is better cross talk performance. However a word of
caution is in order here. The technique is a nonstarter if the noise/drift of
etectorde has a high frequency component of significance. The electrodes
which can function under above conditions have to be chosen carefully.
Conclusion
The success of the design depends upon the performance of the watcr
chopper. In the present design the cross talk can be brought down so that
the accuracy of measurement can approach one percent or so. Performance
of the system depends on judicious choice of magnets and springs. The size
of the system places limitations too, which need be taken into account.
Acknowledgement
This study was conducted by the author under the guidance of Prof. J.
Segawa of Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, under a Fellowship
granted by Japan Society for Promotion of Science. Evidently the starting
point was Dr. Filloux's design. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude
to the people and the organisations mentioned above. I would also like to
express my thanks to Dr. N. Onishi, currently of Tierra Tecnica, Tokyo for
his suggestions, discussions as well as help during the design process. I
would like to express my sincere thanks to Prof. B.P. Singh for his
encouragement and help.
Reference
Filloux, J.H., 1973,Techniquesand instrumentation for the study of natural electromagnetic

induction at sea, Phys. Earth Plan Int., 7, 323-328.
17. EM Sounding of Sea Bottom Around

Indian Peninsula
E. John Joseph, R.V. Iyengar and L.A. D'Cruz
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism, Bombay-400 005, India
Introduction
The technique of Geomagnetic Depth Sounding (GDS) involves deployment
of an array of magnetometers, recording variations in the three components
of the Earth's magnetic field and determining therefrom the inhomogeneities
in the electrical conductivity of the crust and mantle. The interaction of
solar radiation with earth's magnetic field and its far environment causes
electrical currents to flow in the ionosphere magnetosphere. These external
currents also induce currents inside the earth. The magnetic field variations
recorded by the array is the sum of contributions from both the external
(inducing) and internal (induced) currents. In the presence of an anomalous
body inside the earth, the induced current either gets concentrated into it
or is deflected by it depending upon the conduciviy of the body. The change
in flow pattern of internal currents lcavcs behind its characteristic signature
in surface magnetic records. Characteristics of the anomalous body appear
most strongly in the Z-component. The depth of penetration of the
clcctromagnctic wave inside the earth, is frequency dcpcndcnt. The frcqucncy
for which the anomaly is strongest provides depth estimate of the body.
In November 1988, Ocean Bottom Magnetometers (OBM) were deployed
and retrieved from aboard R.V. Gaveshini, off thc coast of Cochin.
Deployment of OBM in this region was considered useful to augment thc
findings of the earlier magnetometer array operated in the peninsular region
(Thakur et al. 198t, 1986). Agarwal and Weaver (1989) mention that the
numerical model studies of Ramaswamy et al. (1985) and Mareschall et al.
(1987) fail to characterise the anomalies observed on the sothwest coast.
The agreement improves considerably by introduction of a conductive
subsurface structure along the southwest coast. The OBM's were deployed
specifically to investigate the possible presence of such a conductive body.
Seismic studies carried out in the Bay of Bengal between Madras and
Andaman Islands indicate the presence of a ridge along 85°E longitude.
These studies suggest that while the whole sea floor of Bay of Bengal is
overlain by thick sedimentary deposits, the crest of the 85 ° E ridge is
covered by Quaternary sediments of 2.5 km thickness. Free-air gravity
anomalies have recorded a broad low o f - 5 0 to -75 mgals between 85°E
EM Sounding of Sea Bottom Around Indian Peninsula 269
and 86°E longitudes. In February 1990, ocean bottom magnetometers were

deployed along 13°N latitude to understand the geoelectrical conductivity
pattern around this structure. Deployment and retrieval of OBM's were
carried out from aboard R.V. Samudra Manthan of Geological Survey of
India, Marine Wing, Calcutta. Simultaneous data were also collected at
Salem, a land based station.
Since the stations were located approximately in the same latitude, the
land record can be assumed to represent variations over the sea-surface
(Weaver, 1963). The attenuation of the horizontal field at sea bottom with
respect to sea surface is ascribed to electrical current flowing in the conductive
seawater. The magnetic field at the sea surface and sea bottom could then
be used to find the current flowing inwater. This information combined
with thickness of sea water and its electrical conductivity, provides an
estimate of the induced electric field. The estimate is inherently approximate
because firstly the electrical field has been assumed to be uniform all
through the sea water; secondly the electrical conductivity has been assumed
to be the same at all depths and thirdly, the whole of the water mass has
been reduced to a thin sheet. Since the sea water and the sea floor are in
good electrical contact, the calculated field can be taken as the electric field
at the sea floor. The electric field thus estimated and the magnetic field at
the sea floor recorded by the magnetometer provide necessary data to conduct
magnetotelluric sounding of the sea floor.
Instrumentation
The construction of Ocean Bottom Magnetometer (OBM) is given in Segawa
et al. (1986). Briefly, the system consists of two parts.
(i) A three component flux gate magnetometer

The sensitivity of this magnetometer is 0.1 nT. The temperature drift which
generally limits the use of fluxgate has been circumvented by employing
a special sensor with a low drift. At ocean bottom, the temperature being
almost constant, the OBMs are well sited for recording accurately both
short and longterm magnetic field variations, i.e. variations of periodicity
ranging from minutes to days. The instrument has a range o f - 6 5 0 0 0 nT
to + 65000 nT.
(ii) AZ-80 microprocessor based data logger

The zystem records the three components of the magnetic field at a sampling
interval of 1 minute at its fastest and stores them in a Programable Read
Only Memory (PROM). The PROM card with a capacity of 128 kbytes can
store upto a month of three components data recorded every minute.
The instrument is powered by a 30 Ah, 18 volts MnO 2 battery which is
an integral part of the instrument. The entire system is closed in a pressure
tight glass sphere which is rated to 600 atmospheric pressure (i.e. water
270 Joseph et al
depth of 6.0 km). The instrument is lowered without any lifeline into the
sea after an accurate position fixing by SATNAV system. An acoustic
transmitter-transducer system on board and transponder-transducer system
attached to OBM are used to track the instrument as it sinks under its own
weight. Once it settles on sea floor, recording will start at a prefixed time.
The instrument can be triggered back to the sea surface using the same
acoustic system. At sea surface, the high frequency radio transmitter attached
to the OBM starts beaming radio signals which are used to track the
instrument.
Data Collection and Analysis

The OBM settles at the sea bottom in a random orientation. The OBM
being loaded with a heavy weight, settles upright. The sensor assembly is
mounted on a gimbal whereby the X and Y sensors are always in a horizontal
plain while the Z sensor remains oriented in a vertical plain. Hence, while
the Z sensor is oriented to measure the Z-component directly, the horizontal
sensors settle in unknown orientations. However, since the sensors measure
the total field, their Orientation angle with respect to geographical north can
be estimated to the desired accuracy using the model values of the ambient
field derived from International Geomagnetic Reference Field (I.G.R.F).
Let X1 and Yl be the northerly and easterly components given by I.G.R.E
and X2 and I12 be the field recorded by the X, Y sensors of the OBM. The
recorded values (X2, Y2) are related to the true values (X1, Y1) through an
angle 0 by which X and Y sensors are turned with respect to actual N-S and
E-W direction. One can obtain 0 from the equations
sin 0 = (XaYb -XaYb)/(X~ + y2) (1)
cos 0 = (XaX b - YaYb)/(X~ + y2) (2)
Once 0 is known, the observed changes 3:2 and Y2 for a transient variation
can be converted to actual changes X and Y in true north and east directions
by the eqations:
X=X2cos O-Y2sin 0 (3)
Y = X 2 sin O+ Y2cos O (4)
Magnetometer Array Study in Arabian Sea

In this experiment 3 0 B M s were used. Station locations are shown in Fig.
1. The stations OBM SITE A and OBM SITE B were at water depth of 60
and 2400 m, respectively. The land station was at Cochin. SITE A was on
continental shelf and SITE B was beyond the continental margin, approximately
110 km off the coast of Cochin (9°28'N, 75 o1I'E). The data recorded at SITE
A was found unreliable. The present study is thus based only on the records
from SITE B land station. Further, data were available for only six days. It
OBM DEPLOYMENT IN A R A B I A N SEA
12' I \,\' I ' I l 1 ..... t

N
CALICUT
11 c
INDIA
\ II AND STN
10°
-- OBM SITE A , I COCHIN)
@
OBM SITE B
9°
TRIVANDRUM
PE COMORIN
8*
7°
IAN OCEAN
1 I i I ~ I i I t
tt,° E 75 ° 76 ° 77 ° 78 ° 79°E
Fig. 1. Sites in Arabian Sea where OBM were deployed.
is noteworthy that the region where effects are strongly influenced by equatorial
enhancement of transient variation during day time. A situation like this
generates Z-field of external origin. All these conventional methods presume
the source field to be niform. Hence we selected only substorms occurred in
local night time hours for which the source field is quite uniform. Records
obtained during disturbed period are shown in Fig. 2. The variations recorded
in three components at land station and seafloor station are compared. By
visual comparison, these characteristics can be noted:
(i) Z variation at SITE B is as large as that at land station. Normally

272 Joseph et al
26-27 NOV 1988

X Y Z
I10nT It0nr ~lOnT
~ OBM SITE B
",V" " V " (COCHIN)
I I i i ] I t I r [ 1 I I I....... I
0030 0030 0030 0030 0030 0030
HOURS, UT
Fig. 2. Variations in the three components of the magnetic field recorded at OBM
SITE B and the land station at Cochin.
at SITE B, one would expect the coast effect to disappear resulting

in subdued Z variations. The observations are on the contrary.
(ii) The Y-component variations are practically nonexistent on land
while at sea floor they are quite large.
(iii) The X-component and Z-component at both the stations are in phase.
Table 1 shows the amplitude of X and Z components for the night time
events. Z/X ratio for seafloor station is evidently large compared to that on
land. Z/X ratio can be taken as the response parameter of indction effect.
The induction vector at both the stations is close to unity. First a Z/X of
magnitude one shows that the coast effect at Cochin is quite strong. That
the magnitude of induction efect at the seafloor station is as large compared
to that at land station, indicates a stronger contrast in conductivity nderneath
SITE B. Since X and Z are in phase at SI'I~ B, the conductor should be
located west of the station SITE B. It is to be noted that the Z / X ratio for
day time events are smaller compared to night time events. As these events
are due to non-uniform sources, the intensity of induced current is less. The
source field effect is large at smaller periods, such is the case of day time
events. The Z / X ratio observed during day time do not show a marked
increase compared to that on land. This again is due to source being non
uniform which further results in a decrease in the depth of penetration. This
induction effect is subdued during day time. The Y anomaly at SITE B is
out of phase with respect to both X and Z for night time events. The source
of the anomaly is not the current causing X and Z anomaly. Y anomaly
seems to be generated by currents in the seawater concentrated near the
continental margin.
Table 1. Ratio of vertical (Z) and north-south (X) components for night-time
events
Period (hr) X in nT Z in nT Z/X
Land Station
3 14 8 0.57
2 22 14 0.64
1.5 14 t1 0.79
1 3 2 0.67
0.5 2 2 1.00
0.25 2 1.5 0.75
Deep Sea Station
(OBM Site B)
3 13 t0 0.77
2 18 15 0.85
1.5 11 10 0.90
1 3 3 1,00
0.5 3 3 1.00
0.25 3 3 1.00
We made an attempt to estimate the depth-resistivity distribution beneath

the seafloor using the land and seafloor stations data jointly. We have used
only the horizontal components of the magnetic field. As mentioned earlier,
Weaver (1963) has shown that the magnitude of transient variations at land
and sea surface are same provided the stations are on same latitudes and
their longitudes are not significantly different. Attenuation of the horizontal
field at seafloor is ascribed to the electric current flowing in the conductive
sea water. The induced electric currents in sea water were computed using
a thin sheet approximation, assuming the conductivity of sea water to be
4 S/m (Filloux J.H., 1981). Components Ex and Ev of the electric field are
Ex = ( H~,I - Hy 2 )[S (5)

E~. = ( Hx2 - Hxi )IS (6)
where Hx~ and H3.1are the horizontal magnetic field components at sea
surface, Hxz and My2 are those at sea floor and S is the conductance of the
sea water. It was further assumed that the electric field at the sea floor is
also E x and E~,.
Computation of depth-resistivity profile of the subsurface beneath the
sea bottom starts by first estimating the electromagnetic impedance (Z in
ohms), i.e. the ratio of the electric field (Ex, Ev) and the perpendicular
magnetic field (H x, Hy),-i.e.
Z~, = ExlH v, Zy x = Ey/Hx (7)

Impedance is then transformed to estimate apparent resistivity (pa) through
the equation (Adam, 1985)
274 Joseph et al
Pa = 0.2T(I Ex I/I n>, I)2 or pa = (1/5f)l Z 12 (8)

wheref(1/T) is the frequency of electromagnetic wave and Z the impedance.
The apparent resistivity (Pa) estimated above is the resistivity of an
homogeneous, isotropic half space that has impedance equal to the measured
one. Figure 3 shows the frequency dependence of Pa for square root of period
(~f-f). Bostick (1977) 1-D inversion method has been used to calculate the
depth-resistivity profile from the apparent resistivity curve. The procedure,
though simple, gives results close to the ones obtained from sophisticated
inversions. The method is based on a graphical scheme where the resistivity-
frequency plots are superposed over theoretical depth versus conductance (S)
plots. Parameter S, called the conductivity-thickness product is defined as
S= tydZ (9)
D
D
g
>..
I.-- D
>. I
D
!-.-
(,,'3 O
D
O3 O0
I..iJ • •
Q •
ty
QQD
I--
Z
ILl
rr O
13..
.5
0...
,,::Z
•z i, I I [ I I I I
10 20 50 100
SQUARE ROOT OF PERIOD
Fig. 3. Plot of apparent resistivity (p~) against square root of period (~fT) at
OBM SITE B.
where D is the maximum depth of penetration of the electromagnetic wave

in a medium of conductivity cr(1/p). For the case of discrete layers
S = Z o'11/Dtl/ (t0)
Bostick (1977) has drawn lines of constant S and D on frequency-resistivity
axis. S and D values corresponding to the points of inflexion are read on
the composite plots. These are then used to obtain the resistivities and
thicknesses of the various layers using the relation
pj = 1/aj = (Dj+I - Dj)/(Sj+I - Sj) (1 I)
and dj = Oj+1 - Dj (12)
where pj and Dj are resistivity (fl-m) and thickness (m) of the jth layer.
Figure 4 shows the depth-resistivity profile obtained'by the Bostic inversion
method. The result indicated a 2 km thick upper layer which is highly
conductive (resistivity of 0.5 ohm-m) followed by 10 km thick layer with
a resistivity of 2 ohm-m Beneath this layer there is a low resistivity layer
(0.7 ohm-m) of approximately 5 km thickness. This shows the presence of
a conductor at a depth o f 12 km beneath the sea floor. The conductivity
estimates of the first layer on the surface might be fortuitous because of the
approximations involved. The conductor at the depth of 12 km must be a
north-south extended conductor. It has to be a long conductor to perturb the
predominantly east-west flow of internal currents and introduce a flow in
the north-south direction. Presence of a conductor 150-200 km west of
Cochin at a depth of 12 km beneath sea bottom is a new finding of this
I
I--
ILl 10
20--
I I I I I II] i i
1
I ,I Iltl
0
I0 10 10
RESISTIVITY (0hm-m)
Fig. 4. Depth resistivity profile obtained by the Bostick 1-D inversion
methods.
276 Joseph et al
study. We can now explain as to why all the numerical model calculations
failed to reproduce the observed characteristics of the magnetic array operated
by Thakur et al. (1981, 1986) on the west coast.
Magnetometer Array Study in Bay of Bengal

The seafloor stations in this array were BYB1 (13°N, 84°48%), BYB2
(13°N, 85~10"E) and BYB3 (13°N, 85°59'E) ata depth of 3270 m, 3290 m
and 3258 m respectively. The station locations are shown in Fig. 6 (BTB
etc. are shown in Fig. 5 as BYB STN 1). Variations in the three components
(X, Y and Z) were collected for a period of 10 days with 1 minute sampling
interval. Even though we had three sea floor stations, the data collection
from BYB 2 and BYB 3 were not reliable, we were left with data from only
BYB 1 and the land station (SALEM). It may be noted that both the
stations were again in the equatorial region and hence the day time" events,
could not be used because of the presence of equatorial electrojet. Here too,
we selected only night-time data and got 6 moderate disturbances. Fig. 6
shows the record of o n e o f these events, corresponding to 12.20-00.20 hrs
(UT) of 20-21 February 1990.
OBM DEPLOYMENT IN BAY OF BENC]AL
INDIA
16 °
~ - 3000
14 °
BYB STNI BYB STN
MADRAS \',, J j~e
BYB STN 2 BYB STN /.
SAI~EMSTN ((k(~o~l~ ,.,, BAY OF BENGAL
10e
8*
~* E B0* 82* B4~ 86" 8B* 90* E 92*
Fig. 5. Sites of OBM stations BYB1, BYB2, BYB3 in Bay of Bengal and land
station SALEM.
Analysis, Results and Discussion

We took the frequency spectrum of the original time series through Fourier
transform method. The amplitude of all three components decreased at sea
floor. Attenuation of the vertical component (Z) is much larger than the
horizontal components (Law L.K., 1983). This is obvious in the raw data
(Fig. 6). So the conventional method of calculating transfer function could
not be applied as Z was very small.
x Y Z
I20nr I20nr I20nr
~ ~ SALEMSTN
t t ~ l l r 1 t ~ T ~ t ~ 1 I, I I I T t I
1220 1820 0020 1220 1820 0020 1220 I820 0020
HOU'RS,UT
Fig. 6. Magnetic field variations recorded at BYB 1 and SALEM for

February 20.21, 1990.
Over a homogeneous earth the vertical component (Z) is zero. While

near a lateral conductivity it becomes non-zero. According to the seismo-
geological map of 85°E ridge prepared by Oil and Natural Gas Commission
(private communication) the Z-anomaly should be largest at BYB 1 or a
uniform source field. A 2-D forward model calculation also shows that the
Z-variation should have enhanced at BYB 1. But Z-variation recorded there
are insignificant for night-time events. This leads to the ollowing two
conclusions (i) that either a condctivity contrast is not present, or (ii) the
body is of limited size. This proposition can justified by correlating with
results from the studies conducted off Cochin (Fig. 2); whileZ-variations
at SITE B are quite large, variations at BYB 1 are quite small.
The anomaly at the OBM SITE B has been related to a subsurface
conductive structure. That we do not see a similar enhancement of Z at
BYB 1, does raise the possibility of the absence of conductivity anomaly
associated with 85°E ridge. However, before arriving at such a conclusion,
one must remember that the induction process in the vicinity of the tip of
the Indian Peninsula is quite complex. The Z-variations seen at coastal
stations Trivandrum, Annamalainagar are not the usual coast effect but
rather perturbations in flow of regional currents introduced by megascale
278 Joseph et al
conductivity contrasts provided by land-sea contrast and associated sub,

surface structures. If the 85°E ridge is not a very long linear structure to
perturb the regional flow of induced current. The Z-variation near the 85°E
will not be perceptible. Thus, with data from only one station, the structure
of 85°E ridge could not be properly delineated.
We have estimated the depth-resistivity distribution beneath the sea floor
using the land station (SALEM) and the seafloor station (BYB 1) data
jointly, following the method discussed earlie~ Figure 7 shows the frequency
dependence of apparent resistivity (Pa) for square root of period (if-T).
This curve shows a minimum resistivity of 0.8 ohm-m corresponding to
15 minutes periodicity and increases gradually for higher periods. Bostick
1-D inversion method was used to calculate the depth resistivity profile.
Marquardt method (1963) was then applied to modify the results. In this
method, the element of parameter vector P was determined by using the
iteration scheme
+
t)X I = P)( + ( D G + Zvl) D G ( p a exp - p a ¢°mp (PK))
-~
I
E
J= 2
0 @
l
>- t
@ • @
>
@ •
F- @ •
m @
oo
rY
-- I
z
w. 5
r~
o_
} I 1 [ I I 1 I
10 20 50 100
SQUARE ROOT OF PERIOD
Fig. 7. Plot of apparent resistivity (p.) against square root of period ( 8 ) at

BYB 1.
where D = DTI- = (Op)(p~)/Opv)P#; G is the diagonal weight matrix, I

the identity matrix 2~ the stabitiser which varies in each iteration and K the
iteration number. This method is used to fit a three layer model to the
averaged sounding curve.
Figure 8 shows the depth-resistivity profile obtained after adopting the
Marquardt method. The result indicated a thick layer (t 517 km) of resistivity
3 ohm-m followed by a thin layer of extremely low resistivity (0.2 ohm-m)
3 km thick. The highly conducting layer coincides with the Moho beneath
85°E ridge obtained from seismic reflection-refraction studies and other
geophysical data. Later studies give for Moho a depth of 15 km which is in
perfect agreement with the estimates made here. The different crustal layers
could not be distinguished by the inversion of Pa curve. The limiting factor
has been the data from only one station.
lo0
1
-E- ~ I 0
Y
w 2
~10
, i ,,,,,l t i t Illlll I I I I I |I
101 I 0° 101 10 2
RESISTIVITY
Fig. 8. Depth resistivty profile obtained from the Bostick 1-D inversion method
and modified by Marquardt method.
Conclusion
The data collected seems to be good leading to interesting results. High
frequency components get attenuated at sea bottom as expected. Acomparison
of X-, Y- and Z-variations at SITE B and land station at Cochin show the
presence of a conductive structure beneath the sea floor. 1-D inversion studies
show a highly conducting body at a depth of 12 km with a thickness of 5 kin.
The supressed Z-variations at BYB 1 shows that either the 85°E ridge
does not have an associated conductivity contrast or the conductive body
280 Joseph et al
is of limited size, not large enough to disturb the regional flow of induced
currents beneath the Bay of Bengal. The depth-resistivity profile shows a
highly conducting thin layer overlained by a thick layer of 3 ohm-m resistivity.
The highly conducting thin layer seen at a depth of 17 km coincides with
the Crust-Mantle boundary (Moho-discontinuity). The depth matches with
the seismic results. With data from only one station the conductive structure
of the ridge could not be delineated in detail. Need remains for a detailed
survey with a dense network of Ocean Bottom Magnetometers.
Acknowledgement
The study was conducted under a grant received from Department of Science
and Technology, Govt. of India, as part of their National Co-ordinated
Project on the study of Deep Sea Fans of Bay of Bengal. We thank the
Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Cochin for agreeing to our
participation in their cruise and the wholehearted support of their scientists
who were on board. We also thank the Marine Wing of the Geological
Survey of India for providing ship time and other facilities for the present
studies. Personal interest by Dr. P.K. Banerji, Deputy Director General,
Marine Wing, in our work needs special mention. The authors are also
thankful to Prof. B.P. Singh for his encouragement, useful discussions and
guidance throughout.
References
Adam, A., 1985, Role of magnetotellurics in geophysical prospecting, Assoc. of Expl.

Geophysicists, Hyderabad, India.
Agarwal, A.L. and Weaver J.T., Regional Electromagnetic induction around the Indian
Peninsula and Srilanka : A three dimensional numerical model study using thin sheet
approximation, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interior, 54, 320-331, 1989.
Bostick, Jr., A simple almost exact method of MT analysis workshop on Electrical methods
in Geothermal Exploration, U.S. Geol. Surv. Contract No. 14080001-8-359, 1977.
Filloux, J.H., Magnetotelluric exploration of the North Pacific Progress report and preliminary
sounding near a spreading ridge, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 25, 187-195, 1981.
Law, L.K., Marine Electromagnetic Research, Geophysics, Surv. 6, 123-135, 1983.
Ramaswamy, V., Agarwal A.K., and Singh, B.P., A three dimensional numerical model
study of the electromagnetic induction around the Indian Peninsula and Srilanka island,
Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 39, 52-61, 1985.
Segawa, J., Hamano T., Utada H., Toh H., A sea floor magnetometer Model OBM-S4, J.
Geodetic Soc. of Japan, 342, 248-273, 1986.
Thakur, N.K., Mahashabde, M.V., Arors, B.R., Singh, B.R, Srivastava B.J. and Prasad S.N.,
Anomalies in geomagnetic variations on Peninsular India near Palk Strait, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 8,947-950, 1981.
Thakur, N.K., Mahashabde, M.V. Arora, B.R., Singh, B.P., Srivastava B.J. and Prasad S.N.,
Geomagnetic variation anomalies in Peninsular India, Geophys. J.R. Astron. Soc., 86,
839-854, 1986.
Weaver, J.T., The electromagnetic field within a discontinuous conductor with reference to
geomagnetic micropulsation near coast line, Can. J. Phys., 41,484-495, 1963.
IV
Electromagnetic Modelling
18. Electromagnetic Migration

M.S. Zhdanov
Geophysical Research Centre, Russian Branch of World Laboratory, Moscow, Russia
Introduction
The electromagnetic migration is a special type of transformation of
electromagnetic field, observed at the surface of the earth, downward to the
lower half-space. As a result of such transformation wc can go closer to the
objects of our investigations--geoclectrical structures of the earth--and in
some cases reconstruct the image of the earth's interior.
The main principles of EM migration have been developed in our books
(Zhdanov 1988, Zhdanov et al 1988). It is important to undcrtinc that EM
migration is not the same as the method of analytical continuation of EM
field (Berdichevsky and Zhdanov 1984), because this procedure reconstruct
not the true electromagnetic field inside the earth, but some of its
transformation.
In general it could be said that the electromagnetic migration is essentially
similar to that of seismic migration (Zhdanov et al 1988, Berkout 1984,
Claerbout 1985) with the only difference that in geoelectric migration
transformations are done for fields satisfying the diffusion rather than the
wave equations.
In this paper we will give the general definition of the EM migration and
will expose the main ideas of the specific technologies: migration based on
the integral transformations, migration in k-0)domain and finite difference
migration.
Main Definitions
We remind first some general ideas of seismic migration, or seismo
holography. Suppose that we have local source of the seismic waves, located
at some point of the earth's surface, and the system of receivers. As a result
of the observations of the seismic waves produced by the source at each
receiver we have recorded the corresponding oscillation of the earth surface
in the real (ordinary) time t. Introduce the reverse time:
z=T-t
where T is the interval of the field observations.
Now substitute the receivers by the sources and make these sources
operate in the reverse time according to the recorded low of the earth's
surface oscillation in the real time. It is shown in the theory of seismic
284 Zhdanov
migration that this field is back propagating (it means it goes from the
surface of observations to the inner points of the earth). If you recalculate
the migrated field in any inner points of the medium in the moments of the
coming of the direct waves from the actual source, the amplitude distribution
of the migrated field will show you the positions of the reflectors and the
diffraction points. So the restoration of the seismic section is attained by
oscillating the points of the earth surface in the reverse time regime.
The analogous approach in principle may be applied for the interpretation
of the electromagnetic research data as well. Let us consider the situation
when we have measured the electromagnetic field, produced by the natural
sources in ionosphere or by an artificial transmitter. The system of receivers
is located at the surface of the earth. We can substitute the receivers by the
system of artificial sources, the charges and currents which are determined
by the observed electromagnetic field. Making these artificial sources operate
in the reverse time we shall produce the field which we will call migrated
electromagnetic field. This field like in seismic case can uplight the internal
structure of the earth and give us the geoetectric image of the earth's
interior.
Now we will give more strict definition. Consider a model in which the
horizontal plane z = 0 separates the conductive earth (z > 0) from non-conducting
atmosphere (z < 0). The conductivity of the earth or(r) is the arbitrary function
of the coordinates which could be represented as the sum of normal conductivity
~z(r) and anomalous one Act(r) : cr(r) = crn(r) + Act(r). The EM field in the
model is excited by the arbitrary sources, located in the ionosphere or at the
surface of the earth. Denoted by
{E°(r, t), E°(r, t), E°(r, t)} and {H°(r, t), H°(r, t), H°(r, t)} (1)
are the fields induced in this model. We shall call the migrated field Era(r,
T), Hm(r, ~) the field satisfying the following conditions:
{E;'(r, r), E;'(r, v), E~'(r, ~')}z=O
[(E°(r, T-~;), E°(r, T - r ) , 0/z=0 for0 < v< T

= ~O f o r t < 0, T> T (2)
{Hy'(r, v), n;'(r, v), Hz'(r, v)lz=o
= (~t°(r, T - v),H°(r, T - v), - H°(r, T - T)}z=o for0 < ~'< T

for ~'< 0, v> T
(3)
rot Hm(r, "r) = an(r)Em(r, v)
rot Era(r, V) - I.to(OHZ/O'c) (r, v) for z > 0
Electromagnetic Migration 285
{H'(r, v), Era(r, ~)} ~ 0 for Irl --~ oo, z -> 0, 0 < T_< T (4)
Thus we see that the migrated field E m, H m is the EM field in the reverse
time z. For this reason it was necessary to change sign of the vertical
component of the observed field at the right side of (2b) that make the
migrated field to satisfy the Maxwell equations up to the surface of observation
z = 0 (because the observed field E °, H ° satisfies the Maxwell equation in
the real time t ). If we go back from the reverse time • to the real time
t = T - T, then we will see that the migrated field will satisfy not the
Maxwell but the conjugate equations:
rot Hm(r, r) = an(r)Em(r, r)

rot Era(r, r) - p o ( O H m l O r ) (r, v) (5)
It means that the migrated field is propagating in space not from sources
to the receivers but back, so it is back propagating field.
Consider now more simple situation when the normal conductivity of
the earth is constant o"n = const. In this case the electromagnetic field in the
model will satisfy everywhere outside the zones with anomalous conductivity
to the following diffusion equation:
OH OE
A H - Poan - - ~ = O, AE - lioan --~ = 0 (6)
and we can discuss the problem of migration of any scalar component

P(r, t) of observed EM field.
Let P°(r, t) stands from any of the components H °, H °, H ° or E °, E~°,. E °
measured at the earth's surface. Then we shall call the migrated field H m
of the specified scalar component p0 of the EM field fitting the following
conditions:
Pro(r, v)Iz= 0 = { P°(r' T - "c)z=0 for 0 < r < T

0 for T < 0, "r > T (7)
Apm(r' ~') -/l°O" OPm(r,

Or v) _ 0 for z > 0 (8)
Pro(r, T) ~ 0, for Irl --> o0, z > 0, 0 < v < T (9)
Notice that if we go in the formula (8) back from the reverse time • to
the ordinary time t we shall have the equation, conjugated to the diffusion
equation
OP"
Apm(r, t) + p o a - - f f i - = 0 (10)
If the ordinary diffusion equation describes the process of field propagation

286 Zhdanov
from the sources to the receivers, than the Eq. (10) describes to the inverse
process of the field propagation from the receivers focusing in sources.
Thus, the problem of establishing the migrated field reduces to continuation
of the field p0 from the earth's surface to the lower half-space in the
reverse time z. The solution of this problem we call the EM-field migration.
As you could see from the above consideration the calculation of the
migrated field is reduced to some boundary problems described by the
formulas (2)-(4) in general case or by the formulas (7)-(9) in a special
case. Now we can develop different techniques for the solution of these
problems, based on the integral transformations, spectral representation of
the field in k - o9 domain, finite-difference approximation etc.
Following sections will describe some of these approaches.
M i g r a t i o n B a s e d o n Integral T r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the E M Field

Consider for the sake of simplicity, the case when the normal geoelectrical
conductivity of the earth is constant 6,~ = constant and we would like to
migrate any scalar component of the EM field.
For the solution of this problem let us fix any point r' from the lower
half-space and draw a sphere with the centre at r" and radius R (Fig. 1). The
part of the sphere, located in the lower half-space, we shall denote 0, and
the part of horizontal plane z = 0, located inside 0, we will denote S.
To find the field Pro(r; z') let us use Green's formula (Zhdanov et al,
1984) substituting the time t by the reverse time z:
Pm(r', U) =
I IoI [Pmc?(G+ g)lOn - (G + g)Opm/On]dsdz
R
(11)
t
r 0"= C o n s t a n t
/ /
Air i~ ~'air / / SR
I Earih l/ I ''' / ×
, / 0/z . . . . . . /,z
OR ~ Ia = S R UO R
Fig. 1. Model of the geoelectrical cross-section.

where G is the Green's function for the equation of diffusion
(,~ 00") 112 [13ocrlr'-rl2]k(t,_t)(12)

G(r', t'l r, t) = 8zc3/~_--;)3/2 exp - ~--07-_-~
Assume that auxiliary field g is satisfying the diffusion equation (Zhdanov

1988) and is going to zero at infinity, so that the integral over S is going
to zero too with R --~ oo. Then we have
Pm(r', ~:') = fII? [Pm O(G + g)/ Oz - (G + g)Opm/cgz ]ds dr (13)
At the surface of the earth we know pm and don't know opm/oVZ. But if
we take function g equal to
g(r', Z'l r, z) = - G(r" , z'l r, r) (14)
(where point r" is located symmetrically to r' according to the plane z =
0), then
(G + g)Iz= 0 -= 0
Substituting (14) to (13) after simple calculation we have:
pm(r', T - z') = - 2 I ~ I [ ~ f P°(r, t) (dG(r ' - t" l r, t)/ Oz lz=odx dy dt
(15)
where (~ is the conjugate to the Green's function G for the diffusion equation
(Morse and Feshbach 1953, Zhdanov 1988).
It is noteworthy that formula (15) is an EM counterpart of the Rayleigh
integral (Berkhout 1986). Just as in the seismic application, formula (15)
defines in space and in direct time t a field propagating (upgoing waves)
can be seen. The formula (15) contains the function G, conjugate to the
Green's function G of the diffusion equation. Hence, just as in the seismic
problem, a migration transformation of EM field components yields upgoing
fields.
Also, as in the seismic case, migration of upgoing EM waves can be
easily understood in the wave number-frequency (k, co)--domain. The spectral
algorithm for doing migration is treated in the next section.
Migration in the (k, co) Domain

We will represent a specified component of the EM field P in the form of
the Fourier integral with respect to spatial and time frequencies kx, ky, co:
P(r, t) = ~ 1 ii+3 P(kx, k~.,z, co) exp [- i(kxx + k~.y + wt)l dkx dky dw
(16)
288 Zhdanov
Where P(kx, kv, to) is the 3-D Fourier transform of the field component P.
Let us rewrite expression (15) with due reference to the obvious identity:
cgG(r', t'l r, t) = _ t~G(r', t'l r, t)

3z Oz
pm(r', T - t') = - 2 f:f+=f

"Jr" ~ - ~ ,,I
P°(r, t) (OG(r" - t" I r, t)/ Oz Iz-_odx dy dt
(17)
Taking the Fourier transform of the left- and right-hand sides of Eq. (17)
and bearing in mind that the integral is a convolution-type transform, we
arrive at the expression for a spectrum of the migrated field at a depth Z
pm(kx, ky, z', CO) = P°(k x, ky, O, 09) exp (- ~z') (18)
where ~ = (k2x + k 2 + itol~otr) 1./2, with the choice of the root branch for
Re ~7>0.
Equation (18) gives us the frequency-domain algorithm of migration of
the EM field components, which could be considered as EM analogue of
Gazdag (1978) or Stolt (1978) migration.
Obviously, the function f ( ~ , z') = exp (- 9z') can be regarded as the
frequency response of a low-pass space-time filter. Therefore, the migrated
transformation of the EM field done with the help of integral Eq. (15) is
a stable procedure.
Finite Difference Migration of 2-D EM-Fields

Lee et al (1987) has suggested an algorithm for 2-D finite-difference analytical
continuation. The same principles used in that paper are applicable to finite-
difference migration, so will present it only schematically. In this connection
we attract attention of the readers to the fact that transformation, considered
in the paper by Lee et al, (1987) is true analytical continuation of the upgoing
field and therefore it is unstable, ill-posed procedure. The EM-migration,
produced in this paper is described by formula (18) and is stable (well-
posed) procedure, like the procedure of downward continuation of downgoing
field. The main difference is in the sign of the argument of exponential
frequency characteristics of these transformations, because the frequency
domain algorithm of analytical continuation of up-going (anomalous) part
of the field is described by the formula (Zhdanov et al 1988):
pC(kx', kv', z', 09) = P°(kx,, ky,, O, to) exp (vz') (19)
where p c is a result of true analytical continuation.
In the case of 1-D geoelectrical model formula (18) will be reduced to
the following:
Pro(Z, CO) = p0(0, CO)(- ~/ico/.t O'(Z) Z) = P°(0, co) exp (- k(z)z) (20)
where k,(z) = ~/icol~oCr,(z) - - the wave number, Re k, > O.

Let us consider now 2-D quasi-layered geoelectrical model. It means
that we suppose that in the limits of every layer the conductivity is constant
and relatively slowly varies in horizontal direction I Ocrn/Ox I << 1. For this
model we can represent the migrated field by the formula:
Pro(x, Z, CO) = Q(x, z, 09) exp [-k(x, z) z] (21)
where we suppose that Q(x, z, co) weekly depends to z (so that its 3-D
vertical derivatives can be neglected). Note that if we substitute in (21)
wave number - k,(x, z) by ikn(x, z) we shall receive exactly the formula
for analytic continuation of upgoing wave, used by Lee et al, (1987). So we
can use the same approach for the finite-difference approximation of (21).
According to the definition, the migrated field satisfies the Helmholts equation:
[02Q 02Q1
3x 2 + ~9z2 j P"(x, y, co) - k2(x, z) pm(x, Z, O9) = 0 (22)
Substituting (21) in (22), neglecting the derivatives of K and omitting

the exponential term we shall have
Ox 2 + ~ + k, =0 (23)
Differentiating the last expression by z, we have

1 o33Q 1 o33Q 32Q
2k, Ox2cg------~z+ 2k~ cgz3 ----5-
0"z = 0 (24)
Summarizing (23) and (24) and neglecting the third derivatives of Q by

z, we finally receive:
1 03Q 02Q o~2Q
2kn 0x20--~ + '''5"
0z 2kn 0z = 0 (25)
Equation (25) contains only first vertical derivatives of Q. Therefore, by

means of this equation it is possible to calculate the migrated field, known
at the level z; at the deeper level z + z~z.
To solve this problem, following Lee et al, (1987), write the finite-
difference approximation of equation (25).
Consider a discrete function Q(i, j) = Q(xi, zi, CO)on the net ]~ (xj, zj) and
a discrete function kij = kn(xi, Zj+kl/2 ) where zj+l/2 = zj + 0.5 Azj, represent
the summary of the equations approximately, in terms of the discrete functions
Q(i, j) and kij.
290 Zhdanov
Thus the finite-difference approximation of the Eq. (25) has the form
aijQ(i + 1, j + 1) + AijQ(i, j +, 1) + aijQ(i - 1, j + 1) = Dij (26)
where,
aij = + 1 ; bij =
1
Azkij
1
1 (27)
Dij = bijQ(i + 1, j) + BijQ(i, j) + bijQ(i - 1, j) (28)

Aij = - 2aij - 2kij(dx)2/Az (29a)
B(i = - 2bij - 2kij(zlx)2/Az (29b)
Let the discrete function Q(i, j) be known at the level j. Then according
to (28), all the coefficients Dij are als0 known, and, therefore (26) is the
system of linear algebraic equations (with symmetrical three-diagonal matrix)
with respect to unknown values of the function Q(i, j + 1) at the next level
j + 1. It's evident, that in an expression (26) index i changes in the range
[2, N-l], hence (26) represents the system of N-2 equations with N unknowns.
Therefore, this system must be completed with two boundary conditions--
the values of the function Q(i, j) on the left and right borders of the net
Q(1, j + 1) = ai,j+i (30a)
Q(N, j + 1) = QN,j+i (30b)
After specification of the boundary conditions the system (26) can be easily
solved by the simple running method (Samarsky 1987). Find the solution
of (26) in a form
Q(i, j + 1) = ~iQ(i + 1, j + 1) + fl (31a)
Then, we have
Q(i - 1, j + 1) = ai_lQ(i, j + 1) + fli-1 (31b)
Substitute (31a) and (31b) into (26). After some transformations, we have
aij Dij - aij fl i-1

Q(i,j + l) = Aij + aijo:i_ Q(i + l,j + l) + Aij + aijai-1 (32)
Comparing (32) and (31a) we see that
ai = - aij(Aij + aijai_l) -1 (33)

fli = (Dij - aijfli_l) (Aij + aij ai_I)-1 (34)
Due .to the condition (30a)

ct1 = 0; fll ---- Qi,j+i (35)
Substituting (35) into (33) and (34) we consequently find all the coefficients
O~i(i = 2 . . . . . N - 1) and [3i(i = 2 . . . . . N - 1)--a forward run. After it,
knowing the value of the function Q(i, j + 1) at the right border of the net
(condition (30b)) and using formula (31a) we find all it's values at the level
j + 1--an inverse run. Thus the system of finite-difference Eqs. (26) is
solved. Note that the described method of it's solution is stable. The number
of operations necessary to solve this system is proportional to N.
Substitution of the obtained values of the function Q into (21) enables
to find the migration field pm(xi, zi, 09) everywhere in the modes of the
net Y~.
In conclusion some remarks about the boundary conditions for the function
Q(i, j) are given. The simplest way to specify these conditions is based on
one-dimensional migration of the recorded field at the left and right borders
of an observation profile (i.e. at the nodes xl and xN,). It is assumed that
the studied geoelectrical model at x < xl and x > xu, transits correspondingly
to the left and right normal horizontally-layered sections with one-dimensional
conductivity distributions cr/(z) and cr~ (z). Migration is performed according
to the formula (19), where it is assumed for the left and right borders of
the net:
kn(z) = kl(z) = ~/ioglloCr~(z) (36a)
kn(z) = k~(z) = ~/icolz,~e, (z) (36b)
The migration field, obtained in such a way at the nodes (x 1, zj) and
(xu, ,z j ) , is substituted into the formula (19), from where the boundary
values of the function Q: Q(1, j) and Q(Ni, j) are obtained.
The described above procedure of finite-difference migration is stable,
because it includes only the calculation of stable operations.
Imaging of Geoelectric Sections by the Migration in

Frequency and Time Domains
The basic principles of imaging of deep geoelectric sections by using E M
migration have been developed in Zhdanov (1988), and Zhdanov et al
(1988). Here we briefly outline the main ideas underlying the methods of
visualization of geoelectfical structures.
Consider firstly the problem of imaging in frequency domain. Represent
the observed electromagnetic field E, H as a sum of the normal E n,/C and
anomalous E a, H a fields.
E = E n + E a, H = Hn + Ha (37)
where the normal field is the field excited by the given sources in the earth
with the normal distribution of conductivity ~z(r) (see Section 2). Notice
292 Zhdanov
that methods of the field separation into the normal and anomalous parts
have been described in Berdichevcky, Zhdanov (1984), Zhdanov (1988).
Suppose for an example that we have 2D model with the local zones
with the anomalous distribution of conductivity. Then it is possible to show
that the phases of the normal and anomalous fields ~n(r, co) and ~a(r, to)
everywhere in the normal part of cross-section are different and depend on
the frequency 09. But close to the anomalous zone Da, their difference
becomes approximately independent of frequency.
Let us introduce the apparent reflection coefficient aa(r, o9) as the ratio
of the anomalous and normal fields, for example Ey component of E field:
tXa(r, co) = E.~,/E~n, = I E~,/E~". I exp (i(llt a - lltn)) (38)
Calculate the normalized values of aa:
a . ( r , co)
ot~, = I a , ( r , o9) I "exp (i(llt~(r, co) - gtn(r, to)) (39)
We have mentioned above that if the point of observation r is going to

the anomalous domain Da, then
Wa(r, o9) - ~,(r, co) ~ Av/(r) (40)
where Art(r) doesn't depend on frequency. Thus we can make stacking of
the normalized apparent reflection coefficient tXan. Then everywhere outside
the anomalous zone we have different-phase summation, which leads to the
reducing of aan, but close to the anomalous zone we have the in-phase
summation which increases the O~an and up lights the inhomogeneities.
It is important to underline that for this kind of imaging it is necessary
to have facilities for the reconstruction only of the phases of the anomalous
field inside the conductive earth. If we compare the phase frequency
characteristics of the analytical continuation of the anomalous field (from.
(19)) and of its migration (from (18)) we see that they are equal! That
means that the migrated anomalous field E am, H am has the same phases as
the anomalous field itself. Therefore, we can use for imaging the migrated
apparent reflection on efficient cta' equal to
a am = E~,.a n l /E,,n (4!)
The same idea works in the case of quasi-layered medium. The in-phase
surlamation of migrated apparent reflection coefficient shows the position
of the boundaries between the layers with different conductivities (Figs. 2
and 3).
Now we can discuss the problem of imaging of the EM field in time
domain. For the sake of simplicity suppose that the transient EM field is
excited in the earth by the local S-pulse transmitter at the surface or by the
S-pulse plane wave. Evidently the shape of the S-pulse will be changing as
DISTANCE (KM)
-20 -15 -I0 -5 0 5 I0 15 20
+
t-
t~
W
~3
Fig. 2. Imaging of the step structure of the geoelectrical boundary by reflection

coefficient am(x, z) has been obtained by the processing of ten-frequency
migrated electrical and magnetic fields from I to 5 Hz. Target interface
is shown as the solid line. Vertical traces correspond to the values of the
function
f(x, Z) = exp tXO(X) - Ct~Zn(x'Z)]

£
J
at different depths z for different distances x at the profile of observations,
where ao(x ) = max aan~(x, Z), e--small parameter.
294 Zhdanov
DISTANCE (KM)
-IO - 5 O 5 IO 15 20 25
"r"
I--
CL
W
a
Fig. 3. Imaging of 2-D three-layered geoelectrical cross-section with the structure

of horst-type at the first and second geoelectrical boundaries. Solid lines
show top and bottom of the low-resistivity layer. Vertical traces have the
same meaning as at Fig. 2. Averaged apparent reflection coefficient am(x,
z) has been obtained by processing of multi-frequency migrated electrical
and magnetic field for two-frequency intervals: (1) from 1.8 to 10 Hz for
the imaging of top of the low resistivity layer, (2) from 0.06 to 0.13 Hz for
the imaging of bottom of this layer.
a function of the distance from transmitter or the depth of the penetration

of the plane wave. For example in the last case in the homogeneous half
space the form of the pulse d~(z, t) at the different depth z could be described
by the formula:
dS(z, t) = bzt -3/2 exp (- (/~00"/4) • (z2/O) (42)

where b = (/10cr/47r)1/2. The function dS(z, t) lz=cons t at the small times is
close to zero, then increases achieving the maximum at the moment
to(Z) = I~az2/6 (43)
and then goes to zero again at infinity (Fig. 4).
That is why we can speak about the propagation of the pulse EM wave
in the medium considering the propagation of the corresponding local
extremum with the velocity
dz
V= ~ = 3/#0crz (44)
~- d (z,t)/f(z)
1.0
200 I ....... I ........ I,, , I
400 "Z°
2L
I'0i
0"5
600 -Z5 0
I'° I
0.5
800 .Z4 o
I'° I
0-5
1000 .Z5 o
,I to{Z 6)
1200-Z:Of t,,-'- .~ i J I f t
0-5
Z,M
,°f
1400..Z 7 0
O.I 0,2 0,5 0.4 05 0.6 sec I/2
Fig. 4. Propagation of ~pulse plane wave in the conducting medium (G = O, 2S/m,

f(z) = d~(z, to(Z)).
296 Zhdanov
The same analysis could be done for the field produced by the local
pulse transmitter.
As we have found early the difference between the phases of the migrated
anomalous field and the normal field close to the local anomalous zones or
at the geoelectrical boundaries slightly depends on the frequency. It means
that these fields have the same shape of the pulse at the location of geoelectric
anomalies or at the geoelectric boundaries. So by determination of the
points in which the times of local extremums of the normal and migrated
anomalous field are equal, we can find the position of geoelectric
inhomogeneities or geoelectric boundaries. In general the principles of the
imaging in time domain have to be as follows: using formula (43) for
estimation of the time t and f, achieving local maximum of the normal field
E n at the given point r 0 of the earth we have to calculate the migrated
anomalous field E am at the same point r0 for the same moment of the to.
If the point r0 belongs to the anomalous zone or to the geoelectric boundary
we should have the local extremum of the migrated field too.
As an example you could see the result of the migration of the electric
field Ey in time domain, based on this principle, for the local geoelectric
inhomogeneity shown at the Fig. 5. The migrated field has the local extremum
inside the anomalous body and the isolines of the migrated field go close
to the boundary of the body.
Another example is shown in Fig. 6. Here we have 2-layered 1D model.
The migrated apparent reflection coefficient
E~.m (z', T - to(U))
o~,,(z', to(Z')) = (45)
E3". (z', to(Z'))
0 I 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 x/d
I 1 I ~ w I
i-
z/d
Fig. 5. Isolines of the migrated field E~'
in the vertical plane for the model with
local anomalous body (normal conductivity of the earth v = 0, O1S/m,
conductivity of the conducting body ~ = 1S/m).
2
|
4 6 8 I0 12
j,14 16 X K~m
ZKm
Fig. 6. Imaging of geoelectrical boundary by the migration in time domain. Vertieal
traces correspond to the values of migrated apparent reflection coefficient
rn r
a ~ ( z , te~ t(z')). Horizontal solid line shows bottom of the 1st layer (s t = O, O1SIm,
s 2 = 1SIm).
has been calculated for any depth z'. Plets of aa~(z,

m , t¢(z')) clearly show
position of the boundary between two layers.

In the conclusion we can say that the EM migration opens us a new way
to the imaging of the earth interior by geoelectric methods. We know very
well how effective is the method of seismic migration, widely used in
practical applications. It seems that the same power approach could be
developed for the electromagnetic methods as well.
References
Berdichevsky, M.N., and Zhdanov, M.S., 1984. Advanced theory of deep Geomagnetic
sounding, Elsevier.
Berkhout, A.J., 1986. Seismic Inversion in Terms of Pre-Stack migration and Multiple
Elimination, Proc. IEEE, 74, 415--427.
Claerbout, J.E, t976. Fundamentals of geophysical data processing, McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
Claerbout, J.E, 1985. Imaging the earth's Interior, Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Gazdag, J, 1978. Wave equation migration with the phase shift method, Geophysics, 43,
1342-1251.
Lee, S., McMechan, G.A., andAiken, L.V., 1987. Phase-field imaging, The electromagnetic
equivalent of seismic migration, Geophysics, 52, 678-693.
Levy, S., Oldenburg, D., and Wang, J., 1988. Subsurface imaging using magnetotelluric
data, Geophysics, 53, 104-117.
Morse, EM., and Feshbach, U., 1953. Methods of Theoretical Physics, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc.
Samarsky, A.A., t977. The theory of difference schemes, Nauka (in Russian).
Stolt, R., 1978. Migration by Fourier transform, Geophysics, 43, 1342-1351.
Zhdanov, M.S., and Frenkel, M.A., 1983a. The solution of the inverse problems on the
basis of the analytical continuation of tile transient electromagnetic field in reverse time,
J. Geomagn. Geoelectr., 35, 747-765.
298 Zhdanov
Zhdanov, M.S., and Frenkel, M.A., 1983b. Electromagnetic migration, in Hjelt, S.E., Ed.,
37-58, The development of the Deep Geoelectric model of the Baltic Shield, Part 2,
Univ. of Oulu, Oulu.
Zhdanov, M.S., 1988. Integral transforms in geophysics, Springer-Verlag.
Zhdanov, M.S., Matusevich, V. Yu., and FrenkelcM.A, 1988. Seismic and electromagnetic
migration, Nauka (in Russian).
19. Numerical Modelling in

Electromagnetic Induction
J.T. Weaver
Department of Physics & Astronomyand Schoolof Earth & Ocean Sciences
Universityof Victoria,Victoria,B.C., Canada, V8W 2Y2
1. Finite Differences in One Dimension
1.1 Introduction
This article is based on a series of six lectures given at the Fourth DST
SERC School entitled 'Electromagnetic Induction in the Earth--Recent
Advances' which took place in the Department of Geophysics, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, India from April 17 to May 6, 1995. The source
of much of the material presented in the lectures was the author's book
Mathematical Methodsfor Geo-electromagnetic Induction (Research Studies
Press, Taunton, U.K., 316pp, 1994). The reader is referred to this book for
references to other work in the field.
1.2 Induction Equations

The basic equations of induction with a time factor exp (Rot) understood
are
V×E=-RoB, VxB=flotrE (1)
where E and B are, respectively, the electric and magnetic field vectors,/.to
is the permeability of free space, and cr is the conductivity of the medium.
It follows that
V-B=0, V-(erE)--= V . j = 0
where j is the current density. The second equation gives
trV. E + (Vcr) • E = 0
Taking the curl of the basic equations, we obtain
V x V x E = -icogocrE, V x [(V x B)/tr] = -iog/aoB
which can be expressed in terms of the vector Laplacian as follows:
V2E + V[(VG) • E/tr] = ico/~ocrE
vEB + (Vt7) x (V x B)/t7 = ito//otyB
300 Weaver
Special cases in regions of uniform tr are

V2E = itO/~otrE, V2B = i09/.totrB
In a non-conducting region such as the air layer above the earth, these
equations further reduce to
V2E=0, V2B=0
and the second equation in (1) simplifies to V x B = 0.
~r
a=0, P=Po
z y
z=0
////////o
~r -- ~r(z) /t = / t o
Z
Fig. 1. Flat earth.
1.3 One Dimensional Equations

Let E = E(z)~, B = B(z)~ and or= ~ z ) which implies that Vcr- E = 0. This
means that in a flat earth, with the z-axis vertically downwards and the
plane z = 0 representing its surface (Fig. 1), the conductivity varies only
with depth and the external inducing field is horizontal and laterally uniform.
The differential equations simplify to
E"(z) = ioglzotr(z) E(z) (2)
B"(z) = [tr'(z)/tr(z)] B'(z) + ironer(z) B(z)
Alternatively, the second equation can be expressed in terms of p(z) = I/

o(z), the resistivity of the medium, as follows:
p(z)B"(z) + p'(z)B'(z) = itolzoB(z) (3)
In the air layer z < 0, where tr = 0, these equations simplify to E"(z) = 0
and B"(z) = 0 with the additional constraints i f ( z ) = 0 and E'(z) = -itoB(z)
derived from Eqs. (1). With c : = c(0-), where c(z) : = E(z)/itoB(z), the
solutions are
B(z) = Yo (const), E(z) = i¢OYo(c - z) (4)
The quantity c, which has the dimension of length, is the magnetotelluric
response of the earth measured on its surface; it is closely related to the
impedance of the earth. Note that the magnetic field external to the earth
is vertically as well as laterally uniform. Suitable boundary conditions at
z = 0 are deduced from these equations as
Numerical Modelling in Electromagnetic Induction 301
B(O) = Yo, E'(O) = - icoY o (5)

Finally, if the basement of the model is a uniformly conducting half-
space z > Zu of conductivity trN+1, then the solution for E is
E(z) = E(ZN + 0) exp [-(Z - ZN)(iCOpoaN+I) 1/2]
whence a boundary condition on z = ZN + 0 is

E'(ZN + O) = - (i091~OtrN÷I)I/2E(ZN + 0) (6)
Equation (3) reduces to the same form as (2) in z > ZN SO that we also have
B'(ZN + O) = - (iWpotrN+I)I/2B(ZN + 0) (7)
1.4 Finite Differences

It is never necessary to use approximate numerical methods to solve the
problem of induction in a 1D structure because analytic procedures are
always applicable. Nevertheless, the finite difference formulation of a strictly
1D problem in which the source is uniform and horizontal so that all
dependence on the variables x and y is removed, provides an informative
introduction to the finite difference method and leads naturally to the
appropriate generalizations to two- and three- dimensional problems to be
discussed later. Moreover, the finite difference equations in two (three)
dimensions degenerate to the 1D form at the sides (comers) of the 2D (3D)
model if boundary conditions of vanishing second derivatives of the horizontal
field are applied there. In this case a 2D or 3D finite difference algorithm
will automatically solve a 1D finite difference problem of the type described
here at the extremities of the model.
A discretization of a 1D conductivity model is shown in Fig. 2. The
region z > 0 is covered by N nodes z = zn (zt = 0) with node separations
z,,+l - zn = kn (n = 1, 2 ..... N - 1) and with the conductivity in the region
between adjacent nodes zn and zn+l characterized by the value trn+t/2. It is
assumed that the entire half-space z > ZN possesses the uniform conductivity
tYN+l/2 -- trN+l (in the notation of Sec. 1.3). Note that the subscripted values
of z do not necessarily represent boundaries between regions of different
uniform conductivity. The node Zn may be one of many lyitag within a
uniform region, and even if crn+l/2 ¢ a~-ln it could be in a zone where the
conductivity is varying continuously from the one value to the other rather
than on a sharp boundary between two uniform regions. In fact the node
separation determines the resolution of the model, for it is not possible to
depict more precisely how the conductivity changes its value from or,_1/2 to
trn+l/2 without creating a finer subdivision of the region. Thus a properly
designed model will have a greater density of nodes in regions where the
conductivity is varying rapidly.
In the finite difference method, first and second derivatives of the field
are approximated to by central difference formulae obtained by expanding
302 Weaver
the field in Taylor series up to second order terms. Thus, if F(z) represents
a component of the electromagnetic field with continuous first and second
derivatives, Taylor expansions downwards and upwards from the node
z. give
1 2 ,,
F(Zn+l) = F(zn) + knF'(z.) + ~ k n F (Zn) + O(k~)
F(Zn-1) = F(zn) - kn_lF •(Zn) + ~kn_lF

1 2 . (Zn) + O(k31)
a=0
:Zl=O
t
kL aal2 = 1~Pal2
• Z2
• Zn--1
f
kn-I an-I~2 = I/p.-I/2
• Zn
trn+l/2 -- 1/P.+ID
• Zn+l
• ZN-1
f
kN-I O'N-1/2 = 1 / p N - , / 2
: ZN
O'N+II~ = 1/pN+I/2
Fig. 2. Nodes in a 1D numerical model (after Weaver, 1994).
Ignoring the third order terms and eliminating first F"(zn) and then F'(z.)
we obtain the approximate formulae
F •(zn) = ....TF(zn+O
k._l +~ F(zn) - k~_ik"k+~F(z~-O (8)
kn k n
F (z.) =
,,
z~+l) k ~ 2 1F(z~)+ , 2 +F(Zn_l) (9)
kn,' - k.-1 k.
where we have written
k+n = kn + kn_1, k~ = kn - kn-1

For these approximations to be valid the node separations must be kept
small. Typically this means that they should be no greater than a fraction
of the skin depth for the region in which the nodes are situated, but clearly
this condition can be relaxed if the third derivative of the field happens to
be very small in the region,
It should also be noted that the error in the expression for the second
derivative is only of first order in the node separations (unless the nodes
are equi-spaced) whereas that for the first derivative is of second order.
This can be seen by including third order terms in the Taylor expansions,
whence the additional terms appearing on the right-hand sides of (9) and
t. ~-,,,(Zn) respectively. If k. = k._l the
1 n_ F " ( z . ) and - gl k n'~n-1-
(8) are - -~k
former term vanishes and the error in the finite difference expression for
F" becomes second order; otherwise with kn = iLk~_t the magnitude of the
ratio of the two error terms becomes e = 2 12 - 1 l/2kn_l with kn_~ measured
in skin depths when the two equations are properly scaled for comparison.
For (9) to have the same accuracy as (8) we require e < 1, and assuming
for the sake of argument that k. > kn-1 we see that this condition becomes
~, < 1 - ~-kn_l . Thus if k~_l is about one third of skin depth, for example,
we may choose kn to be a factor 1.2 bigger than k,,_l but no more without
loss of accurcy. In regions where F " i s small, however, it would be reasonable
to allow somewhat greater changes in adjacent intervals• Clearly some care
and caution shold be exercised when designing a numerical model that is
both accurate and economical.
The 1D equations to be discretized in z > 0 are (2) for the electric field
and (3) for the magnetic field.
1.4.1 Finite difference equations f o r the electric field

Suppose first that the plane z = zn (n = 2, 3 ..... N - 1) is a sharp boundary
separating two regions of uniform conductivities crn_i/2 and cry+l/2respectively,
with the understanding that cr._m and crn+l/2 may be equal. The standard
boundary conditions expressing continuity of tangential electric and magnetic
fields require E(zn - O) = E(zn + O) = E n and E'(zn - O) = E'(Zn + 0) =: E~,
but the second derivatives E " ( z . ++.) =: E~'+ are discontinuous if the
conductivities are unequal; for by (2)
E~'+ = iOJpOCfn+l/2En, E"_ = iogPoCrn_l/2En

Hence in this case the second order Taylor expansions which led to the
finite difference derivative formulae (8) and (9) become
•
E~+I = En + knE~ + n2 E n
tOgPoCr~+l/2k
En_ 1 = E n - kn_lE" + ½.tOgpoCYn_l/2k._xEn

2
Elimination of E,~ yields

304 Weaver
2 E~+l 2 En + 2 + k~0-~+1/2 + kn-10-~-1/2 E~ (10)

knk +n knkn_t ~ En-1 = icol.to k+
The left-hand side is just the finite difference formula for E~" if it were
continuous at z = Zn so that (t0) is clearly the finite difference representation
of (2) at zn with the conductivity 0-n - 0-(z~) defined by
kn 0-n+1/2 + kn-10-n-112
0-n = k~ + kn-1 (11)
which is a weighted average of the conductivities in the intervals above and

below the node. Thus the node z~ can be regarded either as lying on the
boundary separating two layers of uniform conductivity 0-n-I/2 and 0-~+1/2or,
alternatively, as a point in a transition zone where the conductivity varies
smoothly from one prescribed value at zn - kn_l/2 to the next at z~ + k,,/2
in such a way that the conductivity at the node itself is the weighted mean
of the two given values. Both interpretations are valid; the resolution provided
by the finite difference approximation is just not fine enough to distinguish
between them. As far as the discretization of the induction problem is
concerned, the second interpretation is simpler (especially in higher
dimensions) because no boundary conditions need to be applied--one merely
assigns the mean conductivity value to each node and then writes down the
discrete form of the governing differential equation (2) using the well-
known finite difference formula (9) for a continuous second derivative.
Thus we have for n = 2, 3 ..... N-1
knk+~ En+1 - + 1COlAo0-n E n + ~kn_lkn En_1 = 0 (12)
There are N - 2 equations of type (12) in the N unknowns En. The remaining
two equations are given by the discrete forms of the boundary conditions
on z = 0 and z = ZN stated in Sec. 1.3. Both z = zl (= 0) and z = ZN are
defined as sharp boundaries in the model so there is no ambiguity of
interpretation at these nodes; we must regard the layers 0 < z < z2 and
ZN-1 < Z < ZN as having uniform conductivities 0"3/2 and 0-N-1/2 respectively.
Therefore, expanding E to second order downwards from Zl and substituting
for EI'~ from (2) we obtain
1. 2
E2 = E1 + klE{ + -~tcO/Ao0-3/2k I E1
This yields an expression for E{ which substituted in the boundary

condition (5) gives
( 1 + 51ico/.to0-3/2k~)E1- E2=iCOkl Yo (13)
Similarly, by expanding upwards from z = ZN we obtain

1 . 2
EN_ 1 = E N - kN_1E~ + ~teOpOtrN_l/ekN_lE u
which combined with (6) gives
EN_1 -
[1 + kN_l(iO)llO~U÷l/2)u2 + ~' iO)l~oaN_u2k~_l1 E N = 0 (14)
The system of N equations comprising (12), (13) and (14) is easily

solved by direct methods to yield an approximate solution for the electric
field En at the N nodes Zn in terms of the surface magnetic field g0-
1.4.2 Finite difference equations for the magnetic field

The finite difference formulation of the corresponding equations for the
magnetic field follows along similar lines except that it turns out to be
more convenient to work with resistivities instead of conductivities. Thus
we shall take (3) as the differenctial equation goveming the behaviour of
the magnetic field B(z). An important difference in the analysis of the
magnetic field is that, in general, B' is discontinuous across a sharp boundary
z = z. separating the regions z.-1 < z < zn and z~ < z < Zn+l of uniform
resistivities Pn-u2 and Pn+li2 respectively because, when expressed through
the second of equations (t), the boundary condition requiring continuity of
the tangential electric field, yields
Pn-1/2Bn- = Pn+l/2Bn+ (15)
Expanding B(z) at the node z. in the usual way, and substituting for B"_+
from (3) (in which p'(z) = 0), we obtain
B~+I = Bn + k~B~+ + (io~Pok2/2p~+u2)Bn
B._I = Bn - kn-IBn-
' + (itoPok2._l/2p~_l/2)B.
Elimination of the first derivatives with the aid of the boundary condition
(15), gives
P~+l/2Bn+l
E
- (P~l/2 P~-u2"~B° + P,,-u2 B = ½ ioglXok+B~
k._, "-'
which, as is easily verified, can be rearranged in the form
k.P.+u2+k.-,P.-u2( 2+ 2 2+ 1
kn+ ~ Bn+l k n k n-1
B,, + B._~
+ P.+l/2 - P.-u2 ( k.-I k; kn

k+/2 ~.k.k+ B.+I + ~ B. k.-, k+ B._, )
= ieopoBn
306 Weaver
Since the expressions in the brackets are the finite difference formulae
(9) and (8) for continuous second and first derivatives, it is immediately
apparent that this equation has an alternative interpretation as the finite
difference representation of (3) at a node Zn situated in a transition zone
where the resistivity varies smoothly from its value Pn-t/2 at z~ - k~_i/2 to
Pn+l/2 at zn + knl2. Comparison with (3) shows that the resistivity Pn and
its gradient p,' at the node itself must be given by
knPn+l/2 + kn-lPn-1/2 Pn+ll2 - Pn-1/2

P~ = kn + k~_l ' P" = (k~ + k~_l)/2 (16)
Clearly pn is defined, like the conductivity in (11), as the weighted average

of its values above and below the node, while p~ is the gradient of a
resistivity that varies linearly between the two values (we know from the
mean value theorem that p " must attain the value defined by (34) somewhere
in the interval Zn - kn-l/2 < Zn < Zn + kn/2 whatever the smooth variation of
the resistivity may be). The picture of a smooth transition zone is again the
simpler one to bear in mind when the problem is discretized because it
requires only that we assign the appropriate values of p~ and p~ to N - 2
nodes zn (n = 2, 3 .... N - 1) before writing down the finite difference
representation of (3) at each node using the expressions (8) and (9) for
continuous derivatives. The resulting N - 2 equations can be stated more
concisely than above in the form
2pn + kn-Ip~" _ (2pn - k[p~ 2;. -
k.k+ 8"+1t + icOllo Bn + kn-lk+n Bn-l
=0 (17)
for n = 2, 3 ..... N - 1. An expansion upwards from z = zN and elimination
of B~v_ with the aid of (7) and (15) gives the equation analogous to (14)
as
PN-1/2BN-1 -- [PN-112 + kN-l(iOgl-toPu+l/2) 1/2 + 1 iogp.ok~_l]B N = 0 (18)

This completes the solution of the problem since the system of N - 1
equations defined by (17) and (18) can be solved directly for the N - 1 field
values B2, B3..... BN in terms of the surface magnetic field BI -- Y0.
2. Finite Differences in Two Dimensions
2.1 Two-Dimensional Equations of Induction

An induction problem is two-dimensional (2D) if all parameters and field
vectors are independent of one of the horizontal coordinates, say x. Note
that this implies that the inducing source is also 2D. The conductivity
or(y, z) is assumed to approach (possibly different) 1D distributions ere(Z) as
y ~ + ~ as, e.g. in Fig. 5. Many real geophysical configurations, such as

long conducting ore bodies or a straight coastline dividing an ocean from a
land mass, can be represented by 2D conductivity models of this type.
We write rectangular components of E and B in the form
E x = U(y, z), Ey= V(y, z), E z= W(y, z),
Bx = X(y, z), By= Y(y, z), B z= z(y, z),
Then the vector induction equations (19) are represented by the six scalar
equations
tgU/Oz = - iogY, tgU/Oy = itoZ, ~Z/3y - OY/Oz = I~oCrU, (19)
a X / a z = UoaV, are y = - u o a w , a v / & - aw/ = itox, (20)
and the x-components of the vector differential equations satisfied by E and
B yield
O2U 82U
~c~y + cgz~ - i~ol.totTU (21)
8 2)[ c92)[ 10t70X 1 Oty cgX

t~y 2 + t)Z 2 60y Oy t 7 0 Z OZ --it°l't°crX (22)
These equations show that a 2D field decouples into two distinct modes.
dl O1
d2 0"2
a3 0"4
0" 5
Fig. 3. A two-dimensional model of the earth.
That defined by equations (19) is called the transverse electric (TE) or E-

polarization mode since its electric field, specified by the single component
U satisfying the differential equation (21), is horizontal and parallel to the
strike of the 2D conductivity anomalies. Likewise equations (20) define the
transverse magnetic (TM) or B-polarization mode in which the only non-
vanishing magnetic component is X satsfying (22). Equations (19) and (20)
also show that the magnetic components Y and Z in the TE mode and the
electric components V and W in the TM mode are given as derivatives of
U and X respectively. Thus there is no advantage gained by introducing
potentials in 2D problems.
308 Weaver
In a non-conducting region, equations (20) reduce to OX/Oy = o3X/oaz= 0,

from which we deduce that the only B-polarized field that can exist above
the earth's surface in a 2D model is given by X = X0, a constant. In particular
this gives
X(y, 0) = X0 (23)
as the surface boundary condition in the TM mode. It can also be deduced
from the second of equations (20) and the fact that there is no normal
component of current flow across the surface of the earth into the non-
conducting air layer.
Other kinds of source are acceptable in the TE mode but mostly they can
only be used to model artificial configurations. For example, it would be
unreasonable to expect that an ionospheric electrojet, represented by an
infinite line current, would in reality be aligned exactly parallel to a 2D
conductivity anomaly within the earth. For this reason we shall limit our
discussion of TE solutions to those which involve the only type of source
field uniform and horizontal--that is allowed in the TM mode. In this
case, the tD field reached as I y I ---> ~ in the TE mode will clearly be
indistinguishable from the corresponding 1D field in TM mode except for
the labelling of the axes. Thus we assert that Y ---> Y0 (const) as I y I ---> oo
in the non-conducting region z < 0 above the earth, which corresponds to
solution (23).
As y ~ + oo in the conducting region z > O, OtrlOy, OX/Oy and OUIOy
all vanish so that the boundary conditons on X and U become
x ( + ~ , z) = X±(z), u ( + ~,, z) = u_+(z)
where X_+ and Ue are solutions of the 1D equations (Sec. 1.3)
X~ (z) - [ crY_(z)/ty±(z)] X~_(z) = itOlZoCr+_(z)X±(z),
U~ (z) = i¢O~off+_(z)U±(z)
subject to the boundary conditions X±(0) = X0, U_~(0) = - itoYo.

By differentiation, the first two of equations (19) give
OY/Oy = - OZ/o3z (24)
which is simply the 2D form of V. B = 0, and in the non-conducting air

layer the third equation reduces to
OY/Oz = OZ/o3y (25)
Since Z can only be associated with 2D conductivity anomalies in the earth

it must vanish as z --->- ~, and hence by equations (19), (24) and (25) so
must OU/Oy, OY/Oy and OY/oaz. Thus as z --->- ~, Y tends to a constant value
which has to be Y0 for matching with the 1D solutions at y = + ~,. We know
from equation (22) that in z < 0
U+(z) = iOgYo[c+_(to) - z]
from which we deduce that U+_(z) ~ iOgYol z I as z --->- ~. Since tgU/~ --->0
as well, it follows that U(y, z) ~ io~Yo I z I as z --->- ~ for all y. A boundary
condition at infinite height, such as this, is difficult to model and is potentially
a source of numerical inaccuracy; for, apart from the fact that the numerical
grid must be enlarged to cover the region above the earth there is always
some uncertainty as to how high to put 'infinity' when designing the model,
especially with the field itself tending to very large values with increasing
altitude. It would be much more convenient if we could use a boundary
condition on the earth's surface, corresponding to (23) in the TM mode. A
surface boundary condition for TE fields can, in fact, be found in an integral
form. We shall return to this point in Sec. 3.2.
Finally, since the field is attenuated as z --> ~, we may assert that
U(y, ~) = 0 and X(y, ~) = 0.
2.2 Finite Difference Method

Extending.the notation introduced in Sec. 1.4, we cover yz-plane with a grid
comprising the lines y = Ym ( m = 1, 2 ..... M), Z = zn (n = 1, 2 ..... N), whose
intersections at the points (Ym, zn) define M N nodes (m, n). The dimensions
of the cell on the positive y and z sides of the point (Ym, zn) are denoted by
hm := Ym+l - Ym and k n := Zn+l - Zn and the cell's conductivity (or resistivity)
is defined as O'm+l12,n+l/2 (or Pro+l/2. n+lt2). A typical node of the 2D grid
with its four neighbouring cells is shown in Fig. 4. In the TE mode the
top boundary of the grid, z = Zl, is positioned at some reasonably large
height in the air layer, so that the earth's surface z = 0 is coincident with
the grid line z = Zp (say). Note that p = 1 in the TM mode since it is
not necessary to grid the air layer when the surface boundary condition (23)
exists. The region below z = ZN, the bottom boundary of the grid, is assumed
to be a homogeneous h a l f - s p a c e w h o s e conductivity is O'm, N+l/2 ---- O'0-
The side grid boundaries defined by lines y = Yl and y = YM are located within
the 1D structures on the left- and right-hand edges of the model respectively,
i.e. tr3/2,n+l/2=- tr_(Zn + kn/2) and trM_l/2,n+l/2~ Cr+(Zn+ kn/2).
Following the discussion in Sec. 1.4.1 and making the obvious
generalization, we shall define the conductivity at node (m, n) to be the
weighted average of the conductivities in the four cells surrounding it,
namely
+ + +
tYm'n := (hm + hm-t) (kn + k,,_l) (26)
where (m, n := hmk,:rm+l/2, n+1/2. This definition can be written alternatively
as
hm tTm+ll2,n + hm-l tTm-ll2,n kn(Tm,n+l/2+ kn-I (Ym,n-ll2

o-mn:=
, hm + hm-l = k n + kn_ 1
310 Weaver
hm-1 *, hm l
Z=Zn_ 1
k,~-i (7~. i n _ l
"'*-2' 2
O'raa-1 n
"2 ~
t.
--2
,i(m,n) = Zn
k,, (7.~_ 1 n.a.I

2' "2
O r r n + ~ , n + 2~
1_
Y "- Y m - 1 y --" Yrn
,
Y "= Ym+l
7, = g n+l
Fig. 4. The node (m, n) in a two-dimensional grid (after Weaver, 1994).
with
k,, (Tm+_l/2,n+l12 + kn-1 CYm+_ll2,n-l/2 (27)

O'm:tl/2,n := kn + kn_ 1
hm CYm+lt2,n+ll2 q- hm_ 10"m-112,n+l12

am,~+_l/2 := hm + hm-1 (28)
Note that C7m+112,n are the conductivities on line z = Zn at points Ym + hm/2

and Ym - hm_i/2 respectively, and similarly Crm,~l/2 are the conductitivies on
Y = Ym at zn + kn/2 and zn - kn_l/2.
Definition (26)reduces to the correct 1D form if the grid point (Ym, Zn)
is in a region where there is no horizontal variation in conductivity, i.e.
where a,n+ln,,~ = Crm-ln,n. Its justification is based on more than this one
observation, however: for, (i) if it is used as the value of or(y, z) at the node
(m, n) in a region where the conductivity varies smoothly in two dimensions,
then the finite difference representation of differential equation (21) satisfied
by the TE mode electric field is exactly the same as that obtained (ii) by
regarding y = Ym as a sharp boundary between regions of different uniform
conductivities am-an,~ and Crm+ln,n with the conductivity varying smoothly
across a transition zone between z~ - kn_l/2 and zn + kn/2, or (iii) by taking
z = Zn as the sharp boundary and region between Ym - hm-1/2 and Ym + hm/
2 as the transition zone of smooth variation in Conductivity (Fig. 5). The
initial interpretation (i) is, of course, the simplest one to use when writing
down the discrete form of (21); (ii) and (iii) require U to be expanded in
Taylor series on either side of the sharp boundary and the application of
electromagnetic boundary conditions to eliminate unknowns (as in the 1D
,k i
v
O'rrt ~rt .'1# O'rft_ ~2~rt °'m+ ~ ,n , Ii
m
•' r "g
Z/"- ~/rn
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 5. Three equivalent interpretations of the conductivity at node (m, n): (i) the
conductivity varies smoothly in both directions; (ii) and (iii) there are
sharp boundaries at y = Ym and z = z. respectively between regions of
different conductivity (after Weaver, 1994).
equations derived in Sec. 1.4.1), or equivalently, the use of 'fictitious values'.

The fourth possibility, in which both y = Ym and z = zn are regarded as sharp
boundaries, has to be rejecied because it is then impossible to satisfy all the
electromagnetic bounda~ry conditions at the node (m, n) unless the
conductivities in the four neighbouring cells happen to be related in a
particular way. Otherwise the solution has a singularity at such a 'quadruple
junction'.
Only interpretation (iii) is available at nodes on z = zp and z = ZNbecause
the earth's surface and the surface of the homogeneous basement must be
regarded as sharp boundaries limiting the extent of the anomalous region.
Thus for the treatment of nodes (m, p) it is assumed that the conductivity
just below the earth's surface varies smoothly only horizontally and has the
uniform value ¢rm,p+a/2, as defined in (28), on the line interval y = Ym,
0 < z < kp/2. In particular, at node (Ym, 0+) itself we have ¢rm,p - am,p+~/2.
Likewise, the conductivity on y = Ym, ZN - ku_l/2 < Z < ZN above the node
(Ym, ZN -- 0) is am, N-I/2 =- am, N.
The same three interpretations of the finite difference equation satisfied
by the magnetic component X are also valid in the TM mode if we define tile
resistivity and its derivatives/~ := Op/oay and p ' := Op/Oz at node (m, n),
assumed lying in a 2D transition zone, by
Pm, n := (hm + hm_~)(k, + kn-1) (29)
• Pm+l/2,n - Pm-ll2,n , Pm, n+l/2 - Pm,n-1/2 (30)

Pm, n := (h m + hm_l)/2 , P,n,n := (kn + kn_l)/2
where ~m,n := hmknpm+l/2,n+l/2 and the resistivities Pm+_I/2,~ and Pm,~+_I/2
appearing in (30) are given by formulae analagous to (27) and (28). Definitions
(29) and (30) clearly reduce to .the correct formulae if the model is 1D.
When dealing with nodes (m, 1) and (m, N) on the sharp boundaries defining
312 Weaver
the surface of the earth and the top of the basement we must assume,
as above for the corresponding conductivities, that Pro,1 = Pro,3/2 and
P,,~N = Pro,N-t/2. It should be noted that these assumptions also imply that
Pm,N = O.
2.2.1 Finite difference equations f o r the TE mode

Here and in the following sections we shall continue to denote differentiation
in z by a prime on the function symbol, even when partial differentiation
of a function of two space variables is implied.
Consider any interior node (m, n) where the conductivity is defined by
(26) and represent the second derivatives in (21) at this node by the usual
finite difference expressions. After some algebraic rearrangement we find
that the electric field Um,n := U(ym, Zn) is related to its four neighbouring
nodal values by the 'five-point equation'
-Um+l,n
- + - Um-l,n
- + Um,n+l+ Urn,n-1
~
hmh,+~ hm_lh~ ~ kn_lk+n
_( 1 1 1.
hmhm_l + ~ + ' 2 t a m , n Um,n (31)
(2 < m < M - 1; 2 < n < N - 1), where h,+~ = hm + hm-1 and k~+ = kn + kn_l
as defined in Sec. 1.4. It is left as an exercise to verify that precisely the same
equation is reached by following the more complex procedures (ii) and (iii)
described above.
Various methods have been devised for dealing with the boundaries of
the grid, which lead to different finite difference formulations at the boundary
nodes, some more accurate than others. Values obtained from the 1D solutions
of the field are assigned to the nodes on the sides of the grid, i.e.
uLn = U_(z~), uM,~ = U÷(z~)

and, for the time being we shall assume the grid extends far enough into
the earth that the condition
Urn.N= 0
holds approximately on the bottom of the grid. It is further assumed that
the grid reaches a sufficiently high altitude above the earth's surfacethat
the electric field can be interpolated linearly across the top of the grid
between the values given by the different 1D solutions on either side, so
that
Um,1 = iogYo l Zl I + U_(0) [1 - (Ym - Yl)/w] + U+(0)[t - (YM - ym)/W]
(32)
where w := YM- Yl is the width ofthe grid. This is a practical compromise
between stopping at too low a height where the horizontal variation in U

is considerable and non-linear, and going high enough that OU/Oy -= 0 (i.e.
Z = 0). It is tantamount to assuming that Z is non-vanishing but constant
at height I Z1 L
Altogether there are ( M - 2) ( N - 2) interior node equations (31) in the
unknowns Um,n (m = 2, 3 ..... M - 1; n = 2, 3 ..... N - 1) which can b e
solved usually by direct methods, but also iteratively, in terms of the
2M + 2N - 4 known boundary values.
The magnetic field components, given in terms of U by (19), can be
found by numerical differentiation. Only surface fields will be considered
here. The obvious method is to replace the derivatives in (19) by their
appropriate finite difference representations. Thus, we obtain
i V hm
Zm,p = -~ Lh .~-lhm+ Um-l,p
h;,
hmhm-i Urn,l,
hm_ 1
hmh.+ Um+l,p
]
An expression for U/,,,p can be found by expanding U in a Taylor series to
second order downwards from the node (m, p), first to the node (m, p + 1)
+
at z = kp, secondly to the node (m, p + 2) at z = kp+1, and then eliminating
U,;~,p+ from the two equations obtained. Substituting the resulting one-sided
finite difference formula for UT,,,p in the first equation (19) we obtain
i [2kp + kp+ 1 kp+l kp

Ym,p = - -'~ ' -- - ~ - Um,p Urn,p+1 + - - Urn.p+: (33)
L kpkp+l kpkp+l kp+lk;~+1
This procedure is equivalent, of course, to fitting a parabola to the field at

the three nodes (m, p), (m, p + 1) and (m, p + 2) and differentiating atthe
end point z = 0. It fails if there is an abrupt change in conductivity across
the boundary z = kp because U" is then discontinuous there and the Taylor
expansion is no longer valid at z = kp+l • (In practice the conductivity would
be regarded as having a steep gradient across the boundary so that a parabola
of large curvature would be required to fit the field at the three nodes.)
One way of avoiding such potential inaccuracies is always to ensure in
the grid design that the conductivities of the first two rows .of cells are
identical; this is easy to implement and (33) then gives reliable values.
Another is to use the Taylor expansion of U only to z = kp, and to eliminate
U,'~,p with the aid of (21), which gives the alternative formula for the
horizontal magnetic field
kp kp
Ym,p = "-~ U m,p+l + ~ Um+l,p + ....... + Um-Lp
hm h m hm_l h m
(34)
314 Weaver
2.2.2 Finite difference equations f o r the T M mode

The TM differential equation (22) is first rewritten in the form
p(c92X/cgy 2 + 02X/t~Z 2) + fgOX/Oy + pr OX/Oz = impoX. (35)
Then, using interpretation (i) in Fig. 5 and expressing the second derivatives
by finite differences in the usual manner, we can immediately write down
the discrete form of (17), at any interior node (m, n), as the five-point
equation
2p m,n ÷ hm-lDm,nXm+ln
" + 2p m,n - hmPm,nXm_l
" n
h,nh+m hm_lh.+
2pm,n + kn-~ pm,n X 2pm,n -- kn p~,,n X

+ knk+n ' m,n+l + 2--I-~
r~n-lr~n
m,n-I
2 Pm,n -- hT~ p,,,,. 2pm,n - k~ p~,.

= hmhm_l k.kn_l ~ it°l.to JXm, n (36)
(2 < m < M - 1; 2 < n < N - 1), with Pro:, [)m,n and p~.. defined as in (29)
and (30)~ It clearly reduces to the correct form when the model is 1D. The
much more laborious algebraic exercise of deriving (36) by the alternative
proceduresdescribed in Sec. 2.2 and based on interpretations (ii) and (iii)
in Fig. 5 is again left as an exercise.
With the aid of the definitions (30) it is readily shown that
2p,,~.,, + hm_lPm, n = 2p~+ln.n, 2p,,~. - h[gm,~ = 2P~-lr2,n
2pm, n + k.-lPm,n = 2pm, n+l/2, 2Pm, n - knpm,n = 2Pro,n-l~2, (37)

and that
2pm, n - h~ [g m,n = (2/h+) (hmPm-1/2,n + hm-lPm+ll2,n)
2pm.n - k ; p~,n = (2/k.+) (knp~n-l/2 + kn-lPm.~z+l/e) (38)

Hence (36) can be stated in the alternative form
P .,+t/2,. X P m-uZn X P.,*+1/2 X Pro,n-l~2X
- ~ - - ~ ' m+l,n "1" ~ m-l,n + ~ m,n+l + b b+ m,n-t
•"m "~m t ~m-1r~m "*n"-n r'n-1 r'n
( 1 i091.t0 + hm p m-1/2,n + hm-I/9 m+ll2,n kn P m,n-ll2 + kn-1 P m,n+ll2l~ X

hrnhm_lh+ + ----'~_+
knk~_tkn ") m,n
(39)
With the aid of (23), and the continuing assumption that the grid extends
into the earth to a depth where the field is attenuated to negligible magnitude,
the values of X on the boundary of the grid are given as
x,.,~ = x0, Xm, N = O, X~,,, = X_<z.), XM,, = X+(Z,,)
for 1 < m < M and 2 < n < N. There are (M - 2) (N - 2) equations (36),
or alternatively (39), in the unknowns Xm,,, (m = 2, 3 ..... M -1; n = 2, 3,
.... N - 1) to be solved in terms of these known boundary values.
Only the horizontal electric field V is of practical interest at the surface
of the earth. If the node (m, 1) happens to lie on a vertical resistivity
boundary, however, V will not be uniquely defined at the node itself so that
it is more convenient to deal with the horizontal current density which is
continuous across the boundary and is given by the first of equations (20)
as X',,1/#o. The left- and right-hand limits of the horizontal electric field
at the node (m, 1) can then be defined by
Vo,_,l V,,,+,~ _ X,;,,1
(40)
Pm-ll2,312 Pm+ll2,312 #0
If the surface resistivity does not change across the plane y -- Ym then (40)
reduces to Vm,1 =Pm, l X~,,i/I-to. The derivative X' can be evaluated numerically
by either of the methods outlined in Sec. 2.2.1. For a grid designed so that
the resistivities in the first two rows of cells are identical, the TM analogy
of (33) is
_2kl + k2
_ k÷ 2 kl
X~,,., = kl k f X° + ~ Xm'2 - ~ Xm'3 (41)
Otherwise a Taylor expansion vertically downwards rom the surface leads

to the expression
X;,a = Xm,21kl - ( llkl + ~, ioJl~okllpma ) Xo (42)
corresponding to (16). In general the first alternative (33) performs rather

better.
2.3 Numerical Considerations

In the notation of linear algebra the system of equations derived in Sec.
2.2.1 and 2.2.2 can be written in the form
Ax = b (43)
where x is the (M - 2) (N - 2) -dimensional column vector
(F2,2, F3,2..... FM_I,2, F2,3 . . . . . FM_I,3. . . . . F2,N-I . . . . . F M - I , N _ I ) T
where F represents the pertinent field component (U in TE mode and X in
TM mode), A is the sparse and banded (M - 2) (N - 2) x (M - 2) (N - 2)
matrix of the coefficients appearing in the relevant equations (31) or (36),
and b is the column vector whose elements are the known boundary values
transferred to the right-hand sides of those equations (31) or (36) in which
they appear.
316 Weaver
The numerical solution of linear systems of type (43) is a subject of

study in its own right. For most 2D problems a direct method, exemplified
by Gaul3ian elimination, can be used although in practice one of the more
sophisticated elimination procedures that take advantage of the sparseness
of the matrix would be preferred. Since the system to be solved consists of
five-point equations of type (31) or (36), it wilt be seen that A is tri-
diagonal with two additional non-empty diagonals, or 'fringes', located
(M - 1) positions away from the main diagonal.
Grid design is an extremely important part of the forward modelling
process. If done manually, but carelessly, different users can obtain quite
different outputs from the same modelling program when computing the
response of identical conductivity structures. This 'user dependence' of
computed responses as opposed to 'program dependence' is not entirely
unknown in practice and can be traced back to poor grid design, one common
cause being the temptation to retain the same grid covering a particular
conductivity model for a wide range of periods. Grid size is, in fact, very
much dependent on the period of the field variations because the dimensions
of the grid cells must be kept small compared with the skin depth of the
local material (the natural length scale) in order that the Taylor expansions
leading to the finite difference approximations may be generally valid. For
this reason, portable modelling programs should ideally include an automatic
grid generator which is not only a great time-saver but also an eliminator
of user-related errors. The following guidelines, based on the discussion in
Sec. 1.4, have been found helpful in designing a satisfactory grid:
1. Up to at least two skin depths on either side of a vertical or horizontal

boundary separating two regions of different conductivity, the node
separation should be no more (and very close to the boundary
preferably less) than one-quarter of a skin depth. At greater distances
where the field gradient will be smaller, this condition can be relaxed.
2. The first and last (Mth) vertical grid lines should be placed at least
three skin depths beyond the nearest vertical conductivity boundary.
Here 'skin depth' refers to the skin depth in the most resistive layer
of the relevant 1D structure, i.e. that at y = - oo for the first grid line
and at y = + ~o for the Mth.
3. The separations of adjacent nodes should be kept as nearly equal a~
possible near conductivity boundaries, and preferably exactly equal
across the boundaries themselves. When a rapid change in the node
separation from one part of the model to another is required, the
transition should be made as smoothly as possible, preferably in
regions where field gradients are expected to be small and with no
more than a doubling (or halving) of adjacent node separations.
If the model requires a very dense and extensive grid, the linear system
(43) might become so large that it can only be solved in practice by iterations.
N u m e r i c a l Modelling in Electromagnetic Induction 317
In fact iterative techniques, of which the Gaul]-Seidel method is a well-

known representative example, offer a general alternative method of solving
(43) and are preferred by some modellers, even though the additional question
of convergence must be addressed. We can summarize the Gaug-Seidel
method concisely by writing A = L + D + U where L and U are respectively
the lower and upper triangular parts of A (with zeros on their diagonals)
and D is its diagonal part. Then (43) can be restated as ( L + D ) x = b - U x
from which follows the iterative scheme whose kth step is
x (k+l) = (L + D ) -I (b - Ux (k)) (44)
The iteration starts with an initial guess x(1) which could be obtained by linearly
interpolating the given 1D fields at y = _+ oo across the whole grid. It stops
when II x (k+l) - x ~k) tl < ~r0 where x 0 is an appropriate normalizing factor for
the elements x i of the vector x, e is some prescribed small number, and the
norm is defined by II x II := max I x I. In TE mode the components x i, with
i running from 1 to (M - 2) (N - 2), are the electric field values U,,.n and
normalizing factor can be chosen as the average 1/2[U+ (0) + U_ (0)] of the
surface elecrtic fields aty = + oo which are given by the 1D solutions there. In
TM mode the normalizing factor of magnetic field components Xm, n is simply
X0. The form of (44) dictates that the nodal field values are calculated across
each row of the grid in succession, starting at the top, and that the up-dated
values are immediately made available for the next nodal calculation in the
same step of the iterations. The order in which the nodes are treated could, of
course, be arranged differentlyl
Although the Gaul]-Seidel method itself converges fairly slowly it is
ideally suited in principle to the type of matrix A resulting from our finite
difference equations. Convergence can be accelerated by introducing
successive over-relaxation (SOR) in which the up-dated value of x is taken
to be a weighted average of the new and old values in (44). Thus if v
denotes the normalized weighting factor (or relaxation parameter), the
modified iterative scheme is defined by
x (k+l) = v ( L + D ) -1 (b - Ux (k)) + (1 - V)x (k)
- x (k) + v ( L + D ) -1 (b - A x (k))
Now A x (k) - b =: e (k) is the error associated with the kth vector iterate x (k)
so that the SOR method can be written as
x (k+I) = x (k) - v ( L + D)-le (k)
When v = 1 the Gaug-Seidel method (44) is recovered. Over-relaxation

occurs when v > 1, i.e. when the new estimate in (44) has a normalized
weighting of more than unity and the old estimate is therefore weighted
negatively. When 0 < v < 1, both estimates are weighted positively and we
have under-relaxation. Over-relaxation generally leads to a scheme that
converges more quickly than the Gaug-Seidel method.
318 Weaver
The elements of x involved in the computations described above are the

components U and X of the total field which is mainly dominated by its
normal (or regional) part--unlike Z, for example, which is entirely anomalous.
In fact, the interesting field variations belong to the smaller anomalous
fields U(y, z)-U_(z) and X(y, z)-X_(z), and although numerical accuracy is
not normally a problem, there is a possibility that round-off error will
become significant if the computer code is written in single precision
arithmetic. I n such cases it is desirable to compute with the anomalous
rather than the total field. It is not at all difficult to re-write all the finite
difference equations of the preceding subsections in terms of anomalous
fields, given that U and X satisfy the 1D equations quoted previously.
This task is left as an exercise.
3. Further Topics in Two-Dimensional Modelling
3.1 Asymptotic Boundary Conditions

In Sec. 2.2.1 we remarked on the unsatisfactory nature of the boundary
condition as z --> - oo for the numerical solution of TE problems: the actual
procedure adopted for assigning values to the top boundary of the numerical
grid was a rather makeshift one. A more precise investigation of asymptotic
behaviour of the electric field suggests a more accurate boundary condition
at 'infinite' height. Moreover, it also leads to an improved representation
of the electric field as y --> + ~o in the air layer. The anomalous field U(y,
0) - U_+(0) decays rather slowly to zero in the horizontal direction which
means that the end nodes Yl,p and YM,p have to be placed several skin depths
into the 1D regions at the sides if the boundary conditions Ul.p = U_(0) and
UM,p = U+(0) are to be fairly well satisfied. More accurate boundary conditions
which reflect the asymptotic behaviour of the electric field in the horizontal
direction offer improved accuracy without requiring an unreasonable number
of nodes along the y-axis.
Let the components Y - Yo and Z of the anomalous magnetic field
(which vanishes as y2 + z2 ~ ,~) be derived from a magnetic scalar potential
f2(~; z) defined in the region z < 0 by
B - YoY = - V~, whence V 2 ~ "- 0
We define Fourier transformation and convolution in the space coordinate

y by the formulae
~'(rl) = 1 £ f(y)e irly dy, f(y) = _ ~ I ~ °^f(rl)e -'fly dr I
f *g(y) = ~ 1
I ~ f (v)g(y - v) dv = - ~ 1
F f(rl)~(rl)e -~": drl
In Fourier space, the Laplace equation above becomes

~'(r/, z) = r/2fi(r/, z)
and its solution which vanishes as z ---) - oo is
~(r/, z) = ~(r/, 0) exp (zl 7/I)
It follows by Fourier inversion and differentiation that
¥(y, z) - ¥0 + - - ~ eL r/fi(r/, 0) exp (zl r / l - ir/y) dr~ (45)
Z(y, Z) 1 ~_~ I 7/I fi(r/,0) e x p ( z l 771-ir/y) dr/ (46)
Writing f±(r/) = (or/Lfi(r/, 0) + fi(-r/, 0 ) ] / 2 ~ and expressing the

components Y and Z in terms of U through the TE scalar Eqs. (19), we may
state (45) and (46) in the form
c?U = _ iooY° + F[f_(r/) cos r/y - if+(r/) sin r/y] exp (zr/) dr/
3z J0
c~U ; _
Oy i0 0[fAr/) sin r/y + if÷(r/) cos fly] exp (zr/) dr/
Asymptotic representations of these integrals which are valid for large

values of r = (y2 + z2)II2 can be found by expanding f±(r/) in Maclaurin
series and integrating term by term. Since the definition off_(r/) requires
f_(0) - 0, the resulting expansions simplify to
c?U =_iooYo - iyf÷ (0) 2iyzf~ ( 0 ) - ( y 2 - z 2 ) f ' _ (0) t. O ( ~ ) ( 4 7 )

egg ~ r + r4
cgUoy _--izf+(O)r
2 + i(y 2 - Z2 )f+a(0)
4e r 2 yzf__'(0) + O(7"1 ) (48)
whence
y iy :,o,
U(y, z) = k - itoYoz - if÷(O) arctan I z I r2 -----7--
r + O (49)
where k is a constant of integration. Given that U(y, 0) ~ U_+(0) as y --~

+ oo, we deduce that k = 0 := I[U+(0) + U_(0)] and f+(0) = iAU/rc with
AU := U÷(0) - U_(0). On substituting these values in (49) and retaining
only the terms of order less than 1/r, we obtain
U(y, z ) ~ - i~Yoz + U + AU arctan y (50)

7r Izl
as r --~ oo or, in particular, as z ~ - oo. The first term is dominant and is

the boundary condition derived in Sec. 2.2.1. Note that as y ~ __ oo we have
320 Weaver
U(+ oo, z) ~ U+_(O)- itoYoz

as required for agreement with the 1D solutions. Thus the next two terms
in (50) provide the lateral variation at height I z I between the 1D solutions
at y = + oo In discrete form (50) becomes
Urn,1 + ~ _ io)Yoz x + AU arctan Y"!... (51)

¢r Izll
with error O(1/r). Near the centre of the grid where I Ym I << t zl I and
therefore arctan (ym/I z I) = ym/I Zl I, (51) can be approximated as
Um, l = itoYo l zl I + U_(0) 1 -

~rlzl I
[1 1
+ U+(0) 1 ~-/rt zl I - Ym
?rTz] T "
A comparison with the rough boundary condition (32) postulated in Sec.

2.2.1 shows that the two agree i f y l = - w/2, YM = w/2 and I zl I = w/~r. In
other words, the linear interpolation along the top boundary of the grid,
which was proposed intuitively with little justification in Sec. 2.2.1, is a
reasonable approximation in the region of y = 0 at the centre of the top
gridline if the top of the grid is placed in the air layer at an altitude of
w/Tr where w is the width of the grid.
Multiplying (47) by z, (48) by y and then adding them both to (49), we
find that the terms O(1/r) cancel out and we are left with the more precise
asymptotic formula
(l+y~y+Z~z)U(y, z)~-2ioYoz+U + AU
Jr arctan y (52)
Asymptotic boundary conditions on the grid lines y = Yl, Y = YM and

z = zl which now have errors O(1/r~), are obtained by expressing (52) in
discrete form. Thus with the normal derivative on z = zl represented by
finite differences in the form
Um2kl (kl 1) kl
U~,.l = ~ + hmh+ Urn+U- ~ +-~1 Urn,1 + + Urn-l,1
hm-1 hm
(cf. equation (34) for example), and with the horizontal derivative expressed
in the usual way, a better asymptotic boundary condition than (51) is
hm-lYm + klZl
hm h,+~
Um+l 1 +
'
I m' lZ Z,I
1+ hmh,,_ 1 ~ Uml
hmYm - kl zl 'U m-1,1

-i-- - ~ 7 +
Zl Urn,2
ttyIZ-- 1 I t m
= 0 -2iogYoz 1 + AU arctan Ym (53)

tr Izll
for 2 < m < M - 1. Similar expressions are obtained on the side boundaries
Y = Yl and y = YM when z < 0. Their derivation is left as an exercise. At
the corner nodes (1, 1) and (M, 1) we accept the less accurate one-sided
derivatives in the finite difference approximation so that
Yl (YlZ__L1 ~ zl
h-~ UEj + ~ hi U1,1 + -~1 U1,2 = U - 2i09Yozl + AU arctan __Yi
7r Iz~l
with a similar expression holding at the corner (M, 1).

On the surface z = 0, Eq. (52) simplifies to
(1 + yO/Oy)U (y, 0) = U_(0) (54)
for large positive and negative values of y respectively. Representation of
the field gradient at the end nodes can be treated slightly differently in this
special case. Consider first the node YM and imagine a fictitious node at
YM+I = YM + hM-1. Then the finite difference representation of OU/Oy is
[o3U(y, O)/o3y]~=yM = (UM+I - U M _ 1 )/2hM-1
It follows from (54) that
yMUM+I,p + 2hM_IUM,p - YMUM_I,p = 2hM_IU+(O) (55)
In order to find UM+I we assume that terms O(1/y 2) Can be neglected for
all y >_YM. Then from the form of equation (49) it may be inferred that
U(y, 0) = g+(0) + [UM, p - g+(0)] (yM/yy (56)
for y > YM, the coefficient of 1/y having been determined by the fact that
U(y, O) = UM,p at y = YM" In particular, at y = YM+b we have
UM,p -- U+(0)
UM+I,p= U+(O) +
1 + hM_l/yM
which, substituted in (55), gives
UM_I, p -- (1 + eM)UM,p = - EMU+(O) (57)
where we have defined
hM_l(yM + 2hM_ 0
eM = YM(YM,4" hM-1)
A similar result can be obtined at the node y = Yl with the aid of the
322 Weaver
usual finite difference representation of the field gradient and the approximate
expression
U(y, O) = U_(O) + [U1,p - U_(0)](yl/y). (58)
The equation obtained is
(1 -- El)U1, p - U2, p = - e l U - ( O ) (59)
where
hl(Y 1 - 2hi)
E1 =
Y I(Y 1 - hi)
Equations (57) and (59) replace the less accurate statements Ua,p = U_(O)
and UM,V = U+(0) used in Sec. 2.2.1.
Now consider the nodes on the side boundaries of the grid for z > 0. It
is apparent from (48) that O2U(y, 0)/0y 2 = O(1/y 3) as l y 1 ~ ~, which is
certainly negligible in the asymptotic approximation. The field inside the
conductor will decay horizontally just as rapidly so that the second derivative
in y may be neglected in equation (21) of when I y I is large, giving
U"(y, z) = io)l~oa+_(z)U(y, z) (z > 0), U"(y, z) = 0 (z < O)
as the differential equations that approximately govern the behaviour of U

on the side boundaries of the grid. These are the same 1D equations that
are satisfied by the fields U_+(z)at infinity, but the surface boundary values
are now U(y, 0) rather than U+_(0). The solutions can therefore be quoted
directly as
U(y, z) = U(y, O)U+_(z)//U+_(O)
or, at the side nodes,
UI,, = [U_(z,)/U_(O)IUI,v, UM,, = [U+(zn)/U+(O)]UM, p (60)

for2<n<N- 1.
Equations (53), (57), (59) and (60), together with the two equations at
the corner nodes, are the asymptotic boundary conditions which provide
improved accuracy for the solution of TE problems, and permit the use of
smaller grids than would otherwise be necessary.
3.2 Integral Boundary Conditions

As we mentioned in Sec. 2.1, an even better way of limiting the size of the
grid in TE problems and avoiding the use of boundary conditions at infinity
in the air layer altogether, is to construct a boundary condition on the
earth's surface z = 0. It will be recalled that such a surface boundary
condition already exists for TM fields.
Consider again the anomalous field B-Y0~ defined in z < 0 in terms of
the magnetic scalar potential f~ introduced in Sec. 3.1. Differentiating the
solution for -~(r/, z) in Fourier space (see See. 3.1) with respect to z and
setting z = 0 we obtain
2(r/, o) = - J 77 fi(r/, o)
From the definition of ~ and its Fourier transform we also have
Y(y, 0-) = Y0 + ~ i L r/fi(r/, 0) exp (-/r/y) dr/.

Substituting for ~ from above we have
Y(y, 0-) = Yo i L sgn r/Z(r/, 0) exp (-ir/y) dr/

2-~ (61)
where sgn r/= 1 for 7/> 0 and -1 for 7/< 0. The integral on the right can
be regarded as the inverse Fourier transform of the product of i sgn 7/and
Z(r/, 0) whose individual inverse transforms are the generalized function
(2//r)l/2y -1 and Z(y, 0) respectively. Hence by the convolution theorem (see
Sec. 3.1) we may write the integral as
2x~zi I_~oosgn 7"/ Z(r/, 0)exp (Mr~y) dr/= ~1o ~ Z(v,

O)_f_yv do = - - w z o , , O)
where the bar on the integral sign means the Cauchy principal value, and
where
1 ~oo f(v) dv
Wf(y) := -~ _= v - y
is the well-known Hilbert transform. Thus (61) reduces to the integral

boundary condition
Y(y, 0-) = Y0 + WZ(y, 0). (62)
(For readers unfamiliar with generalized functions, an alternative proof of
this important result is given in Appendix I.) If there is no surface current
flowing in a thin sheet at z = 0 then Y (y, 0-) = Y(y, 0+) = Y(y, 0).
Expressed in terms of U through equations (19), boundary condition
(62) becomes
U'(y, 0-) = - io)Yo - W [OU(y, O)/Oy]. (63)
Written out in full, the Hilbert transform above is
[OU(y,O)] 1~_~ ~?U(v,O) dv

a~ L Oy ="~ Oo v-y
1 lim
= "-~ "
e--+o ~d_= +
~. [U(v, O) - U(y,, 0)1 dv
v - y
324 Weaver
where e > 0 and where in the last integrand we have introduced the constant
term -U(y, 0) under the derivative in v so that an integration by parts can
be carried out. This gives for the first integral
OU(y, 0) + lira
Sy-e U(V, O) - U(y, O) dv
0----7 ~%o _~ (v -- y-~
and similarly for the second
0 U(y,
0 y 0_______+~) lim f ~ U(v, O) - U(y, O) dv
e~0 d )'+E (o - y)2
Combining these two results and substituting the resulting expression in

(63), we obtain the integral boundary condition in the alternative form
1 ~0o U(v, O) - U(y, O)
U'(y, 0-) = -i ogYo - ~ .-_~ ~ -_ ~ dv (64)
If the basement of the 2D model is a uniformly conducting half-space

z > ZN, exemplified by the region of conductivity 0"5 in Fig. 3, then it is
possible to derive a similar integral boundary condition on the surface
z = ZN + 0 for both the TM and TE modes. This limits the region of modelling
to the depth range 0 < z < ZN as in the 1D case discussed in Sec. 1.4.
In z > zu, the Fourier transform of equation (22) with 0" = 0"0, the
constant value for the conductivity of the basement, is
X"(r/, z) = (7/2 + io~) X(r/, z)
where O~o2 := O9po0"o.Although X does not vanish as I y I + oo, its Fourier

transform exists as a generalized function. The solution of this equation in
z >Zuis
~'(r/, Z) -~ f~(r/, ZN) exp{- (z - d)T0(r/)] (65)

where T0(r/) = (77z + ia2)1/2 Differentiating in z and taking the Fourier
transform of the first of equations (20), we deduce that
ff(r/, z) = - ff'(r/, z)/To(r/) = -Po0-o~/(r/, z)/To(r/) (66)
The inverse Fourier transform of 1/T0(r/) is (2/Iv) 1/2 K0(I y la0~fi ) where K 0
is the modified Bessel function of the second kind and order zero. Hence
Fourier inversion with the aid of the convolution theorem on z = zN gives
X(y, ZN) = - I't°0-°

rC V(v, ZN)Ko(I y - v l a o ' ~ ) dv (67)
An alternative boundary condition in which X rather than V appears in the

integrand can be found by taking the Fourier inverse of (65) instead of
(66). A tabulated Fourier transform is
1 exp [-zy0(r/)]
LP(y, z ) e x p (i~y) d y = ~-~ ZO~o.~-
[

kl[(y 2 + Z2) 1/2 a o ~ ]
P(y, z) = (y2 + z2)112
KI being the modified Bessel function of order 1. Thus an application of

the convolution theorem to (65) gives
X(y, z) = (z - zN)ao a/-[ E X(v, ZN) P(Y - v, Z - ZN) dv

E
Multiplying the identity
exp [- (z - ZN)aO~f[] - (Z - Z~)Oto47 f~*p(y _ v, z - ZN) dv
(which is a special case of aforementioned tabulated transform with 7/= 0

and with y and z replaced by y - v and z - ZN respectively, v being the new
variable) by X(y, zN) and subtracting it from the previous equation we
obtain
X(y, z) - X(y, Zu) exp [- (z - ZN)aO'f[ ]
_ (Z - ZN)a0"q~ F [X(v, ZN) - X(y, ZN)] P(Y - v, z - ZN) dv

7~ d_=
This form of the solution is useful because the subtraction of terms in the
integrand removes the non-integrable singularity in P at v = y when z = ZN,
and leaves the integral convergent on z = ZN when it is interpreted as a
Cauchy principal value. Furthermore, differentiation in z followed by
evaluation on z = ZN is now a straightforward matter because the factor
z - ZN ensures that the term involving the derivative of the integral vanishes
on z = ZN. The final result is
St(y, ZN) + OIo%lriX(fl, ZN)
= ao47~r ~_~ IX(v, zu) - X(y, ZN)]KI(t yl y- - vvl t a0"v~) dv (68)
which also serves as a boundary condition on z = ZN.

Analogous arguments applied to the electric field component in a T E
field lead to the boundary condition
U(y, ZN) = i_~_.~~,~_ Y(v, ZN) Ko(t y - v ' ~ / 7 ) dv (69)
corresponding to (67), and alternatively to

326 Weaver
U'(y, zN) + ao47 W(y, zN)
ao4ir [U(v, zN) - U(y, zN)] KI(I y - v I aoX/7) dv (70)

ly-vl
which corresponds to (68). Both (68) and (70) can be generalized to
accommodate a 1D layered structure beneath the boundary z = ZN.
Discretization of these boundary conditions is fairly straightforward but
tedious. Unfortunately, their extension across the full width of the grid
destroys the banded structure of the matrix in the resulting linear system,
but this inconvenience is out-weighed by economy in grid design. Before
starting we note that the gridline z = Zl now represents the surface z = 0
in the TE as well as the TM mode, and that in both modes z = zN is the
topmost surface of the underlying homogeneous half-space.
The z-derivatives in (64), (68) and (70) are discretized in the same
manner that was used in Sec. 2.2 for calculation of the subsidiary field
components. Thus in (64) the field U is expanded downwards in a Taylor
series from the point (Ym, 0+) and U;,~,l eliminated with the aid of the
differential equation satisfied by U. Substituting the resulting finite difference
expression for U,% in (64) we obtain
(1 ~ ) Urn,2 kl(O2U~
-~l + Um'l k1 2 ~ o~y 2 )m,1
= UOYo +
1 ~° U(v,O) - Urn,1d v (71)
The integral on right-hand side can be split as follows
= + + + ( Z + m~+, ) (72)
• " )~u-1 WYm
where equation (64) is assumed evaluated at the node m = p (/.t ~ 1, M).

We call Yu the 'singular point' in the range of integration, because it is at
this point that the kernel of the integrand becomes singular. For evaluation
of the integral, we assume that the field has the linear interpolation
U(y, O) = Urn,1 + (3' --Ym) (Urn+l,1 -- Um,1)/hm
in each interval Ym < Y < Ym+l (m ~ II - 1, /~), while around the singular
point we represent U by the parabola
V(y, O)= V# + T~0 (y - yv) + Tu(2) (y - yv)2
passing through the three points Uv-IA, Uv,l and Uu+IA.The coefficients are
given by
hu-I Uu+Ij hi Uua hu Uu-U

Tff= h/~h~ + huhu------~l hu_lh;
T~ 2) = U~t+l,1 O#,l U.tt-l,l

hu hu+ hu hu--------71+ hu-1 hu+
where h u = hu + hu_1. They will be recognized as the finite difference

expressions for (OU/Oy)u.l and l(o32U/o3y2)#,l respectively. Some elementary
integrations then give the Cauchy principal value of the third integral as
y,+l U(v, O) - Uuj dv = ~l) log ~hu + T(2)h+

./~ "w'
and between the other nodes where U is assumed linear in y,
m+1 U(v, O) - Uu,l hm (U.,j - Uuj)

f],° 72 = (y~ - y.,,O (y~ - Ym)
+ (Um+l11 - U#'I)('Y/l
' " Ym+l + 1~ log [YU
[ / Y--------Ym
uYm+l
Finally, in the infinite ranges of the first two integrals on the right-hand
side of (72) the asymptotic expressions (56) and (58) are used. For example,
with the aid of (58) the first integral becomes
:~ u(v, o) - u.,~ U_(O) - U~a

-
y~ - y~
+
Y I [Ul - U_(O)] \(,y~
Note that if Yu = 0, the second term reduces to [U_(0) - Ul,d/2Yl. A similar

expression can be obtained for the other infinite integral in (72) whose
range runs from YM tO ~. At the end nodes (1, 1) and (M, 1) equations (59)
and (57) continue to hold.
The integral boundary conditions at the bottom of the grid, (70) in the
TE mode and (68) in the TM mode, are discretized in the same manner
although the integrations become more complicated because of the presence
of modified Bessel functions. Nevertheless, the coefficients of the nodal
field values can all be calculated analytically in terms of tabulated functions.
Details are left to the reader.
328 Weaver
3.3 Alternative A p p r o a c h to Finite Differences
The finite difference formulae derived in Sec. 2.2 can be obtained in other
ways, some involving quite different approaches, e.g. by appealing to the
analogy with the equations for voltage and current in a transmission surface.
Another method is to integrate the differential equations over rectangular
domains surrounding each node. This method is particularly powerful because
it can be generalized to the triangular elements formed by completing the
diagonals of the rectangular cells as illustrated in Fig. 6, thereby offering
a flexibility in model design that is usually attributed only to the finite
element method.
1 +
i Z = Zn_ 1
1
~k~
1 +
Z " - Zrl
-- Z --" Z n + 1
Y = Y~-I Y = Ym Y = Ym+l
Fig. 6. Integration around the node (m,n)(after Weaver, 1994).

The TE .~nd TM differential equations can be put in the form
c~y ~ + -~z =ic°#°ff(Y'z)g (73)
O'--y O(Y,Z)-~y + p(y,z)--~z =impoX (74)
They are integrated over the area of the rectangle PQRS shown in Fig. 6,
and the lefthand sides transformed by Green's theorem into line integrals
arofind the perimeter of the rectangle. Applied to (73) this procedure gives
- (Yt,Q+ SR1
s oU(y'z)
Oz dy+ (Ss1,+ ~Q)CgU(y,z)
1¢ -cgy dz
= i09pOS SA or(y, z) U(y, z) dy dz (75)

where A is the area of the rectangle PQRS. To evaluate these integrals we

assume that U(y, z) =Um, n over the rectangle and we represent the derivatives
on each side of the rectangle by central difference formulae at the intersections
with the grid lines.
Thus, for example, on SP and PQ we put
c9U(y, z) = Um+l,n - Um.n 0 U(y, Z.___~)= Um,n+l - Urn,.
c9y hm ' 0z k,
respectively. With the conductivity values assigned to the rectangular cells
as in Fig. 6, the evaluation of equation (75) is
Um,n+ 1 - Urn, n h.+ Urn,. -- Urn,._l h.+
k, 2 k,_l 2
Urn+I,n - U m , n k +n Um,n - Urn_l,n k +~

hm 2 hm-1 2
i09po
= 4 ((m,n + (m,n-1 + (m-l,n-I + (m-l,.) Um.,~ (76)
where (m,,,' is the conductivity-area product introduced in Sec. 2.2. After

simplification, the above equation reduces to precisely the same finite
difference equation as before, thereby justifying the integration procedure
described here.
Now suppose that the four triangular elements in each cell have different
conductivities labelled cr(t), cr(b), cr(°, and a (r) for the top, bottom, left and
right triangles respectively, with the appropriate subscripts on cr continuing
to denote the particular rectangular cell that has been subdivided. For example,
the conductivity of the triangular element with its top vertex at S in Fig. 6
_(b)
would be Um+l/2,n-l/2" This notation is also extended to the quantities (m,n"
The method ot" deriving the finite difference equation in U described above
is still valid except that the rectangle PQRS is now devided into eight
distinct regions rather than four. Clearly only the coefficient of Urn,, on the
right-hand side of (76) is modified, its new form being
1 • (l) ~" (t) r (b) i" (l) r (r) t~ (b) '~ (t) /," (r) )
-8 ~O~#O((m,, + ~m,n + "~m,n-1+ ~m,n-I + "~m-l,n-I + ~m-l,n-1 + ~m-i,n + "~m-l,n
Thus the finite difference equation in U will again reduce to the standard
form derived in Sec. 2.2 provided only that we re-define the conductivity
at the node (m, n) to be
(l) + F(t) + if(b) ~(I) if(r) ?'(b) ~'(t) ~'(r)
m,n " ~ m , n ~m,n-1 + "~m,n-1 + "~m-l,n-1 + ~m-l,n-I + ~m-l,n + '~m-l,n
Gin, n := 2(hm + hm_ 1 ) (kn + kn_ 1 )
(77)
which is simply the weighted average of the conductivities in the eight
triangular elements surrounding the node.
330 Weaver
Turning now to the TM equations (74) we apply Green's theorem as
before to obtain
- z______dz
(f.eQ + SRsI p(y, z) OX(y,z)
~Z
dy +
(fsP+ SQR1 p(y, z) 0 X(y,
Oy
_~)
= ioglJo ~ SaX(Y, z) dy dz (78)
Consider first the rectangular cells alone, without their triangular subdivisions.
Then the discrete form of (78) is
(~Pm-ll2'n+ll2+~-~
lOm+il2'nXmn+l
+ll2) 'k:-Xm'n
(~_.~_P m+ll2,n-ll2 +Thm-1Pm-ll2'n-ll21
~ Xmn" - Xm,n-1,
)
+
(~ Pm+ll2,n+ll2+ "kn-I "~ Xm+l n -- Xm n
- ~ P m+ll2,n-ll2J '-h: '
--(~'~ffm-l/2,n-1/2
+TPra-ll2,n+l/21
Xm'~ms-Xm-l
n 'n
kn
_ i~Ogoh+ k+n
4 "Xm,,. (79)
When the definitions for Pm~+l/2,n

and Pm,n+l/2 a r e substituted in (79), it
is easily shown that the original TM finite difference equation derived in
Sec. 2.2.2 is recovered.
Now let the triangular elements have different resistivities which will be
designated by the same superscript notation that was used for the
conductivities. The discretization of (78) becomes
(~_L,-,(~) h,n~dl) ~ xmn+l-gm,n

~'.,-u2,.+u2 + 2 v~+u2,n+u2) " "k-~
(_~ hm-I ,~,~) "~X~,~-Xm,~_,
"+"~"-W -h:
(k,,_~ ..~b) k,, p~_~:~,,+~/2"~) X.,,,, - Xm-L.
- t , - T - ""-"~,"-':~ + T , h-7,-_,
• + +
_ wJlXoh,,, k,~
4 "Xm~ (80)
The obvious generalizations of the definitions of Pm+_l/2,nand Pm, n+l/2 that

take account of the weighting by triangular rather than rectangular areas are
(t) t. r~ (b)
knp m+l12,n+l/2 + ~n-lt" m+l/2,n-l/2 (81)
Ptz+-l/2,n := kn + kn_t
(t) 1~ r~(r)
hmp m+l/2,n+_l/2+ •m-lP m-1/2,n+_l/2 (82)
Pm,n+l/2 := hm + hm-l
and with these definitions (80) again simplifies to the original equation
(39). Note, however, that it is no longer possible to rearrange this equation
into its original form given by (36) because relations of type (37) and (38)
cease to hold when the two terms in the expression
hmPm+l/2,n +hm-lPm-l/2,n knDm,n+l/2 + kn-lPm,n-l/2
Pm,n = 2(hm + h.,-1) + 2(kn + kn-1)
defining the average resistivity at (m, n), are no longer equal as they were
when we were dealing with rectangular cells. It also reflects the difficulty
in devising suitable formulae for the horizontal and vertical derivatives of
p when the node is at a junction of eight triangular elements.
In summary, the finite difference formulae (31) and (39), with O'm,~defined
by (77) and Ptrecl/2,n and Drn,n+ll2 by (81) and (82), hold quite generally
whether the grid is composed of rectangular or triangular cells.
3.4 Computer Software

A FORTRANprogram for 2D modelling with finite differences is available
from the University of Victoria. It incorporates most of the desirable features
mentioned here with--automatic gridding, calculation in terms of the
anomalous field, asymptotic boundary conditions on the sides of the TE
grid, integral boundary conditions on the top and bottom of the TE grid and
on the bottom of the TM grid. Written initially for running on a DECVaxstation
operating under vMs, it has since been adapted to operate on IBM PCS and
UNix-based RISC workstations.
4. Thin Sheet Modelling in Two Dimensions
4.1 Introduction to Thin Sheets

Suppose the first layer in the 1D model shown in Fig. 7 is a sheet of very
small thickness d whose conductance z = old is nevertheless quite significant.
For a uniform, harmonic source, the electric field E(z) = E(z) ~ satisfies (2)
E"(z) = iogtzocr~E(z) (83)
within the sheet. The associated magnetic field is B(z) = B(z)~. Expanding
E'(z) upwards in a Taylor series at z = d, we have
332 Weaver
0"--0
V / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Z = Z 1 ~--- 0
dl = d
t ¢T1 Z= Z2
d2 a2
Z~--Z 3
i Z "-" Z n
dn ¢7n
Z = Zn+ 1
Z ~ ZN-1
dN-1 O'N_ 1
Z-'ZN
O"N
Fig. 7. Layered earth (after Weaver, 1994).
E(O) 1 ~f
E(d) =- 1 E(d) E'(z) dz
= 1- E'(d)
E(d) ~o¢dz E"(d)
E(d) ~o' (z - d) dz +...
= 1 + d/c(d) + ½ im#oald 2 + O(d 3) (84)
where c(d) := E(d)/imB(d) = - E(D)/E'(d) is the response function at z =

d in accordance with the definition given in Sec. 1.3. It can be regarded as
the magnetotelluric response of the layered earth beneath the surface sheet,
and since it has the dimension of length, I c(d) I can be regarded as an
inductive scale length which is characteristic of the structure. The last step
in (8~4) follows from equation (83) which is satisfied by E at z = d - 0. As
d ~ 0 equation (84) gives
E(O)/E(d) ~ 1 + d/c(d) + i(d/tS)2
where 6 = (2/fO/-t00"l)1/2 is the skin depth in the material of the surface sheet.
Thus if thickness of the sheet is sufficientiy small that the conditions
d << I c(d) I, d 2 << ~2 (85)
are satisfied, we deduce that E(d) = E(0), i.e. the electric field is approximately
unchanged in magnitude or phase across the sheet. The first condition (85)
requires the thickness of the sheet to be much less than the inductive
scale length in the layered earth below. In this regard, note that the value
of I c(d) I can be quite small if there is a highly conducting layer at shallow
depth and it also diminishes with increasing frequency. The second condition
merely states that the thickness of the sheet should be much less than the
skin depth in the sheet itself. This is also a frequency dependent condition--
a surface sheet may cease to be 'thin' as the frequency increases.
By similar arguments, we have
B(d) - B(O) = E'(d) - E'(O)
E(d) iogE(d)
-- 1 /o~E"(z) dz
i~oE(d)
_ ldoCrl ~ot
E(d) E(z) dz
= - por[1 + ld/c(d) + 1 i(d/c~)2 + O(d3)]
To the same order of approximation, it follows that

B(d) --- B(O) - PorE(O)
which states that the tangential magnetic field is discontinuous by an amount
proportional to the integrated current density in the sheet.
Mathematically it is usual to idealize the surface layer as an infinitesimally
thin sheet of finite conductance by proceeding to the limit as d ~ 0+ while
keeping r constant. Then, with the field values on the surface of the earth
denoted by E(0-) and B(0-) to distinguish them from those in the plane
z = 0+ on the underside of the thin sheet, the approximate results above
become the formal boundary conditions
E(0+) = E(0-) -- E(0), B(0+) - B(0-) = POrE(0).
In vector form, the 'thin sheet' boundary condition across a sheet of finite
conductance located in the surface plane z = 0 is expressed as
× [B(0+) - B(0-)] = P0rE(0) (86)
In practice, boundary condition (86) can be used if the 'thin sheet'

conditions (85) are satisfied. For example, consider an ocean of depth 2 km
underlain by 30 km of lithosphere of resistivity 100 ~ m terminated by
conductive mantle material of resistivity 10 f~m. If the conductivity of
seawater is taken to be 4 S/m, then the skin depths in the ocean at the
respective periods 1 s, 900 s and 3600 s are 0.25 km, 7.5 km and 15 km,
and the inductive scale lengths are roughly 3.5 kin, 55 km and 88 km.
Clearly the conditions (85) are weil satisfied at the longest of these periods,
334 Weaver
but not at the shortest. At the intermediate period of 900 s, the values give
d/c(d) = 1 (d/5)2 = 0.07 so that the ocean can still be reasonably regarded
as a 'thin sheet'.
4.2 Thin Sheets in Two Dimensions

Consider a surface layer 0 < z < e whose conductivity ere(y, z) is defined
in such a way that the conductance of the layer remains finite as its thickness
becomes vanishingly small. The conductance of the resulting thin sheet is
then defined as
v(y) = lira
I: ~e(Y, z) dz (87)
which corresponds to the definition in Sec. 4.1 except that now the
conductance is allowed to vary !n the y-direction. On the assumption that
horizontal gradients in the magnetic field are bounded, it is easily shown
that, in the limit as e --~ 0, the electric field will remain unchanged across
the sheet as in the 1D case considered in Sec. 4.1, and that
x [B(y, 0+) - B(y, 0-)l = poT(y)E(y; 0) (88)
corresponding to (86).
For an E-polarization problem, i.e. a TE field where by (19) U' = - imY,
the thin sheet condition (88) gives
U'(y, 0+) - U'(y, 0-) = itOlto~(y)U(y, 0) (89)
while the corresponding TM (or B-polarization) equations is
X(y, 0+) - X o = poZ(y)V(y, 0) (90)
These thin sheet equations can be regarded as good approximations to
reality when conditions (85) are satisfied and when horizontal gradients of
the surface magnetic field are not too large. Obviously this last requirement
will be met in regions where the lateral variation of the conductivity of the
surface layer is reasonably smooth.
4.3 Numerical Solutions

Two-dimensional thin sheet models in which the conductance v(y) varies
quite generally, can be treated by solving numerically the integral equation
satisfied by the horizontal electric field in the sheet. If the half-space beneath
the sheet is homogeneous, then the relevant integral equations follow
immediately from the thin sheet Eqs. (89) and (90), and the top and bottom
(in which zN --4 0+) boundary conditions (64), (68) and (70). If the substructure
is layered, as in Fig. 8, the generalized form of the boundary conditions
(not stated in Sec. 3.2) must be used.
By direct substitution the integral equation for TE fields becomes
-25 ~ 0 ~ 5,0 7,5 175 km

2.5 k m ~ ...... 4 S/m 14 km
t
0 jr = 800+ 184y, -~y

400 S [.f ] tl04St ~, 11-6× 104S
r = 800 + 16y r = 1000 + 120y
30 km 0.01 S / m
I
0.1 S/m
Fig. 8. A coast effect model with bathymetry. Upper diagram depicts variable
depth of the ocean and the lower shows how this translates into a thin
sheet of variable conductance at the surface of a given two-layer earth.
Surface sheet on landward side of the coastline is assumed to have a
conductance of 400 S increasing linearly to 800 S over the final 25 km as
the coast line is approached (after Weaver, 1994).
[i0)/./0~'(y) + a ~ ] U ( y , O) = io)Yo + -~1 -~ [U(v, 0)
- U(y, 0)]G(v - y) du (91)

1 (KI( l y I a ~/7)
Y(y) := - 7 + a ~fi ly I (92)
An integral for the horizontal component of the surface magnetic field in

terms of U follows from (64) in the form
i ~'~ U ( v , O ) - U ( y , O )
Y(y, 0-) = Yo - ~ __~ (v -- y 7 do (93)
The vertical magnetic field Z = c)U/ioOy can be most simply obtained by

numerical differentiation. Alternatively, an integral formula can be found in
terms of K but details will not be given here.
For TM fields, substitution of X(y, 0+) as given by (67) yields
z(y)V(y, O) = Xo Go I ~
Po ~ V(y, 0)K0(ly - v 1 a ~]7) dv (94)
This is the only TM field component of interest on the surface of the earth
because the horizontal magnetic field is, of course, uniform, while the
vertical electric field is rarely measured in practice.
The integral Eqs. (91) and (94) are expressed in discrete form for numerical
solution. Nodes ym(m = 1, 2 ..... M), whose separations are hm := Ym+l -- ym,
are defined on the y-axis in such a way that they provide a.dense coverage
of regions where the conductance of the sheet is non-uniform, and reach
336 Weaver
sufficiently far to the left and right that Yl and YMlie within the 1D regions
that extend out to infinity. Conductance and electric values "C(ym), U(y m, O)
and V(y,,, 0) are denoted by Tin, Um and V,n respectively, it being assumed,
of course, that ~'1 = v- and "rM = "¢+ where ~'+ are the conductances of the
sheet at y = _+~. In -the usual notation the 1D electrical field at y = +_~ are
denoted by U+(z) and V+(z).
The actual discretizion follows exactly the same procedure as that described
in Sec. 3.2. The field is assumed to vary linearly between the nodes except
over the two intervals on either side of the singular node (that node at
which the integral equation is being evaluated) where a quadratic variation
is imposed. The integral in equation (91) (or equation (94)) can then be
expressed as a sum of integrals over each interval each of which can be
evaluated analytically to yield coefficients of the M - 2 unknowns U m (or
Vm) for M = 2, 3 . . . . . M - 1. The end values at nodes t and M are equated
with the 1D solutions U+(0) (or V_+(0)).The integral equation can be discretized
in this manner at each node between the end points resulting in a system
of M - 2 equations which can be solved for the unknown nodal field
values. Note that a 2D problem has been effectively reduced to one that is
1D with a consequent reduction in the number of equations to be solved.
That is one of the principal advantages of using the thin sheet approximation
especially in 3D models where the system of equations would be
unmanageably large in a full finite difference treatment, but can be easily
handled by modem workstations when it is effectively reduced to a 2D
system. Another advantage is that the thin sheet encapsulates the relevant
geoelectric character of the surface layer without the need for the very fine
vertical discretization of the model that would otherwise be needed. At the
same time, the discretization in the horizontal direction can be made as fine
as necessary to capture the details of lateral variations in conductance because
there, is capacity to spare in the number of equations to be solved.
Since the anomalous electric field U(y, 0) - U+(0) is slowly decaying as
y --->+~,, it is possible to employ asymptotic boundary conditions discussed
in Section 3.1 in the solution of TE thin sheet problems. Thus in place of
UI = U_(0) and U M = U+(0), we may write
(1 - •I)U1 - U 2 = - t~IU_(0), UM_1 - (t + eM)UM = - eMU+(O)
which correspond to Eqs. (59) and (57) where E~ and eM are also defined.
4.4 Layered Substructure

Although quite arbitrary variations in the conductance of the surface sheet
are permitted in the numerical procedure just described the assumption
that the underlying structure is a homogeneous half-space is unreasonably
restrictive if the method is to be widely applicable to realistic earth models.
The extension of the theory to include a layered substructure proceeds
as follows.
Consider again the layered earth shown in Fig. 7 with the understanding
that the surface z = 0 is now a thin sheet of non-uniform conductance. In
the nth layer, the Fourier transforms of the respective electric and magnetic
field components U(y, z) and X(y, z) satisfy the equations
U"(r/, z) = ~,~ 0(r/, z), X"(r/, z) = ~,~ )[(r/, z) (95)
where }'n-2_ r/2 + ia 2 in the usual notation. Let 0n, On and Xn denote the
unique values of the field components in the plane z = z~ (except for the
surface plane z = zl - 0 where U( and X1 are discontinuous across the thin
sheet, and must therefore be defined on its lower surface z = 0+). The
component X' is discontinuous across all planes z = zn so that ~',~ always
denotes its value on the lower surface z = zn + 0. Then, b y the basic
induction Eq. (20) we have
:;;'(rt, zn - o) = (an_l/Crn) ', i;;, := z . + 0)
Both 0 and )[ satisfy the same differential equation and boundary

conditions in the nth layer as does the function f defined in Appendix II,
with/3, taking on the respective values 1 and o'n+flcr, when f p l a y s the role
of the functions U and X. Defining the transfer functions
p(r/, z):= - U(r/, z)/U'(rl, z), q(rl, z) := - X(r/, z)/~;'(rl, z) (96)
we deduce from the results derived as equations (127) and (128) in Appendix
II that Pn - p(r/, z. + 0) and q. = q(r/, z. + 0) are generated by the recursion
formulae
1 1 - rn exp (- 2~ndn)
CN = "~U' Cn = ?n[1 + r, exp ( - 2~'nd,)]
where
rn :=
1 + ~tn~nCn+ 1
and where c, represents either Pn when /3n = 1 or qn when /Jn = o'n÷l/crn.

Hence, the transfer functions Pl and ql, and their reciprocals, can be expressed
on the surface z = 0+ of the substructure according to the following formulae
for Cl:
llcl = ~1-.f(rl), c~ = ll?q - ~(r/) (97)

where
27"1r1 exp ( - 2yldl)
)~(r/) = 1 - r 1 exp ( - 2Zldl)
2rl exp ( - 2~1dl)

~(r/) = yl[t + rl exp (- 2~1dl)]
338 Weaver
Within the first layer of the substructure, a solution for /) is
1)(77, z) = Oh(r1, Z) + (l~( rl, z)

where
Uh(rl, z) = U(rl, O)e -nz , £rt(r/, z) = [/)(r/, 0) + U'(r/, 0+)/)'1] sinh )'lZ
for this is clearly a solution of (95) when n = 1, with the two 'constants'
f)(r/, 0) and U'(n, 0+) correctly identified as the surface boundary values.
The first of these equations will be recognized as the solution that would
obtain if the underlying half-space were homogeneous and of conductivity
^
~1. Hence the second solution Ul(rl, z) must represent a correction term
which accounts for the layering of the layering of the substructure. We
know already from the analysis carried out in Sec. 3.2 that
U~(y, 0+) = - o:1~/i U(y, O)
KI( ly U [ (Zl'~fi)
+ 4 " [U(v, O) - U(y, 0)] dv
z d_~ ly-vl
To calculate U[(y, 0+), we substitute from the first of equations (96) and
(97), then differentiate z at z = 0+, and finally perform a Fourier inversion
using the convolution theorem. We obtain
U[(y, 0+) = @2 I~_=U(v, O)f(y - v)dv
The sum of U~ and U7 gives U' for substitution in the thin sheet equation
which yields the modified integral equation
[/co/to z(y) + oq ~fi]U(y, O)
= iroYo + ~
1£ [ U ( v , O) - U ( y , 0)]G(v - y) do
1 f~
J_= U(v, O)f(y - v) dv (98)
for a layered substructure. It is the same as (91) except for the final term.
Similar arguments lead to the appropriate generalization of (94). We
express the solution of ig in the top layer in the form Xh + Xl where
J?h(r/, z) = ~?'(r/, 0+) e ?tlZ,

-
)'1
X'( o+).
Xl(rl, z) = 2(7/, 0+) + cosh ~'lz
and note that Xh(Y, Z) is given by the solution for a homogeneous half-space
of conductivity 61. After substitution for X from the second of Eqs. (96)
and (97), expressing X' in terms of V, and substituting in the thin sheet
equation, we obtain
v(y) V(y, O) = X° (T1 F V(v,O)Ko(ly-vla14-[)dv

Po z J_=
+ ~ - ~ y ~ V(v,O)g(y-v)dv (99)
which again differs from (94) only in the final term. Note that f i n (98) will
be calculated with fin = 1 and g in (99) with fin = 6n+l/6n.
The integrands of the correction terms must be calculated numerically as
inverse Fourier transforms of j) and g. This presents no difficulty because,
as can be seen from their definitions, these functions are extremely welt-
behaved with exponential decay at infinity and no singularities. The singular
kernels are associated solely with the first layer, and their treatment has
already been discussed at length, it only remains, therefore, to discretize
the correction terms in the integral equations (98) and (99) which is a
straightforward exercise leading to correction terms to the coefficients of
the unknowns (the nodal values of the field) in the system of equations.
The corrections to the coefficients can all be evaluated numerically by fast
Fourier transforms. Details will not be given here.
4.4.1 Numerical Example

The thin sheet method has been used to compute the response of the fairly
realistic model of the coast effect shown in Fig. 8 where the bathymetry of
the ocean is taken into account by varying the conductance of the surface
sheet such that it equals the product of'the ocean depth and the conductivity
of seawater (4 S/m) at each point. The conductance of the surface rocks on
the landward side of the coastline is taken to be 400 S. Underlying the
sheet is a two-layer structure representing a crustal layer of thickness 30
km and conductivity 0.01 S/m over a more conductive (0.1 S/m) upper
mantle; it is identical to the example considered in Sec. 4.1. The response
Z/Y, apparent resistivities Pxx and Pyx, and the corresponding phases ~0xyand
(Oyx are plotted in Fig. 9 for a field of period 1 h, the longest of the periods
considered in Sec. 4.1 for which the thin sheet conditions are well satisfied.
The graphs in Fig. 9 depict the variations of these responses across both the
upper surface (z = 0+) and the lower surface (z = 0-). For comparison with
data measured by instruments mounted on the sea floor the relevant responses
for y > 0 are those on z = 0+.
As expected, the TE apparent resistivity on the top surface of the sheet
decreases with increasing depth of the ocean, but is actually enhanced on
the sea floor as a result of the diminished horizontal magnetic field there.
340 Weaver
3,,,
2-
g
Q>'
o o 1
0 0
H
-I -1 i i i
-50 0 50 100 150 .50 0 50 100 150
90. 90
t~
S
e ~ ~-
0 l 1 i 0
-50 0 50 100 150 -50 0 50 100 150
0.8 0.8
0.4
0.0 i) 0.0-
-0.4 -0.4 -
-0.8 -0.8 ! i i
-50 0 50 100 150 -50 0 50 100 150
Y Y
Fig. 9. Variations on z = 0- (solid line) and z = 0+ (broken line) of the apparent

resistivities loglop, and loglopyx (/9 in [2m), phases ¢ , and ~yx (in degrees),
and the real and imaginary parts of ZIY, with horizontal range y (in km)
for the thin sheet model of the coast effect shown in Fig. 8 and a period
of 1 h (after Weaver, 1994).
In the TM mode the apparent resistivity undergoes an abrupt decrease in

the region of the coastline, reflecting the effect of charge accumulations
there on the electric field. Again the attenuation of the horizontal magnetic
field in the ocean causes the sea floor value to be greater than on the
surface. Similar divergences in behaviour are observed in the phase variations.
The surface response Z / Y exhibits a typical coast-effect variation--a gradual
increase in magnitude over land as the coastline is approached followed by

a return to zero over the ocean. The bathymetry complicates the picture
slightly, however, with a hint of a secondary 'coast effect' near the continental
shelf. The imaginary part of the response reverses sign before returning to
zero over the ocean. Since Z is continuous across the ocean sheet, the
dramatically different behaviour of Z/Y on the sea floor is due entirelyto
the attenuation of Y.
5. Three Dimensional Modelling with Thin Sheets
5.1 Three Dimensional Equations

In three dimensions the thin sheet idealization discussed at length in Sec.
4.1 becomes an even more powerful technique because it effectively reduces
an unwieldy, computer intensive, 3D calculation to a much more manageable
one in only two dimensions. Many quite realistic numerical models of
specific regions with near-surface 3D anomalies have been devised with
the aid of the thin sheet approximation. The principal drawback with the
method is that it introduces restrictions on the admissible frequency range
which are needed to prevent the thin sheet conditions from being violated.
Generalization of the thin sheet condition derived in Sec. 4.2 is obvious.
In physical terms it states that the horizontal electric field is continuous
across a conductive sheet at the surface of conductance z(r), where r is the
position vector x~ + y~ in the horizontal plane, while the discontinuity is
the horizontal magnetic field is proportional to the density of the surface
current flowing in the sheet. Thus, 3D form of the condition is expressed
mathematically as
× [b(r, 0+) - b(r, 0-)] =/~0z(r)e(r, 0) (100)

It includes the 2D condition (88) as a special case.
At this point two different routes can be taken towards finding the solution
for the surface electric field. If the anomalous region of the thin sheet is
unbounded in extent then one may solve for the total field using a
generalization of the method developed in Sec. 4. Should the anomaly be
confined to a finite region, however, then economies in computation are
achieved by treating the anomalous electric field in the anomalous region
only. We shall discuss this latter method in Sec. 6.
5.2 Total Field Solution

An example of the general type of model we wish to investigate is shown
in Fig. 10. The conductance z(r) of the sheet is variable out to infinity with
the proviso that Oz/c)x --~ 0 as I x 1 ---> oo and Oz/Oy --~ 0 as I y I ---->oo. The
half-space beneath the thin sheet is assumed to be layered in the usual way.
The regional magnetic field is given as Y0Y; thus the general 3D induction
problem approaches different limiting 2D configurations at infinity--TE
342 Weaver
mode as I x 1--~ ~ and TM mode as I y I ~ oo. It follows that the total field
B has the limiting form Y0Y (Y0 a constant) as l y I ~ ~ (z < 0) and also
as I x I ---) ~ and z ---) - ~ together. Well call Y0.v the 'regional' or 'normal'
field; it is the field that would exist in the region z < 0 if the earth were
tD. The components X and Z are anomalous fields whose sources are
inside the earth; hence they must vanish as z ~ - oo.
Since V x B = 0 in z < 0, the total magnetic field B can be expressed
in terms of a scalar potential B = - V~t(r, z) and it is obvious that
~t( r, - ~ ) = - YYo (apart from an unimportant constant term) in order that
the above conditions on the field components may be satisfied. From the
solenoidal property V • B = 0 of magnetic field, it follows that the scalar
potential f2 of the anomalous magnetic field, defined by ~ = ~t + YYo,
satisfies
V2f~ = 0 (101)
with £2 ---> 0 as z -~ - oo. It is also clear that ~ has no worse than algebraic
growth at infinity since the magnetic field remains bounded as the limiting
2D configurations are approached. Thus the (double) Fourier transform
O(p, z) of £2(r, z), defined generally by
F(p) = f ~ ~ ( p ) exp (ip. r) d r
whe,eE *meansE £ andthetransformof a function

denoted by a Greek letter is represented by the phonetically related Roman
letter), will exist in the context of generalized functions.
Following the procedure in Sec. 3.1 by taking the Fourier transform of
(101) in z < 0, we find that O is the solution of
O"(p, z) = p 20(p, z)
that vanishes as z ---) - ~,, i.e.
O(p, z) = O'(p, 0-) exp (pz)/p
where p = ~ i + q~,. The Fourier inverse gives
1
a ( r , z) = z ~
' o'(p, 0-) exp (pz - ir. p) dp (102)
whence, by differentiation in x, we obtain
X(r, z) = i f?=~O'(p,O-)exp(pz-ir.p)dp (103)
T h e F o u r i e r inverse of i~ePZ/p(z < 0) can be found by transforming to

polar co-ordinates (r, 0) and (/9, N), and using the complex conjugate of the
Bessel integral.
XX xx xxlxjx xx x
XX xxxxixixxxx
X X X X XX XX XXX
XX X ZX X X XXX X
X X X X X X X XiX X X
XX XlX;X x x x x!x x
XX x XIX x X x xJx x
X X x'x x x x x x x x
x x! ....i x x x x x XlX x]x
iXXXX x x x x x x x x x
X×XX x x x x x x~x x x
XXXXX X X!X X X X X!X X
XXXX • XXX X XXXX
XXXX • x xix x x x x[x
XXXX °j° I • • ol $~ • • Q • •
XX • e~ • • • • o • • • •
XX x XX XX XXXXX
x xxlx] XX xi x x x x l x x xx x
x xxx x x x X xIx x x x x
x xxlx] x xx xx xx xxx
x xxjxl x X X X!X X X X X X
X X X XiX X X X X X X X XX X X XX X X X
X X Z X XX ZX XX X Z X X X;X X X X X X
X X X X X l X X X X X X X ! x x x x!xlx x x x
X X X X X X X X X X X X xix xxxixxx x
;g XX X X X X X X X X X X 'X X X X X X X X X
xx xx xixixxlxxx x X XX XX XX X X
T :-y
X X X[X Fixi~x XiX!X X X X X X X
X X X!X[xixlxlxlx
X X X XXX
X X X XXXXXXXXX
Fig. 10. Surface conductances in the thin sheet model of an irregular coastline
with an island. Cells labelled with crosses and dots have conductance of
25 S and 250 S, respectively; blank cells represent shallow seawater with
a conductance of 1000 S. The conductances assigned to the nodes themselves
are the averages of the values in the four cells surrounding them (after
Weaver, 1994).
Thus
exp ( - p I z l - i t - p ) d p
27r
x
=cos 0 pexp(-plzl)Jl(rp)dp= ( r 2 + z2)3/2
the last result being a standard Hankel transform. Since the inverse transform
of O' is f2" = - Z, the integral in (103) can be evaluated by the convolution
theorem which states that the inverse transform of FG is ~ * F where
e ( r ) -- (s)r(r - s) ds
Writing s = u~ + v~ and letting z --) 0 - , w e obtain

344 Weaver
X(x,y, O_)=_~ f~_~_~ [(x---(-u-x)Z(u,v, O)

~ + ~y--v-~] 3/2 dudv (104)
Similar arguments applied to the y-derivative of (102) yield the analogous

integral formula
y(x,y,O_)= y o + _ ~ f~I~** (v-y)Z(u,v,O)

t(x_--u-~-+~y-__--vT]3/2 dudv (t05)
These two expressions can be combined into the single vector boundary
condition
~. (s - r)Z(s, 0)
b(r, 0-) = YoY + is - r] ~ ds (106)
where b = B - Z [ .
This boundary condition can be expressed in terms of the electric field
by substituting
z = (1lifo) (OU/~y - o w l & )
and integrating by parts. Taking the vector product of (106) with ~ and
following the procedure previously used in Sec. 3.2 in which constant
terms - U(x, y, 0) and - V(x, y, 0) are inserted under the derivatives in the
integrand so that the integrals resulting from the integration by parts remain
convergent when r = s, we obtain
/¢o~ x b(r, 0 - ) = - i ¢ o Y o ~ - -~ ~,~ ~?** (v - y)~ - (u - x)~

t(;_-uF + b-_
[o
x -~o [U(u, v, O) - U(x, y, 0)l
- ~tgu [V(u, v, O) - V(x, y, 0)]1 du dv (107)
Consider first the x-component of the integral and integrate the first term
over v and the second over u. We obtain
~ f ~_° 2(v-y)2-(u-x)2
o. ~[~x - "~ + -(y-- v ~ / 2 [U(u, v, O) " U(x, y, O)] du dv
-
~_~~_~ 3(u - x) (v - y)
[x -- ~ + ~y'--"vT] 5`2 [V(u, u, O) - V(x, y, 0)1 du du
When this result is combined with the corresponding one for the y-component,
the integrand of the integral in (107) can be expressed as the matrix product
.1 (2(o-y)2-(u-x) 2 -3(u-x)(v-y)~
/
Is rlS/I 3 ( u - x ) ( v - y ) 2(u-x) 2-(v-y)2)
V(s, 0) V(r, 0)
/
Thus, by defining the second rank tensors
R = rr/r 2, M(r) = (21 - 3R)/r 3 (108)
where r r is the dyad representing the outer product of r with itself and I
is the second rank unit tensor, we may write (107) in the form
1 f_~ M(s - r)- [e(s, O) - e(r, 0)] ds

io)~ x b(r, 0-) = - io)Yol - ~-~
(109)
Modifying slightly the notation of Sec 3.2 in anticipation of introducing a
layered substructure later, we assume initially that the underside z = 0+ of
the anomalous sheet is the plane surface of a homogeneous half-space of
conductivity a~. All the scalar components of the electromagnetic field in
the region z > 0 will therefore satisfy
172¢P(r, z) = i c x ~ ( r , z)
Here • stands for any component, in particular U, V and W in the following.
The Fourier transform of this equation is
F"(p, z) = [yl(p)]2F(p, z)
with solution in z > 0 given by either of the expressions
F'(p, 0+)
F ( p , z ) = F ( p , 0 + ) exp [-zYl(P)] = Y1(P) exp [-zYl(p)] (110)
where Yl (P) = (p2 + i ~ )1/2 Double inverse transforms o f - exp [- zYl(P)]

and exp [- zYI(P)]/Yl(P) are respectively S'(r, z) and S(r, z) where
S(r, z) = exp (- Ro~(~)IR, R 2 = r 2 + z 2
These results can be verified by transforming to polar coordinates and
making use of tabulated Hankel transforms. If follows from the convolution
theorem applied to (110) that
(r, z) = - 1 f ~ ~(s, 0+)S'(r - s, z) ds (111)

d-~
g~
1
l~'(s, 0+)S(r - s,z) ds (112)
d-~
346 Weaver
Define
Q(r, z) = - S ' ( r , z)/z = (1 + Roq~r[) S(r, z)/R 2
and note by a simple integration by parts that
lZ2z I_~ Q(r, z) dr = exp (- Zal~/) (z > 0)
Then, by subtracting this equation multiplied by ¢(r, 0+) from each side
of (111), we canwrite the first form of the solution as
q~(r, z) - ~ ( r , 0+) exp [- zalwr{]
= 2zl I_~ ~(s, 0+) - ~ ( r , 0+)] Q(r - s, Z) ds
Differentiation in z at z = 0+ leads to the result

q~'(r, 0+) + a l 4 / ~ ( r , 0+)
1 I_~.[~(s, 0 + ) _ ~ ( r , 0+)]Q(is_rl)ds (113)
where, for convenience, we have written

Q(r) = Q(r, 0) = r-3(1 + ral~]-/)exp ( - r ~ l ~ i )
The second type of solution (112) evaluated at z = 0+ is
1 F ~'(s, 0 + ) S ( I s -
(r, 0+) = - -~- rl)ds (114)
where
S(r) - S(r, 0) = exp (- ral~l-[)/r.
Across the sheet in the plane z = 0, U and V are continuous, whence it
follows from (113) that
1 I i ° [e(s, 0) - e(r, 0)IQ( I s - r I ) ds (115)
e'(r, 0+) + al~J-ie(r, 0) = -~-
where e = E - W~. When • = W we can use the alternative form (114)

together with the condition V- E = 0 in the homogeneous region z > 0; or
in the alternative notation
OelOr + W' = 0, where 0/0r - ~,0/onx+ ~31o3y
The result is
W(r, 0+) = 1 I _ ~ S ( I s - r l ) ~ - ~ s ' e ( s , O ) d s
which, with the aid of the easily verifiable result

~S(r)/Or = - rQ(r)
can be differentiated as
0W(r, 0+) 1 I_~ (s-r) Q(Is-rl) 0 e(s, 0) ds

8r = "~" Ks
In order to preserve convergence when this integral is integrated by parts,

the term - e(r, 0) is introduced under the derivative in the integrand, a
technique we have used several times already. The result is
onW(r, 0+) 1 I~_
onr ..... = - ~-~ Q( Is - r l ) [e(s, O) - e(r, 0)] ds
_ ___12/rI~oo (s - r) OQ( IKsS- r I ) . [e(s, 0) - e(r, 0) ds

Noting that
OQ(r) r FS(r) +(2+rcz~.~/7)Q(r)l _ r [3Q(r) + io~2S(r)]

Or =-7l r2 -7
we may rewrite this expression as
OW(r, 0+)
= 1 I~= [o(ts-rl)I-N(s-r)]
ar 2Jr
x [e(s, 0) - e(r, 0)] ds (116)
where the second rank tensor N is defined by
N(r) = 2Q(r)I - [3Q(r) + ia2S(r)]R

Substituting (115) for e' and (116) for ~gW/oqrin V x E = - iogB, or
icoB = $ x ( d ~ / 0 r - e') (117)
in the present notation, and taking its vector product with $, we obtain
ico~ x b(r, 0+) = - ~ l ~ e ( r , 0) + ~ N(s - r ) . [e(s, 0) - e(r, 0)] ds
This result combines with (109) in the thin sheet boundary condition
(100) to give the integral equation
a(r)e(r) 21riO)Yo~ + I f ~ L(s - r ) . [e(s) - e(r)] ds
where we have written e(r) - e(r, 0) for brevity, where

a(r) = 27r[ico/.toZ(r) + al ~,/7]
and where L = M + N.
348 Weaver
The effect of a layered substructure is again included in an additional

correction term which is a well-behaved 'layering' integral containing all
the pertinent information about the substructure. The derivation of this term
is analogous to the procedure described in the 2D theory but is quite
complicated and therefore omitted here. We simply quote the form of the
final result as
a(r)e(r) = 21ricoYofi + f~** L(s - r ) . [e(s) - e(r)] ds
+ f~oo T(s - r ) - e(s) ds
where T is a second rank tensor kernel which accounts for the layering.
To express this integral equation in discrete form we extend to two
dimensions the 1D discretization described in Sec. 4.3, with the exception
that only equi-spaced nodes will be considered here in order to keep the
algebra manageable. Thus we set up a square N x N grid on the surface
z = 0 with nodes at rl, m =- ( x 1, Y m ) , spaced at equal intervals h in the x-
and y-directions (i.e. xt+l -xl = Ym+t - Ym = h for 1 = 1, 2 . . . . N - 1 and
m = 1, 2 . . . . . N - 1). The conductance model is defined by the values ~'l,m
:= z(rl, m) assigned to each node. The grid, which is shown in Fig. ll(a),
must be sufficiently large that the field on its edges can be approximated
to by the appropriate TE and TM fields that are approached as I x 1 --> oo
and I y I --> oo respectively. The cell whose domain is the set of points (x,
y) for which Xl < x < xt+t, Ym < Y <Ym+l is labelled ~,t,m. With the understanding
that x0 = Y0 := - oo and xN+l = YN+I := oo the definition of ~t,,n can be
extended to cover the infinite strips and comer regions outside the grid.
In addition we denote by SPZ,# the square domain of side 2h which is
centred on the node rz,~, (~ = 1, 2 . . . . . N ; / z = I, 2 . . . . . P0, and we let
~l,m := ~1,m ~ S~,~where the bar denotes the complement of S~. Clearly,
~/,m = ~,/,m -- ~t,m n S~,U, SO that ~9~l,m = ~t,,~ except when ~,t,m and
S~, u have a non-empty intersection, while ~9~1,m = 0 if ~l,m c ~ , u . Thus
for any given pair ($, #) the union of the disjoint sets S~,u and ~l,m
(t = 0, 1. . . . . N; m = 0, I . . . . . N) is the entire plane z = 0.
Suppose the integral equation is to be evaluated at an interior node rz,g;
then the singularity in the kernel L occurs at the 'singular point' s = rz, u
(see the definitions of M and N). Thus, electric field over the domain S~,u
surrounding the singular point must be represented by a biquadratic
interpolation in order that the integral in can be properly evaluated when
the equation is discretized. Over every other cell ~,m a bilinear interpolation
suffices. Hence we write
2 2 1 1 (U -- x t ) P ( v -- y p ) q
e(s)= Z ]E E Y, CjpC~
p=O q=0 j=-I k=-I h p+q e2+J'g+k
%,,0
ZN
'oi s,,
7,,,
• T "t
(b)
oL,M 1 .t L
. _ -~- - 1"r,,d
~t
Y, Y2 Y~
"Ta., "Ta, N
(~)
Y,
Fig. 11. Two-dimensional numerical grid on the surface z = 0 illustrating the

various subsets defined on it when the singular point is: (a) at an interior
node, (b) at the node @1, Yl) on the grid boundary and (c) at the corner
node (xl, Yl) (after Weaver, 1994).
forse S~u(~=2,3 ..... N- 1;p=2,3 ..... N- 1),and

1 1 1 1 (U - - x z ) P ( t ) - yu) q
e(s)= Y. ]~ ]~ Y~ CjpCkq hp+q e)~+j,lz+ k
p=0 q=0 j=0 k=0
for s ~ ~l,m (1 = I, 2 . . . . . N - 1; m = 1, 2 . . . . . N - 1). The coefficients in

these expansions are
C-10 = C0j = Cl0 = c10 = 0, Ct~ = C-12 = C12 = - C_1] = 1/2
C 0 1 ---- - - C 0 2 - - Co0 - - e l l = - c01 = 1.
Slight modifications are required when the node rz,u is on the grid boundary
because the domain S~,u then overlaps the edge of the grid as the examples
in the insets (b) and (c) of Fig. 11 show. These details are left to the reader.
Here, we shall simply quote the general form of the full expressions for
the discretization of the integral equation at the node (X,//) in the form
N N
a;t,uez, u = 2rgiogYo~ + ~] Y~ A ~ -el, m (118)
t=l m = l
where ax,u := a(r;t,u) and At., is the second rank tensor whose components
for each pair (l, m) are the appropriate four coefficients obtained by integration
over each cell in which the field is approximately represented as described
350 Weaver
above. There are N 2 such equations, one for each node (~, ~). They combine
into the single vector equation
x = b + Ax (119)
where the 2N2-dimensional column vectors x and b have the partitioned
forms
X = (X1, X 2 . . . . . XN)T, X/.z = (Xl u, Xlit . . . . . XNIt)T, XZ# = (U;tit, Vz,,it) T
b = (b 1, b 2. . . . . bN) T b# = (bzu, b2u..... bNt~)T, bzt~ = 2zcio)Yo(a~tu;O) r
and the 2N z x 2N 2 matrix A is partitioned as follows
All A12 "'" A1N "lit "'lit "~lit /
/ i
/A,,: A22: "": A~"
l: A , , = A~: A22~: ...: A2.,":
A=
A 2m ... A Nml
[Am AN2 "'" ANN) A~ "'Nit "'Nit J
with A"'zu
lm
representing the 2 x 2 block matrix
atr~ = 1 ((A/~)x~ (A[~)xy1

IrA lm, lm
whose elements are the components of the tensor A~.xit.

lm
If the spectral radius ~ of A is less than unity, then the iterative sc~heme
x ( k + l ) = b + A x (~), x (1)=0 (120)
will converge to the solution of (119) because it is known that ~ < II A II

and a condition for convergence is II A II < 1 where II A tl is the spectral
norm of A. Otherwise the method of shifting the spectrum is helpful. It
entails rewriting (120) in the form
(l +13)x = b + Bx, B := A + /3I (120)
and choosing the dimensionless parameter /3 in such a manner that the
spectral radius of B is less than I 1 +/3 I. Then the iteration
x (k+t) = (1 +/3)-1 (b + Bx (k)) (121)
will converge to the required solution even though the original scheme
(120), corresponding to fl = 0, diverges. A suitable value of/3 can usually
be found in practice by trial and error.
The Gaul3-Seidel method discussed in Sec 2.3 provides an alternative
approach to the solution Of (118). If the iteration proceeds by running
through all the values of l for each successive value of m and up-dating
the x-component of (118) before the y-component, then a suitable Gaul3-
Seidel scheme takes the form
t.t-I N
[ zt lm~ /./(k+l)
[a~u - ~ :xx~,,a.u = 2mo~Yo + Z Z + ~,~;tu:xx,.,~,,,,
m=l /=I
[Alm'~ v(k+l)l.t.
+ "." ~.#:~" "l,m - ~
N N N
+ "~ :al~.~ 'rr(k) ffAlm'~ rt(k)
Lk .~ "txx ~" l,m
/=,~ +1 m=/.L+l I=l
N
[ A lm'~ |/'(k) 1 t'a l,u,~ w(k)
+ ' , " . ~ # : x y ' l , mJ + ]~ ~.za.:la:xv U, I.t
1=4
/.t-I N
[A~.#'~ 1 v(k+l) [ A hn~ l/'(k+l)'l
m=l l=1 t~ 2 # : y x W l , m
A N N
+ ~ l,u /-l(k+l)
(A;~u)y;,~t.u + Z 7_, u[[alm'~ If(k)
,'~Als:vx~lm +
(Alm~ if(k)]
k~A#Jvv'lm-I
/=1 m=U+l l=l . . . . .
.,1.-1 N
+ ~_~ ralll,~ ~/(k+l) r:~ll~ tr(k)
[ ~ l l t ~ ) vx Wl, m
lla l/(k)l
" l,m J
l=l "~ I=A+I "
for which the starting solution ~"La(1)

lm = (21riOgYo/atm)~ is appropriate. The
most time consuming part of the numerical solution is the lengthy process
of computing all the coefficient tensors. They are independent of the
conductance values, however, and therefore remain valid for tha t particular
grid and substructure whatever the model. New coefficient calculations are
required when the grid dimensions or the substructure are changed. Once
the solution for e(r) has been found, the horizontal components of the
surface magnetic field b(r, 0-) follow.immediately from the integral (109).
The vertical magnetic field (Z(r, 0) can then be calculated from the inverse
of (106), namely
1 f ~ (s - r)-[b(s, 0-) - Y0Y]
Z(r, O) = -2-~" ___ Is---r~ ds
The above equations need to be properly scaled for the numerical work.
Dimensionally the coefficients aAu and M,'•~;tu are reciprocal lengths so that
the equation can be cast into dimensionless form by dividing it by 6oLYo
where L is a characteristic length. The form of the kernel N indicates that
61 - ~ / a l is the natural length scale for the integral equation and hence
for (118). Indeed, the conductivity (and hence the skin depth) of the first
layer beneath the thin sheet plays a dominant physical role as well, because
it largely controls the leakage of poloidal currents from the thin sheet into
the underlying half-space and vice versa. For the actual computations,
therefore, all lengths are scaled by t~l and the calculated electric field is
obtained in units of 60t~IY0.
352 Weaver
This scaling must be taken into account when designing the grid. As far
as possible, the overall size of the grid should be such that all conductance
gradients perpendicular to the nearest grid boundary are at least a distance
61 removed from the edge in order that the assumed boundary conditions
on the field may hold approximately. In addition, the node separations
should only be a small fraction of the skin depth and certainly not greater
than 8J3. These requirements, together with the thin sheet conditions, place
quite severe restrictions on the range of periods that can be examined. For
example, suppose that the region under investigation has an area of A km 2,
and that a 30 × 30 grid is the maximum size that the computer can
accommodate, so that the smallest possible node spacing is -fA-/29 km.
Since this distance must itself fall somewhere between S1/8 and $1/3 (anything
smaller would make the total area covered by the grid too small in units of
82 to include gradients of conductance perpendicular to the edges of the
grid; anything larger would render the discretization of the integral equation
inaccurate) the period is restricted to the range between 0.04 × alA and
0.30 × alAs. Usually the geometry of the region under investigation imposes
even tighter bounds than these.
5.3 A Numerical Example

The precautions alluded to above are illustrated in the following numerical
example. The model considered is the one shown in Fig. 10. It depicts a more
complicated coast-effect problem than the one considered in Sec. 4.4.1. The
area of 300 x 300 km 2 includes an irregular coastline together with a near
shore island and, on the landward side of the coastline, a strip of conductive
material stretching to the edge of the grid which represents the sediments in
a river delta. The shallow coastal waters are taken to have a conductivity of 4
S/m and a depth of 250 m. The same two-layer underlying structure as
that shown in Fig. 8 is assumed, i.e. a crustal layer of conductivity 0.01 S/m
down to a depth of 30 km and a basement of conductivity 0.1 S/m.
Suppose we wish to calculate the response of this model for a period of
1 min. The inductive scale length in the underlying structure is about 27 km
and the skin depth in seawater is almost 2 km. Thus a 250 m deep ocean
certainly satisfies the thin sheet conditions stated in Sec. 4.1 at this period.
If the region is covered by a 30 × 30 grid the node separation is just over
10 km or 0.27 of the skin depth in the upper layer of the substructure which
is well within the acceptable range. The assigned conductance values are
1000 S for the seawater, 250 S for the sediments on land and 25 S for the
rerffaining land areas.
The problem has been solved by both methods of iteration. Although the
scheme (120) diverged, a fairly rapid convergence was achieved by using
(121) with ]3 = 5 - 3il2. With all variables scaled in dimensionless units the
test to be satisfied before halting iteration was defined to be 11x ~+1~ - x ~kl II
< 5 × 10-5. The final solution, as determined by this criterion, was reached
after 70 iterations. The Gaul3-Seidel method was slightly less efficient,

taking 87 iterations to converge to the same final solution. But it has been
found to be a very robust method in thin sheet applications because it has
never failed to converge in the permitted frequency range for a whole variety
of models.
There is no ideal way of displaying 3D results. Figures that have strong
visual appeal are often short on quantitative information whereas a series
of more numerically informative 2D graphs compiled from the 3D output
may obscure the overll 3D picture. Colour coded diagrams probably offer
the best balance between qualitative and quantitative presentations but are
impracticable here.
Perspective 3D plots of the horizontal electric components U and V and
the vertical magnetic field Z (Weaver, 1994, Fig. 6.4, p. 253) illustrate
qualitatively the variations of these field components on the surface of the
model. Since the regional electric field is in the x-direction, anomalous
variations in U indicate where accumulations of charge associated with
conductance boundaries are modifying the regional field in such a way as
to preserv e continuity of the normal flow of surface current across the
boundary. The V field is entirely anomalous and is responsible for the
deflection or 'channelling' of induced currents around the island and irregular
coastline. The vertical magnetic field is also entirely anomalous and is
particularly sensitive to the coast effect. In fact the variations of Z outline
clearly the shape of the coastline and the island.
Induction vectors are particularly effective in portraying surface magnetic
fields in three dimensions. They are obtained at each site in terms of the
(complex) ordered pair (~(, ~ ) arising from the linear relation
Z = ~tX + ~Y
between the vertical and horizontal magnetic components in the frequency
domain. Thus the real and imaginary induction vectors are defined by
PR := R e ~ + REP'S, PI := Im~/x + Im~'~

which enable the real and imaginary parts to be expressed in the form
ReZ = PR • (Reb) - PI • (Imb), ImZ =PR • (Imb) + PI • (Reb).
With real noisy is inexact and it is necessary to estimate ~¢'and ~ in terms
of the auto- and cross-spectra of the time series for the magnetic components
by minimizing with respect to ~¢'and ~ ' the average power (ee*) in the
residuals e := Z - ~ - ~'Y over an ensemble of events. In a theoretical
calculations such as we have performed here, however, it is only necessary
to compute the response for two different orientations of the regional field,
one possible procedure being to rotate the model by 90 ° so that, after some
simple transformations, the fields are those associated with a regional field
in the y-direction. Labelling the responses with subscripts 1 and 2 for the
two orientations, we obtain
354 Weaver
Z1 t"2 - Z2 Yl Z2X1 - Z l X 2
~ f = X1 I"2 X2 YI ' ~ = X1 I"2 - X2 Y~ "
From these formulae and the definitions of ~¢"and .~ (for simplicity
consider a site where the phase is such that Imb = 0) it wilt be observed
that the length of an induction vector is a measure of the magnitude of the
anomalous Z component relative to the horizontal magnetic field with which
it is correlated, and that its direction is parallel to this magnetic field.
Following a practice established by Parkinson, it has become customary for
many authors to reverse the directions of the induction vectors so that the
real vector points towards rather than away from the anomalous currents
that give rise to the vertical magnetic field, i.e. towards regions of anomalously
high conductivity. The reversed induction vectors -PR and - P t are called
'Parkinson vectors'. These properties become very apparent in a diagram
of real and imaginary Parkinson vectors plotted at each grid point of the
model in Fig. 10, which are shown in Fig. 12.
i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig. 12. Real (left-hand diagram) and imaginary (right-hand diagram) Parkinson
vectors for the model in Fig. 10 and a period of 60 s (after Weaver, 1994).
6. Thin Sheet Modelling with Anomalous Fields
6.1 Anomalous Field Solution

Let the anomalous part of the thin sheet be a bounded region .•which is
completely surrounded by a 1D normal structure. A solution can then be
found in terms of the anomalous field e a := e e n which vanishes at infinity
-
and since the resulting integrand in the integral equation to be solved vanishes
outside the anomalous domain, there is a considerable saving in the computing
resources required. An example of the type of model that could be treated
by the method to be described in this section is the island in Fig. 10 if it
were completely surrounded by an infinite sea rather than by another coastline
on one of its sides.
NumericalModellingin ElectromagneticInduction 355
We write conductance of the sheet as z(r) = z + '~a(r) where za(r) = 0

for r ~ S~, and the electric field as the sum of its normal and anomalous
parts E = E n + E a. The anomalous field is a solution of
V x [V x Ea(r, z)] + iogl.tocr(z)Ea(r, z) = 0 (122)
in z > 0 and z < 0. Here or(z) represents the conductivity of the layered
substructure, i.e. it is a piecewise constant function defining the conductivity
of the layers in z > 0. We subtract the thin sheet condition for the normal
field from the same condition for the total field and substitute from (117),
to obtain
[ea'(r, 0) - oWa(r, 0)/3r]+ = Rop0[zea(r, 0) + "ra(r)e(r, 0)] (123)
Here, and for later use too, we have introduced the notation
[f(0)]+ := f ( 0 + ) - f ( 0 - ) = [f(Z)]z=O+-[f(z)lz--O-
as a convenient shorthand. The 3D Green's function is a vector field
G i = (gi, Gi3 ) vanishing at infinity and satisfying the differential equation
V x [V x Gi(r, z Is, w)] + ioglaoCy(z)Gi(r,z I s, w)

= - xi~(r - s)S(z - w) (124)
in the half-spaces z > 0 and z < 0. The unit vector ~i stands for ~, ~" or
depending on whether i = 1, 2 or 3 respectively, and Gi3 m e a n s ( G i ) z.
Across the plane z = 0, gi is continuous and the thin sheet condition
[g~(r, 0 Is, w) - o~Gi3(r, 0 I s , w)[oar] +

_
= ito/d0"t'gi(r, 0 Is, w) + {~ (w~0) (125)

x(xix~)5(r-s) (w=0)
holds. Physically icop0Gi(r, z 1 s, w) is the electric field at (r, z) of a unit

current dipole aligned in the direction of ~i and placed in the normal
structure at (s, w).
We now take the scalar products of G i with (122) and E ~ with (124),
subtract, and then integrate the resulting expression over ~ 3 noting that
the singularity of the 3D delta function on the right-hand side will not be
enclosed by the volume integral when w = 0. A vector form of Green's
identity
f f f [G. Vx(VxE)-E. Vx(VxG)]d~
= [(a x E ) . ( V × G) - ( a × C ) - ( V × E)]
where fi is the unit vector directed normally outwards from the element dS a
of the surface Y enclosing the volume Z/', and is easily proved by putting
356 Weaver
A = E x ( V x G) in the divergence theorem for A, interchanging E and G,
and then subtracting the two expressions. Applying this identity to the
volume integral and noting that both G i and E a vanish at infinity, we
find that the only remaining surface integrals are those over the planes
z = 0-and z = 0+ of the thin sheet (where fi = ~ and fi = -~, respectively).
It follows that
L[gi.(ea" °IWa,'~-ea.(g~~G_Gi~l+3 dr
Or ) Or J]_
={~ i'Ea(s'w) (w(W~O)=

O)
where the arguments of the functions in the integrand have been temporarily
omitted. Substituting from (123) and (125) and simplifying, we obtain
i02/2o f ; ~a(r)g/(r, 0 I s, w) • e(r, O) dr = xi" Ea( s, w) (w ¢ O)
and
i0313o za(r)gi(r,0 i s, 0) • e(r, 0) dr = ~ × (:~i x ~) • ea(s, 0)
The presence of xa in the integrands limits the range of integration to the

anomalous region ~ If only the surface electric field is sought it is sufficient
to solve the second of these equations which can be rewritten as
e(s, 0) = e';(s, 0) + ia~/30 f ~ za(r)D(r I s) • e(r, 0) dr
where D is the dyad in ~ 2 defined by

D ( r l s) := xgl(r, 0 ] s, 0) + ~g2(r, 0 t s, 0)
The field above or below the thin sheet is likewise given by
E(s, w) = En(s, w) + ico~ .f~ za(r)G(r, 0 I s, w) • E,(r, 0) dr (w ~ 0)
which follows by writing EIt = (e, 0) above and defining

G(r, z l s , w ) = xGl (r, z l s , w ) + ~G 3 ( r , z l s , w )
defining the tensor G as a dyad in R 3.
These solutions look more familiar if the variables (r, z) and (s, w) are
interchanged so that (r, z) becomes the field point again. Reciprocity of the
Green's functions is easily proved and the solutions become
e(r, 0) = e';(r, 0) + ion,u0 f za(s)e(s, 0) • D(r I s) ds (126)

J~
t"
E(r, z) = En(r, z) + i09P0 I~. ra(s)E"(s' 0) • G(r, z I s, 0) ds (z ¢ 0)
(127)
They are valid for any external source. The nature of the source is
reflected in the solution for the normal field E n which is calculated by
standard methods for a tD earth. The magnetic field components are found
by taking the curl of (127) with respect to the variables (r, z). To do this
we note that
Vx[Et~-G] =(e. ~) V × G I + ( e - ~) V x G 2
in the integrand.
Equations (126) and (127) are solved numerically by placing a mesh of
square cells of sides h over the anomalous region 5~, and assigning the
anomalous conductance and electric field in the cell with centre (xt, Ym) the
constant values TI, m and el,m. Then the discrete form of (126) is
L MI
e~.~ = e na,~ + iogpo l~__lm~d=Ta
=1 t,,, lm
e/,m • P,t~ (128)
where P is the second rank tensor

ptm fhl2~.h/2
,tu := D(ra, u ts + rl,m) du do
¢-hl2 -h/2
The system of Eqs. (128) can be solved by the iterative techniques

described earlier. Since E, is defined by e, substitution of the values obtained
for et,m in the discretized form of (127) and its curl yie!d solutions of E and
B directly for z ¢ 0. For example, on the surface z = 0-, we obtain from
the z-component of (127)
L gt
W2,p = W a,l~
n +io)]'lot~=ln~l
= =
Tal, m e l , m"
l-lira
~" A#
where, with Gi3(r, s) -- Gi3(r, 0- [ s, 0), the vector H is defined by
Him
~,u := r,/2f ~/2[G13(D~u, s + r/,m)X,, + Gz3(rLu , s + r/,m)~] du dv
d -hl2,l-hl2
It is only necessary to know the components of the 2 x 2 dyad P in order

to solve the system (128). This in turn depends on the dyad D which itself
is defined in terms of the 2D Green's function g, the horizontal part of the
full 3D Green's function G. The calculation of the Green's function is too
complicated to discuss here.
6.2 An Application
The algorithm for the anomalous field was originally developed by Vasseur
& Weidelt (1977) for application to a model of the northern Pyrenean
358 Weaver
induction anomaly--postulated as a conductive channel in the shallow crust

stretching from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean roughly along the border
between France and Spain. The numerical grid covering this anomalous
region comprised 14 x 15 square cells with the dimensions 90 ' × 9 0 km 2.
The restrictions on the choice of conductivity of the underlying layer and
the period of the field, which were inherent in the approach taken in Sec.
5 as a result of the grid having to extend to 'infinity', no longer apply here;
even with the 100 km resistive layer (al = 5 × 10-4 S/m) used by Vasseur
and Weidelt it was possible to compute the response for a range of long
periods, typically 90 min, with fewer iterations, typically 20. Against this,
however, the need to surround the anomalous region by a normal structure
forced them to include in their model an unrealistic extension of the Atlantic
ocean right around France to connect with the Mediterranean in the south.
Fig. 13. Numerical model of India used by Mareschal et al

(1987). Each cell represents an area 80 x .80 k m z and
the conductances are: 1--ocean, 64 S for 200 m depth
(inside the broken Line), 500 S for 1 km depth and
1840 S for 2 km depth; 2--the Palk Strait conductor,
210 S; 5--1and, 12 S. The model was constructed for
a period of 108 min.
In another application of this algorithm, Mareschal et al. (1987) have

investigated the inductive response of the southern peninsula of India,
including Sri Lanka, the surrounding seas and a shallow crustal conductor
beneath the Paik Strait. Their numerical model of the surface conductances
in the region is shown in Fig. 13. The sub-stratum beneath the thin sheet
was assumed to be an 18 km-thick crustal layer of conductivity 10-3 S/m
over a 0.1 S/m conducting basement. Real Parkinson vectors computed for
a period of 108 min are plotted in Fig. 14. Note that, unlike those in shown
in Fig. 12, they are positioned at the centres of the cells, the points to
which the constant field values in each cell are assigned. (In the total field
method the field values, and therefore the induction vectors, were computed
at the grid points themselves with the field assumed to be linearly varying
between them.) Obviously no geophysical meaning can be attached to the
prominent Parkinson vectors pointing northwards at the top of the model;
they merely indicate the presence of an artificial extension of the normal
structure across the north of India--in this case a continuation of the Indian
Ocean 2 km deep which turns the peninsula into an island. Nevertheless,
the results in the region of interest around the southern tip of India and the
Palk Strait are barely affected by the grid boundary.
I
1 I
Fig. 14. Real Parkinson vectors for the model in Fig. 13

(after Maresehal et al. 1987).
The same region has also been modelled by Agarwal and Weaver (1989)
using total fields in the manner described in Sec. 5. While the problem of
edge effects does not arise in this approach, a larger grid (30 x 30) was needed
and greater restrictions were thereby imposed on the range of allowable model
parameters. Thus with a 24 km crustal layer of conductivity 5 x 10-3
S/m above the same conducting basement (0.1 S/m) and a cell size of
60 × 60 km 2, the period of the field was restricted to 20 min and their
calculated Parkinson vectors for this period are depicted in Fig. 15. The two
methods therefore complement each other. One is more efficient in its
computational requirements and offers more flexibility in the period range;
the other allows a more realistic representation of the region under investigation
in some cases. Where they overlap in applicability, both methods give very
comparable results.
More general methods, involving stacks of thin sheets either at the surface
360 Weaver
of the earth or embedded within it, have also been developed, but will not
be discussed here.
iI i, ..... ''tttlll~
, , Z / - ~Gi G2
/ !
• /-77 ..4 .
I I + + * "
0+5 , , , ,
Fig. 15. Real P a r k i n s o n vectors for the model of India calculated by
A g a r w a l and Weaver (1989) for a period o f 2 0 min.
Acknowledgements
The material in this article was delivered by the author in a series of
lectures at the Fourth Science and Engineering Research Council School on
'Geomagnetism and the Earth's Interior' sponsored by the Government of
India Department of Science and Technology and held at Banaras Hindu
University in 1995. The author thanks the Course Director, Professor
Tarkeshwar Lal, and the Alternate Director, Professor B.R. Arora, for their
invitation to lecture at the School, and for their kind and generous hospitality
in Varanasi. The permission of the publishers (Research Studies Press) to
use material from the author's book (Weaver, 1994) in this article is gratefully
acknowledged, as is research support from the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada.
References
Agarwat, A.K. and Weaver, J.T. (1989). Regional electromagnetic induction around the
Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka; a three-dimensionalnumerical model study using the
thin Sheet approximation. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 54, 320-331.
Mareschal, M., Vasseur, G., Srivastava, B.J. and Singh, R.N. (1987)• Induction models of
southern India and the effect of off-shore geology. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 45, 137-
148.
Vasseur, G. and Weidelt, E (1977). Bimod~ electromagneticinduction in nonuniform thin
sheets with an application to the northern Pyrenean induction anomaly. Geophys. J.R.
astr• Soc. 51,669--690.
Weaver, J.T. (1994). Mathematical Methodsfor Geo-electrorna,gnetic Induction, Research
Studies Press, Taunton, U.K., 316 pp.
Appendix I
An alternative derivation of equation (62) in Sec. 3.2, based on complex
variables, is as follows:
Denote the anomalous field Y - Y0 by 17, and introduce the new variable
:= -z. Then we deduce from Eqs. (24) and (25) that
017/0y = 3ZI3g,017/Og = -OZ/Oy
where I7 --~ 0 and Z ---) 0 as y2+ ~2 ~ 0 (~ > 0). Hence by the sufficiency
of the Cauchy-Riemann equations_(given that Y and Z have continuous
partial derivatives) it follows that Y + iZ =: fls) is an analytic function of
the complex variable s := y + i~ in the upper half-plane ~ - Im s > 0, where
If(s) I --) 0 as I s I ---) ~. Integration by Cauchy's theorem around the closed
contour comprising the real axis with an indentation upwards around the
pole at y = v and a return at infinity in the upper half-plane gives
f(v)
~_~ dv = ~if(y)
~v -y
Taking the imaginary part and writing the result in terms of Y rather than
17, we obtain
Y(y, 0-) = Yo + ~
1 ~?~ Z(v,
v - y
O) dv
which corresponds to (62).
Appendix II
Let the complex function f of the real variable z satisfy
f " ( z ) = ?'2 f ( z )
in each layer zn < z < Zn+l of the layered earth shown in Fig. 7, where
),~ = (7/2 + i09110tyn)1/2, and be subject to the boundary conditions f(z) ~ 0
as z --~ ~, and
f(Zn + O) = f(zn - O) = fn, f'(zn + O) = fln-lf'(zn -- 0),

for n = 1, 2 ..... N. I f f r e p r e s e n t s a TE electric field U, then fin = 1 since
U" = - R o Y is continuous across the layer boundaries, but if it represents the
TM magnetic component X then fin = trn+lltrn since X T t r = / ~ V is continuous.
The following notation is consistent with general usage in this article:
fn f ( z , , - O)
fn := f(zn + 0), f ~ := f ( z n + 0), c n := - " ~ - - - fln-i f ' ( z n - 0 ) "
By inspection, the solution for f in the nth layer can be expressed in the
fol'in
sinh [Y,(z~+l - z)]-]
f ( z ) = f(zn+l - O) [cosh [Yn(Zn+l - Z)] + /
whence
cosh [Tn(Zn+l - Z)]]
f ' ( z ) = -f(zn+l - O) Yn sinh [Y,.(Zn+l - z)] + flncn+l "
Dividing the first equation by the second, putting z = z~ + 0 and introducing

cn we obtain
Yn flnc~+l + tanh yndn (n = N - 1, N - 2 ..... 1).

cn = y~[l + 7~ fl~c~+l tanh 7,fl~]
In order to avoid possible numerical difficulties with the evaluation of the
complex hyperbolic tangent in extreme cases when Re (Tndn) is very large,
it is convenient to define
1 - y~ flncn+1
rn:=
1 + Yn flnCn+l
and to cast the above equation in the form
1 - r~ exp (-2ynd,)
cn = ) ' ~ [ l + r n e - ~ ~ ) ] (n = N - 1, N - 2 ..... 1) (129)
which is better suited to a computer code since it only involves a damping

exponential factor. In the basement region z > z,v, the solution of f that
vanishes as z --~ oo is
f ( z ) = fN exp [-'YN(Z - ZN)I

from which we obtain by differentiation and division
CN = 1/~N. (130)
Starting with (130), the backward recursion defined by (129) generates the
values of c n for n = N, N -1, ..., 1, In particular it gives the value of cl at
the surface of the earth.
20. Thin-Sheet Modelling for Deep

Electromagnetic Studies in the
Fennoscandian Shield
P. Kaikkonen
Department of Geophysics,Institute of Geosciences
University of Oulu, FIN-90570Oulu, Finland
1. Introduction
If a region has conductivity variations which cover much wider area in a
horizontal direction (hundreds or more than 103 kin) than in a vertical one
(from tens of metres to tess than 10 kin), the thin-sheet approximation is
more useful and desired for modelling than more conventional numerical
modelling methods. That kind of situation is typical for deep EM studies
in the Fennoscandian Shield. Such being the case the thin-sheet modelling
has been used rather intensively, e.g., Yegorov et al (1983a, b), Kaikkonen
(1984, 1985,1992) and Kaikkonen et al (1988) have used different kinds
of thin-sheet techniques to study numerically the behaviour of EM fields in
the Fennoscandian Shield. This article briefly summarizes briefly those
works and then present results from some new calculations. Extensive thin-
sheet modelling for the Fennoscandian Shield has been done but is partly
still under progress and will be published later.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1 Low-frequency thin-sheet modelling

Using the thin-sheet approximation developed by Yegorov et al (1983a, b)
Kaikkonen (1984) studied the behaviour of the low-frequency telluric field
in the Fennoscandian Shield. Fig. l(a) shows the conductance distribution
used in calculating the results in Fig. l(b). The behaviour of the ratio (A/B)
of the major (A) and minor (B) semiaxes of the telluric ellipses stiows
that the telluric field is generally very disturbed, e.g., in the Kola Peninsula
in the rightmost comer (Fig. lb). However, there are some regions, which
are rather undistorted, e.g., the area covering x: 40-50 and y: 30-40 and therefore
they should be more promising for deep investigations. Of course also in
those areas there can be local inhomogeneities which can affect field
measurements and which are not possible to take into account in the thin-
sheet models.
Thin-Sheet Modellingfor Deep Electromagnetic Studies 365
Fig. 1 (a) Conductance model for Fennoscandian Shield and the near-
surroundings. Conductance axis is logarithmic (log S). The
conductance varies from I to 1000 S. (b) Behaviour of the ratio
(A/B) of the major (A) and minor (B) setniaxes of the telluric
ellipses using the data in Fig. la (from Kaikkonen 1984).
Kaikkonen (1985) also studied the possible effects due to the Baltic Sea
and its gulfs, the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, and the White
Sea on the low-frequency telluric field. Figure 2a depicts the conductance
model used to obtain the results (A/B) in Fig. 2b. The conductance of the
land areas is assumed as constant (1 S) and that of the seas same as in
Fig. la. Results show that the Baltic Sea, its gulfs and the White Sea do
366 Kaikkonen
not significantly influence the telluric field and their effects are mainly
seen in the near-surroundings of the coastlines. However, one must be
aware of these possible distortion effects when interpreting the data from
sites located very close to the sea.
)¢
Fig. 2 (a) Same as Fig. la, but the conductance for the land areas is set
to be a constant I S. (b) Same as Fig. lb, but using the conductance
data of Fig. 2a (from Kaikkonen 1985).
2.2 MHD modelling

Distortion effects of the near-surface inhomogeneities on the deep
Thin-SheetModellingfor Deep ElectromagneticStudies 367
magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) soundings must be taken into account in

the interpretation of these measurements. Powerful MHD generator is located
in the Kola Peninsula or more accurately in the Ribatchy Peninsula (Fig. 3).
The thin-sheet approach has been developed and used for modelling Of
the steady-state part of the MHD pulses (Vanyan et al 1986, Kaikkonen
et al 1988, Vanyan et al 1989). Effects of near-surface inhomogeneities.on
the apparent resistivity in the northern part of the Fennoscandian Shield
were investigated by Kaikkonen et al (t988). The conductance map for the
thin-sheet having the values varying between 0.1 S and 1000 S is shown
in Fig. 4a. The transverse resistance R for the thin-sheet underneath the
inhomogeneous surface thin-sheet was 101° f2m2. The behaviour of the
calculated apparent resistivity for this model is rather complicated as can
be seen in Fig. 4b. Strong distortions due to conducting zones, e.g., around
the lines 30 and 40 are dominating features in Fig. 4b. Kaikkonen (1989)
presents the comparison between the measured and theoretically calculated
horizontal electric fields.
2.3 Bimodal induction in a non-uniform thin-sheet

Kaikkonen (1985), using thin-sheet program by Vasseur and Weidelt (1977),
studied the behaviour of the electromagnetic fields in the Fennoscandian
32 ¢ 13~'
70*00'
BARENTS
SEA
69"30'
ELECTRODES
Fig. 3 Location of the MHD generator (from Heikka 1884).

368 Kaikkonen
Iiiilli" ""'ii'i F
l [ I 1.5 20 ~ ~O;JbtOtS~ 55 gO 65 711
5 H) 15 20 25 30 35404550 55 60 65 70 I--.--~ • ~ COt lie*/'[ I X |
COLUMN IX} ~,o t~o.o im
SI;I~,E 51J~I~IL~: OlPflt.E
I~.0 KM [SOLII~:S OI~ I,OG(RIKIfll, i'llN 0 . 3 4 o MRI 4 . 5 2
SgnLg
Fig. 4 (a) Irregular mesh used in calculations showing the conductance map for
the northern part of the Fennoscandian Shield and the southern part of the
Barents Sea. The conductance symbols in S are: * = 1000, 7 = 700, 5 = 500,
3=300,2=200,1=100, Af50, B=30, Cf20, Df10, Ef5, F=1,
R = 2 and • = 0.1. Solid line is the coastline. (b) Contour lines of logarithm
of the apparent resistivity for the model presented in Fig. 4a. Source dipole
is located in points (44, 39) and (46, 38). Transverse resistance is R = 101°
~ m 2 (from Kalkkonen et al, 1988).
Shield. Fig. 5a depicts layered model with an inhomogeneous thin-sheet

whose varying conductance is shown in Fig. 5b. The reversed real induction
vectors calculated at the period T = 600 s are presented in Fig. 5c. The
induction vectors show clearly only the influence of the coastline and of
the abrupt deepening of the sea. Around the shallow Gulfs of the Baltic Sea
there are no anomalous effects to be seen. The behaviour of the vectors
along the line 9 at the bottom of Fig. 5c is due to the "normal conductance"
of the thin-sheet outside the anomalous area. As the thin-sheet method of
Vasseur and Weidelt (1977) is based on Weidelt's (1975) integral equation
technique, the finite anomalous region of the thin-sheet must be enclosed
by the homogeneous part of the thin-sheet. For the results in Fig. 5c this
uniform region is considered to be the same as the deep sea in the west.
Figure 6 shows measured induction vectors at the period of T = 640 s
as presented by Pajunp~ia et al (1983). Real vectors are reversed (Fig. 6a)
whereas the imaginary ones are unreversed (Fig. 6b). Figs. 5a and 7a depict
the layered model used to calculate the results presented in Figs. 7b and 7c.
Note that the calculated imaginary induction vectors are also reversed. The
only change in the model in Fig. 5a has been the change in the resistivity
of the first layer from 105 to 104 ~m. The period used in calculations is
taken as T = 600 s. It is not exactly the same as in field measurements, but
this small difference in period will not affect the results significantly.
Comparison of Figs. 6 and 7 shows that there is no general agreement
between measured and theoretical induction vectors, i.e., the model used to
Thin-SheetModellingfor Deep Electromagnetic Studies 369
calculate the induction vectors is not able to generate the measured responses
at all. The Oulu anomaly revealed by the first magnetometer arrays by
Pajunpaa et al (1983) and which can be seen clearly also at the period of
640 s in Fig. 6a is interpreted to be caused by a very good conductor with
resistivity of about 0.5 f2m at a depth of 4-7 km (Korja et al 1986) with
the total conductance of at least 20000 S (Korja 1990).
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and 5b. Period is T = 600 s (from Kaikkonen 1985).
370 Kaikkonen
<-,../.-
~%~
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-I,~'3334 4 ~ 3 3 3 3 4 535 B'BI,.O'ggoo9tR"RRRAARRFIRfl

---L 3334J~,~ 4'4"R4 ~?~99 999~t-,W'n~'fl"ft86flfiRRAFIflA
~-.~.4.~eel 4pJ4~
8"-8"B B n R' 3P'3464
e~"~9 9 n n 9 . ~ l l n . n n c r ~ n n n n . n n n n n n
n n n . . , ~ n ~ n n"o/n ~ ~ n n n n n n n n
-J CCCR .~,9 b 3 3 4 4 9 g gRRRdR"ff"R~RRAP, I A R R R R R f l R R R A
-I C e J~a'rl e 3 3 4 4 e 9,e9 n n ILl~ n q n n n n n n n n n n n n f l n n
-~ c ~ n ~ 8 ~4334 A q'~n nnp~,~qn~nnnnnnnnnnnnn
-.] 8 ~ n ~ , , R ' n ~1344 nenn
n~pnnn~nnnn~nnnnnnnnnnan
B fl R ~RAnRnfl~AflflRflAAA~lfll~ R
1 Oe~t~ nn~n nn nnn~l~nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
CONDUCTANCE ( 5 ) = COLUMN (~)
! - 0.3 6 - 5.0 A - 500.0

2 - 0.3 7 - 25.0 8 - 714.3
I I 3 - 0.5 9 - 83.3 C - 1000.0
O.O 240.0 KM 4 - 1.3 9 - 250.0 0 - 2500.0
SCALE
5 - 2.5 0 - 500.0 C - 5000.0
(a)
Thin-SheetModellingfor Deep Electromagnetic.Studies 371
~" d, ,i
trl
20 25 30
...... t t t COLUPIN ( ¥ ]
o.0 2.8NI0" o.o ~ . 0 ~l
VECTOR 5CflLC 5CRLE
(b)
XU1
..I ,
, ~ t t , ~ x \ \ \ \ \
\\\\\\
I/1
l i t ' l | t l . l |
20 25 30
VECTOR 5CRLE 5CRLE

(c)
Fig. 7 (a) Conductance map used in calculating thin-sheet results for comparison
between field and theoretical data. (b) Reversed real induction vectors. (c)
Reversed imaginary induction vectors. Results in (b) and (c) were obtained
by thin-sheet model presented in Fig. 5a (with change in the first layer
resistivity from 105 to 104 f2m) and in Fig. 7a (from Kaikkonen 1992).
372 Kaikkonen
Therefore to get better consistency between the measured and calculated

induction vectors, the inhomogeneous thin-sheet should be located at the depth
(4-7 km)--even that at the long periods the depth of the thin-sheet has not
much effect in the responses obtained. Also, the sheet should
have very high conductance values, e.g. at least 20000 S in the Oulu region.
Fig. 8 shows the conductance map for the inhomogeneous thin-sheet which
includes various conducting zones revealed by the magnetometer arrays (e.g.
Fig. 8. A part of the conductance map for thin-sheet which includes conducting
zones revealed by magnetovariational and magnetotelluric studies (e.g.
Pajunpfifi 1989, 1992; Korja 1990). This model was used to calculate the
results in Figs. 9, 17(a-c).
Thin-SheetModellingfor Deep Electromagnetic Studies 373
Pajunp~ia 1989) and completed by magnetotelluric (MT) measurements

(e.g. Korja 1990). Thin-sheet is at the depth of 4 km. The grid with 50 km
node distances is not the best one and that is the reason why new thin-sheet
results are preliminary ones. They will be recalculated by the more dense
grid. Otherwise the model is simply a half-space with the resistivity of
104 f2m. That kind of model should show easily in MT modelling the possible
disturbing effects. Now the reversed real induction vectors at the same period
as earlier (T = 600 s) have much larger amplitudes, e.g. at the Oulu anomaly
about 0.3-0.5 units which are rather similar to the measured ones (see
Fig. 6a), and pointing very clearly towards the conducting zones (Fig. 9).
.If
I.d C~I '
Z
d % , # I
/
/
V
0
/
IP
/
Ib
.p
,//l,
---I.
I I I I ' I' ~ ..... |

"*1\
I I I I
2O 25 30
COLUMN [Y]
I' I I' '' I

0.0 2.4~10 ° 0.0 80.0 KM
VECTOR SCRLF. SCRLE
Fig. 9. Reversed real induction vectors using the model in Fig. 8 with the thin-
sheet at the depth of 4 km in homogeneous half-space of the resistivity of
104 fan. Period is T = 600 s.
374 Kaikkonen
MT field measurements and results due to thin-sheet modelling have

been compared for the southern part of the SVEKA profile (Fig. 10). The
measured MT curves for sites 12-21 are presented in Fig. 11(a) and (b).
They have been published by Korja (1990). It is possible to estimate and
have average apparent resistivity values of log (PaNs) = 2.4 (= log (Paxy))
and of log (Paew) = 2.3 (= log (Payx) atthe period of T = 600 s ( Fig. lla).
Thin-sheet ,results for the model in Fig. 5(a-b) with the change in the
resistivity o f the first layer from 105 ~ m to 104 ~ m are shown as isolines
~5°
60 °`
21 L
~1 114 I.'-"'l 7 ~ 10 [~,iii,,~,',!113I... lie / - - I 19
Fig. 10 Magnetotelluric SVEKA profile (O). Measuring sites are numbered from
1 (in south) to 49 (in northeast). Sites 12-21 are used for comparison with
theoretical data. See detailed figure caption with the geological explanations
in Korja (1990).
Thin-Sheet Modelling for Deep Electromagnetic Studies 375
a.
P "" 2 ~ 80
"-" a. 30
,:.s . I, 1.,
PaNS 0 ~. 15
_: ol, 234 . 01234

• ' ' l 5 ~ . . . . 105
E 3 75
6O
1 30
o
.!,
log(T) Is)
1.1 .
log(T) Is)
I.
0
S i t e s : 12 - 21 S i t e s : 12 . 21
Km: 83 - 177 Kin: 83 - 177
Fig. 11 (a) Apparent resistivity curve clusters for the sites 12-21 of the SVEKA
profile in Fig. 10. Curves are hand-drawn from original responses. Period
of T = 600 s (solid line) and the corresponding average apparent resistivity
value (broken line) are marked in figure. (b) Impedance phase curve
clusters for sites 12-21 of the SVEKA profile. Curves are hand-drawn
from the original responses. Period of T = 600 s (solid line) and the
corresponding average phase value (broken line) are marked in figure
(modified from Korja 1990).
in Fig. 12(a) and (b) (apparent resistivity) and Fig. 12(c) and (d) (impedance
phase). The apparent resistivities in the shaded area (X: -15, Y: -24) which
corresponds to the measuring sites 12-21 (in Fig. 10) are about log (p~.~.)
= 2.5 (Fig. 12a) and log (P~.x) = 2.5 (Fig. 12b).
Phases of the measured impedances are shown in Fig. I l(b). The average
phases at the period of T = 600 s can be estimated to be qgus = 41 ° ( = q)x3.)
and q~Ew= 46° (= ~0~.x). The theoretical phases picked up from Fig. 12(c)
and (d) are ¢Px~.= 38° and ~.x = 40°, respectively.
The comparison of the MT results for this particular region, at the period
of T = 600 s, and with this particular model shows surprisingly good
consistency between measured and calculated results.
It is well-known that the adjustment distances in the deep MT studies
can be hundreds or even more than 103 km depending on the skin-depths
and other electrical parameters of thegeological situation (e.g. Ranganayaki
and Madden 1980; Kaikkonen 1983, 1986). Thus an interesting and important
question connected to the MT measurements on the Central Finland Granitoid
Complex (CFGC) is that how much is the effect of the very conducting
376 Kaikkonen
crustal zones with the conductances of 5000--20000 S surrounding the resistive

CFGC (e.g. Pajunp~i~i 1992; Korja 1990) (Fig. 13) on the MT responses
obtained in the CFGC. The MT interpretation in CFGC is difficult as these
conducting zones are situated almost everywhere in the surroundings. This
means that it is difficult to find an undistorted polarization and that can in
the worst situation lead to the wrong interpretation.
So a modelling exercise was done to examine if theoretically there is
any need of more conducting crustal layer in the CFGC when doing the
interpretation of the measurements which are "showing" the more conducting
deep layer (Kaikkonen 1995). The purpose of this modelling is not to try
prove wrong the present view of the middle or low crustal conducting layer
(e.g. Korja 1990), but only try to understand the possibilities for interpreting
a false conducting layer inside the CFGC due to distortion effects from the
surrounding conductors.
First a conventional 2D modelling was done. Fig. 14 depicts a simple
model which more or less simulates the cross-section in E-W direction in
central Finland. The sounding curves in the E-polarization (apparent resistivity
in Fig. 15a and impedance phase in Fig. 15b) in the middle of two conducting
zones above a homogeneous half-space clearly yields a false conducting
layer. As is known the measured H-polarization profiles are distorted only
in the immediate vicinity of the conducting zones (Figs. 16a, b). However,
r~
-3
113 20 22 24 26 28 30
I I COLUMN [ Y!
0.0 80.0 KN
SCALE
ISOLINES OF LOGIRltORI, MIN 1 . 9 7 , MAX 3 . 0 3
(a)
(b)
..J
18 20 22 24 26 2B 30
, COt.UHN I¥)
O.O 80.0 Kit
SCflLC
[SOL]NES OF LOG(RHOAI, M[N |.48, MRX 2.B4
(c)
-,,1
18 20 22 24 2S 28 30
. : COLUMN' [ Y |
o.o 80.0 IOl
SCALE
ISOL]NES OF" PHASE:, H1N 2 4 . 8 4 , HFIX 4 3 . 7 0
378 Kaikkonen
{D
18 20 22 2t 26 28 30
I I COLUItN I Y I
O.O BO.O KH
5CflLE
ISOLINES OF PHASE, MIN 2 8 . 5 3 , HRX t5.86
(d)
Fig. 12 (a) Isolines of logarithm of theoretical apparent resistivity (log Daxy)"(b)

Isolines of logarithm of theoretical apparent resistivity (p,y~). (c) Isolines
of the theoretical impedance phase (¢p,y). (d) Isolines of the theoretical
impedance phase (¢Pyx)"Results in (a), (b), (c) and (d) were obtained by
thin-sheet model presented in Fig. 5a (with the change in first layer resistivity
from 105 to 104 f2m) and in Fig. 7a. Shaded area (X: ~ 15, Y: ~ 24)
corresponds to the measuring sites 12-21 in Fig. 10. Period used is T =
600 s (from Kaikkonen 1992).
the situation according to earlier deep EM studies (e.g. Pajunp~i~i 1989;
Korja 1990) is all the other but 2D around the CFGC. This means that in
the interpretation we cannot separate the E- and H-polarizations, i.e. the
distorted and undistorted modes.
Figs. 17a, b and c depict some results which clearly show large disturbing
effects on the MT apparent resistivity and phase responses due to the
conducting zones around the CFGC. Model in calculations is the same as
in Fig. 8. Period is T = 600 s and thin-sheet is at the depth of 4 km in the
homogeneous half-space with the resistivity of 104 f2m. Apparent resistivities
in Figs. 17a and b should be 104 f2m in the middle of the CFGC but they
are much below that and the phase in Fig. 17c reveals a false more conducting
deep layer since it is much more than 45 ° which i t should be for the
homogeneous half-space. As the geological situation has no circular symmetry

in the CFGC and in the near surroundings, the responses in maximum and
minimum directions differ and suggest anisotropic situations.
1~ Base
2~ Arch
3~ Kare
4~ Outo
S~ Svec
6 ~'J Svec
7~ Crus
8~ Char
9~ Geoa
200 km
_3
,
Fig. 13 Conducting anomalous zones around the Central Finland Granltoid Complex
(modified from Pajunpiiii 1992).
3. Conclusions
Numerical thin-sheet modelling carried out during the past decade for better
understanding of the roles of near-surface geoelectrical structures and
inhomogeneities in the interpretation of deep EM studies in the Fennoscandian
Shield is reviewed and discussed briefly.
380 Kaikkonen
I_. 400 km I~[

I
Station -800 3 km
E
so 10000 D.m 50
¢o ~.m ~.m
30 km 30 km
Fig. 14. 2D model simulating approximately the situation in Central Finland and
used to calculate distortion effects due to the conductors.
The comparison between thin-sheet modelling results and magnetovaria-

tional field measurements shows that the model without any clear conducting
zones used in the thin-sheet calculations is not at all able to generate the
induction vectors measured, e.g. in the Oulu region. However, consideration
of good conducting zones, e.g. the Oulu anomaly, into the model was enough
to obtain much better consistency with the measurements.
L_.~station...i-800. (E:pol),[
100000 -: ......... i..--..,i,....i,,.i.,i,.i.,i.i~i 4.-i-i.:.i:ii..(,i.i.i
. i-....+.,~-..i:-i-.i..i.i.i
............i.,.----~..,.~..~--~.~.~-~
. i i i iiii!i ! ! i iiii!i i i i ii!iil ~ ~~
10000 ! -il
<
~ i i!iii i i iiil i iiii-i i i ifii
(a~ 1000 1
~ i~iii~il i i
10
i i iiiiiii,
100
i ,i,,iiiiiii
1000 10000
P e r i o d (s)
Thin-Sheet Modellingfor Deep Electromagnetic Studies 381
[~Sta..~ion 8 ~ (E pol)J
90
80
70
~, 60 .......... : I 11 r I I I i r I I ] I r ' I I~ " r r g] ; , ? ~" : : : ~ . : ,
~D
~D
~o 50
~ 40
~" 30 ! i
20
10 i
0
(b) 1 10 100 1000 10000
Period (s)
Fig. 15 E-polarization sounding curves at the station in the middle of two conductors
in Fig. 14. (a) apparent resistivity, (b) impedance phase.
/
3-
0
3~ ....
0"3
t,1
t~
O-
Q. 2"-'--
t7-
C9
(23
.--1
(a)
o l t
-III[~H.~,O-]O00 " 9 ~ "SO0 "BSO "800 "?SO -700 -6r'~O -&O0 ~
X (KM]
382 Kaikkonen
90
80
Ld
L~J
~J
o 60.
"w
LJ
OZ
-r-
O_ SO"
" --3
40-
30.
1|001050-1000 -950 -900 -850 -800 -750 -700 -650 -600 -5~50 -500
X (KM)
(b)
Fig. 16. H-polarization profiles at periods of 5, 10, 50, 100, 300, 600 and 1000 s
for the model in Fig. 14. (a) apparent resistivity, (b) impedance phase.
On thc contrary the comparison of the thin-sheet results with the measured
MT ones for the southern part of the SVEKA profile in southern Finland
reveals surprisingly good consistency if the well conducting zones around
the CFGC are not taken into account. The Well conducting zones in the
theoretical model are enough to generate the MT responses leading to a
false conducting layer in the interpretation. Of course, one must remember
that here only one particular case at only one period etc. is dealt with.
There is clearly a need for very thorough modelling and analysis of the
complicated conductivity structures forming the CFGC and its surroundings
and that is under progrcss.
Undoubtedly the thin-sheet modelling can give such valuable results 'and
information for the regional deep EM investigations in the Fcnnoscandian
Shield that they should be carried out still much more than what has been
done during the past decade. In many cases thin-sheet modelling is still the
most proper or the only way for the interpretation of field measurements.
384 Kaikkonen
Fig. 17 Calculated responses at the period of T = 600 s for thin-sheet model of

Fig. 8. (a) p~ (maj), (b) p~ (min) and (c) phase (maj).
References
Gaal;G. and Gorbatschev, R, 1987. An outline of the Precambrian evolution of the Baltic
Shield. Precambrian Res., 35, 15-52.
Heikka, J., 1984. The MHD source and preliminary results of 5-component registrations in
northern Finland. In S.-E. Hjelt (ed): The development of the deep geoelectric model of
the Baltic Shield. Part II. Proceedings of the 1st project symposium, Oulu 15.-18.11.1983.
Department of Geophysics, University of Oulu, Report No. 8, 263-275.
Kaikkonen, R, 1983. Two-dimensional finite element modeling in magnetotellurics. In S.E.
Hjelt and L.L. Vanyan (eds): The development of the deep geoelectric model of the
Baltic Shield. Part I. Numerical methods. Department of Geophysics, University of Oulu,

Report No. 7, 79-106.
Kaikkonen, R, 1984. Some results of the thin-sheet approximation for the Baltic Shield. In
S.-E. Hjelt (ed.): The development of the deep geoelectric model of the Baltic Shield.
Part II. Proceedings of the 1st project symposium, Oulu 15.- 18.11.1983. Department of
Geophysics, University of Oulu, Report No. 8, 96-97.
Kaikkonen, R, 1985. Numerical modelling for the Baltic Shield. Paper presented at the 5th
General Assembly of IAGA, Prague. Czechoslovakia, August 5-17, 1985.
Kaikkonen, R, 1986. Numerical electromagnetic modeling including studies of characteristic
dimensions: A review. Surveys in Geophysics, 8, 301-337.
Kaikkonen, E, 1989. Methods using natural source fields. Numerical modelling. In Hjelt,
S.-E. and Vanyan, L.L (eds.) Geoelectric models of the Baltic Shield. University of
Oulu, Department of Geophysics, Report No, 16, 2940.
Kaikkonen, R, 1992. Thin-sheet modelling for the Fermoscandian Shield. In Kaikkonen, R
(ed.), Proceedings of the Jubilee Symposium of the 10 years Finnish-Soviet co-work in
geoelectrics, Oulu, December 18-19, 1991. Department of Geophysics, University of
Oulu, Report No. 18.29-43.
Kaikkonen, R, 1995. The Central Finland Granitoid Complex -a resistive window? Paper
presentexl at the XVIt Geofysiikan P~iiv~it,Oulu, Finland, May 1t-12, 1995.
Kaikkonen, E, Vanyan, L.L. Demidova, T.A., Yegorov, I.V. and Palshin, N.A., 1988.
Numerical modelling of deep dipole-dipole MHD sounding. Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 50,
266-269.
Korja, T., 1990. Electrical conductivity of the lithosphere: Magnetotelluric studies in the
Fermoscandian Shield, Finland. Ph.D. thesis. Department of Geophysics, University of
Oulu, Oulu, Finland. Acta Univ. Oul. A 215.
Korja, T., Zhang, R and Pajunp~ia, K., 1986. Magnetovariational and magnetotelluric studies
of the Oulu anomaly on the Baltic Shield in Finland. J. Geophys., 59, 32-41.
Pajunp'~i~i, K., 1989. Magnetometer array studies in Finland. Ph.D. thesis. Department of
Geophysics; University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland. Acta Univ. Oul. A 205.
Pajunp~i/i, K., 1992. MV arrays in Finland. In Kaikkonen, R (ed.), Proceedings of the Jubilee
Symposium of the 10 years Finnish-Soviet co-work in geoelectrics, Oulu, December
18-19, 199 t. Department of Geophysics, University o f Oulu, Report No. 18, 59-66.
Pajunp/a/i, K., Heikka, J. and Korja, T., 1983. Magnetometer array studies in Finland, J.
Geomag. Geoelectr., 35, 543-553.
Ranganayaki, R.P. and Madden, T.R., 1980. Generalized thin sheet analysis
in magnetotellurics: An extension of Price's analysis. Geophys. J.R. astr. Soc., 60,
445-457.
Vanyan, L.L., Demidova, T.A., Yegorov, I.V. and Palshin, N.A., 1986. On the deep dipole
DC soundings of the Baltic Shield. (in Russian). Izvestiya Akademii Nayl~ SSSR, Fizika
Zemli, 8, 63-71.
Vanyan, L.L., Demidova, T.A., Palshin, N.A., Zhamaletdinov, A.A., Kuksa, Yu.I., Kaikkonen,
R and Korja, T., 1989. Interpretation of deep DC soundings in the Baltic Shield. Phys.
Earth Planet. Int. 54, 149-155.
Vasseur, G. and Weidelt, R, 1977. Bimodal electromagnetic induction in non-uniform
thin-sheets with an application to the northern Pyrenlan induction anomaly. Geophys.
J.R. astr. Soc., 51,669-690.
Weidelt, E, 1975. Electromagnetic induction in three-dimensional structures. J. Geophys.,
41, 85-109.
Yegorov, I.V., Chernyak, E.L. Palshin, N.A, Demidova, T.A. and Kaikkonen, R, 1983a.
Numerical thin-sheet modeling of the telluric field distortions by the hybrid technique. I
Theory and an example for the Baltic Shield. Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 33, 56-63.
386 Kaikkonen
Yegorov, I.V., Chemyak, E.L., Palshin, N.A., Demidova, T.A. and Kaikkonen, P., t 983b.
Numerical thin-sheet modeling of the telluric field distortions by the hybrid technique.
II Theoretical background, an example, the computer program, a test run and computer
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University of Oulu, Report No. 7, 39-78.
21. The Generation and Thermal and

Electromagnetic Effects of Rising Melt
in a Three-dimensional Subducting
Lithospheric Slab Model
F.W. Jones, F. Pascal and M.E. Ertman
Department of Physics, University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2J1
Introduction
Active diapiric volcanism and anomalously high heat flow are associated
with the descent of lithosphcric slabs. Minear and Toksoz (1970) and
Toksoz et al (1971) developed a quasi-dynamic computational scheme
and a finite difference solution of the conservation of energy equation to
investigate the temperature field and geophysical effects of a two-dimensional
downgoing slab. Using a slightly modified method for slab translation,
Sydora et al (1978) investigated the effects of different rates of subduction
and varying the angle of subduction. They also considered the generation
and effects of partial melt in the two-dimensional model (Sydora et al,
1980). Further progress was made by Jones et al (1981), who investigated
the relationship bctwccn the temperature distribution and perturbation
of time-varying electromagnetic fields for a two-dimensional slab model.
This was the first attempt to directly relate the temperature fields of such
structures (including rising diapiric material) with their electromagnetic
response at the surface.
Although these problems have been considered for two-dimensional cases,
little attempt has so far been made to study them in three-dimensions.
However, a recent paper by deJonge and Wortel (1990), in which they
have modelled the three-dimensional temperature distribution in the
Mediterranean region by combining many (approximately 300) two-
dimensional models of the Minear and Toksoz (1970) type, indicates that
some attention should be given to this problem, deJonge and Wortel (1990)
took the interesting approach of using their thermal model to extend near-
surface geophysical, geological and paleomagnetic observations to structure
in the upper mantle by converting their derived temperature information
to seismic P-velocities and thereby modelling the velocity structure. In
their paper, deJonge and Wortel (1990) recognized the limitation of their
three-dimensional construction:
388 Jones et al
"A limitation of this method of constructing a 3D model is that lateral

heat flow from one 2D section to another is ignored. This heat flow
can be important if large along-trench variations of geometry (strong
curvature, transform type displacements) or temperature are present."
In order to better understand the effects of a downgoing lithospheric

slab, in particular the influence of limiting the slab's extent perpendicular
to the direction of slab motion on the temperature field and electromagnetic
response, we have developed a three-dimensional model of slab movement.
The work presented here investigates the possible production of partial
m e l t for such a model, the enhanced surface heat flow associated with
diapiric uprising material associated with such melt, and the perturbations
of time-varying electromagnetic fields observed at the surface above such
structure.
The Thermal Model

The model configuration is shown in Fig. 1. The slab moves in the - y
j Y
' X l ~ .I_ X2 .I. X2 =1. Xl

) ~" -) -I- F -t J,_
°~.~ 1/ ~ --"~tz ~ l - f
)// i¢
/ ~ k ~- . . . . . . .
I
r ~
rz
Fig. 1. General three-dimensional downgoing slab model. The slab moves i,n y-
direction.
x = 600 k m y = 591.6 k m z = 300 k m
xl = 200 km Yl = 217 km zl = 80 k m
x2 = 100 km zs = 5 km
The model is superimposed on a mesh of 61 × 61 x 61 = 226,981 points
with Ax = 10 km, Ay = 9.86 km and AZ = 5 km. Time intervals for slab
translations are At = 0.35 Ma. Angles and rates of slab m o v e m e n t for the
examples are:
0 = a = 27°(0 < t < 10.5 Ma)vz = 3.2 cm/yr
fl = 45°(5.25 Ma < t < 10.5 Ma)vz = 4.0 cm/yr
The Generation and Thermal and Electromagnetic Effects 389
direction and begins subduction at the ocean-continent interface. The slab

subducts at different angles during subduction and in the model considered
here is composed of two parts as described in the figure caption.
The quasi-dynamic model is modified from that of Minear and Toksoz
(1970) in the manner of Sydora et al (1978) and applied over a three-
dimensional mesh of grid points with spacings Ax, Ay, Az as in Fig. 1. The
thermal regime is determined from the conservation of energy equation
o3T
C v p--~- = I7. (KIT/') + H (1)
where Cv is the specific heat, p the density, T the temperature, K the

thermal conductivity and H the heat generation per .unit volume
An alternating-direction implicit finite-difference method (Peaceman and

Rachford, 1955) is employed to solve this equation over the region of
interest. Value of Cv is taken as 1.3 x 103 J kg-lK -1, the density distribution
follows the Bullen A density curve (see Sydora et al, 1978) and the thermal
conductivity includes a constant lattice conductivity and a radiative transfer
term that depends on temperature (MacDonald, 1959). In the examples
considered here, pure conduction is assumed together with the inclusion of
heat source coefficients for shear-strain heating and adiabatic compression.
Radiogenic heating and heating due to phase changes are assumed negligible
for the short time periods and shallow depths considered.
A constant heat flux of 13.5 mWm -2 into the bottom of th e region is
assumed, and the surface of Earth is maintained at 0°C. There is no heat
flow across the sides of the model. The initial vertical temperature distribution
is from the continental and oceanic geotherms given by Mercier and Carter
(1975).
Continental
T = 7.99(p + 21.4) - 24914/(p + 21.4) + 996
Oceanic
T = 4.34(p + 8.6) - 11840/(p + 8.6) + 1340
where p = 0.31z kbar km -1 (z in km).
Heating due to adiabatic compression is considered in the model as
in Toksoz et al (1971), where the rate of thermal release at depth z is
given by
p(z, T) . g . or(z) T(x, y, z)v z

where g = 9.8 m sec-2
390 J o n e s et a l
ix(z) = exp (3.58 - 0.0072z) • 10-6 °C -1 (z in km)

and v z is the vertical component of velocity of the downgoing slab.
Shear-strain heating, that we are particularly concerned with here, is
assumed to occur in 10 km thick layers along the top, bottom, end and
edges of the slab. The effeCts of different values of this parameter are
considered in the next section.
Production of Partial Melt

The effect of shear strain heating on the generation of partial melt was
considered by comparing the temperatures along the top of the slab with
the melting curve for 1% partial melt of dry basalt (Wyllie, 197t, Fig. 6-
19). The temperatures along profiles at different positions on the slab surface
were compared in this way. Figures 2-5 compare the slab surface temperature
profiles with the solidus curve for four cases. From these figures it is seen
that the temperatures along the surfaces of the two slab sections at 10.5 Ma
are almost the same up to the point of separation (at 5.25 Ma and 80 km
depth), but differ considerably after separation. Furthermore, it is seen that
the temperatures become greater than melting temperatures for only one
case (Fig. 5).
Figure 6 illustrates a case similar to that of Fig. 3. Subduction has
stopped at 10.5 Ma as in Fig. 3, but approach toward equilibrium has been
allowed to proceed without further slab movement for 5.25 Ma. It is seen
that, as expected, the temperatures of the two slab sections have approached
the same value. However, unexpectedly, we see that the overall slab surface
temperatures have decreased relative to the temperatures at 10.5 Ma. If we
extend this observation to cases for which the slab surface temperatures
have risen above the solidus during subduction, it implies that if subduction
ceases, the surface temperatures may subsequently decrease below the solidus.
This means that if partial melt has resulted from the slab subduction and
it rises toward the surface, and if the slab surface temperature subsequently
falls below the solidus, then the production of partial melt will cease and
the result will be a local body of partial melt that rises toward the surface
because of its buoyancy, rather than a column of partial melt continually
moving upward from the top of the slab. This rising partial melt will coot
as it rises, and depending on its volume, as well as other parameters, will
gradually slow and possibly cease its upward motion, eventually reaching
temperature equilibrium with its surroundings.
Rising Melt and Surface Heat Flux

The conditions of Fig. 5 have produced a situation for the possibility of
partial melt generation. If this has happened, then diapiric material can
buoyantly rise from the tops of the slab sections. We have assumed that this
has occurred, and have simulated it by translating the temperatures upward
from the top of the slab through a column to within 10 km of the surface
of the Earth (this assumes rapid rise of the partial melt compared with the
time scale of the model). Fig. 7 shows the surface heat flux density over
the slab for which partial melt has been generated (Fig. 5) and for which
diapiric material has risen instantaneously upward from the slab zones for
which the temperatures have gone above the solidus temperatures. The heat
flow density has been calculated 5.25 Ma after the diapiric event (i.e.,
15.75 Ma after subduction began) with no further slab motion or uprising
of partial melt.
MODEL:27.27-27.45
Temperature at the fop of slabs at fime=lO.50 Ma
Htp=l.6E-4,Hbf=Hend=Hside=l.6E-5
2500-
2000-
¢.)
1500- ~ g e n d
2o x...............
o.ox
o)
~ ~,~ _.~.~
(3.
E 10o0 -
/,,~- x=28Lox_
X=31*DX _
500- -x~*-9-x--.
/ X--39*DX
geofherm
0
0 5'0 I(~O I~O 200' '
250 i
300 350 l
Depfh in km
Fig. 2. Comparison of the slab surface temperatures with solidus for dry basalt.
Solidus is the solid line with constant slope (geotherm), and temperature
profiles along the slab surface are at x = 20 Ax (near outer edge of unbent
slab), x = 24 Ax (at center of unbent slab), x = 28 Ax (near inner edge of
unbent slab), x = 31 Ax (near inner edge of bent slab), x = 35 Ax (at
center of bent slab) and x = 39 Ax (near outer edge of bent slab). The
shear-strain heating is assumed to be 1.6 x 10-4 W m -3 along the top of
slab and 1.6 x 10-5 Wm -3 along the bottom end and sides of the slabs. The
temperatures are taken at the time when subduction has ceased.
Figure 7 shows that for this model the heat flow density reaches values
greater than 185 mWm -2, i.e. about three times the world average surface
heat flow. The contour plot is not symmetric, reflecting the different subduction
angles of the two slab sections.
392 Jones et al
MODEl.: 27.27-27.45
Temperature at the top of slabs af fime=lO.50 Ma
H~=2.4E-4,Hbt=Hend=Hside=2.4E-5
2500-
2000 -
O
1500 - ~~ . ~ ' - gehd
"6 :~.x....
e~ ~-.~- x_==24_LDx__
E lOOO-
X-'~--L*DX--
X--31*DX__
500- _x~a*p_x__.
0
go 1do 1;0 2;0 2;0 '
300 350'
Depfh in km
Fig. 3. As in Fig. 2 but for shear-strain heating values of 2.4 x 10-4 Wm-3 along
the top of the slab and 2.4 x 10-s Wm-3 along the bottom, end and sides
of the slab.
The Electromagnetic Model

A three-dimensional numerical electromagnetic induction model originally
developed by Jones and Pascoe (t972) and used subsequently by Lines and
Jones (1973a, b) has been used here to investigate the electromagnetic
response of the electrical conductivity anomaly associated with the downgoing
slab and rising melt. The method is outlined by Jones and Vozoff (1978).
The model is that of a semi-infinite conductor in the region z > 0 with a
plane boundary and which has regions of different conductivity.
In the downgoing slab model here, electrical conductivities are derived
from the temperature field through the relationship
a = (ro e-e/kr (2)
where G0 is the limiting conductivity as T approaches infinity, E the width

of the energy gap for electronic conduction, k is Boltzman's constant, and
T is absolute temperature. Values chosen for Go and E are 10 ohm-tcm -1
and 0.7 eV, respectively. We have found that the electrical conductivity is
strongly dependent on the choice of E, and small changes in E result in
large changes in the conductivity. Published values of E differ greatly,
depending on the mode of conduction assumed and the material considered
(see for example MacDonald, 1959 and Rikitake, 1966). The values here
are reasonable for the model, and give electrical conductivities that are
consistent with those given by Duba and Lilley (1972) in their examination
of the effect of an ocean ridge on geomagnetic variations.
2500
2000
t MODEL: 27.27-27.45 •
Temperature af the top of slabs af fime=lO.50 Ma
Hfp=3.6E-4,Hbf=Hend=Hside=3.6E-5
¢3
t5°°1 ~ ~ Legend
X ] /~
1000
X=24"DX
X=28*DX
X--31*DX
X--39*DX
geotherm
0 5'0 ,00' ,;0 2;0 2;0 '
300 '
350
Depth in krn
Fig. 4. As in Fig. 2, but for shear-strain heating values of 3.6 × 10--4 W m -3 along
the top of the slab and 3.5 × 10-s Wm -3 along the bottom, end and sides
of the slab.
The source field is taken to be uniform and oscillating with the period
27r/o9 which is sufficiently long that displacement currents can be ignored,
and the magnetic permeability is taken as that of the free space. Maxwell's
equations are then
V x H = o'E (3)
V x E = - iog/.toH (4)
where the time factor exp (io~t) is understood in all field quantities and cr
is the conductivity appropriate to each region. Combining these equations
leads to
V 2 E - V(V. E) = iq2E (5)
where 7/2 = COpoG, and this can be written as three scalar equations in
Cartesian coordinates and solved simultaneously by a finite difference
technique over a mesh of grid points superimposed over the model of
394 Jones et al
interest. The result gives the three components of E, from which the magnetic
field components can be calculated.
MODEl.:27.27-27.45
Temperatureat the top of slabsat fime=lO.50Ma
Htp=4.8E-4,Hbf=Hend=Hside=4.8E-5
2500-
2000-
¢.)
~soo- ~ ~ . 2 . gend
2
P .o..'.9..x...
X---2£DX__
1ooo-/ /
(3_
E
/ x=2w__ox_
X=31*DX_.
500- / X--35*DX
X-~9*DX
0
0 do ld0 lio 2;0 2~o '
300 '
350
Depth in km
Fig. 5. As in Fig. 2, but for shear-strain heating values of 4.8 × 10 -4 W m -3 along

the top of the slab and 4.8 x 10 -~ W m -3 along the bottom, end and sides of
the slab.
The electromagnetic model here is constructed with a surface conducting

layer 10 km thick with continental conductivity 10-3 ohm-]m-1 and ocean
conductivity 1 ohm-]rn-1 overlying the electrical conductivity structure derived
from the thermal model. The grid that is superimposed over the whole
region consists of 38 x 38 x 38 (= 54, 872) mesh points. The uniform
source field oscillates in the x-direction and the model is solved interatively
as described by Lines and Jones (1973a, b).
Electromagnetic Response of the Model

A section in y-direction through the diapiric upwelting which shows the
electrical conductivities derived from the temperature field below I0 km
depth is shown in Fig. 8. This clearly shows the influence of the subducting
slab as well as the uprising material.
The response of the electromagnetic fields to the conductivity anomaly
produced by the slab and upwelling diapiric material is shown in Fig. 9.
This figure gives contour plots of the amplitudes of the six field components.
MODEL:27.27-27.45
Temperaturea~~hefop of slabsat fime=15.75Ma
Hfp---2.4E-4,Hbf=Hend=Hside=2.4E-5
2500-
2000-
o
P 15oo-
~ g e n d
P / ~;-'- ;:....; .......
X=2£_'DX
E iooo-
/~- x--2P__~L
X=31*DX_.
500-
9eotherm
0
0 s'o 1c;o 1~o 2~o 2~o '
300 '
350
Depthin km
Fig. 6. As in Fig. 3 (i.e. shear-strain values of 2.4 × 10 -4 Wm -3 along the top of

the slab and 2.4 × 10 -5 Wrn-3 along the bottom, end and sides of the slab),
but at 15.75 Ma after start of subduction (i.e. 5.25 Ma after subduction
has ceased).
The effect of the uprising diapiric material is clearly seen. The electromagnetic
fields are strongly perturbed by the conductivity variations associated with
the temperature variations across the region. The amplitude Of Ex exhibits
a maximum over the uprising material, and the contours also appear to
reflect the different angles of dip of the two slab sections-though this is
masked by the response to the rising melt. The plot of the amplitude of Ev
shows how the induced currents are deflected by the upwelling, and the
pattern complicated by the deeper dipping slab. The amplitude of E z shows
that vertical electric currents are caused by the upwelling. The magnetic
field components also reflect the presence of the dipping slabs and uprising
diapiric material. In addition, the H~, and Hz components respond to the
ocean-continent interface. Figure 10 gives calculated apparent resistivities
and phases for the model. It is seen that the apparent resistivities decrease
from the continent towards the ocean, and the rising melt and downgoing
slab represent a low resistivity anomaly in the continental region. The
apparent resistivities are less than those shown in Fig. 8, because equation
2 gives very low conductivity values for temperature values near the surface
of the Earth.
396 Jones et al
/
f
\ I
I
I
I
1 J
I
_1
- -
;65~
~!j!iiiiTi~i!i
i~ i~i:i!iii~iiii!
iii~iis
!ili~!iiiiJiiiii!iiii!!iiiii~i!i
Fig. 7. Magnitudes of the surface heat flow density above a region where partial
melt has been generated with subsequent uprising of diapiric material.
The rising melt is from the points of the surfaces of the slabs that have
reached temperatures above the solidus (Fig. 5) and is indicated by shading.
The uprising is assumed to occur instantaneously at 10.5 Ma, with no
further motion of the slab or uprising material. The heat flow is calculated
at 5.25 Ma after the diapiric event (i.e. 15.75 Ma after subduction began).
This is for the surface area y = 4 Ay to 44 Ay and x = 10 Ax to 50 AX. The
heat flow density values are in mMm -~.
Figure 11 gives the in-phase and quadrature induction arrows for the
model. It is seen that the in-phase arrows point toward the slab that does
not bend during subduction, which implies that the current is mainly induced
in that part of the slab at this period.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada.
0
C3-
gh
CD
O-
~D
¢,)
a.
CD
0
LID _=
3~
CD- I=
Ld w
Z °4
00o
CD
CD-
Od
~a 0
0
CD-
°4
C~_
CD CD 0 0 CD C] 0
CO
~ 04 C~J fO
(LtN) HidBO
398 Jones et al
720 EX 7201 Hx
65o. 66o
500' '.... 600
5,;0, 540
~ 300
12D 2~ 350 480 500 0 120 240 36D 18D 600

DISTANCE (KM] DIST#INCE (KM)
66o
7201 Ey
60o
540
480
3so-
~300-
~:~ 2,~0-
180-
120-
60-
O- ~ 0 0
OIST~NCE (KMI DISTgNCE IKM)
~20-
Ez
660-
600-
540-
4B0-
~ 420-
l
360- i
Z
~300-
~240-
I@O-
IZO-
6O-
0
Z40 350 480 6 0 t~O ~40 360 4BO 600
DISTRNCE (KM) OISTRNCE ~KM~
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields at Earth's surface of the
diapiric m o d e l ¢Yo= 10 ohm -1 cm -l, E = 0.7 eV, Frequency = 0.0003 sec-
1 (period = 55.5 min). Positions of the ocean-continent boundary and
downgoing slab are shown.
.=I
0
S
ZZ ¢a
o~
Ld .0
ca "-..4 .~-
Z '~
eJ~ ~
~ k
o
..=
(W~) 33NWISIO
..=
- w ~ ~
az
b--t ~
,
I I ' I N
(W~) 33NUISIQ
400 Jones et al
C~
0
. . . . . . . , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , . . . . . . o
.... ~ , ~ ~ , . , ~ . . . . . . .
@
' ' . • 1 1 1 , t ~ / I s l l % ~ " 1 1 i . . . .
@
L.
(~N) 30NWISIO ..=

0 2
-0
ell
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :::
::: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: - ~ o
::::::::;i'~ '~''' | ///''~4; .....
_ ~% fl// t" :~ ....
w
[_) v I=
........ Ill
:::;~:: .....
II ,, .....................
.m
r----l ~ T T ~
[~N) 30NWISIO
References
deJonge, M.R. and Wortel, M.J.R, 1990. The thermal structure of the Mediterranean upper
mantle: a forward modeling approach, TerraNova, 2, 609-616.
Duba, A. and Lilley, EE.M., 1972. Effect of an ocean ridge model on geomagnetic variations,
J. Geophys. Res., 72, 7t00-7105.
Jones, EW. and Pascoe, L.J., 1972. The perturbation of alternating geomagnetic fields by
three-dimensional conductivity inhomogeneities. Geophys. J.R. astr. Soc., 27, 479--485.
Jones, EW. and Vozoff, K., 1978. The calculation of magnetotelluric quantities for three-
dimensional conductivity inhomogeneities. Geophysics, 43, 1167-1175.
Jones, EW., Pascoe, L.J., Ramaswamy, V., and Sydora, L.J., 1981.The relationship between
temperature distribution and the perturbation of time-varying electromagnetic fields for
a two-dimensional model ofa subducting lithospheric slab. J. Geophys. Res., 86, 10870-
10874.
Lines, L.R. and Jones, EW., 1973a. The perturbation of alternating geomagnetic fields by
three-dimensional island structures. Geophys. ZR. astr. Soc., 32, 133-154.
Lines, L.R. and Jones, EW., 1973b. The perturbation of alternating geomagnetic fields by
an island near a coastline. Can J. Earth Sci, 10, 510--518.
MacDonald, G.J.E, 1959. Calculations on the thermal history of the Earth. Z Geophys.
Res., 64, 1967-2000.
Mercier, J.C. and Carter, N.L., 1975. Pyroxene geotherms. J. Geophys. Res., 80, 3349-
3362.
Minear, J.W. and Toksoz, M.N., 1970. Termal regime of a downgoing slab and new global
tectonics, J. Geophys. Res., 75, 1397-1419.
Peaceman, D.W. and Rachfrd, Jr., H.H., 1955. The numerical solution of parabolic and
elliptic differential equations. J. Soc. lncL Appl. Math., 3, 28-41.
Rikitake, T., 1966, Electromagnetism and the Earth's Interior. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 308
Pp.
Sydora, L.J., Jones, EW. and Lambert, R.St.J., 1978. The thermal regime of the descending
lithosphere: the effect of varying angle and rate of subduction, Can. J. Earth Sci., 154,
626-641.
Sydora, L.J., Jones, EW. and Lambert, R.St.J., 1980. Model calculations of the thermal
fields of subducting lithospheric slabs and partial melting, Tectonophys., 62, 233-249.
Toksoz, M.N., Minear, J.W. and Julian, B.R., 1971. Temperature field and geophysical effects
of a downgoing slab. J. Geophys. Res., 76, 1113-1138.
Wyllie, P., 1971. The Dynamic Earth, John Wiley, New York. 416 pp.
22. Fast Difference-Differential Modelling for

Geophysical Electrodynamics
V. Druskin, L. Knizhnerman and T. Tamarchenko
Central GeophysicalExpedition, 123298, MarodnogoOpolcheniya,40-3,
Moscow, USSR
Many efforts have lately been made by many researchers to create effective
software for 2-D and 3-D mathematical modelling in electrical logging and
prospecting. There are 3 main approaches: integral equation methods, finite
difference (or finite element methods) and semianalytical methods.
As a variant of semianatytical methods we can distinguish the difference-
differential one (DDM). The main idea is the reduction of initial equations
with partial derivatives to an ordinary, differential equation (ODE) system by
means of approximation on a set of parallel straight lines. Advantage of the
DDM over the difference method is better accuracy. Computational efficiency
of DDM is determined by the total cost of solving its ODE system.
DDM was introduced for solving DC logging problem in [10]. The
algorithm allows one to consider simple 2-D axial models without invasion.
Two similar fast methods using propagator ideas were independently
developed for 2-D logging axial models in [1, 2]. In these papers were
correspondingly considered models consisting of two and arbitrary number
of radially inhomogeneous layers. According to different estimations, their
speedup is from 10 up to 300 times. Afterwards DDM was implemented to
3-D nonstationary problems [5]. There was introduced a fast spectral method
for solving large scale difference-differential ODE system. Similar approach,
but using another terms, was also offered in [11].
We shall consider some general procedures for efficient solving 2-D
electrical logging axial problems and 3-D nonstationary electrical prospecting
one. The main emphasis is applied to solving difference-differential ODE
systems by means of special fast methods which use specific features of the
geophysical statements of problems.
1. The 2-D Scalar Stationary Diffraction Problems
Method of operator equation system on 3 boundaries

First consider 2-D stationary problems those arise due to DC resistivity and
lateral log problem, induction E-polarization logging problem and some
others in axial models with cylindrical and plane boundaries of well, invaded
Fast Difference-Differential Modelling f o r Geophysical Electrodynamics 403
zones and layers. The problem is complicated by a great number of layers

which are to be taken into account while proceeding interpretation. Axial
solid conducting electrodes and nonconductive housing of laterolog tool
may also complicate the model (Fig. 1).
lFrllll]]Frllll]
iiiiiiiiLrili!!!
!!!!!!iii!iiii!ie
Fig. 1 The axial model of electromagnetic logging. There are resistivity (A, M, N),
lateral (A1, As, A3) and induction (T, R1, R2) logs in the figure.
The main goal is to a create fast modelling program for commercial

interpretation of oil well logging. We shall consider the variant of solving
that problems according to [3, 8].
In general, the main equation is following:
r o r oul
V;rLoT~/+ Vz L Ozj+bu=O, (1)
where or, b, and u are functions of r and z. For simplicity let us solve the
Dirichlet problem for (1) in a rectangle
~Z = {r, z l O < r < R, Zo < Z < ZN+I}:
ulz=zi = vi, i = O, N + 1, ulr=0 = u l r = R = O .
We shall consider stratified models with conductivity varying arbitrarily

along each layer:
tr = tri(r ), b = b i for Z ~ [Z i, Zi_l] , i = 1 . . . . . N.
Let us obtain difference-differential approximation to this equation.

Substitute for f2 its intersection with the family of straight lines r = ri,
i = O, 1..... M + 1. As a result, Eq. (1) will be replaced by the difference-
differential scheme
404 Druskin et al
^^ a Fâal ^.
where the functions, marked by the roof sign, are the corresponding ones
or r I and z, and (~'2~)~ is the 1-D difference operator in the grid {rt}.
Equation (2) is really an ODE system. Its coefficients tr and b are piecewise
constant functions of z for any fixed r 1.
Inside stratum number P, the solution of (2) can be presented by the
spectral decomposition
M
-- exp + oxp q-z;
where f~,/q,p are the eigenpairs of the operator a:,'[(a,

+ a, ~]. They
can be easily obtained by the QL method and by the inverse iteration [14].
This decomposition allows us to exclude the internal parts of strata analytically
and to reduce (2) to the system
Bi_it3i_l + A i o i + Bivi+ 1 = O, i = 1 . . . . . N, (3)
where vi -= ~ I ~ i ~ IR M and Ai and B i are linear operators in IR M,
Ai = (a~,), Bi = (b~,)
M
akti = 2cri(rk ) cri(rl ) ~, ~,~, exp [ •p(i Zi_ 1 -- Z 1 ) ] /
p=l
{1 - e x p [ 2 ~ ( Z i _ 1 - Zi)]} f/o(rl)fj(r
k ) ii
M
+ 20"i+1 (rk) O'i+1(rz) ~ ~ p+1exp ['~ pi+I (Zi - Zi+l)]/
p=l
{1 - exp [(Z i _ Zi+l)]f p+l (q) fp÷l (1.1)f pi+l(rk)'
M
b~l = cri+l (/'k)O'i+1 (rl) E )~ i+l {1 + exp [2/].p+1 (Z i -- Zi+l)]}/
p=l -- p
{I - exp [2A; +' (Z i- Z,+ ,)]}fp+' "tr0" fp~'+'(r,).
This system is a block tridiagonal one.

Compare this approach with the conventional difference scheme
(~t?tr)~ + (~'tt~z) ~ +/~t~ = 0 (4)

for the grid { (r l, Zm) I, l = 0 . . . . . M + 1, rn = 0 . . . . . P + 1 }. Equation (4)
is reduced to a system, similar to (3), of P dimension instead of N. Evidently,
the differential-difference scheme will win if P > N. This condition takes
Fast Difference-DifferentiaI Modelling for Geophysical Electrodynamics 405
place provided one needs a more detailed approximation along Z-axis or

the model is extended along this direction. Typical ratios of these numbers
are from 10 up to 1000.
Figure 2 shows the curves of lateral resistivity sounding in one of the
wells of the West Siberia. The measurements were processed with the program
of the inverse problem; then the direct problem was solved on the basis of
the obtained model. The level of agreement of measured and synthesized
curves allows us to estimate the interpretation quality. Analogous comparison
for induction logging is given in Fig. 3. Economic efficiency of the developed
programs makes possible to incorporate these programs in the main Soviet
systems of mass commercial logging interpretation.
2. The 3-D Nonstationary Electromagnetic Problems
(a) Spectral Lanczos decomposition method (SLDM)

Consider the nonstationary problem of electrical prospecting (in t- and to-
domains) in three-dimensional inhomogeneous conductive media (Fig. 4).
The main aim is to create a scientific universal and economical program for
practically all methods of EM prospecting (transient, frequency, MT sounding),
any source and 3-D models without any essential restrictions. Let us solve
the problem
r o t H = c r E + r/(t) ~o,
rotE = -#oOHlOt, Hit<0 = 0, EIt<0 = 0,
q~ = ~0(x, y, z), cr = tr(x, y, z), E = E(x, y, z), H = H(x, y, z). Having

transformed that, we obtained
rot rot E = / l 0 or. OE/Ot, E I t=o = tp. (5)
Solving (5) is complicated by singularity (~ = 0 in air). It can be excluded
by means of an integral condition on Earth surface (Tabarovsky). After
spatial discretization and some transformations the problem is reduced to
an ODE system
Au + cgu/cgt = 0, u I t--0 = 9, (6)
where u(t) and q~ are vectors in grid space (_=_Rn), and A is a symmetrical
nonnegative definite matrix.
In practice, the necessary dimension of grid may be as large as 40 x 40
x 20 in the conductive part of the model. So, n can be up to 105. Solving
such an ODE system by means of traditional methods in very expensive
and really impossible on Soviet computers. That is why we had to introduce
a few new fast methods [5-7].
Imagine for a moment that we solve (1) using the explicit difference
scheme
406
Druskin et al
', 9~.gi
i,
s
g9gt
")
°w,,~
oggl
•, ~Sg t
F !
-~" OF-el
r,
eZgL
%
"~ o~gt
Ztgt
t_,
Z L .
-j
96/A
-__~ eeLt
Z
~OOt
ot
05
0 w - w q o Ol
0 w-tu~ooL OS
~
l
0
o gt t
~Z~ tZ9
Fast Difference-Differential ModeIting for GeophysicaI Electrodynamics 407
I ,,,
I
i
IJJL-- "~" -'-- z,7 I
Fig. 3 Estimation of the interpretation quality for induction logging, lwmeasured

curve, 2---synthesized curve.
Au k + (uk+1 - uk)/z = O, u o = q~. (7)
Its solution can be presented as uk = ( I - zA)kq~. Let us denote by

Kin(= Krn(A, ~0)) the so-called Krylov subspace that is the one spanned on
the vectors ~0, Al~o, .... A"-lcp. Evidently, uj ~ KJ. The main arithmetical
expenditures are connected with multiplying A by vectors, so they are
proportional to j. For this purpose we shall use the optimizing property of
the Galyorkin method. Let us present an approximate solution for each
time as an element of Kin:
u = ]~ ci(t)qi, (8)
i=l
where {qi} is a basis of K ' . Substituting (8) into (6), by means of the
Galyorkin method one obtains the ODE system
Tc+ 0c/0t=0, c l t = 0 = e~"0
with c = (ci)i=l, ..:, m" In our case it is very convenient to use the basis,
consisting of Lanczos vectors [13]. If we use the Lanczos basis, the T
matrix is tridiagonal. Finally, the solution can be easily written in terms of
the spectral decomposition [5]:
u = ~ SliYi exp ( - Oit) (9)

i=1
408 Druskin et al
~-X Y
z
Fig. 4 Pattern of 3-D electrical prospecting models. The LOTEM system.
with Si = (Sli . . . . . Smi) T and 0i the cigcnpairs o f T (i = 1 . . . . . m),
Yi = ~ Sli qi
i=1
//////////,1/////////// ~///////////////////J x
I
Z
N1
A B N~MN 2 -~-X
N3
(a)
Fast Difference-DifferentialModellingfor Geophysical Electrodynamics 409
aE z
aZ
mV
~-'~'mz"
1.E
1.1-
1.O-
BEz
aZ
mV .10-3
krn~)_EE
z t :l.6s
mV .in"2,,
0.9 t :O.ssl
0"8I
=1.6s :0.4s
0.Ss
0.8 0.75 tI:~

I 0"3c" t: 0.t.s
I ,I I I I I I I 1 I =
-I0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 km
(b)
Fig. 5 Profiling with a d i v e r g e n t s o n d e over a reef model (switch off mode).
is a Lanczos "eigenvector" [13]. It was theoretically proved that in spite of

strong instability of Yi to computer round error formula (9) produces a
stable result [7].
Consider the same problem in the frequency domain. In this case the
approach is identical to the time domain one excepting the final formula for
the solution:
410 Druskin et al
u = (oi - co) -1 S iyi,

i=l
where co is frequency.
Compare the computational efficiency of the introduced methods and
the conventional ones. Suppose that "t"is the time step providing the stability
of (7). Then, according to our theoretical estimate the value of m, providing
the same accuracy, is proportional to ~ [6]. The conventional schemes,
evidently, take t/z steps. Some computational experiments made by us for
efficiency comparison of solving 2-D problems have shown that the SLDM
was from 3 up to 150 times as fast as the most effective versions of the
explicit scheme [6, 7]. The elaborated program of solution of 3-D electrical
prospecting problem allows us to calculate the whole curve of sounding of
electromagnetic field in t or co domains for three-dimensional inhomogeneous
models which are practically not limited by complexity. Different tests
have been provided at the Institute of Geophysics and Meteorology, Cologne,
ER.G., and at C.G.E., which have shown good coincidence with the analytical
solutions and 3-D integral equations' programs, created by [12, 14]. There
is an example of calculation of the transient field in a turn-off mode measured
with the profiling divergent sound in Fig. 5a, b, the model-oil containing
reef in the bed of hard carbonates. Considerable increase of abnormal effect
versus time is visible.
These calculations were carried out for execution time about 2 hours a
position of source on a Soviet EC 1065 computer (0.5 MFLP).
Referencesz
1. Chew, W.C., Barone, S., Anderson B., Hennessy, C. Diffraction of axisymmetric

waves in a borehole by bed boundary discontinuities, Geophysics, Vol. 49, No. 10
(October 1984), p. 1586-1595.
2. Druskin, V.L. A direct method of calculation of stationary fields for a class of
geophysical models. On file at VINITI (USSR), No. 5099-83, Sept. 1983 (Russian).
3. Druskin, V.L., Knizhnerman, L.A., A method of the solution of forward problems of
electric well logging and electric exploration, Physics of the Solid Earth, Izvest. Acad.
Sci. U.S.S.R., 1987, Vol. 23, No. 4, p. 317-323.
4. Druskin, V.L., Knizhnerman. L.A., On an interactive algorithm to solve the two-
dimensional inverse problem of logging by lateral sounding, Soviet Geology ana
Geophysics, 1987, Vol. 28. No. 9, p. 118-123.
5. Druskin,V.L., Knizhnerman, L.A., A spectral semi-discrete method for the numerical
solution of three-dimensionalnonstationaryproblems inelectrical prospecting,Physics
of the Solid Earth, Izvest. Acad. Sc. U.S.S.R., 1988, Vol. 24, No. 8, p. 63-74.
6. Druskin, V.L., Knizhnerman, L.A., Two polynomial methods for the computation of
functions of symmetric matrices, J. Comput. Math. Physics, U.S.S.R., 1989, Vol. 29,
No. 12, p. 1763-1775.
7. Druskin, V.L., Knizhnerman, L.A., The computation of functions of symmetric
operators by polynomial operator series and the proof of Lanczos phenomenon, Dep.
at VINITI (U.S.S.R) 02.03.1987, No. 1535-B87 (Russian).
Fast Difference-Differential Modellingfor Geophysical Electrodynamics 411
8. Druskin, V.L., Tamarchenko, T.V., Partial domain method for solving the direct
problem of inductive logging, Soviet Geology and Geophysics, t988, Vol. 29, No. 3,
p. 125-131.
9. Druskin, V.L., Tamarchenko, T.V., Fast version of the method of partial domains for
solving the diffraction problems of electromagnetic field, Mathematical Modeling,
U.S.S.R., 1989, No. 4, p, t40-149.
10. Ivanov, V.T., Masyutina, M.S., Methods of solution of forward and inverse problems
of electric well logging, Moscow, Nauka, 1983 (Russian).
11. Lee, K.H., Use of a field information for modeling 3-D EM responses, Ninth Workshop
on Electromagnetic Induction in the Earth and Moon, Moscow, 1988, p. 32.
12. Newman, G.A., The effect of near-surface conductors on transient electromagnetic
soundings with a grounded wire, Ninth Workshop on Electromagnetic Induction in
the Earth and Moon, Moscow, 1988, p. 77.
13. Parlett, B.N., The symmetric eigenvalue problem, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Englwood
Cliffs, 1980.
14. SanFillipo, W.E, Hohmann, G.W., Integral equation solution for the transient response
of a three-dimensional body in a conductive half-space, Geophysics, 1985, Vol. 50,
No. 5, p. 798-809.
23. The 2- and 3-D Modelling of EM

Induction and Current Chanelling in the
Saurashtra and Adjoining Regions
K. Veeraswamy
National GeophysicalResearchInstitute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad-500007, India
Introduction
The Saurashtra peninsula on the central western part of the Indian subcontinent
is an important area affected by Meso and Cenozoic tectonomagmatic events.
Electrical structure of Saurashtra peninsula and adjoining area is quite involved
due to the sealand boundary and plausible variation of electrical conductivity
with depth particularly at the lower crustal and upper mantle depths. The
geology and tectonics of this region is briefly described below.
Geology: The Saurashtra peninsula lies within (19030 ', 24°30'N) latitude
and (68 °, 73°E) longitude. The entire area (Fig. 1) is covered by the Deccan
flood basalts (DFB) except some patches along the coast covered by alluvium.
It is characterized by a large number of dykes and volcanics with Girnar,
Osham, Barda and Chogat Chamardi as plutonic centres. These clearly
indicate a major thermal activity beneath this region and hence its possible
influence on the electrical conductivity structure. The possibility of Mesozoic
sediments lying between traps and basement could be of much economic
significance. A major efforts to delineate these sandwiched Mesozoic
formations is now on by using the magnetotelluric (MT) and long offset
transient electromagnetic (LOTEM) methods.
Tectonics: This region could be regarded as a major tectonomagmatic

node (or knot) in the geodynamical evolution of the Indian continental
lithosphere during the Mesozoic period. It may also hold key to some of
global problems (like hotspot-induced volcanism, the sequence between
rifting and volcanism; the Catastrophic mass extinction of the K-T boundary
etc.,) which are being extensively debated and pursued by the geophysicists
world over (Hooper 1990, Courtillot 1990).
Thus the S-C area forms a junction of the three major Precambrian
trends (viz. Dharwar, Delhi-Aravalli and Satpura) of the Indian shield.
Further it is bounded by the Kutch rift on its northwest, westward extension
of the Narmada on its south and C~mabay graben on its northeast (Gambhir
1976, Biswas t987). It also witnessed the mega continental flood basaltic
The 2- and 3-D Modelling of EM Induction 413
09
I ~ . ~ _ .~,~,~.'~_ _. ~o~-
l~- ' ~ z ~
zu.i "8
| e::~l,.=~.'~.4~'~Y~" / e3:~
¢II
~, I ~ X ~F.'~ ,,.-'~ IJ~.
,'~
7.~ . ~ ~ ~, . "~II m.
z~,Z,~ o o o
II
~o,o°,?,o~ ~ . ~ ~ I
0
0 ,'~ w ~ ,~' " ~ 0 wO o.w (~w !
,,I=
w " ~ o/
,o_ _ ~- -~I "r.
.,
&l<_o ~
z
o..~o
z
0 ,,,
z ~ -
~- ~ " " ' m
~~I
--~1
Z Iu- --'-r ~
~ IW
- ~-- ..v..--
~ ~ I-- Z I-" ~ 0 ~1 X-C3 I,,,
.-I~_Z<w~.~.o,.~ o ~,~ ~ ~-z I
BBi NI I S & &

"F=
.... '~,' 0- 2
; ' ~13
;,, ~ o
,=~
0
0
I ,~ .~ -" oJ
&/ 0 o._
{xlpo •............. Cq|,O
414 Veeraswamy
(CFB) event of the Deccan traps, which covers part of the Kutch, nearly all
of the Saurashtra and large part of central and western Indian shield (Murthy
1981, Subba Rao 1988). Passage of the Indian lithosphere over the Reunion
mantle plume is assumed to be responsible for this major CFB event coinciding
with the continenta ! breakup (Campbell and Griffiths 1990, White and
McKenzie 1989). Therefore the interaction of the plume head (of a 2500
km diameter at 250 km depth beneath Cambay-Saurashtra area) with the
overlying continental lithosphere, assumes a special significance with regard
to the sequence of upwelling, rifting and magmatism evidenced over this
region. Seismic evidences, from DSS results (Kaila et al. 1981) of major
crustal (and hence possble lithospheric) thinning beneath the southemmost
extension of the Cambay graben which indicate the moho at a depth of 20
km at Billimora. Manifestation of high gravity anomalies, high heat flow,
axes of gravity high, propagation and junction of faults, rifts, uplifts, axes
of hotsprings, seismicity etc., further support a radially propagating tectonic
model (Veeraswamy and Raval 1997).
Causes of Complex Electrical Conductivity

The heterogeneity is principally due to large lateral variation in conductivities
and thicknesses of near surface layers caused by the presence of sea-land
interface (near the coast) and Gulfs, around the bays and peninsula. The
sedimentary cover of rifts/Grabens (Kutch, Cambay and Narmada-Tapti)
and possibility of an embedded Mesozoic basin further contribute to
heterogeneity. Understanding and quantitative evaluation of the electro-
magnetic induction process in these near surface-layer nonuniformities thus
becomes primary concern before we could decipher the underlying deeper
conductive structures (disrupted Litho-Asthenosphere boundary due to mantle
upwelling in this region (Menville and Tarits 1986). Because besides the
laterally nonuniformity confined to near surface layer, major variation in
the electrical conductivity with depth may arise due to large thermal event
that caused CFB. A large crustal thinning, low velocity layers and transitional
Moho as derived from the DSS strongly suggest the thermal disturbance.
This thermal anomaly at upper mantle depth would have shaped (a) the
state of partial melting near the Litho-Asthenosphere boundary and (b)
possibly mid-crustal conductors due to plausible release of fluids.
The electromagnetic response characteristics of the following situations
have been attempted.
For the simulation of the 2-D situations such as along the Cambay Graben,
we have made use of the Wannamaker finite element approach.
(1) The northern part of the Cambay Graben is supposed to consist of
conductive sediments, resistive crystalline basement, and a possible mid-
crustal conductor. The latter is assumed in view of its Plausibility due to
a low velocity layer infered from the DSS study (Kaila et al. 1990). This
situation has been simulated through a 2-D model.
The 2- and 3-D Modelling of EM Induction 4t5
(2) The sea land boundary includes the two gulfs (Cambay and Kutch)
of Saurashtra peninsula. In the second part we also include the influence of
the possible current gathering/chanelling phenomena due to adjoining Cambay
and Kutch Grabens. This is clearly a 3-dimensional situation.
The Numerical Method and Models

We had attempted to quantify the influences of some of the factors mentioned
above. For the more complicated near surface lateral nonuniformity we
make use of the Dawson and Weaver (1979) thin sheet approach. The
choice is due to the fact that at distances away from the anomalous zone
the surrounding area represents 2-D structures and could not be considered
a normal homogeneous one as required for Vasseurand Weidelt (1977)
method. For the 2-D situations to calculate induction characteristics along
the boundary we have utilized the Green and Weaver (1978) formulation.
The deeper structure for 2-D models for northern part of Cambay graben
have been considered on the basis of (a) results of DSS and (b) suggestion
that Cambay Graben may have been remobilized/developed due to Reunion
hotspot track from north to south (Raval 1989).
The thin sheet approach is quite advantageous here, because the lateral
changes in conductivity (and/or thickness) are confined to the surface layer
and consequently the required numerical integration allow a saving of one
dimension because of an effective reduction of the 3-D to a 2-D case.
2-D situation along the North Cambay Graben: The model is shown in
Fig. 2. The parameters used in numerical modelling are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Parameters used in 2-D numerical model
Layer No. Conductivity Thickness

I 10-2 S/m 2-6 km
2 10-';4 S/m 5-9 km
3 0.02 S/m 2- km
4 10-4 S/m --
The apparent resitivity and phase are obtained for three periods (I, 10, 100
sec) of the exciting field as shown in Fig. 2. In this diagram the curves 'b'
belong to the case when the mid crustal conductor is absent while the
curves 'a' represent the case when the presence of crustal conductor is
presumed at a depth of 10-12 km. The basis for this is the rift environment
and seismic reflectors delineated from the DSS. Although both E-and B-
polarization results have been obtained, but for brevity sake we are presenting
only apparent resistivity variations for the E-polarization mode.
For shorter periods (T = 1 sec; top panel) the shielding due to uppermost
layer considered as combination bf conducting sediments and basalts, is
416 Veeraswamy
large, hence the effect of midcrustal conductive layer is hardly detectable.

As we increase the period to 10 sec (middle panel) one notices the substantial
reduction in the relative resistivity due to presence of mid-crustal conductive
zone. Although due to greater penetration for large periods the overall
magnitude of apparent resistivity increases for still higher period (T = 100
sec; lower panel) the reduction in resistivity due to the mid-crustal conductor
is quite evident.
-f
E
#.
0 50 I00 150
0 50 I00 150
E
I ,I i
0 50 Distance (Kin) I00 150
SE SURFACE NW
~IIHIIIIHII/If,
III///l~'#///wl#// //////I////////////// /////////////I,"
0 2 Basement
E4Km ""'~"-%"*2"* "-"" ~3 ; :.'.:': :'.: : :: :.*~°":':';~P-- P°ssibte
Crusta|
4 Conductor,
Fig. 2 Apparent resistivity variation along part of North Cambay DSS profile for
3 periods (a) with and (b) without mid-crustal conductor. Results are for
the E-polarization mode.
3 - D Models of the S-C Region

Analysis of the electromagnetic induction process in a three dimensional
configuration such as this is quite involved because of: (1) six electromagnetic
components (E: U, V, W; H: X, Y Z) and their real and imaginary parts, (2)
the jump in the tangential component of the magnetic field across the thin-
sheet and (3) possible vertical current loops to be c×amincd through
computation of this W component at the interface of surface sheet and the
under conducting media. We therefore take help of simple synthetic model
to understand thc bchaviour of the current flow in the horizontal as well as
the vertical planes. Secondly before we study the actual situation with all
the gulfs and grabens around the Saurashtra peninsula, we analyse some
simpler models. Thcsc are
Model-I: Where simple sea-land boundary has been considered (Fig, 3)

Model-II: The realistic case where both Cambay and Kutch grabens are
considered (Fig, 3).
As discussed earlier presence of two gulfs/grabens and sealand boundary
turn this peninsula into a 3-dimensional configuration for study of the
electromagnetic induction process. The region of 302500 sq. km. is divided
into 23 × 23 grids with a,grid size of 25 km. Thus each cell is 625 sq. km.
The details of parameters used are given in Tables 2a and 2b.
The numerical evaluation has provide us the quantitative estimation of
E and H field components and horizontal currents with their real and imaginary
parts. We present here only very few to give the important main features
of the main results.
Validity of the thin layer approximation: In this case the boundary

conditions to be satisfied at the nonuniform surface layer are that
MODEL I MODEL 2
N
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CONDUCTANCE VALUES : CONDUCTANCE VALUES :
1 0.805800D+01' 20.600000D-01 1 0.805800D+01 2 0.380200D+02
3 0.300300D+02 4 0,600000D-01
Fig. 3 Numerical model of Saurashtra peninsula and its adjoining area with simple
sea-land interface (top-left) and sea-land interface with Cambay and Kutch
rifts (top.right). In figure KR: Kutch rift, CR: Cambay rift. Conductivity
structure for both the models (Bottom).
418 Veeraswamy
Table 2a Parameters used for different cells in 3-D modelling
Cell No. Seawater Sediments Basement

thickness thickness
1 200 m -- 5800m
2 200 m 3000 m 2800m
3 -- 3000m 3000m
4 -- -- 6000m
Table 2b Conductivity and thickness parameters used for different zones in 3-D
modelling
Conductivity Thickness
Sea 4 S/m 200 m

Sediments 1 S/m 3000 m
Underlying medium 10-3 S/m --
Thin sheet -- 6000 m
(a) the tangential electric field is continuous across the sheet

(b) the tangential magnetic field is discontinuous by an amount
proportional to the sheet current density.
To test whether the approximation holds good given by Weaver (1982)

are
(h/r/) 2 << 1 h << 1 (1)
where
h = d/5
d is the thickness of the surface layer; 77 the skin depth in the surface layer
and ~ the skin depth in the underlying medium.
In Saurashtra model the skin depth (8) in the underlying medium is 185
km for its conductivity of 10-3 S/m and period (T) = 35 sec. Hence the thin
sheet with a thickness of 6 km (0.035) can be accommodated safely. We
also check the validity of the approximation within the surface layer itself.
Thus, for a sea water of conductivity 4 S/m and period (T) 35 sec the skin
depth is 1500 m, which is much greater than the thickness of sea water
(200 m). Therefore, thin-sheet approximation is valid for the present situation.
For both the cases the real and imaginary parts of the following parameters
have been computed: U (x, y, 0), V (x, y, 0), W (x, y, 0+), and X(x, y, 0-),
Y(x, y, 0-), Z (x, y, 0). We present real part of these field components in the
form of perspective plot, which give a qualitative idea of the behaviour of
the induced field and horizontal current flow in the region. A few traverse
plots particularly for the model-2 have been obtained from which quantitative
measure of field (or current) variation could be deduced. Both perspective
and traverse plots of the Re (Jx) and lm (Jy) have been given in the
Fig. 4. Traverse plots have particular significance in deriving the quantitative
estimate of field/current variation at a specific location.
The depth levels 0+ and 0- define the upper and lower surfaces of the
surface sheet over conducting earth considered here as infinite half space.
Thus W(x, y, 0+) represents the z-component of the electric field at the
bottom of the surface sheet.
As can be noticed from Fig. 3 we have presumed here seaward extensions
of the Kutch and Cambay grabens which may be unrealistic. But this allow
us to check the assertion of the algorithm that it can accommodate a 2-D
heterogeneity at very long distances. However for more realistic case we
have considered the actual width, length and orientation of the grabens and
lineaments of the region.
In Fig. 4 we examine for the model-1 the real part of the x-component
of the electric field i.e. U (0). One notices here along the gulf of Kutch,
southern most boundary of the Saurashtra peninsula and northern edge of
gulf of Cambay, the real component of U shows large variation. These
directions ~are perpendicular to that of the regional inducing field U. For
model-2 (both the structures Kutch and Cambay are accounted) we find the
Mode[ 1 Re V (o) Model 1 ReV(o) Modal 1 ReW(o+) Modal 1 ReZ(o]
4, 4,
Mode[ 2 ReV (o) Modet 2 ReV(o] Modal 2 ReW (o+) Model 2.ReZ(o}.
Xoeimt
,T,E A
b yoeiwt
Fig. 4 Perspective plots of the real components of electric (U, V, W (0+)) and
vertical magnetic fields (Z). The two models are also shown in the figure.
Model I consists of only sealand boundary across the Saurashtra-Peninsula
(SP) while model 2 takes into account the presence of both Cambay (CG)
and Kutch (KG) Grabens. Uniform inducing fields are also depicted.
420 Veeraswamy
behaviour of U component as given in Fig. 4. Here too the changes along

y-axis are relatively larger. The two rifts and their possible connection on
the northern side of the Saurashtra Peninsula may be visualized more in the
imaginary part of U(0), which have not included here. The V component is
also given (Fig. 4) as perspective plots for models 1 and 2. One notices that
V is nonvanishing in the domain considered. Further current flow will be
deflected (or drawn) within the gulf and/or graben structures considered in
these models. The traverse plot of V(0) (not included here) give the quantitative
estimates of the field components for the most general model considered
here.
Vertical Current Flow

In order to study the effects of the possible poloidal mode (signifying a
vertical current flow) the W (0+) components have been presented for both
the models as in Fig. 4. One clearly notices the down and upward deflection
of field lines near the boundaries which are parallel to the y-axis. The
vertical flow of current in this region is of particular significance, because
the major thermal event at 65 m.y.B.P, should have developed certain
conductive zones both at the mid-crustal depths as well as at the Litho-
Asthenospheric interface. These deeper conductive zones may get connected
with near surface (or oceans) because of the posible poloidal modes, as
exhibited by the W(0+) component.
Behaviour of the magnetic field components X, Y and Z: For the present

the model has considered the case where inducing magnetic field (Hp) is
along the Y-axis. Thus the corresponding electric field (Ep) will be along
the X direction. This would imply that the components X and Y are along
primary electric and magnetic field respectively. As the main current flow
is along the primary electric field, that is, X-axis; the Y component of the
magnetic field is at right angles tothis current flow and exhibits very large
variations at these interfaces (of high electrical contrasts) which are parallel
to the direction of the dominant current system. Further along these parallel
interfaces the X-component also remains non-vanishing due to the
accumulation of charges at the electrical discontinuity. The vertical component
of the magnetic field (Z) is sensitive to the lateral changes (Fig. 4). One
notices that shape of the sealand boundary could be quite clearly visualized
from the variation of Z. Further the vertical component reverses sign along
the boundaries which are parallel to main current flow.
Induced Currents
(A) Perspective and Traverse Plots: In Fig. 5 the real and imaginary parts
of induced current components (Jx and Jy) along the X-direction are shown
for the model 2. The interplay of the induced current flow in the two nearly
perpendicular grabens (Kutch along y-axis and Cambay along the x-axis)
is evident from this figure.
P T
Illlilltllt!!!!!l!!![![
Frlodet 2 Re JX M~el 2 Re JX
Mode[ 2 IH JX Model 2 IMJX

Fig. 5 Perspective (P) and traverse (T) plot of induced surface currents
(x-component) for the model 2 (see caption for figure 4).
(B) Contour Plots: We have also drawn contours for both the models of the
Jx component of the horizontal current flow. These are shown in Fig. 6. The
density of contours is far more in the sea than on the continent. Near the
sea-land interface or high conductivity boundary these current lines tend to
concentrate (Fig. 6a). At the edges one notices appearance of current loops
also. When we consider both the structures i.e. model 2, we obtain the
distribution given in Fig. 6b. Here one notices that the Saurashtra peninsula
appears as quasi-island, i.e. surrounded by high conducting sea and graben
structures on all sides.
Concluding Remarks
The study has presented the quantitative estimates of electromagnetic field
characteristics: (a) in a laterally heterogeneous Saurashtra=Cambay region
using a 3-D model. The results provide both qualitative as well quantitative
ideas of the current chanelling/deflection in the horizontal plane and also
of the vertical current loops near suitable conductivity discontinuities, (b)
along the rift structure with a conductivity layer (HCL) present at the mid
crustal depths. The extent of shielding due to sedimentary cover and interplay
between induction and penetration with variation in iime have been brought
out.
422 Veeraswamy
r~
o~
t.,
.~ .=_
~Z
From the traverse plot the field values and induction vectors could be
obtained in a straight forward manner and the results compared with those
for the MT field stations situated nearly transverse lines. The suggestion
that Narmada-Tapti Graben (NTG) has extended in the sea (Gopala Rao,
1990) similar to that of Oslo Graben and its offshore extension viz. Skagerrak
graben (Ro et al. 1990). Presence of such an extension of Narmada-Tapti
graben at the continental margin of Saurashtra peninsula will affect the
induction response, and thus electromagnetic probing of this region may be
an effective tool to delineate the offshore extension. The present study has
to be extended for more realistic models which consider layered earth
model in place of uniformly conducting half space for different periods of
excitation. The screening due to near surface layer has to be estimated in
more detail in order to get information from possible deeper conducting
zone at the upper mantle depths which are strongly suspected here on the
basis of many geophysical anomalies/findings discussed above. All these
factors form part of the forthcoming study.
Acknowledgements
Work has been done under the project No. 0501/2. 4B/LITHOS/MOD/
EMDS-IV of NGRI. Author is grateful to the Director, NGRI for his
permission to present this study. He is also thankful to Dr. U. Raval, Principal
Investigator of the project and Dr. K. Mallick for their help/encouragement.
The assistance of Mrs. Lakshmi Janakiraman and K. Gopal is also duly
acknowledged.
References
Biswas, S.K., 1987, Regional tectonic framework, structure and evolution of the western
marginal basins of India, Tectonophysics, 135,307-327.
Courtillot, V.E., 1990, A volcanic eruption, Vigyan Scientific American, 1, 59-66.
Campbell, I. H. and Griffiths, R.W., 1990, Implication of mantle plume structure for the
evolution of flood basalts. Earth and Planet. Science Letters, 99, 97-93.
Dawson, T.W. and Weaver, J.T., 1979, Three-dimensional induction in a non-uniform thin
sheet at the surface of a uniformly conducting earth, Geophy, J.R. AStr. Soc., V. 59,
445--462.
Gambhir, S.C., 1976, Pattern of accumulation and composition of oils in Mehsana area of
Cambay basin, India, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geologists, 60 (9), 1550-1562.
Gopala Rao, D., 1990, Magnetic studies of basement offthe coast of Bombay, west of India,
Green, V.R. and Weaver, J.T., 1978, Two-dimensional induction in a thin sheet of variable
intergrated coductivity at the surface of a uniformly conducting earth, Geophys. J. Roy.
Astron. Soc., V. 55, 721-736.
Hooper, RR., 1990, The timing of crustaiextension and the eruption of continental flood
basalts, Nature, 345,246-249.
Kalla, K.L., Krishna, V.G. and Mall, D.M., 1981, Crustal structure along Mehmadabad-
424 Veeraswamy
Billimora profile in the Cambay basin, India from deep seismic soundings,
Kaila, K.L., Tewari, H.C., Krishna, V.G. Dixit, M.M., Sarkar, D. and Reddy, M.S., 1990,
Deep seismic sounding studies in the north Cambay and Sanchor Basins, India, Geophys.
J. Int., V.130, 621-637.
Menville, M. and Tarits, P., 1986, 2-D or 3-D interpretation of conductivity anomalies:
examples of the Rhine Graben conductivity anomaly, Geophys. J. Roy. Astro. Soc., 84,
213-226.
Murthy, M.V.N., 1981, Late Mesozoic-early Tertiary volcanism in the trans-Deccan trap
areas of the Indian shield: A synthesis, in Deccan Volcanism, Ed. K.V. Subba Rao and
R.N. Sukheswala, GSI Memoir, 3, 93-100.
Raval, U., 1989, On hotspots, Meso-Cenozoic tectonics and possible thermal networking
beneath the Indian continent; proceedings of the seminar on "Advances in Geophysical
Research in India" held during 8-10, February 1989, Indian Geophysical Union,
Hyderabad, 314-330.
Raval, U., 1993, Rift and Basin tectonics of the Indian subcontinent within a possible
rheological waveguide, Proceedings of the Indo-USSR symposium held at AMU, Aligarh,
47-72.
Ro, H.E., Stuevold, L.M., Faleide, J.I. and Myhre, A.M., 1990, Skagerrak Graben- the
offshore continuation of the Oslo Graben, Tectonophysics, 178, 1-10.
Subba Rao, K.V., 1988, Introduction, Deccan Flood Basalts, Ed. K.V. Subba Rao, GSI
Memoir, 10, V-XIII.
Vasseur, G. and Weidelt, P., 1977, Bimodal electromagnetic induction in non-uniform thin
sheets with an application to the northern Pyrenean induction anomaly, Geophys. J. Roy.
Astron. Soc., V. 51,669-690.
Veeraswamy, K. and Raval, U., 1997, Laterally propagating thermotectonic activity from
the Saurashtra-Cambay region: Implication for the mushroom shaped plume head (under
preparation).
Weaver, J.T., 1979, Electromagnetic induction in thin sheet conductivity anomalies at the
surface of the earth, Proceedings of the IEEE, 67, 1044-1050.
Weaver, J.T., 1982, Regional induction in Scotland: an example of three-dimensional
numerical modelling using the thin sheet approximation, Phys. Earth Planet., Inter., 28,
161-180.
White, R. and McKenzie, D., 1989, Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic
continental margins and flood basalts. J. Geophy. Res., 94, 7685-7729.
24. Magnetotelluric Response on a Layered

Earth with Non-monotonic Resistivity
Distribution
Barun Prasad Pal
Geological Survey of India, Central GeophysicsDivision
27, Jawahar Lal Nehru Road, Calcutta - 70016, India
Introduction
In recent years, magnetotelluric (MT) sounding method is extensively used
in exploration geophysics. Specially in studying deeper geological features.
Cagniard (1953) in a historic paper, showed that this method can equally
be used with the other existing geophysical methods. For interpretation of
magnetotelluric sounding data, an one dimensional (l-D) layered earth model
with layers having homogeneous and isotropic properties is generally
considered. But in nature, it is not possible to get such an ideal model. So
a separate analytical study is necessitated when the layers are heterogeneous.
Maier (1962), Mallick and Ray (1968), Lal (1970), Mallick and Jain (1979),
Pateta (1977, t978), Koefoed (1979), Banerjee et al, (1980a, 1980b)
investigated models of continuous conductivity variation or resistivity variation
in dc resistivity sounding. For magnetotelluric (MT) sounding, Mallick
(1970), Abramovici (1974), Kao and Rankin (1980), Kao (1981, 1982) and
Pal (1990) studied models of inhomogeneous earth by assuming a depth
dependence function of conductivity. A theoretical investigation of
magnetotelluric sounding of a three layered earth'with transitional boundary
was presented by Mallick (1970). He considered a linear variation of the
conductivity in the transition layer. Abramovici (1974) studied models of
an anisotropic earth including inhomogeneous layers in which the conductivity
changes linearly with depth. Berdichevskiy et al, (1974) considered an
inhomogeneous half-space where resistivity changes exponentially with depth.
Kao and Rankin (1980) considered analytically transition model similar to
that of Mallick (1970). They computed the master curves by using Airy
functions. Kao (1981) investigated different type of earth's models. Where
resistivi[y changes linearly with depth. Kao (1982) also studied a three
layered earth model with a transition layer having exponential variation of
conductivity with depth.
It is thus evident that in all the earlier works mentioned, the resistivity
function has been so chosen that either it decreases or increases with depth;
in other words, the resistivity variations is a monotinic function of depth.
426 Pal
In our present analysis, we have considered a resistivity function which is

non-monotonic in character i.e. it simultaneously increases and decreases
in a particular layer.
Mathematical Formulation
We consider a plane wave approximation (Cagniard, 1953) of magnetotelluric
fields. Then the horizontal component Ex of the electric vector E is the
solution of the differential equation
d2Ex k2Ex = 0 (1)

dz 2
where k2 = ico/lcr(Z), # is the permeability, ¢7(Z) is the conductivity and

co is the frequency and i = ~ and Z-axis points vertically downwards.
For homogeneous earth, or(Z) is assumed to be a constant.
The horizontal magnetic field Hy is given by
dEx
ico/z/-/y + ~ =0 (2)
We consider a three layer earth model with the inhomogeneous layer

embedded between two isotropic media. Let Pl and P3 be the resistivities
as shown in the Fig. 1. Let P2 be the resistivity of the transition layer. We
choose
P2 = (PllC) [1 + o~ {Z - (h 1 +'h2)12}] -2N ; N being an integer (3)
where ff is a constant having dimension [L]-t and hi, h2 are depths measured
from the free surface of the first and second layers, respectively. We observe
0 > X
hl 1'
2N
h2 z=c
~[ , + (z-
hl+h2
2
)]
Z
Fig. 1 Layered earth containing a transitional layer with non-monotonic resistivity
variation.
Magnetotelluric Response on a Layered Earth 427
from (3) that the resistivity P2 first decreases with depth and then increases
as the depth further increases.
Let (Ex) 1, (Ex)2, (Ex)3 and (Hy)l, (Hy)2, (Hy)3 denote the horizontal
component of electric and magnetic fields of the successive layers. Then
we have
(Ex) j = AjekJ z + Bje -kjz
and
(Hy)j = - (kj/iog#) [A;e kj~ + Bje -kiz ] (4)
(for j = 1 and 3).

In order to satisfy the condition at infinity, we have for the lowermost
layer A 3 = 0.
For the transition layer, we have, the differential equation
d2
d Z 2 (Ex)2 - k 2 C [1 + a {Z - (hi + h2)/2}] 2N (Ex)2 = 0 (5)
Setting ~ = 1 + a { Z - (h~ + h2)/2}, in (5), we get,
d2
d~ 2 (Ex)2 - (k 2 Cla2)~ 2N (E~)2 = 0 (6)
The solution of (6) is
(Ex)2 = all(~)a2 + a12(~)B2 (7)
all(~) = -x~-Kv(r/); forN = -1

= ~pl forN= -1
all(~) = ~/~- Iv(r/); forN = -1

= ~ ql forN = - I
where
1
v = 1/(2N + 2);pl, q, = -~(1 + a]l + 4k2/o~2C)
v I = - (2N + 1)/(2N + 2); 77 = 2 k 1 " ~ ~ ~u+ 1)/2a( N + 1)
Hence
(/'/y)2 ~- bll(~)m2 4" bl2(~)B 2 (8)
blt(~) =",[kl ~v/-ff~ 2N+l/2/(ic-,0~t)lkol(r/); forN= -1

= - Pl ~ m-l/(ico/-t); for N = - 1
b12(~) = [-k 1 .Vrff ~ 2N+l/2/(icoI.t)]Ivl(r/); forN = -1

= - q l ~ q1-1[(i(o~); for N = - 1
428 Pal
The boundary conditions to be satisfied by (Ex)j and (H@ are
(Ex)j = (Ex)j+l}
(Hy)j (Hy)j+lj atZ=hj(forj= 1, 2) (9)
Using (9), we get,
A1ek'h' + BI e-klh' = A2all(~ 1) + B2a12(~l) (10)
Ale k'h' - Ble-~'hl = A2bl 1(¢ 1) + B2b12(¢ 1) (11)
where ~l = 1 + o~[h~ (hi + h2)/2].

Also
A2 al 1(~ 2) + Bz a12(~ 2) = B3e-k3h2 (12)
A2 b11(C2) + B2 b12(C2) = [k3](iogl.t)] B3e-k3h2 (13)
where ¢2 ---- 1 + o~[h2 - (h 1 + h2)/2].

From (10), (11), (12) and (13), we get
(AxlB1) = [(R + 1)/(R - 1)]e -2klhj (14)

where
R = [Qall(~l) + al2@l)]/[Qbll(~l) + b12(~1) ]

Q = _ [k3alz(~2)/(iogp) - b12(~2)]][k3all(~2)[(io3~t ) - bll(~2) ]
Hence
Z 3 = [Ogl.t/(ikl)] [{1 + (A1/B1)}[{I - (ALIBI)}] (15)
where (ALIBI) is given by (14).
The apparent resistivity is
(prlpl) = (I Z 3 IZ/I Z 1 I2) (16)
where I Z1 12 = wl.tpl.
Computation and Discussions

We observed that the expressions for apparent resistivity and phase are
expressed in terms modified Bessel developed by Cambell (1981). The
computations have been performed with Burroughs 6700 computer at RCC
at Jadavpur University, Calcutta. For different values of parameters, the
apparent resistivity curves are shown in Fig. 2 while the corresponding
phases are shown in Fig. 3 where Mhl = 103(10 p l T ) / h l , Tbeing the period.
Figure 4 shows the nature of variation of ( a J a l ) with Z for h 1 = 10,
h2 = 100 and a = 0.1. The number against different curves corresponds to
the different values of N. We observe from Fig. 2 that whatever be the
MagnetotelIuric Response on a Layered Earth 429
I000(
[ I) ~'~ = 5 0 0
HI
H2 =
(2) ~I 200 dl = tO
Hz
(3) .-~l = 1oo 0"3 = O O 0 2 ~ ~ . . . . . . ~ -
Ioo
c~ I
Re,
I I
I0 ~00 1OOO i0000
~/h¢~
Fig. 2 A p p a r e n t resistivity c u r v e s for the e a r t h m o d e l .
values of N, 0"2 first decreases with depth and then increase as the depth
further increases. Such type of non-monotonic resistivity or, conductivity
variation in the transitional layer has not so far been considered. It may be
H2
(t) -- = 500
HI
H2
tz) -~l = 200 d i = t.O
H2
(3) -- = IOO (53 = 0 - 0 0 2
r
2£-- Hi
I,c-
0
(4) -~
H~
= 50
n
o -I0 - 3
-20
-30
-40 ..... I 1 I
IO I O0 I0O0 IO000
~I h I
Fig. 3 P h a s e curves for the s a m e m o d e l as in Fig. 2.

430 Pal
I00
90
80
70 ~-
6O
5O
--:50
,o ,
0 I I i t
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00
Fig. 4 Nature of variation of conductivity cr2 in the transitional layer.
worth mentioning that in this study no separate mathematical analysis is

necessitated for conductivity or resistivity variations, because N can take
any value, either positive or negative.
References
Abramovicl, E, 1974, The forward magnetotelluric problem of an inhomogeneous and

anisotropic structure. Geophysics, 39, 66-68.
Banerjee, B., Sengupta, B.J. and Pal B.P., 1980a, Apparent resistivity of a multilayered
earth with a layer having exponential variation of conductivity, Geophysical Prospecting
20, 435--452.
Banerjee, B., Sengupta, B.J. and Pal B.P., 1980b, Resistivity sounding on a multilayered
earth containing transitions layer, Geophysical Prospecting 28, 750-758.
Berdichevskiy, M.I., Dmitriev, V.I. and Mersbohikova, N.A., 1974, Investigation of gradient
media in deep electromagnetic sounding. 1ZV, Akad. Nauk, SSSR, Series Fiz., Zemli,
No. 6, P. 61-72; Engl. trans., 1974, IZV. Earth Physics, No. 6, P. 380-386.
Cagniard, L., 1953, Basic theory of the magnetotelluric method of Geophysical Prospecting.
Cambell, J.B., 1981, Basel function Iv (Z) and Kv (Z) of real order and complex argument.
Computer Physics Communication, 24, 97-105.
Kao, L and Rankin, D., 1980, Magnetotelluric response on inhomogeneous layered earth.
Geophysics, 45, 1793-1802.
Magnetotelluric Response on a Layered Earth 431
Kao, D., 1981, Magnetotelturic response on vertically inhomogeneous earth. J. Geophysics,

Rao. 86, 3027-3038.
Kao, D., 1982. Magnetotelluric response on vertically inhomogeneous earth having
conductivity varying exponentially with depth. Geophysics, 47, 89-99.
Koefoed, D., 1979, Resistivity sounding on an earth model containing transition layers with
linear change of resistivity with depth, Geophysical Prospecting 27, 862-868.
Lal, T., 1970, Apparent resistivity over a three layer earth with an inhomogeneous
interstratum, Pure and Applied Geophysics 82, 259-269.
Mallick, K. and Jain, S.C., 1979, Resistivity sounding on a layered transitional earth,
Geophysical Prospecting 27, 869-875.
Mallick, K., 1970, Magnetotelluric sounding on a layered earth with transitional boundary.
Geophys. Prosp., 118,738-757.
Mallick, K. and Roy, A. 1960, Resistivity sounding on a two layer earth with transitional
boundary, Geophysical Prospecting 16, 436-446.
Meier, A.A., 1962, Potential of a direct current point source in a half space with linearly
varying conductivity of resistivity Bull. (Izv), Academy of Sciences, USSR, Geophysical
Series 9, 730--734 (English translation) Patella, D. 1977, Resistivity sounding on a multi-
layered earth with transitional layers, Part-I: Theory, Geophysical Prospecting 25,699-
729.
Patella, D., 1978, Resistivity sounding on a multi-layered earth with transitional layers,
Part-II: Theoretical and field examples, Geophysical Prospecting 26, 130-156.
Pal, B.P. and Banerjee, B., 1990, Magnetotelluric response on a multi-layered earth containing
transition layer. Gerlands Beitrage Zur Geophys'ik, (In press).
25. Application of Robust Estimation of

Transfer Functions for a
Magnetovariational Array in
Eastern India
Nandini Nagarajan
Introduction
Analysis of geomagnetic variations from the time series gathered from a
synoptic simultaneous array is carried out to determine the geomagnetic
transfer functions estimating the electrical conductivity distribution within
the earth. Estimations of these transfer functions, also called induction
vectors, is done by spectral analysis of selected time series windows and
subsequent least squares regression (LS). The spectral amplitudes and transfer
functions are complex quantities and functions of frequency (Schmuchker,
1970). In the process of spectral analysis and estimation of transfer functions,
the underlying assumptions of Gaussian distribution of residuals is applied.
However, the effects of deviation from the Gaussian form are just beginning
to be understood (Chave et al., 1987). It has also been shown that the
assumption of uniform source fields of long wave length is also not always
justified, although widely applied. Efforts to study the validity of these
assumptions and the effect of their violations have been made (Egbert and
Booker, 1986; Cook and Sweisberg, 1982).
Adaptive processes for obtaining power spectra, coherence and response
functions have been evolved after studying the departures from Gaussian
distribution (Chave et at., 1987). Common types of outliers are: point defects
in data registration and local nonstationarity, which is a source effect though
spatially and temporarily restricted. The geomagnetic spectrum is a good
geophysical example of such spectral content. The stationary source spectrum
characteristics are interrupted by brief, intense disturbances, viz., geomagnetic
storms. The analysis of large amplitude multi-frequency variations from
these geomagnetic storm have characterized induction studies so far (Gough
and Ingham, 1983). Estimation of the transfer function in geomagnetic
depth sounding is of the form
Z(w) = T(w) r . H(w) (1)
where T is a complex two-component vector. The estimation of this transfer
Application o f Robust Estimation o f Transfer Function 433
function is based on the assumptions that: (i) the external inducing field
H ( w ) is a plane wave incident on the earth, of sufficient wavelength to
assume infinite horizontal extent of source fields; (ii) the residuals o f the
least squares regression are uncorretated. In practice (i) and (ii) do not hold
exactly, the deviations being caused by the failure of the plane wave
assumption. Estimation of these parameters were till recently based on LS
methods. But these procedures are only effective when the errors are Gaussian.
Study of errors have shown that the LS estimates are very sensitive to the
presence of outliers (Egbert & Booker, 1989; Huber, 1981). LS estimates
are stable and accurate when the following assumptions regarding the set
are valid:
(i) Errors are uncorrelated and independent of signal amplitude.
(ii) Errors are of equal variance.
(iii) Errors have a Gaussian distribution.
Examination of GDS data show that source effects are present in events
included for analysis (Fig. 2) and that in many of the events considered
some of these assumptions are violated (Beamish, 1979).
In most of the analysis data is selected based on the experience of the
observer and the subjective criteria imposed by him/her. However, an adaptive
semi-automatic method for improving the estimates has been given by
Egbert and Booker (1986) (hereafter referred to as EB) based on a regression
M-estimates (Huber, 1981) based on a minimising criterion that reduces to
LS for a certain value of residual and a weighted adjustment of calculated
values for larger residuals. The algorithm given by EB and convergence of
the regression is guaranteed by the shape of the loss function selected.
Method
The equation deriving the response function is
Z i ( w ) = T(w) T . H i ( w ) + e i (2)
where all the quantities are complex and functions of the same period, and
ei is the uncorrelated residual. The LS estimate minimises the following:
Z Fi2 = Z ( Z i -- Hi r . T) 2 (3)
For the M-estimate the equation is formed by minimising
~£ p(Ze - Hi r • T ) / a (4)
where p ( r ) is a suitable loss function. For standard LS p ( r ) = rZ/2. For L
minimization p ( r ) = I r t. The hybrid loss function after Huber (1981) is
12/2 = I r l < r0 (5)
p ( r ) = r ° . I r 4 - ro2/2, I r l > ro (6)

434 Nagarajan
For this purpose the residual r is called (r/o.o) by the estimate of a the
unbiased estimate of standard deviation of residual r. The first approximation
of o. is given in the first iteration after the estimate of response functions
o. = [l/fl(2N - 4) • qz]m (7)
is an estimate of bias for a Gaussian distribution when r o = 1.5, 13 -- 0.7784.

At the entt of the first iteration the amplitudes Z, H are scaled by o.o.
Minimising Y. ( Z - TH)Ia
]~ (Z i - TrHi)Hi/o. = 0, where (r) = (r) (8)
the weights are defined as: w(r)= 1.0, I r I < ro (9)
=roll r l > ro
with the first estimate of T and o.o, Z is modified, where
Zio = H I - To (10)
rio = Zi - Zio the first residual (11)
Zil = Zio + W(rio/a o • rio) (12)

The calculated value is adjusted with the weighted residual and substituted
in place of observed Z i in the next iterative regression, where w(r) = 1.0,
i.e. where large residuals perturb the LS estimate.
Now
r l = (H r . H) -1 (H r . Zil) (13)
which gives rise to a new set of residuals and a new estimate of o'1. This
iterative scheme is used to calculate further estimates of T where E(T) --) T.
Convergence of the algorithm has been examined by EB and p(r) chosen
so that p" > 0 and is a nondecreasing function. As advised by Huber
( 1981), should be nonmonotone to discard data that give rise to large residuals.
This form of T should be used only when the estimates are close to the final
solution. For the last two iterations the weights are recalculated as follows
(r) = r • exp (- exp (r0(I r I - r0))), r0 = 2.8. (14)
This allows the iterative scheme to eliminate bad data points completely by
making the corresponding w(r) ~ O.
Results
Data in the form of complex spectral amplitudes for chosen periods were
taken from the magnetovariafional study made in Estern India by the Indian
Institute of Geomagnetism, Bombay, in 1987. A maximum of 6 events were
selected, where possible, at 8 stations for 14 periods as indicated in Fig. 1.
Application of Robust Estimation of Transfer Function 435
This attempt at robust estimation has the disadvantage of being applied

only at the response function stage. The spectra have been estimated using
the entire selected time series thereby smearing the short period power by
averaging over the entire time series. The initial spectral analysis and residual
examination done by EB had to be omitted.
RAN ""~
PUR ,t ~ NDIA
BAH KHA_~
.? KEO
PAR . ~
BHU ~ "Z-~'"~"
11"3min 1.0 34min ~ : t

~. . . . . . . . . . . LS
Fig. 1 Map showing station locations of magnetovariational array in Eastern

India and LS and robust real induction arrows for 2 periods.
The spectral amplitudes are plotted on a map for selected event and
period in Fig. 2. Change in amplitudes from station to station and period
to period is shown as an illustration of variability of horizontal fields. The
magnitude of the real part of the response function (induction vector) at all
periods is plotted in Fig. 3. The smoothing effect of the robust estimation
is not profound at any station. It is seen that at RAN robust estimates are
larger at longer periods but fluctuating more at short periods. At PUR,
KHA and BHA estimates are smoother than LS. Marked sharp fluctuation
around 50 min seen at KAH, BAH, BAL and PAR are undoubtedly due to
bad data since there can be no physical justification for this. However, the
effect of this could not be overcome by the weighting procedure.
Another effect of weighting seen is, in the case of any excursion of the
response function in LS scheme is compensated by a shift in the opposite
sense (see plot for KHA, BAL and PAR). But for RAN and PUR there
is overcompensation in the sense of excessive large. A separate analysis is
to be done on the change in residuals during iterative estimation.
Conclusion
The data from the array in Eastern India could not yield substantially smoother
estimates for transfer functions. In order to be more effective, data processing
should commence with window length adapted to frequency as in MT
436 Nagarajan
H ornp Oomp Z COSINE
0.96
5.5 /
"~
/t/'
~/o~
rS - ~ 2 . 0.59, ' ~ , . ~
0.5
7.6~, k 113mLn MAR05 0.6 1
7.5 2.5
°
C',, ~0
'.,.7 °' s--. -0"73 \ ;

02.~ ,, '~o,
~0 ,8.S
1.0
0.57 "035
7.3 ' 11']m~n .~.,8 ,;AR27
0.2~
I ;:I / 0'9. - -'0 00~ ~'027
..•0.9 • 0,9 -0.7t,
1.6 mtn 0.75 MAR 05 -0 3
0.~2\
'o
~,~.%'o\0,?0?7 0.6 07 '~,0? ~03v
0.65 - 0.12 I ~;~
0.7 t 0.2 ~,
/ %
/
f / t ~ - 0 -
0.46 ¢ -0.5
0+t,.8 01 / •
• 0 .t,3 3g mln MAR ~7
Fig. 2 Plots of Fourier amplitudes for 2 periods for 2 events over the array.
processing. Then more events will be available at each period to form.

Gaussian distributed residua!s. The robust routine suggested by EB is easily
applied iteratively and is responsive to the presence of outliers as seen by
the opposing trends exhibited by the robust response functions in Fig. 3.
Acknowledgement
The author thanks Profs. D.R.K. Rao and A.N. Hanchinal, Indian Institute
of Geomagnetism, Bombay, for the use of the data and other corroborating
information unstintingly provided and Prof. P.S. Moharir, Scientist, NGRI
for shedding light of a statistical nature.
Application of Robust Estimation of Transfer Function 437
:/\ "°" BAL

05t
x ...e
l_ ,I ,
C~ P UR I~ _,,..,, PA R
0"5I i.t.,, r, - :
0'5
I • .l I.,._ __ t I
0"51,
o 50 100rnin 0 50 100 min
Fig. 3 Magnitude of real induction arrows at all periods at all stations calculated
by LS (e) and robust (x) routines.
References
Beamish, D. 1979. Source field-effects on transfer functions at mid-latitudes, Geophys.

J.R. Astr. Soc. 58: 117-134.
Chave, A.D., Thomson, D.J. and Ander, M.E. 1987. On the robust estimation of power
spectra, coherencies and transfer functions, J. Geophys. Res. 92" 633-648.
Cook, E.S. and Sweisberg, J. 1982. Residuals and influence in Regression, Chapman, N.Y.
Egbert, G.D. and Booker, J.R., 1989. Multivariate analysis of Geometric array data. 1. The
Response Space, J. Geophys. Res. 94: t4, 227-14, 247.
Gough, D.I. and Ingham, M.R, 1983. Interpretation methods for magnetometer arrays, Rev.
of Geophys. 21: 805-827.
Huber, P.J. 1981. Robust Statistics, Wiley, N.Y.
Schmucker, U. 1970. Anomalies of geomagnetic variation in the south-westem United States,
Bull. Scripps. Instt. Oceanog. Monograph 13.
V
Inverse Problems
26. Geophysical Inversion

V.K. Gaur
Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation, National Aerospace
Laboratory, Bangalore, India
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
Many interesting questions concerning the properties of the real world can
be answered only indirectly, by analysing their physical manifestations.
This, in turn, requires a logically tenable framework for drawing valid
inferences from observed data. Indeed, our modern civilization needs for
its very sustenance, increasingly more incisive information to be derived
from observational data in order to understand the behaviour and evolving
structures of a growing list of natural and designed systems: resource and
environment systems, physiological systems, engineering, economical and
commercial systems. Success in obtaining quantitative parameters of such
systems not themselves directly measurable, will depend on the limits of
meaningful inferences that can be abstracted from the associated observable
data.
The tenability of the derived information rests on the basis of a physical
theory connecting cause and effect and an adequate description of the system
by a minimal set of parameters to be determined from measured effects or
data. These constitute the basic statement of an inverse problem. However,
backtracking from observed values along the logical path furnished by the
theory to causative structures and processes is seldom as neat as the forward
path. For, doing so in the real world, essentially tantamounts to a reduction
of entropy which according to the second law of thermodynamics must
exact its price. In practice, it sets a limit to extractable information in terms
of the product of resolution and accuracy. The resulting image or canvass
so created by this inverse process is therefore, often blurred and riddled
with dark spots which inscrutably bar certain domains of this canvass from
being identified.
Despite these fundamental limitations which we shall presently explore,
there has in recent years developed a growing body of philosophical and
computational approaches to address inverse problems in an attempt to
glean as much information as possible from observed data, primarily because
they form the kernel of most of our modern day concerns for optimization
of endeav0ur, reliability, systems design and rational management of our
resources and environment. Over the years, therefore some canonical forms
of inverse methods have been distilled and refined from a wide class of
442 Gaur
different approaches and applications in various contexts to constitute a

body of generic mathematical frameworks and computational tools whose
full power can be brought to bear on the solution of diverse problems.
2. Nature of Inverse Problems

Inverse methods have been used for a long time to obtain valid answers to
various problems of science and engineering. Geophysicists have used inverse
methods to gain knowledge of the earth's internal structure by analyzing
anomalies in the natural and stimulated geophysical fields such as the travel
times of seismic waves recorded at the surface, and engineers have studied
transfer functions of a host of systems to characterize their inner structure.
Gauss mentions using the method of least squares as early as 1795 to
determine the orbital parameters of minor planets from observed data.
But Inverse Methods began receiving critical attention since the sixties
when the launching of earth orbiting satellites opened Up the possibility of
viewing the earth system as a whole from a vantage point in space and
thereby determining the structure and working of its infinitely coupled
solid and fluid spheres. A knowledge of some state parameters of the
atmosphere and oceans for example is now routinely obtained by inverting
radiance data measured by satellite borne sensors. In order to examine how
the unknown parameters or functions to be inferred in various inverse
problems are functionally related to measured data, we shall examine the
basic statement ' of a typical inverse problem in geoelectromagnetics.
Subsequently, we shall explore the source and nature of limitations cast on
the quality of inverse solutions as well as of their potential usefulness.
3. Observed Perturbations in Impedance or Admittance

Encountered by a Plane Harmonic Z-directed
Electromagnetic Wave Due to the Conducting
Environment Beneath a Vertically Inhomogeneous Earth
Normally incident time varying plane electromagnetic wave fields emanating
from sources high up in the ionosphere, are perturbed near the earth's
surface by the presence of conducting layers underneath. These perturbations
can, therefore, be inverted to obtain the conductivity profile o'(x, y, z). This
approach constitutes the magneto-telluric method of probing the earth's
deeper layer. The first step required for doing so is to relate the measurable
electromagnetic impedance (or admittance) at the surface of the earth to the
conductivity or(z). This is the forward problem addressed here which furnishes
an example of the basic statement for inversion.
We first state MaxweU's equations that describe the electromagnetic
fields everywhere and then explore its structure in the case of a plane z-
directed harmonic electromagnetic wave incident upon a plane isotropic
vertically inhomogeneous earth characterized by the conductivity distribution.
Geophysical Inversion 443
or(x, y, z) = a(z) (1)

Maxwell's Equations:
VxE=-B (2)
V x B = #crE + l~eE, (3)
V.B=0 (4)
V- D = p (real charges) (5)
where the various letters denote the usual quantities.

As real charges even in poorly conducting media decay exponentially
with an extremely short relaxation time (t = e/o" = 10-6 sec in distilled
water), the RHS of (5) will be assumed to be zero and/.t would be treated
to be equal to/.to, its value in free space.
For a z-directed harmonically varying (exp (-jwt)) plane wave, i.e. both
E and B vectors constant over planes normal to ~ defined by R - ~ =
constant, where R is the radius vector drawn from the origin to any point
on the planes, both E and B can be shown to satisfy Helmholtz equation
(see for example Stratton, 1950)
(V 2 + kZ)~ = 0 (6)
where k2 = (jw#o-+ #B(.o2) (7)
When we/o- << 1 and can be neglected so that k2 = jwl2(y, then E, B have
solutions of the form
Ey = E exp [-j(kz + wt)]
Bx = B exp [-j(kz + wt)] (8)
Ev Z(z, w) ~ x B x = 1 ~xB x
= p p.A(z, w-----~ (9)
where Z(z, w) is the impedance encountered by the wave of angular frequency
co, and A(z, w) its reciprocal (the admittance).
W].t
Z(z, w) = W# i
T = "we + j a
It can be easily verified that the free space (dr = 0) impedance Zy is a fixed
real number given by
Z f = /t~0° = 376.6 ohms (10)
Z(z, w) or A(z, w) is the quantity measured at the surface. In order to obtain

a relation between say A(0, w) and ff,(z) we first note that the two orthogonal
444 Gaur
components of B and E, say B x and ~. satisfy the following relationships

in view of (2) (3) and (9)
-- "7"-" '~ --
Bx = JW j •w Ey
B x = I.tcrEy
1 Bx= 1 E; [- (13)
A(Z, w ) - Po Ey jw~to E~. jwl.t Oz
and dropping the suffixes,
Oa=A,(z,w)= I 1 ( E'2 --~)]

OZ - jwl,to - ~ +
Substituting for E" from (6) for conducting media (we~or << 1)
A" - jwl.to A2 - o- = 0 (14)
or SA" - 2jw#oASA - 6 a = 0 (15)
Where, ~A is the perturbation suffered by the observable A due to variations
get(z) in the subsurface conductivity. Multiplying throughout by the integration
factor
I = exp - w/t 0 a z]
where
we obtain,
•A(O, w) =
°
- I.t~ I ~ 1
Fe(z, w) 12 6crdz (16)
since A and ~A are complex quantities which can be written as:

A = I A l e j~ (17)
and 8A = j I A I e J ¢ ~ + eJ¢~ I A I (18)
one can thus evaluate the modulus and phase of the observed perturbation
in A, by separating (16) into its real and imaginary parts.
Accordingly,
61A(0, w) l= [~* [wA(0, w ) f l S a d z ]

do
Or, substituting tr(z) by exp (- m(z)) which is more convenient as conductivity
of earth materials may vary by several orders of magnitude,
t~lA(0, w)10 = ~o [wl A(0, w) lflcr(z)] Sm(z)dz (19)
and t~ ~(0, w) = Jo IA(0, w)l [ty(z)wa] &re(z)dz (20)
Where oq fl are respectively the real and imaginary parts of

[ E2(z'w) ]
E(O, w) E'(z, w)
Perturbations in the observed quantities thus satisfy the following equation
5 P(O, w) = f G(z, w) &n(z)dz (21)

J
4. Generic form of Inverse Problems

The above problem demonstrates a standard approach towards characterizing
the behaviour of a system not itself directly observable. Its basic form is
given by
d(y) = G[x, y, re(z)] dz (22)
where, d(y) is the measured data (output of the system), G(x, y) represents
the inner working of the system (transfer function), and re(x) is the desired
structure to be inferred. Or, in the linear case:
d(y) = Ij G(x,y)m(x)dx (23)
This is a Fredholm equation of the first kind. However, the quantity on left
representing measured data, can only form a discrete set of values for given
arguments. The unknown parameter or function to be determined from
observed data multiplied by a kernel or Green's function, forms the integrand.
A straightforward solution of this equation to extract re(x) indeed exists in
the case of a few special kinds of Green's functions. Some of the well
known integral transform pairs given below enable one to express the unknown
function re(x) as an integral of the measured data multiplied by an inverse
Green's function. For example, the Laplace Transform pair:
d(y) = e-YXm(x)dx
(24)
1 fa+joo
re(x) = .._j. e~'d(y) dy
446 Gaur
the Fourier transform pair:
d(y) = - - ~1 e-jyxm(x)dx
(25)
re(x) = eJ~'d(y) dy
However, even these perfectly invertible integrals cannot be evaluated in

practice as measured data, being essentially discrete, cannot be expressed
as a continuous function required for the evaluation of an integral without
making assumptions that may seriously vitiate the solution. And, in the
case of integration over a complex plane, one would require data to be
specified for complex arguments, which is manifestly impractical. Equation
(23) forms the basis of a continuous inverse problem in which the parameters
or functions to be determined appear as continuous, while the data set is
always discrete. As remarked earlier, its solution can be obtained directly
using an inverse integral transform only for a few special Green's functions.
And then too, the only way to solve a discrete set of integrals even though
they may be made up of continuous functions, would be to resort to numerical
solutions. This necessarily calls for a discretization of the integral by
approximating it as a sum, using one of the several procedures of numerical
quadrature.
However, the discrete inverse formulation which we shall return to shortly,
retains all the potential and limitations of continuous inverse solutions, to
which are also added the peculiar consequences of discretization. An analysis
of the former thus provides illuminating illustrations of the sources of
uncertainties in an inverse solution, and the possibility of handling them
with insight.
5. Uniqueness and Stability

Before we transit from the continuous to discrete inverse theory, we examine
the two analytic questions of great importance to solutions of inverse problems.
The problem of non-uniqueness is embedded in the very form of the
basis equation (23) that is, in the possibility that there may exist non-trivial
solutions m*(x) of re(x) for which the integral vanishes (Green's functions
being singular). Aspects of the solution represented by m*(x) would thus
have no possibility of being determined from the data. What is more, its
existence even if real, may not be revealed in a numerical solution as even
the true singular nature of the associated Green's function may be masked
discretization.
Numerical solutions of inverse problems are thus invariably non-unique
owing to this ban on retrieval of some parts of the solution.
The other serious concern in solving inverse problems is one of stability
of solution. This is best illustrated by examining how significantly may the

desired information about unknown parameters or functions, enter the
measured data. Let us consider the first of the integral equations (24) which
has the negative real exponential function as the Green's function. This
function decreases monotonically with a degree of smoothness determined
by its derivative or the value of the exponent x. At large values of the
argument y, this function is very small (unless x is small which would make
the function even more smooth) and would have the effect of heavily
reducing the contributions of the unknown model parameters to the measured
data. A particular result of this is to make the data, at widely varying values
of the argument, insensitive to values of the model parameters thereby
reducing the possibility of estimating these reliably. Conversely, infinitesimal
variations in the data, which may as well be caused by the presence of
errors, will result in wide fluctuations of the function being inferred. Thus,
the inverse solution does not depend on the data continuously in the sense
that small errors in it may lead to large variations in the solution.
6. Ill-posed Problems
Endemic non-uniqueness and instability of inverse solutions violate two of
the three basic conditions of well posed problems enunciated by Hadamard
in the 19th Century. The third condition requires a proof of the existence
of the solution. This is usually a difficult exercise and in its absence a
solution is just assumed to exist. However, the problems of nonuniqueness
and instability render most of the inverse problems ill-posed. For a long
time therefore, inverse problems were quite ignored as not being worthy of
a serious study, but the realization that most urgent problems of contemporary
concern are essentially inverse, has spurred considerable interest in the
search for regularization methods to obtain stable, albeit approximate, solutions
which are sensible in some sense.
7. Discrete Inverse Theory

It can be shown that the Fredholm Integral equation of an inverse problem
can be approximated by the following sum using a quadrature procedure
(Appendix 1)
I G(y, x) re(x) dx = Z Gkim(xi) (26)

i
The discrete set of continuous inverse equations are thus reduced to the
following matrix equation
Gm = d. (27)
8. Non-Linearity
It must be noted here that often enough we would find that the unknown
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function or parameter to be determined is non-linearly related to data, as in

(13). Considerable advances have now been made following developments
of global optimization methods, to address such non-linear inverse problems
directly but a still popular approach to their solution through quasi-linearization
can be quite effective. For example, when G happens to be a function of
m also, one can use the Taylor's expansion to quasi-linearize this equation.
Thus, expanding [Gin] about a reference (initial guess) model parameter
vector m0, we obtain
d = [G, m] = [G, m0] + [ ~°3G] m0, A m ] + O t A m t 2 (28)
where the parenthesis [ ] denotes an inner product. Neglecting the higher

order terms in Am and recalling, the linearity of the inner product, we have
or,
[°m01
Tram , z~m --- [F, A m] - [F, m] - [F, tool
{ d - [G, too] + [F, too]} = [F, m] (29)
or, d = Gm
where d, the vector quantity on the LHS of (29) is the new reconstituted
data vector d and G the corresponding new functional that relates d to m.
The inverted model parameters m, thus obtained can then be adopted as the
new reference and [G, m] expanded about it to obtain the next estimate of
m. This process is repeated till an accepted fit is obtained between the
predicted and observed data vector.
9. Solution of Discrete Linear Inverse Problems

We have seen how the working equation of an inverse problem can, subject
to approximations involved in discretization and linearization whenever
called for, be reduced to the matrix equation
Gm = d
where the N-dimensional vector d represents the data set, the (NXM) matrix
G represents the Green's function or the physical theory relating the data
to parameters of the system and m represents the M-dimensional model
vector to be inferred.
In very few cases of practical interest is the solution of the matrix
equation Gm= d unique. Uniqueness is guaranteed only in the special case
when the matrix G is nonsingular and there can be no nontrivial solution
of the homogeneous equation Gm = 0. In such cases, the solution can be
unambiguously written as m = G-ld, where G -l is the inverse of matrix G
and G-1G = IM = GG -1. However, if the data contain errors and the vector
d is contaminated by a random error vector, the covariance of the solution
can be estimated from the following relations:
Covar (m) = G-' Covar (d) (G-l)"

= o-2G-1(G-l) '
in the case of identically distributed random errors whose variance is o 2.

The prime indicates the transpose of the matrix.
In general, depending on the scheme of measurement defining the data
argument, and parameterization of the model being inverted for, the matrix
will not be square or even of full-rank. In such cases the above equation
will have no unique solution and the matrix G, will have no unique inverse.
But, if a solution must be found, howsoever qualified, we must explore the
possibilities of obtaining possible approximate solutions, and the specificities
that such solutions will possess.
To elucidate this problem, we consider the three possible cases when the
rank of the N x M matrix p(G) is:
(i) p(G) = M < N
(ii) p(G) = N < M
(iii) p(G) < (minimum M and N)
Overdetermined system
The first set involves a system of N linear equations in M unknown model
parameters. These may form a consistent or an inconsistent system, depending
on whether the data vector d belongs or not to the column space of G. If
it does, then the system essentially reduces to M independent equations,
thereby yielding a unique solution as in the case of a nonsingutar matrix.
If, on the other hand, the above system is inconsistent, as would most
often happen because of perturbations in measured data introduced by random
errors, one must seek the most acceptable approximate solution. A standard
approach is to design an inverse of the matrix G which when substituted
in the original equations will result in predicted values of data as close to
the respective measured values as possible. Normative measures of "closeness"
or "distance" are defined variously. Each of these definitions have their
particular implications and lead to different inverses or solutions. One is
thus faced with the challenge and opportunity of designing the best inverse
for a given situation.
One way to approach an appropriate option is to enquire as to how
closely does the inverse matrix G -1 map the measured data vector into the
predicted one. For example, if G/-1 is the best approximate inverse, then
the estimated value of the model parameter will be
~n = G i l d
and the corresponding values of the predicted data vector cl will be
~l= Gift = (GGT1)d = Nd (30)

where N = (GG[1).
450 Gaur
Thus we see that the degree of closeness of GG~ 1 = N to the identity

matrix I, in fact determines the fidelity with which predicted data vectors
may approximate the observed ones, and a sensible decision would be to
design G~-1 in such a way as to minimize the norm of (I - GG[1). As shown
(Appendix 2), this condition is satisfied by
G~ 1 = (G'G) -1G" (31)
This will be recognized as the least square inverse which can be obtained
by applying the condition that the Euclidean distance between measured
and predicted values of data is minimum for all values of the model
parameters.
It would be instructive to show as an exercise that the corresponding
model resolution matrix R = G l l G which measures the fidelity with which
estimated model parameters relate to true ones, is in fact the identit3/matrix,
and that the normalized covariance of the estimated model parameters is
(G'G) -1.
Indeed, it may often be desirable to minimize both II (I - GG -1) II and
some fraction say E2 of the normalized covariance of m. If E represents the
normalized data error covariance matrix which will reduce to the Identity
matrix in case of identically distributed errors, the resulting inverse can be
shown to be
G~ 1 = ( G'G + ~2 E)-I G' (32)
This is identical to the damped Least squares inverse. Also instructive will
be to show that the inverse solution is unique. A proof of this for R(G) = 2,
is given in Appendix 2.
Underdetermlned System
When the rank of the matrix is N < M, the data vector d will always belong
to the column space of G. Therefore, m will always have a solution albeit
a non-unique one. For, G in this case is so conditioned that in operating on
a M-dimensional model vector, it can only illuminate the resultant
transformation in a lower N-dimensional data space, leaving the remaining
(M - N) dimensional subspace totally obscure. The operation Gm in this
case annihilates all information belonging to this null subspace which is
orthogonal to the N-dimensional illuminated subspace and is formed by
(M - N) linearly independent vectors, each comprised of M elements.
The N-dimensional measured data thus reflect only a partial view of the
model from a lower dimensional space and its inversion to estimate the
model can only provide an incomplete image of the model. However, we
have two options to make the best of this fuzzy situation. One can, in the
first place, ask as to what definition of the model can best be extracted
from the available data. Alternatively, if some additional guiding insights
are available, one may attempt building up its missing dimension by designing
an appropriate even though wholly arbitrary, combination of the row vectors
of the null space. In effect this would amount to adding (M - N) independent
but wholly arbitrary equations to raise the rank of the matrix to M, thereby
contriving a unique inverse. The resulting solution would however, be
legitimate only to the extent that the added equations can be justified.
A search for the best possible solution in turn, requires that the estimated
model vector ~ be as close to the true one as possible. If G,~l be the
appropriate inverse, ~ = G~,ld = Gm1Gm = Rm, R must be as nearly equal
to the identity matrix as possible. This can be ensured by minimizing the
norm II I - R II. If this norm is the Euclidean one, it can be shown (vide
Appendix 3) that the desired inverse is G~1 = G'(GG') -1. This will be
recognized as the Minimum Norm solution obtained by minimizing the
length of the model vector, or what is the same, by excluding any contributions
from the null space.
As an exercise it would be instructive to show that in this case, the
counterpart data resolution matrix, N is the Identity matrix, and that the
normalized model covariance is G'(GG')-2G:
However, when errors in data, or uncertainties in the adopted mathematical
model are known to be Significant, it may be desirable to seek an inverse
that would simultaneously minimize both the Euclidean norm of the solution,
as well as some fraction of the model covariance. The resulting solution is
given by the damped minimum norm inverse G'(GG" + e2E) -~ so named
by analogy to (32), where E as before represents the data error covariance
matrix.
Another choice of an acceptable solution that can be obtained from
available data alone without the aid of any a--priori assumptions, is to
seek a unique solution of some weighted average of the model parameters
even though a unique solution of the model parameters themselves is not
possible. For example, if mp be a particular partially illuminated solution
of the model and moi the (M-N) independent vectors of the null space, a
general solution using arbitrary coefficient o~i can be written as follows:
M-N
mgen = m p + ~-d Olimoi (33)
i
and (m) = w'rngen = W'mp + ]~ O~iW'moi (34)
where (m) is the weighted average solution which can be made unique by
determining the particular vector Wp which would reduce all its products
with moi to zero, so that
(m) = w'pmp (35)
That at least one such averaging vector w~ does exist, can be clearly
452 Gaur
seen by recalling that we have i desired relations W'moi = 0 which provide

the necessary (M - N) constraints.
Estimates of weighted averages of model parameters indeed have a clear
physical meaning, and therefore significance, particularly if they possess
some natural ordering in space and time, such as the depth of an irregular
subsurface horizon below points on the earth's surface.
Finally, if some insightful knowledge about the nature of the model
parameters is independently available or can be assumed as reasonable, one
may approach the problem by building up a legitimate image of it, as an
opportunity for creative design by exploiting the presumed attributes of the
model in an imaginative way.
Partially Determined System

Most real world problems are essentially underdetermined but often include
a subspace of model parameters which may be either overdetermined or
inconsistently incorporated. Data from a tomography experiment for example,
may result in such a mixed system if some compartments of the discretized
region lie in the path of more than adequate number of rays and others are
sparsely sampled. In such a case, a subspace So(m) of model parameters
will remain unilluminated by the measured data, while only a subspace
Sp(d) of the data space may be spanned by the column space of G, whose
rank p is less than the minimum of N and M.
Partially determined problems of this kind can of course be handled by
using the aforementioned strategies if over and underdetermined parts of
the mixed system could be separated. This is indeed possible using the
spectral or Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) of a (N x M) matrix G in
terms of the two sets of orthonormal eigenvectors U and V of GG" and G'G
respectively, and their eigenvalue matrix A 2. To understand its significance,
we construct an augmented (N + M) x (N + M) matrix S, from G and its
transpose G; and examine its characteristic equation
or,
'L ~. J (36)
Which in turn, yield G V = UA
G'U = VA (37)
where A is the diagonal matrix of the eigenvalues of S.
The above relations, in turn, yield
G'GV = VA 2 (38)
GG'U = UA 2 (39)
Which enable us to interpret V and U as the set of orthonormal eigen

vectors of G'G and GG" respectively, so the UU'= I N and VV'= I M. Using
these properties of U and V, we can then write (38) and (39) as follows:
G = UAV'; G'= VAU" (40)

The vectors U and V respectively span the full space of S(d) and S(m)
of data and model parameters. But the rank of G being p, only the subspaces
Sp(d) and Sp(m) spanned by eigen-vectors Up and Vp which correspond to
nonzero eigenvalues, contain any information about predicted data or model
parameters. Thus, we see that G can be written as
G = UAV'= UpAp V~ (41)
where A is partitioned as
The null spaces So(d) and So(m) are similarly spanned by the eigenvectors
U0 and V0 which must be respectively orthogonal to Up and Ve.
In seeking an acceptable solution of Gm = d, or r~ = G~ld, we therefore
look for an inverse that would ensure that rh has no component in So(m),
and the prediction error has no component in Sp(d). It can be shown (Appendix
4) that one such inverse also called the natural inverse of a partially determined
linear system is given by
Gp 1 = Vp A-pl Up (43)
The respective values of N, R and the normalized Covn(m) are in turn given
by
R = Vp V~ (44)
N = UpU'p (45)
Covn ~ = VpApZV~ (46)

Whilst SVD provides a simple way of identifying the null vectors of
Gm = d and thereby the number p needed for constructing the inverse, a
problem often arises from the endemic character of most real world data
kernels in that the small eigenvalues decrease very smoothly making it
difficult to distinguish between those that are actually zero from the near-
zero ones.
454 Gaur
These near-zero eigenvalues are the prime source of instability in the

inverse solutions as can be discerned from (46), since they introduce high
frequency oscillations. This problem can be circumvented either by specifying
a cutoff eigenvalue which will amount to reducing the dimension of the
operational eigenspace or, by enhancing the near-zero eigenvalues which
will have the effect of enforcing smoothness on the inverted solution. If
only the very small eigenvalues are excluded, the solution will be generally
close to the natural solution and have good variance as the covariance of
the estimated model (46) is extremely sensitive to the smallest nonzero
eigenvalue. However, the model and data resolution would deteriorate,
exposing the inevitable trade off between resolution and variance, which
every inverse problem has to deal with by an appropriate parameterization
of the model.
If on the other hand, one chooses to enhance the eigenvalues by an
amount proportional to the error in the data vector, it would be desirable
to seek an inverse that would simultaneously minimize the norm of the data
misfit vector and that of the solution roughness represented by the vector
of some order difference of the parameter components. As before, trade-off
exists between the error misfit and the degree of smoothness. The resulting
inverse in this case is given by (G'G + e2H)-IG' where, 0 < e 2 < 1 is the
trade-off parameter, and H = K'K, K being the finite difference coefficient
matrix. For example, the following K matrix of order (M - 2) x M would
represent a second order difference
-1 2 -1 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 2 -1 0 0 0 0
0 0 -1 2 -1 0
K=
0 0 0 -1 2 -1
( M - 2) x M
It will be recognized that K = I will reproduce the damped least squares
solution, also known as ridge regression or Marquardt, while K constituted
from first order differentials will lead to a solution known as the Occam's
solution.
10. Generalized Inverse

It may be mentioned here that the various inverses discussed above belong
to a class of generalized inverses G -g which are exact or approximate
solutions of the basic equation G m = d depending on the structure of G.
They satisfy the relation GG-gG = G, in addition to satisfying additional
GeophysicalInversion 455
conditions or constraints imposed on them. For example, in deriving G,~1

for the underdetermined problem, we made the demand that the model
resolution matrix R which affects a weighted averaging of the true model
in yielding the estimated parameters be as close to an identity matrix as
possible, and proceeded to minimize II I - R II or III - Gm~G II. However
when data or model parameters have a natural ordering, one would prefer
that the off diagonal values in R are inversely proportional to their distance
from the diagonal. This would make the model estimates more nearly
representative of the local averages. A generalized inverse designed to
accomplish this by damping the side lobes of the row spread in R was
constructed by Backus and Gilbert and bears their name.
11. Design of Experiments

We have seen that most real world problems are inverse and do not possess
a unique solution. The challenge in all these cases is to design the best
approximate solution. However, inverse formalisms are also exciting because
they provide a creative opportunity to explore the character of the data
spaces in which a particular model space may be mapped as well as the
view of the model space from that of measured data. This visualization is
indeed provided by various forms of the data kernel matrix G which is
partly dependent on the way data is measured but not on the data itself. The
illuminating potential of G can therefore be explored to bring out all the
intrinsic limitations of possible solutions and their significance and quality.
In situations where the solution can or is to be obtained on the basis of
experimental data, such an analysis therefore provides a creative opportunity
to design the experiment (Appendix 5) appropriately in advance of data
collection which would, in turn, effect desirable structuring of the data
kernel. Indeed, analysis of data inversion and adaptive experiment design
have very high potential not always fully exploited, to push the sharpness
of solutions to the limit of resolution theoretically permitted in a given
situation.
Appendix 1
APPROXIMATION OF AN INTEGRAL BY A SUM

(Numerical Quadrature)
In order to carry out numerical evaluation of a Fredholm integral (23), it

is first approximated by a sum. This step termed 'numerical quadrature' is
accomplished by discretizing the interval (a, b) into shorter sub-intervals of
desired fineness, marked by quadrature points xl, x2, ..., Xm, at which the
respective values of the function m(x) are: ml, m2 . . . . mm. A number of
quadrature formulae can be developed for this purpose depending on the
choice of the interpolation functions. If this function is assumed to be
linear, within each sub-interval, we may rewrite (1.7) as follows:
G(x, y) m(x) dx =
I? G(x, y) m(x) dx +
I? l
... + . . .
+
r'
~ Xk
...+
I Xm-I
..
where, m(x) can be expressed as follows in the sub-interval (Xk, xk+l) inclusive
of the end points.
m(x) = Ak + BkX
mk = Ak + Bkxk
ink+ 1 = A k + BkXk+ 1
Therefore,
Xk+lm k -- Xkmk+ 1
Ak "-
Xk+ 1 -- X k
ink+ 1 -- m k
Bk;
Xk+ 1 -- X k
Accordingly,
G(x, y) re(x) dx = G(x, y) (Ak + BkX) dx

~X k wX k
= rnk - - G(x, y) dx- xG(x, y) dx

Xk+l - - X k ¢xk Xk+l - - X k VXk
+mk+t Xk=--_Xk ,,,xk Xk+l Xk ~,x k

Adding the contributions of integrals corresponding to each of the sub-

intervals, and remembering the contributions to the mk term will arise from
two consecutive sub-intervals (xk_l, Xk) and (xk, Xk+O, the original integral
can now be written approximately as:
~i ' G(x, y) m(x) dx = ~., Gjk m(x, k)

k
where j represents the argument of the observed data, and
= - --- G(x, y) dx + G(x, y) dx

Gjk X k -- X k - 1 k-1 X k + l -- x k Xk
+ 1_ xG(x, y) dx 1. I xO(x, y) dx
Xk Xk-I 1 Xk+l -- X k wxk
g
The integrals [ G(x, y) dx and | xG(x, y)dx in each sub-interval can in
IiJ I¢
turn, be evaluated numerically or analytically. With these qualifications,

(23) can now be written as:
d= Gin.
Appendix 2
SOLUTION OF AN OVER-DETERMINED SYSTEM
Let the desired inverse solution be a generalised inverse Gt-~ . Then

II I - G G f 1 II must be a minimum (1.13). We first choose to minimize the
Euclidean norm of the kth row vector of (I - GG~ q ), or of (I - N), where
N = GG7 ~. Let,
II lkp - Nkp It = S, (1)
2
P P P
To seek the desired G f I , therefore, and recalling that N = G G f ~, we set

3Sk
cgG--~r1 = 0 (3)
where Gq-1 is the (q, r) element of G f I .

It may be noted that each of the terms is positive and the differential of
the last term which is not a function of G71; must be zero, (3) then reduces
to
OGq){E{p ( ~ GkmGmlp) ( E GknGnT) } 2 {~, IkpGktG~pl}} =
or E {5 ~n (Gkma~nlpaknt~qn~rp + GkmGknGnpt~
-1 qm~ rp)
P
- 2 ~t [kp G~ 8qt (~rp } = 0
or ?E {• GkqGkmG-lr + ~, GkqGknG~tr - 2 IkpGkqt~rp } = 0

p m n
p
or (~,x G' qx ( Gxm Gmlr ) = Gqk [kr
or G'GG~ 1 = G"
or Gf q = (G'G)-IG"
This inverse is the same as would be obtained by minimizing the sum of
squares of the misfits between the actual data elements and the corresponding
values predicted from the estimated model vector. For this reason, G f I is
called the least squares inverse. It can be shown that Gt-1 always gives a
unique solution. A graphically illustrative example for a two-dimensional
model vector is given below.
Least Squares Solution for p(G) = 2, N > 2

Assuming that some measurable property (d) of a material is linearly
dependent on say, temperature (T), a number of measurements were made

at different temperatures to determine the parameters of the linear model:
d = m 1 + m2T.
The N measured values of data so generated can be expressed as:
-dl -1 El
d2 1 E2
+ •
m2
• 1
_dN. _1 EN
or d=Gm+e
where ei is the error associated with the measurement di.
It is clear that if N = 1, both ml and m2 cannot be estimated. If N = 2,
solution can be obtained for ml and m2 by assuming that the data is free
from errors (neglecting el). When N > 2, and the equations are inconsistent
owing to random errors, the vector d does not belong to the column space
of G. Therefore, there is no unique solution. However, it would be sensible
to estimate ml and m2 by imposing the condition that the sum of the
squares of error terms is a minimum.
Accordingly,
N N
Z E 2 = I R = Z [d i - m l - m2 Ti]2
i=1 i=1
or IR = [ Z d~ - 2ml]E di - 2m2 Y; diTi + 2ml m2 ]~ Ti + ml + m~ ]~ Tiz ]

In a 3-dimensional coordinate system, R represents an elliptical paraboloid
(figure below) with just one minimum, thereby proving that the least squares
solution is unique.
#
sS
J I
1
min,.~ [I jjs
n~
_'2-
460 Gaur
The estimates of the model parameters: ml, m 2 can be obtained by equating

to zero, the differentials of lRw.r.t, ml and m2. This would yield
E d i Z Ti 2 -- Z T i Z d i T i
Fn1 =
N E T/2 - (E T/) 2
N ~..,diTi - Z Ti Z d i .
m2 =
N X T/2 - (X T/) 2
Appendix 3
INVERSE FOR AN UNDERDETERMINED SYSTEM
Since the rank of the system matrix G in this case is N < M , there is no
unique solution for m. Accordingly, we seek an inverse Gm1 which would
make the estimated model vector rh as close to the true m as possible.
Since ~ = G~ld = GmtGm = Rm (1)
We seek the particular G~,1 which would minimize II I - R II. Let Sk represent
the Dirichlet spread of the kth row of R, then
Sk = • (I~p - Rkp) 2 = ]~ [llp + Rk~ - 2IkpRkp] (2)

P P
Since each Sk is positive, we

can minimize the total spread of R = ]~ Sk by
k
minimizing each Sk separately with respect to each of the elements Gq-: of
the desired inverse Gm1.
Accordingly,
2
o3Gqrl [ ]~p{Ikp + ~ ~ Gk,-1n Gmp G-klnGnp- 2Ikp Z, G~ 1 Gtp}] = 0 (3)
or,
Y- [ E E (GmpGnpG~16qk6rn~+ GmpGnpGkm~qk~rn)
-1
p m n
- 2 Y- Gtplkp6qk~n] = 0 (4)
f
or, ~, Y. Gq,GxeGqtx = G,.plqp (5)

p x
or, ~ Y. G ~ (Gxp G~r) = G~r (6)

p x
Thus, elements Gq~t of the desired inverse G~ 1 must satisfy (6)
or, G~ I = G'(GG') -I.

Appendix 4
NATURAL GENERALIZED INVERSE OF A PARTIALLY

DETERMINED SYSTEM
Many real-world problems require inference of functions or parameters of

a model whose functional relationships with observables (data) is nonunique.
In particular, one encounters systems some part of which is under determined
by data and other perhaps overdetermined. Such partially determined problems
may be addressed by using the concept of vector spaces.
Since the problem is to some degree underdetermined as well as over-
determined, the system of equations Gm = d, contains information about
some of the model parameters only, which together constitute a knowable
subspace Sp(m) of the model parameter space. The remaining Sm_p(m)
dimensional null subspace of model parameters are obviously orthogonal to
Sp(m), and completely unilluminated by the data as Gmo = 0. At the same
time, since the problem is partly overdetermined, the product Gm may not
span the entire data space S(d) for any choice of m. Let Gm span a subspace
Sp(d) of the data space, and m0 and do denote the model and data vectors
of the respective null subspaces.
Then G(mp + mo) = (dp + do) (1)

Remembering that mp and dp are orthogonal to m0 and do, and Gm o = O,
The Euclidean norms of m and the data prediction error E = (d - Gm), can
then be written as:
L = m'm = mpm o + m~mo (2)

E = [dp - Grnp]" [dp - Gmp] + d~ do (3)
A natural solution of the partially determined problem can now be obtained
by minimizing E, while adding a minimum of any a-priori information. The
latter condition is accordingly chosen to ensure (a) that E is minimized
entirely in the data null space So(d ) by equating (dp - Gmp) to zero, and (b)
that if*0 are treated as being zero, so as not to make any contribution to rh.
A natural solution of Gm = d can then be constructed using the singular
value decomposition (vide 41) of G
= ( u r a ~ ' v ;) (4)
Drawing from the analogy of a square matrix case, we now consider the
inverse solution:
Pn= (VpA-pIU'p )d (5)
It can be verified that the natural inverse G2 i = VpA-pIU'p, satisfies the

apriori conditions:
(i) VdPn = 0 (6)
(ii) Up [d - G ~ ] = 0 (7)
Corresponding matrices for the model and data resolution and the model
covariance, can also be determined as given below
R = VpVp (8)
N = UpUp (9)
cov.(m) = VpA-p2Vp. (10)

Appendix 5
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
Let measured data at N arguments be envisaged as being related to the

model by
d(yj) = ~ G(yj, xk) m k
or d=G m
Nxl NxM Mxl
It is desired to determine in advance of actual measurement, as to what the

29 arguments should be for a given number of measurements N, in order to
permit the best possible inference about the true model parameters or, what
should be the space interval Ay between consecutive data points. For a
limited value of N, the problem is essentially underdetermined N < M, so
that the estimate of the model r~ can be written as
rh(y) = [G'(GG') -1 G]m = Z(y)m
Expanding rh(y) in a Taylor's series, about a vector of data points Y0, we

can write
~(y) = rh(yo) + Vyrh 13oAy
or Am= FAy
Mxl M x N Nxl
and the Least squares inverse, since N < M,

a y = (F'F)-I F" Am
Nx1 MxI
0Z
where F = Vy rh I>,° = -~y ly0m
0Z
To determine -~-y, we write
Z = G'(GG')-IG = G'H
OZ OG" G,OH
whence 0y = ~ H+ 0y
Here, H = (GG')-IG and G ( I - G'H) = 0
OG (I - G'H) - G OG' H = GG" OH

or Oy Oy Oy
OH = (GG,)_ 1 OG (I - Z) - G (GG') -1 G
and Oy
Oz
This last expression allows one to compute ~yy and in turn, Ays.
27. Crustal Resistivity Inversion Using

Global Optimization Techniques
P.S. Routh I and K.K. Roy 2
tUBC-GeophysicalInversion Facility, Departmentof Geophysics and Astronomy,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver,Canada, V6T 1Z4
2Department of Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur-721302, India
Introduction
The application of direct current methods is an established technique to
characterize crustal geology based on the conductivity information of the
earth (Keller et al, 1966; Anderson and Keller, 1966; Jackson, 1966; Vanzijl,
1978). The existence of two different phases of the granite batholiths in the
Sighbhum district of Bihar, India, have been a subject of intense study in
the past (Bakshi et al, 1987; Saha et al, 1984). Therefore the goal is to use
the conductivity information in characterizing the different phases. Both
gradient arrays and dipole-dipole resistivity data were collected along a
traverse from Jharopokharia (Lat 20°10'48 ", Long 86o38'58 ") to Pallahara
(Lat 21°26'5", Long 85 ° 12'16") as shown in Fig. 1. The purpose of resistivity
sounding is to investigate the change in the formation layer resistivities
with depth. The forward problem of computing apparent resistivities over
a horizontal layered earth has been dealt in number of previous literatures
(Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968; Ghosh, 1970, 1971a, 1971b). The interpretation
of D.C. resistivity sounding data evolved through several stages. The paradigm
of linear inverse theory was the major leap towards the development of
inversion techniques. The iterative interpretation is carried out either in
apparent resistivity domain (Inman, 1975; Inman et al, 1973) or in kernel
domain (Bichara and Lakshmanan, 1976) using the linearized inversion
schemes. Linear inverse method suffers from instability when the inverse
problem is ill-posed. This is primarily due to: (a) linearization of the problem,
(b) accuracy of sensitivity matrix, (c) limited sampling in the model space,
(d) convergence to local minima and (e) sometimes can depend on the
starting model. However the flexibility of minimizing a particular model
objective function subject to data constraints has re-emphasized the
applicability of linearized methods. Although it has the potential to find
good solutions with different starting models, it cannot be mathematically
guaranteed to converge to a global minima (Sen et al, 1993).
The emergence o f random search techniques like simulated annealing
466 Routh and Roy
I
0' ti - ' 30' -° 0' ,,' 30, ,,° 0,
Z2" ' ~ ~ ' i~I::~ 22'
i S ~ ~ ~ ] ks
,~ -- H, ~LUD UKHUR
, ~ ti " ' , CHAIRASI . II -

--
%" * • U /,
• l ~ o r, a. ,.4- ~ ~ ¢. ' Ix
/ o " . . . . . ~15" I-~fgt~\JNA ' 'PO~HARIA
~.s' t.~"",e'-<l'~t~, ",, ~~( - I' ~ ÷ ~ ~l c.+~' " ~. *.+ ~'(~/:~z~.~/XZZ/,~I,.~ ,*.~
, ~ v v vl "., ~ ...~..¢~eiS i ~ ~[,',".,~v,'e~51,z7 ~ $ ~ I . / I
. . . . IRI GRANITE •
301 t tI3<IPALLANARA~+i. . ,-I-t + + "~ + + - ~ = / ~ l + # ~. I i]0 i
tt ®~e~i~ZZe~s.~V'TL.~f~--'~ I + SATKO$1A x.,~ + + -l-h_ +l,/~'" GEOLOGY
# G ~ "~0 ~ t'. ÷ ItAR(CHANOANPUR + .t- j k + V i . l/_./__~|l
z ~ r , -4- "~ -+ -~ ~
" "~'~'-- ~ ~11~ • ~ e,.~,..SCHLUNBERGER S0UNOING E~ll P'Z'~i7
• , .
.~ 'wNA~R SUKINOA [
- - . .- .~ . . .. . . F " , I. , ~ , ~ - . . ~NINOAI 0 S ,Ok,,, I~ F-.41~
#
t'5' O' 85" i15' 30....~/ " ' I ' ' i~5' )0" t.S '
( t,S' 86" 0 ~s'
1. O)der Metamorphic Group; 2. Older Metamorphic Tonolite Gneiss; 3, Grantised Older

Metamorphics; 4. Singhbhum Granite-phase 1; 5. Singhbhum Granite-phase II, Bonai Granite,
Nilgid Granite; 6. Iron Ore Group; 7. Iron Ore Group Lavas; 8. lOG B.H.J. & Quartzites; 9.
Singhbhum Granite-phase III; 10 Singhbhum Group; 11. Dhanjori Group; 12. Dhanjori Group
Orthoquartzite; 13. Dhanjon Group Lavas, 14. Kothan Group; 15. Gabbra-anarthosite; 16.
Mayurbhanj Granite, Soda Granite, Arkosani Granite, Chakradhapur Granite; 17. Gondwana;
A. Khondalia; B. Charnochite, C. Unclassified Granite-Gneiss; D. Unclassified Rocks.
Fig. 1 Geological map of the area under study. The Schlumberger sounding was
carried out at 20 sounding locations from SI to $20. Bipole-dipole sounding
was done at location, Singada, Bisoi, Khejurikota and Jagmohanpur.
(Sen et al, 1993; Sen and Stoffa, 1991) and genetic algorithm (Stoffa and
Sen, 1991; Sambridge and Drijkoningen, 1992) in geophysical inversion
became an alternative step to overcome the problems faced in tinearized
inversion. Both these methods are aimed at minimizing a cost function in
a bounded solution space. The global optimizationtechnique has the advantage
of (a) probabilistically sampling the model space, secondly (b) it doesn't
require the computation of sensitivity matrix and (c) has the potential of
converging to a global minima. However both SA and GA are computationally
CrustalResistivityInversion 467
intensive. The computation time is dependent on the number of forward

modelling required to sample the model space. The use of digital filters in
the computation of apparent resistivity for a layered earth (Ghosh, 1970;
1971a, 1971b) has made it possible to apply SA and GA to search the
model space. Therefore it is prudent to apply global optimization technique
when the forward computation is relatively fast.
Both these methods require evaluation of error or cost function for a set
of models and do not need any problem specific knowledge in general.
However one can incorporate problem specific knowledge while deciding
the bounds of the solution space. The working structure of these algorithm
is based on generating new points and applying probabilistic search operations
to move the solution to optimal locations in the model space. The probabilistic
operation can be classified into two types, first being the neighborhood
operator and the second is the recombination operator. The neighborhood
operator is based on accepting or rejecting the current point with that of
sampled point in the neighborhood. Recombination operator works with
two models, but instead of accepting or rejecting one of them it mixes the
information between the two in a genetic sense to produce two new models.
However this mixing or recombination is done in a stochastic manner.
Forward Problem
The forward problem in one dimensional D.C. resistivity requires the
computation of apparent resistivity for a horizontally layered earth at different
electrode spacing. If a current I is injected into a stratified layered earth
then the potential at any point on the surface located at distance r from the
source is given by (Stefanesco et al, 1930),
V(r) = ~ +2
sl °O(~)Jo(~r)d~ t (1)
where J0 is the Bessel function of zeroth order and 0(A) is the Stefanesco
kernel function for the layered earth. The apparent resistivity for the
Schlumberger configuration shown in Fig. 2(a) can be derived from Eq. (1)
when AB >> MN, which can be written as
pa(L)=Pl{l+2L2~o~O(~)Jl(?tL)d~ } (2)
The relation between the resistivity transform T(~) and the Stefanesco
kernel (Koefoed, 1979) is given by T(A,) = Pl [1 + 20(~)]. Therefore, for
a stack of layers over a half-space the Pekeris recurrence relation given in
terms of resistivity transform (Koefoed, 1979) can be applied, this is given by
[T/+I + Pi tanh (/'[hi) ]

T/= [1 + T/+I tanh (2hi)/Pi] (3)
468 Routh and Roy
where Pi and h i are resistivity and thickness of ith layer. The recurrence
relation Eq. (3) is used to compute resistivity transform values which are
then convolved with a linear filter to compute the apparent resistivity values
at the sampled points. This is given by (Ghosh, 1971b)
pa(XO) = ]~ f iT(Yo - iAy) (4)

i
where x 0 and Yo are the abscissa value of the apparent resistivity function
and resistivity transform function respectively, and3~ are the filter coefficients.
Therefore for a given set of layer parameters the apparent resistivity at the
receiver location can be computed using Eq. (4).
! ~ ~, TI (a) Schlumberger array

A M N B
M • N
", (b) Paralleldipole array
(c) Azimuthal dipole array

Z
A B
M N
(d) Equatorial dipole array
A B
Fig. 2 Different array configuration for resistivity sounding used in this deep
resistivity experiment,
Inverse Methods
In this section we outline the two inversion methodologies that have becn
used to invert the apparent resistivity data. The first method used is simulated
annealing which mimics the physical process of cooling of a molten solid
in a heat bath tilt the energy state of th d system comes to an equilibrium.
The second method is genetic algorithm which simulates the process of
evolution based on the "survival for fittest". In this paper we have used a
hybrid form of both of these methods to accomplish the objective of inverting
the data.
Crustal Resistivity Inversion 469
Simulated Annealing: Very fast simulated annealing

Simulated Annealing (SA) algorithm is a stochastic approach derived from
statistical mechanics for finding global minimum of a cost function in an
optimization problem. SA models a physical process in which a solid in a
heat bath is slowly cooled until the globally minimum energy state is reached
where it forms a crystal. Metropolis et al, (1953) first proposed an algorithm
for simulation of thermal equilibrium from a molten solid. Kirkpatrick et
al, (1983) were first to propose and demonstrate the application of SA to
a problem in combinatorial optimization and applied it to a routing problem
in VLSI design. In each step of the Metropolis algorithm the system is
given a random perturbation and the resulting change in energy AE is
measured. The state is accepted if AE < 0. However if dE > 0 then the new
state is accepted with the probability e -~e/'r where T is the temperature
during the process. To do this, a random number ( is generated from a
uniform distribution [0, 1] and compared with the acceptance probability
e-ae/r. If ( < e -zle/r then the new model is accepted otherwise it is rejected.
This is analogous to applying a neighborhood operator to the current state
energy Ei to yield the next energy state Ej and then the acceptance or
rejection of one of the two states is based on probabilistic acceptance
criteria of Metropolis. In an optimization problem the energy function is
replaced by a misfit or cost function and the temperature T is considered
to be a parameter with the same unit as that of cost function. Optimization
involves statistical simulation of the system at a series of temperature until
the minimum of the misfit landscape is reached. A proof of convergence of
the algorithm can be found in Geman and Geman (1984). Detailed theory
of SA is given by Van Laarhoven and Aarts (1988). Application of SA in
geophysical inversion started with the work of Rothman (1985) in residual
statics estimation. Sen and Stoffa (1991) applied a heat bath procedure to
perform seismic waveform inversion. The procedure in heat bath is a single
step process in which the probability for each move is computed apriori.
This involves, first parameterizing the model parameters into discrete set of
values and then visiting each of these values sequentially keeping the values
of other parameters fixed. The probability distribution of each possible visit
is then evaluated, given by
e-miJ'/T
e(mij) = M (5)
e-relYIT
j=l
where i = 1 ... M (M being the number of model parameters in the model

space) and j = 1 ... N, where N is the number discrete values for each of
these parameters. At a particular temperature level and for a single parameter,
a value is drawn from the distribution and is always retained. This is repeated
for all M model parameters. The process is rerun a number of times with
470 Routh and Roy
decreasing temperature till the misfit levels off. The difficulty in this method
lies with the sampling procedure which depends on how finely the
parameterization is done. And if the parameterization is made fine then the
computation cost increases. This urges an alternative need for importance
sampling and continuous sampling from the model space. The continuous
sampling can be done using a simple scheme m s = mrnia+ ~ * (mmax - mmin)
where m s is the sampled value and mminand mmax are the lower and upper
bounds of the model parameter m and ( i s a random number from a uniform
distribution in [0, 1]. However this method of sampling also has a potential
weak link of not taking into consideration the model value from last iteration.
Therefore the necessity of sampling the model space continuously in a
bounded domain and avoiding a memoryless walk lead to the development
of very fast simulated annealing (Ingber, 1989).
In an M-dimensional model space different parameters have different
bounds and they may be sensitive to different annealing schedules. Therefore
it is prudent to assign different temperature schedule to each of these
parameters separately. This is achieved in very fast simulated annealing
(VFSA). Following Ingber (t992), consider the ith model parameter in the
kth iteration given by m~ such that m/k ~ [m/min,mmax], then the model
parameter at (k + 1)th iteration is given by
m k+l = rn~ + yi(mr~ ax - m ~ n) (6)
where Yi E [ - 1, 1] is generated from M-product of one dimensional Cauchy

like distribution given by
M M
gr(Y) = 1~ 1
i=l 2(t Yi I + T/) In (1 + l/T/) - "= g~'(3) (7)
The cumulative probability distribution is given by
M
Gr(Y) =I-IG~(N) (8)
i=1
where Gir(y i) is given by
G~- = 1 sgn(yi ) In (1 + l yi I/Ti )

+~ In(1 + t/Ti) (9)
If u i is chosen from a uniform distribution such that ui ~ [0, 1] then Yi can
be represented by
Yi =sgn(ui- 1 ) T / [ ( 1 + lIT/) 'z"i-l' - 1] (10)
and the annealing temperature schedule Ti for m i is given by

Ti(k) = Ti ° e -cikv~t (11)
where T/° is the initial temperature for m i.
Crustal Resistivity Inversion 47t
The VFSA algorithm outlined above is applied to D.C. resistivity inversion

with some modification. These modifications are problem specific and
therefore not universally applicable. The energy or cost function for D.C.
resistivity inversion is chosen to be 2"2 norm of misfit. This can be
mathematically expressed as
E(m) = ~ ( "d/°bs- dPred)2 (12)

,=, 7, )
where N is the number of data and ei the standard deviation of the ith
datum. The model in our problem is considered be the logarithm of resistivities
in each of these layers. It is a preferred practice to choose the logarithm,
since resistivity can vary over orders of magnitude and taking the logarithm
imposes positivity constraint on the recovered model. Therefore the model
is a vector of length M given by, m = (In Pl, In P2. . . . In pM) r.
In most geophysical inverse problem the dimensionality of the model
space is larger than the data space such that M > N. Therefore the power
of k in annealing temperature schedule given in FN. (11) should ideally be
M. In practice when M is large, then the annealing required to sample the
space becomes extremely slow. The computational effort to sample the
space ergodically increases with the dimensionality of the problem. Therefore
the dimensionality in the inverse power of k is reduced. This is often
referred as "quenching". It is to be noted that dimensionality of the model
space is kept the same, only the power factor in Eq. (11) is reduced. Although
the sampling in such a case is weakly ergodic but the computational effort
to sample the model space is greatly reduced. In case of D.C. resistivity
problem we have chosen the inverse power of k to be 2M/N, where M is
the number of model parameters and N the number of data. The decay
parameter ci given in Eq. (11) is problem specific and is often used to fine
tune the annealing schedule. In most of our inversion we have kept ci to be
constant equal to unity. At each temperature step the acceptance process is
repeated several times and the process is iterated at several temperature
steps. The algorithm is stopped when there is no change in error or when
the misfit reaches a desired value.
Genetic Algorithm: Parallel recombinative

simulated annealing
Genetic algorithm (GA) is a population based optimization technique. The
search strategy used in GA mimics the evolution process in the biological
world. The solution scheme is based on the "survival for the fittest". Genetic
algorithm was originally developed by Holland (1975) and Goldberg (1989)
to solve large scale optimization problem. It involves three basic steps of
reproduction, crossover and mutation. GA has found several application in
the geophysical inverse problem. The application to seismic waveform
472 Routh and Roy
inversion is the first reported work in the geophysical literature (Sambridge

and Drijkoningen, 1992; Stoffa and Sen, 1991).
GA starts with a randomly chosen population of models within the bounded
model space. These models are tested and accepted based on their cost
function by the process of "selection". Unlike SA which works with only
two models at a time GA uses several of them at a time and hence exhibits
implicit parallesism. The first step in GA is to parameterize the model
space. Based on the parameterization each discrete parameter is assigned a
binary code. The length of this binary string depends on the desired level
of parameterization. For coarse parameterization the string lengths can
be short or vice versa. Let the ith element of the model vector be denoted
by mi = In (Pi) with the desired level of discretisation as A m i (Stoffa
and Sen, 1991; Sambridge and Drijkoningen, 1992), where A m i =
[In (/9i max) -- In (p~n)]lNPi and NP i is the number of sampling interyals for
the model parameter mi. Then the kth model value of the ith model parameter
of this discrete set can be represented by
m i = m ~ n + k * Am i (13)
where k = 1 ... NPi and i = 1. . . . . M. We use a 7 bit length string for
coding each parameter. The scheme of coding is shown in Fig. 3(a). The
binary equivalent of k is used to code the parameters is this 7 bit format.
Genetic Reproduction
Once the parameters are coded into their binary form the process of selection
is used to discriminate the elite class of models from the chosen population.
To do so, first the probability of each individual parent is computed using
the fitness function given by
exp ( - E ( p i )/Tk )
ek(pi )= M
Y~ exp ( - E ( p j ) / T k ) (14)
j=l
where P k ( P i ) is the probability of the parent Pi to be selected at the kth

g e n e r a t i o n , E ( p i ) is the error or cost function for the parent Pi and Tk is the
temperature of the generation. The parent Pi is a vector comprising M
model parameters chosen randomly. This can be written as Pi =
* , * T
(ml, m 2. . . . . mM) , where * denotes the randomly picked model value from
their individual discreate set. The temperature Tk given in Eq. (14) is used
to stretch the objective function so that small differences in the fitness
function are magnified as the generation progresses with decreasing
temperature. The selection can then be performed using the roulette wheel
algorithm. This is done by forming a cumulative probability distribution
i
Ck(Pi) = ]~ Pk(Pj) such that 0 < Ck(Pi) < 1 and i = 1. . . . . NQ, where NQ
j=l
(a)
I'"''0" I o I" o I o I o [ o I o I mmin
l
I olol ot olol o I 1 Im~"*l",~m,

I
t o l o l o l o I o1 1 I o l r"~"+~'~,,,, I
[,,,,,,,,i I 1 I 1 [ 1 I 1 t 1 t 1 t m min
t + 127"Aml
max
= m
I
(b)
1111101o1+1o111 1+I+1olololo111
I0to++11to[ollt 10Iotlt11+I ol+l

Before Crossover After Crossover
(c)
ml=ln (P1 ) m2=tn (P2 ) mM= In (P M)
[11tl0101,1 o1111ol 11011111 alll Iololllllololol
Iolo11111olo1~11o1~1~1o1+1otol I1 "1'1"11ot~1olo-]
O O' m C'
Fig. 3 (a) The binary coding of the parameter m~ using a 7 bit string. Note that
the binary equivalent of k occupies the binary string. (b) The crossover
between two parents. The bits to the right of the chosen point are exchanged
to generate two new children. This is often referred as recombination
operator in the genetic process. (c) The multiple crossover and mutation
between two parents. Each of the ith parameter in multiple crossover has
an assigned crossover probability p~ and mutation probability P~z"
is the population strength. A random number ~ is chosen from the cumulative

distribution i.e ~ ~ U[0, 1). The chosen random number is then used to
pick the model from the cumulative distribution. This process is repeated
NQ times to keep the population size constant in successive generations
(Routh, 1993). Another scheme which is often used is stochastic remainder
selection without replacement (Goldberg, 1989). In this case the probability
of each parent is multiplied with the number of population NQ. The parents
are replicated in direct proportion to the integer part and the fraction part
is used for additional selection .
Crossover
The crossover is a process in which new individuals are created by genetic
recombination. First the models in the population are paired randomly and
a crossover probability Pc is chosen a priori which determines the probabilitY
474 Routh and Roy
of the parents to have a crossover. The crossover is done by choosing a

position randomly along the string length of the parents and exchanging the
bits right of the chosen point as shown in Fig. 3(b). A high crossover
probability signifies that the recombination between the two parents is
most likely. In our inversion the crossover probability is usually kept high
(Pc -> 0.9). Typically each model parameter in our case has 7 bits, therefore
the length of the parent string is M * 7 where M is the dimension of the
model space. The recombination sometimes can be ineffective when the
string length of the parents are long. The number of generations required
to effectively apply recombination operator to each model parameter can be
large. This means that some parameters will be poorly recombined than
others. Therefore the method of multiple crossover is applied instead of
• simple crossover. In a multiple crossover each model parameter in the
parent string has a crossover probability as shown in Fig. 3(c).
Mutation
The final step applied to the offspring population is a neighborhood operator
called mutation. Mutation is simply the alteration of a randomly selected
bit in the parent string. A mutation probability Pm is set a priori which
determines possibility of mutation. The mutation probability is usually kept
low to ensure that the search is not totally random like Monte Carlo method
and at the same time maintain diversity in the population. We use multiple
mutation scheme for each model parameter in the parent string to ensure
that each parameter has a role to play in maintaining diversity in the
population. Typically Pm < 1/t, where l is the bit length of each model
parameter.
Parallel Recombinative Simulated Annealing

GA are inherently parallel and can be thought as several SA running together.
GA iterates with an entire population using recombination operator (crossover)
and neighborhood operator (mutation) to generate new population which is
accepted. The need to form a hybrid between GA and SA has two fold
advantage. First there is no formal proof that GA is guaranteed to reach the
global minimum whereas SA has an asymptotic convergence towards global
minimum. Secondly SA works with only one model at a time, and therefore
there is no history of the past structures which is preserved in GA called
the schema. A schema is a subset of the model space whose elements O's
and 1's are fixed in certain bit positions. Moreover simple GA often suffers
from genetic drift in which the above average models duplicates quickly in
successive generations leading to premature convergence. Thus the need to
incorporate the structure of SA into a genetic scheme lead to the development
of a new algorithm called parallel recombinative simulated annealing
(Mahfoud and Goldberg, 1995). The algorithm can be outlined as follows,
• Start with a temperature To

• Initialize the population (Total number = NQ) randomly
• For pairs = 1, NQ/2
--> Choose two parents at random
---> Apply multiple crossover and mutation
Compute the misfit of the parents and children
Apply metropolis criteria to accept or reject the new offsprings
---> Replace the parent string with the accepted model
• Continue till all pairs are exhausted
• Lower the temperature using Eq. (11) and repeat the inner loop.
Typically for D.C. resistivity inversion 100 parents were chosen randomly
to initialize the population. The crossover probability in PRSA was kept
unity i.e. Pc = 1.0 so that in each generation the there is always a scope of
recombination. The tournament selection after the recombination decides
whether the new model is going to be accepted or rejected. It should be
noted that in simple GA the process of selection in the reproduction step
is different from the tournament selection in PRSA. In PRSA the selection
is based on the competition of parents and children, whereas in simple GA
the selection is based on the cumulative probability distribution of the
entire population.
Crustal Data Inversion

In this section we present the application of VFSA and PRSA to invert
Schlumberger sounding data collected in the Singhbhum district of Bihar,
India, using a one-dimensional forward D.C. resistivity algorithm. The data
were collect at twenty station locations with the maximum current electrode
spacing of 5 kin. The data for inversion are apparent resistivity as function
of half the current electrode spacing (AB/2). On an average thcre are
25-30 stations recordings for each sounding location. The model consists
of 50 layers with the layer thickness increasing progressively with depth.
The laycr thickness in the inversion algorithm are fixed. Therefore model
paramctcrs to be recovered are resistivities in each of these layers. The upper
and lower bounds of the model parameters are kept wide so that the
search is not restricted. The upper bound for VFSA is taken to be 80000
ohm-m and thc lower bound is chosen to be 1 ohm-re. The bounds arc kept
fixed for all the inversions. The starting temperature TOfor VFSA and PRSA
is taken to bc 0.01. The data are inverted with 10% standard deviation of the
datum value. If thc errors arc assumed Gaussian then the misfit given in
Eq. (12) is X 2 random variable with the expected value equal to N, where N
is the number of data. However in practicc this number is often not realisablc
due to the uncertainty in the error prediction. 10 VFSA runs were made for
each sounding location. The final model is the average of the models obtained
from 10 runs of VFSA. The misfit versus iteration for a single run for S1
476 Routh and Roy
Fig. 4 The resistivity section obtained by inverting each sounding location

individually using: (a) very fast simulated annealing (VFSA) and (b) parallel
recombinative genetic algorithm (PRSA).
sounding point is shown in Fig. 5. The misfit curve shows that the X 2 value
levels off to 56 after 3500 iteration which is 1.75 times the number of data.
For each run 10000 model evaluations were made with 500 temperature
steppings. The decrease of misfit with the temperature (Fig. 6) indicates
that after T = 2 x 10-4 there is no further decrease inmisfit. The sounding
curves in general show a rise in apparent resistivity with gradual increase in
MISFIT V.S ITERATION FOR VFSA
103
%<
102
i i I i iiiii I i i I iiiii I I i iiiii
I0 ~ 103 104
Iteration
Fig. 5 Chi-square misfit versus iteration for sounding location S1 using a single
run of VFSA.
MISFIT V.S TEMPERATURE IN VFSA
%
10 3
I
102
/
I "1, / I l l I i t I
10 - i 2 lO -il lO -IO 10-9 10-8 10-? IO-# 10-5 10-4 10-:t 10-2
4 Temperature
Fig. 6 Chi-square misfit versus temperature for a single run of VFSA. The curve
indicates the decreasing misfit with increasing temperature.
478 Routh and Roy
electrode separation making an angle of 45 ° with the abscissa. It qualitatively

indicates that at depth the formation is of the higher resistivity. Each sounding
curve is inverted for a layered earth structure and an approximate 2D
conductivity section is prepared for the entire survey length. The inverted
resistivity section for VFSA is presented in Fig. 4(a). The conductivity section
shows that the depth to the unaltered granite varies from 100 m to 1 kin.
A thin conductive cover of the order of 50-100 ohm-m is present on the
top of the granitic basement although conductivity in top 100 m varies
laterally.
Next we apply PRSA to invert the same data set. The PRSA inversion
is carried out with a population strength of 100 parents chosen randomly
within the bounded domain between 1 ohm-m and 80000 ohm-m. The
population strength is chosen some what arbitrarily in our case. Increasing
the population size reduces the genetic drift in the consecutive generations.
The model parameters in PRSA are coded in a 7 bit binary string, therefore
for 50 layer model there are 27x5° possible parents which span the model
space. It is interesting to note that the number of possible population depends
on the population size. Theoretically if r is the number of possible parents
and n is the population strength then the total number of possible population
N is given by n+r-lCr_ 1, where PCr indicates combination o f p objects taken
r at a times (Vose and Liepins, 1991). The PRSA for D.C. resistivity inversion
is executed for a maximum number of 500 generations. The stopping criteria
for PRSA is similar to simple GA in which the genetic search is terminated
when the maximum fitness in the population attains the average fitness of
the population. This implies that in a perfect convergence situation all
children in the generation are the same. However this is often not achievable
given the finite number of generations assigned prior to the genetic search.
The X 2 misfit versus generations for S1 sounding is shows in Fig. 7. The
misfit curve indicates that after 200 generations the Z 2 levels off to 52 and
shows no further decrease till the maximum number of generation is reached.
Comparing the rate of decrease of misfit in VFSA (Fig. 5) with PRSA
(Fig. 7), it is seen that 3500 iteration of VFSA is equivalent to 200 generation
in PRSA. But it should be noted that each generation in PRSA involves
100 model evaluations equal to the population size. The inverted section
for 20 sounding points using PRSA is shown in Fig. 4(b). The PRSA
inversion shows very similar structures as the VFSA inversion except that
PRSA section (Fig. 4b) exhibits more blocky boundaries. This is because
the model parameters can only take discrete values within a bounded domain.
The fit to the data for both PRSA and VFSA for stations 1-20 are presented
in Figs. 8 to 13. In general the fit to the data by both VFSA and PRSA are
quite reasonable except some outliers which are not honoured by the predicted
response as seen in $4 (Fig. 8), $6 (Fig. 9), $8 (Fig. 9) and $20 (Fig. 13).
The geological interpretation of these 20 sounding points and 4 other sounding
locations is presented in the next section.
MISFIT V.S G E N E R A T I O N FOR PRSA
10 4
I0 3
%
i0 2
1
II I, I I Illlll I I I llllll I I I II
.00 10 z I0 z
Generation
Fig. 7 Chi-square misfit versus generation for sounding location Sl using PRSA.
Geological Interpretation
The conductivity section presented in Fig. 4(a) and (b) shows a geological
contact around 30 km along the survey length. This is located near the
station $3 close to Singada as shown in Fig. 1. The contact indicates a
lateral change in resistivity. The high resistive body to the left of $3 is
indicative of the phase II granite (SBGA) and the tess resistive body to thc
right is considered to be the phase III granite (SBGB). The region around
100-105 km indicates another possible geological contact which at present
has four possible geological interpretation. The four geological possibilities
are based on the previous geological study carried out in this area. The four
possibilities are: (a) geological contact between singhbhum granite phase
III and Mayurbhanj granite, (b) a contact between the Archaean nucleus
and the Bengal basin, (c) south eastern extension of Singhbhum shear zone
and (d) a faulted structure. In general the resistivity section indicates a
weathered conductive cover over a resistive granitic basement.
To estimate the order of resistivity of the Singhbhum granite and Kconjhar
Volcanics D.C. dipole soundings was done at f o u r locations where
Schlumberger sounding was carried out. At three locations Singada, Bisoi
and Jagmohanpur parallel dipolc configuration (Fig. 2b) was used and
azimuthal dipole (Fig. 2c) sounding.was done at Khejurikota. The locations
of these sounding points are shown in Fig. 1. The parallel and azimuthal
dipole data are modified to equivalent equatorial dipole (Fig. 2d) data
480 Routh and Roy
following the procedure outlined in Roy and Rao (1992). The data with
error bars for the four locations are shown in Fig. 14(a-d). The inverted ID
model for all four location is shown in Fig. 13 (a-d). The upper the lower
bound is the same as in the previous inversions. The model in solid line is
obtained by inversion using VFSA and the dotted line using PRSA. The
....D a t a Fit of $2 (d) Data F i t o f $4
C 0 I~, ~."
"-~ck 102 :~-r~:/-

-+~. "-~0. 102 I ~'' ~ i / "
I01 , , ,,.... T , ,
101 102 t 0 a 101 10 z 10 a
AB/e(m) AB/2(m)
(a) D a t a Fit of S1 D a t a Fit of $3
'z 'I! (c)
I
10 a / I
10 3
c
c~ <2.
10 e
.{.~i.iI:[ZI~I]F "
I I I 10 e t i I I
i01 i0 2 10 3 101 10 2 10 3
AB/g(m) AB/2(m)
Fig. 8 The fit to the data for station: (a) S1, (b) $2, (c) $3 and (d) $4. The observed
data are shown in error bar with 10% standard deviation of the datum
value. The predicted response from VFSA shown in dashed in computed
using the average model obtained after 10 runs. The response computed
from PRSA is shown in dotted line.
inverted model at Singada shows a increase in resistivity with depth which

is indicative of SBGA. It indicates that the resistivity is of the order of
15000-25000 ohm-m at a depth below 1 km. The model obtained at
khejurikota and Bisoi shows that the depth to the unaltered granite varies
in range of 100-200 m. However the resistivity range varies between 2000
and 9000 ohm-m at a depth below 1 km. Comparing the resistivity model
obtained at Singadaand that obtained at Khejurikota and Bisoi, it is observed
that both Khejurikota and Bisoi shows a similar variation of resistivity With
depth, except the top 50 m where the 7eariability is due to the degree of
weathering, Singada shows a gradational increase in resistivity with depth.
Khejurikota and Bisoi is geologically located over Singhbhum granite phase
III (SBGB) and Singada over Singhbhum granite phase II (SBGA).

Jagmohanpur is thought to lie over Keonjhar Volcanics. The model obtained
at Jagmohanpur shows resistivity variation with depth similar to that obtained
at Khejurikota and Bisoi.
D a t a Fit of $6 Data Fit of $8

I
.'I
lOs 10 ~
c
v
t I
10 2 /
lo2
(b)
I" I I
(d)
Zl I I
101 10z 10s 101 102 103
AB/2(m) An/2(rn)
Data Fit of 85 Data Fit of $7

I 103 zz
103 E
I t
C
cl v
q.
I0 ~ (a) i0t ~r~'~

t (c)
1
101 102 10 3 I01 102 103
At3/2(m) AB/e(m)
Fig. 9 The fit to the data for station: (a) $5, (b) $6, (c) $7 and (d) $8.
The characterization of these two different granitic body has been a topic
of interest among the geologists in the past, Gravity data interpretation carried
out in this region indicates that the densities of SBGA and SBGB differ by
0.05 gm/cc (Verma, 1984). Geological data Pb - Pb, Pb - U, Sm - Nd and
Ar 39 - Ar4° datings indicate that SBGA are 3.3 billion years old and the age
of SBGB varies from 3.3 to 3.16 billion years (Saha et al, 1988; Bakshi et al,
1987). Geologically there is a possibility that two granitic bodies evolved
from two different magma with a time gap of 140 million years. Saha et al,
(1988) proposed that the magma in SBGA were derived from partial melt of
amphibolite at the base of the crust and SBGB originated from the melting of
silicious garnet granulites. Electrical characterization based on the inversion
of sounding data showed that the resistivities of these two granitic bodies are
different. Therefore, based on the characterization of different physical
properties sensed by geophysical and geological data authors at present are
of opinion that the two granitic bodies have evolved at different geological
time and from different parent source.
482 Routh and Roy
Data Fit of SI0 (d) DaLa FiL of S1,2

(b) I
d
~-~ 103 103
I
I
£
io2 lo 2 ...f
X
I 1, ,1 i
T
I i
i01 102 103 101 I02 I0 a
AB/2(m) AB/2(m)
(a) Data Fit of $9 (c) DaLa FiL o f S II
i
I
3
103 I,/
Y./ 103
/
I
lo2
t
"% lO 2 /
2
i i ,I 101 i I i
101 10 2 10 3 101 10 2 10 3
AB/2(m) AB/2(rn)
Fig. 10 The fit to the data for station: (a) $9 (b) SIO, (c) $11 and (d) S12.
Conclusion
In this paper we have presented the application of very fast simulated
annealing and parallel recombinative genetic algorithm to invert D.C.
resistivity sounding data. The forward problem used in the inversion in a
one-dimensional algorithm for a layered earth. In most geophysical inverse
problem the computational roadblock is in the computation of the forward
responses. Therefore the used of global optimization techniques is applicable
when the forward computation is relatively fast. The forward algorithm for
one-dimensional D.C. resistivity is done using a convolution filter method
to expedite the process of model evaluation. The recovered model obtained
by inverting the crustal data using both VFSA and PRSA exhibit very
similar structures which adds confidence to the model recovery. Both these
algorithms has the capability of sampling from the optimal region in the
model space. They have the potential to jump the local minima and move
the solution to the optimal region in the solution space close to the global
minimum. In this work we have outlined the fine tuning required to make
it applicable in resistivity inversion problem. These fine tunings are problem
dependent and are not universal.
The goal of characterizing the different phases of granite is carried out
Data Fit of S14 }eta-Fit of S16

¢
10 3
I~ 10a E t
I I.
C
v v
a
Q.
~. 10~
10 2
(b) ! (d)
I ! ,I I I !
101 102 103 1,0~ 10 z 10 a
AB/Z(m) ABle(m)
Data. Fit of S13 Data Fit of S15

104
,x ~Y
,/
10a
-%
I
10 3 .
.
.,
C
-~
t
102
/
- cl. g
lO2 t~. )
(a) I01 ;t t'l"r f1 I I (c)
I01 10 z 10 a I0 ~ I0 e 10 3
AB/E(m) AB/Z(m)
Fig. 11 The fit to the data for station: (a) S13 (b) S14, (c) S15 and (d) S16.
by comparing the resistivities of the two granite bodies. Inverted results

indicates that phase II granite (SBGA) is more resistive that phase III
granite (SBGB). The resistivity of Keonjhar volcanics is of the same order
of phase III granite. The approximate 2D section reveals that there is lateral
variation of conductivity in top few hundred meters. The depth to the
unaltered granite varies from 100 m to 1 kin. The geological contacts in the
survey area is exhibited in the resistivity section, but the cause at present
is not known. As a final comment the application of global ,optimisation
techniques to recover crustal resistivity information has been investigated
and the results obtained are in good agreement with the geological information
in the area.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for
sanctioning the projects (SP/S2/P20A/85) and (ESS/CA/A8-02/89). One of
authors PSR would like to thank Doug Oldenburg for useful suggestions
and UBC-GIF for various facilities. PSR would also like to thank Mrinal
Sen of Institute of Geophysics at University of Texas, Austin, for various
useful discussion related to VFSA. We also thank Anjan Sarkar of Deptt.
484 Routh and Roy
D a t a F i t of S 1 8 )ata F i t of $20
i
10 a I
IO z
t !
c 10 z
It
el.
• (hi (d)
10' 102 10 3 I01 10 z 10 a
AB/2(m) AB/2(m)
D a t a F~t of S17 D a t a F i t of S19
I
10 a
\ /' !
c 10 2
~.~
103
/. .t
la a
/
lO t I0 z 10 a I01 I 0 ~. 10 s
AS/e(m) AB/2(m)
Fig. 12 The fit to the data for station: (a) S17, (b) S18, (c) S19 and (d) $20.
MODEL AT BISOI MODEL AT KHEJURIKOTA

10 4
10 4
t0 3
Io~
! !
G
"~ lo s
(b) 10 ~ (d)
J , J .t
10 o I0 ~ I0 a 10~ 10 4 IO o 101 10 2 10a 10 4
D e p t h (m) Depth (m)
MODEL AT SINGADA ~o~EL AT JAG~OHA~PUR
10 4
~.~ 10 3
/
L;
t
10 4
103
10 2
10 ~ (a}
10 o I01 l0 s 10 3 10 4 10 o 101 l 0 s 10 a 10 4
Depth {m) Depth (m)
Fig. 13 The inverted model obtained using VFSA (solid line) and PRSA (dotted line)
for locations: (a) Singada, (b) Bisoi, (c) Jagmohanpur and (d) Khejurikota.
Data Fit for BISOI Data Fit for ZHEdURIKOTA
104
10a
! IOO 1
.% .~ 102
(b9 101 * I
OO lO z too ioo 104 tOo IOI IOO 10a 104
AB/2(m) AB/2(m)
(a) Data Fit for SINGADA Data Fit for JAGMOHANPUR
t04 .. ~ /
E lO~
C
I 103 C
v
le
--%
c~k O..
I02 (a) 10e

I I t I |
l00 10 ! 102 103 10 4 100 101 I0SlO a 104

AS/2(m). AB/2(m)
Fig. 14 The fit to the data for station: (a) Singada (b) Bisoi, (c) Jagmohanpur
and (d) Khejurikota. The observed apparent resistivity for combined
Schlumberger and bipole-dipole sounding are shown with error bars.
The predicted response using VFSA and PRSA is shown in dashed and
dotted line respectively.
of Mathematics, liT Kharagpur, who took active interest in our work and
offered suggestions. We acknowledge the students, research scholars and
teachers of I T Kharagpur and ISM Dhanbad who took part in Deep resistivity
field work.
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Geophy. J.R. Astr. Soc., 57, pp. 137-157.
Kirkpatrick, S,, Gelatt, C.D. and Vechhi, M.E, 1983, Optimisation by simulated annealing,
Science, 220, No. 4598, pp. 671-680.
Koefoed, O., 1979, Geosounding Principles I, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Keller, G.V., Anderson, L.A. and Pritchad, J.I., 1966, Geological survey investigations of
the electrical properties of the crust and upper mantle, Geophysics, 31, pp. 1078-I087.
Mahfoud, S.W. and Goldberg, D.E., 1995, Parallel Recombinative Simulated Annealing:
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by fast computing machines J. Chem. Phys., 21, pp. 1087-1092.
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28. Backus-Gilbert Magnetotelluric Inversion

A. Manglik and P.S. Moharir
National GeophysicalResearch Institute, Hyderabad-500007, India
Introduction
Backus-Gilbert (BG) formalism (Backus and Gilbert, 1967, 1968, 1970) is
probably the first enlightened approach to geophysical inversion because it
took a bold and frank attitude that a solution compatible with the observational
data is worth nothing in itself unless the method looked at the problem of
nonuniqueness directly in the face. It identified observational inadequacy
as the root cause of nonuniqueness. As a result, even with the noise free
data, infinitely many solutions are feasible. The BG approach, therefore,
decides to look at the model averages which are the same for all linearly
related solutions.
Use of a priori information has been advocated frequently as an antidote
to the problem of nonuniqueness. The BG approach deliberately discounts
this route, as a priori information can be regarded virtual observations
(Rodgers, t977) and the observational inadequacy in not totally removed
by adding some more observations, only reduced. This reduction is not of
much avail as the problem is because of the finite dimensionality of the
real world. Therefore, the BG approach purposely prefers to use only the
actual observational data and derives the averaging kernels from them.
The BG approach has been used by Oldenburg (1979) to solve the 1-D
magnetotelturic inversion problem. Our software is developed along similar
lines though there are essential differences.
The Magnetotelluric Problem

Assuming plane waves, the electric field E(og), in frequency domain, satisfies
an equation.
V2E(og) + jo~/~0 o'E(og) = 0 (1)
where/-to is the magnetic permeability, cr the electric conductivity and co the
radian frequency. Considering a layered earth model with horizontal
homogeneous layers, so that cr varies only in the z(vertical) direction, the
solution of Eq. (1) is
E(z, o9) = Aie -jkl: + Bi e jkiz (2)
where subscript i refers to the ith layer and

Backus-Gilbert Magnetotelluric Inversion 489
k iz = j rol.t o0-i (3)

The magnetic field Hy(z, co) can be similarly analyzed. The admittance
e(z, to) = H,.(z, oo)/Ex(z, co) (4)
is taken as a response function. Within any layer
k i A i e-kiz _ BiekiZ (5)

R(z, 09) = jogtto Ai e-kiz + Bi ekiz
so that on the surface of the earth
kl A1 - Bl (6)
R(0, co) = jro/.t ° A1 + Bl
Using the boundary conditions to be satisfied by the fields at various

interfaces, it follows that
[Ai] l [~:::]
B~ = 7-6 L~ ; L~
=F ~iXi/Yi ~i/XiYi1
Lfl~x~y~ ay#x~]
(7/)
where
Ori = O'i + ~'+1; 3i = 0-i - 0-i+1; ~ = Pi-1
Xi = e-ki+lzi; Yi = ekizi
where Pi is the resistivity of the ith layer. Applying Eq. (7) recursively, it
follows that
A1 = SXn_ 1 I-I U i (8)

nI i=1 m
where
S = 2 -n+1 (0"I . . . . . . ~ , _ 1 ) -1/2 (9)
--[~-k"z"-lOI [O~iekihiflieki"i 1
Xn-I eknzn4 Oi = L 3te_kihi
" aie-kihi
(lO)
where hi is the thickness of the ith layer, and where in writing Eq. (9) the
fact, that the fields vanish at z = 0% in the half-space at the bottom, has
been used. A n is computed from a suitable surface boundary condition.
Hence, [AtBI] ~ is known from Eq. (9) and hence, the response function
R(0, o9) of Eq. (6) is known for any assumed set of layer conductivities and
thicknesses. Thus, the forward problem can be readily solved by the above
propagator matrix approach. This is an essential requirement for inversion
based on perturbation theory.
490 Manglik and Moharir
The response function R(0, o~) is assumed to be measured at N frequencies

toj, j = 1, 2 . . . . N. It satisfies a Riccati equation
R'(z, to) -jtotZo R2(z, to) - tr(z) = 0 (11)
where prime denotes differentiation with respect to z. This is a nonlinear
equation, whereas the BG approach applies only to linear equations. Equation
(11) is therefore linearized by assuming a perturbation 6tr(z) in ty(z) and
a corresponding induced perturbation 6 R(z, to) in R(z, to). Then, neglecting
a term of the order of R2(z, to), Eq. (11) becomes
¢SR'(z, to) - 2jtol.toR(z, to) rSR(z, w) - 6or(z) = 0 (12)
This is a linear equation of the form (Murphy, 1969)
y" = g(z)y + f(z) (13)
of which the solution is
y = Ce ¢(z) + e ¢(z) e -¢(z) .f(z) dz
(p(z) = g(z) dz (14)
where C is an arbitrary constant. Therefore, the solution of Eq. (12) is
8R(z, to) = - E-2(z, to) ~ z E2(z' to)Sty(z) dz (15)
where the boundary condition R(z, to) --> 0 as z ---> oo is used to evaluate
the constant C. Then, on the surface of the earth
6R(0, to) = - E-2(0, to) ~ff E2(z, to) Sty(z) dz (16)
Thus EZ(z, to)/E2(0, to) is the Frechet derivative of R(0, to) with respect to
tr(z). Letting
m(z) = In (tr-l(z)) (17)
and by looking at only the modulus of the perturbation in R(z, to) we get
8dj = 61R(O, toj ) t = ii oGj(z)Sm(z) dz; j = 1, 2 ..... n (18)
where
Gj(z) = I.toCr(z)toj I R(O, toj)llm

E2(z,o9) ]
E(O, toj)E'(O, toj) (19)
where 6dj is the difference in observed and calculated response at frequency

toj and Gj(z) is the Fj'echet kernel of the response with respect to m(z).
The Backus-Gilbert Method

The BG method deals with precisely the equations of the sort of Eq. (18).
In the matrix form, the solution is
6m = Gt(GGt)-l ~d (20)
where ~m and ~d are column vectors obtained by sampling ~m(z) and
assembling 6d at various frequencies respectively and G is the matrix version
of Gj(z). One can start with an initial guess too(Z) and obtain the responses
dj. The Frechet kernel Gj(z) can be evaluated as per Eq. (19), once the
forward problem is solved by the propagator matrix approach. The dichotomy
of continuous and discrete approaches is only apparent as on a computer
things are discrete. The Eq. (20) gives the correction ~m(z) in m(z), thus
defining the guess mi(z ). This procedure could be recursively followed. In
actual practice, the problem of ill-conditioning associated with obtaining
(GGt) -1 in Eq. (20) is taken care of by using Marquardt technique (Marquardt,
1963).
As infinitely many solutions re(z) are compatible with the data, one only
puts faith~in the model averages
m(zo) = ~oA(Z, Zo) m(z) dz (21)
where A(z, Zo) is the averaging kernel obtainable as
A(z, Zo) = ~ ai(zo)Gj(z) (22)

i=1
For the noise free case, the averaging coefficients a,{z0) are obtained by
minimizing the spread
S = 12 F ( z - zo) 2 A2(z, zo) dz (23)

.to
subject to A(z, Zo) dz = 1 (24)
U t S -1G (z) (25)

This gives A(z, Zo) = ut S_lu
where u and S are a column vector and a matrix with
ui = ~o Gi(z) dz (26)
and
Sij = 12 ( z - Zo)2Gi(z)Gj(z) dz (27)

as elements. The modification made to take into account the effect of

measurement errors is to replace S in the above formulation by
W= (1 - ff)S + ffRdd (28)

where Raa is the covariance matrix of the measurement errors. This makes
the BG method a member of hybrid norm methods (Barzaghi and Sanso,
1988) where two objective functions (the deltaness of the averaging kernel
and the variance of the parameter estimate, in the present case) are combined
and then the combination is optimized. The parameter ~ determines the
compromise preferred.
Test on Synthetic Data

Software was developed for BG inversion of magnetotelluric data. It was
tested using synthetic data for layered earth models. The layer thicknesses
were kept relatively small to conserve computer time. Moreover, the
compromise parameter ~, was chosen to be zero, that is the data were
assumed to be noise free. Among many other tests, a seven layer model
over a half-space (Fig. 1) was used. The initial guess and the model avcragc
obtained five iterations later are shown too in the same figure. The initial
guess consisted of a half-space model having resistivity equal to that of the
top layer. This initial guess is obviously realistic in practice, though an
over-simplification of the actual model. In the interpretation, the thinnest
conductive layer at the depth of 80 m is not seen and the resistive layer just
below it is seriously dc-cmphasized. All other layers are reasonably
reconstructed. It may be said, in general though, that the layer thicknesses
are better estimated than the resistivities. This situation is reminiscent of
that in maximum entropy power spectral estimation, wherein frequencies
I01 - ltEg gn$ f..~OR .... Trun Modll
g o~Rg~I~IQ x ,x Initi01 GUllS
S O0 0 ~ Final Model
I" ....
~ 10z i
, I
S J
= I
o I
m.- I
r. I -I
:'/LJ
|0 101 tO i 10 3 10 4 I01
DEPTH (Mfrs.)
Fig. 1 A seven-layer model over a half-space used to generate the synthetic response.
The initial model guess and model average obtained five iterations later.
are very accurately estimated by the spectral amplitudes are not. The remedy
used there is to assess spectral amplitudes separately by regression (Kane,
1986) after freezing the frequencies as obtained earlier. It may be worthwhile
to develop such a two step procedure for magnetotelluric interpretation
also.
The spread S as a function z0 and the straight line S = z0 are plotted in
Fig. 2. It can in general be said that S < Zo indicates a more acceptable
interpretation than S > z0. The topmost layer may be an exception to this
thumb-rule as the software held the interpreted top-layer resistivity to its
actual value. This too is practically useful strategy.
TO
4--
ct
I0 I, I
l0 o 10 + 101 10 3 10 4
DEPTH (Mtrs.)
Fig. 2 The spread S as a function of nominal depth z 0. The line S = zo
is also plotted.
Some of the sections of the averaging kernel A(z, Zo) are shown in
Fig. 3 for specific values of z0. The values of z0 are chosen to study the
effect of conductivity of the medium on the averaging kernels. In the model,
depths of 10, 30, 60, 90 and 450 m correspond to conductive zones and
the medium is resistive around 150, 200 and 1500 m. Some values of z0 i/a
Fig. 3 coincide with the layer boundaries (e.g. z0 = 10, 30 m), others are
so chosen that around them the medium is homogeneous and conductive or
resistive. From a careful study of these averaging functions (which would
be helped by a verbal description of each Of them relating the maxima, the
spread, the multi-modality, the relative strengths of the maxima, the negative
values, etc. as related to the conductive and resistive zones and conductivity
transitions in the model), some general conclusions can be drawn. The
peaks of the averaging kernel do not always coincide with the value of z0,
the depth for which they are computed. The peak tends to shift towards the
conductive zone. If Zo is in a resistive zone flanked by two strong conductive
zones, the mode splits and the resolution is poor. We understand that the
data from Singhbhum, when analyzed at Kharagpur by BG software led
494 Mangtik and Moharir
even to trimodal averaging kernels. We ourselves have not used the BG

software with Singhbhum data because the latter was adjudged to indicate
a 3-D structure. The spread is generally small when A(z, Zo) has a single
peak centered on z0.
Z0tl0 S ~/*S.6 <M > =1.51 0=]1~ S = ]?.7 < M >=1.76
w I'OL ~ ~1.0
_J
~o~
ooV , Z
1 !
o c..,? ° 40
DEPTI4 (Mtrs)
OO
t,I.J ZO= 60 S • 11t6 <: H>= 1.0~ !0=90 $= 118.6 < H>= It,7
~1,O
-:o-,r/\ ~o~
_J
~oo
, Z I I
0 50 Io0 o O0 IGO
D E P T H ( M~'r s) DEPTH (MFrs)
ZO=FsO $=/r,d.] < H>,/2]1 .ZOt ~00 $=21.17 < H>=ld, O
t.0
:)
.J
o-O.S
m
~ 0.o B
!
0 200 400 0 EO0 400
D E P T H (Mtr$.) OEeTH (Mtrs)
Z0,,/*c'a0 S=I~117 < H>= 11.9 ZO= ~;40 S~ t01..1 < 1 4 > : 7_567
w I'0
o
I--
i
~0.0
0.5 ~0.5
0 z
Z I t I
0 4bo ~oo 0 Zo o o 400 o
Fig. 3 Averaging kernel A(z, z o) for various values of z o. (M) is m(Zo), the model
average at the nominal depth z o. The quantities z 0 and S are in meters and
( M ) in ohm-meters.
The averaging functions in many cases attain negative values also. Of

the 9 depth ranges (around 7, 10, 40, 100, 150, 300, 450, 700 and 1600 m)
in which such an anomalous behaviour has resulted, 7 (expect those around

300 and 450 m) correspond to resistive zones in the model. Thus the negative
regions in the averaging kernel and multi-modality or poor resolution seem
to be related to the physics of the problem. This suggests that any remedy
to circumvent these drawbacks of the BG approach would also have to be
dependent on the physics and a mere mathematical refinement may not
succeed. Recently a solution has been proposed (Huestis, 1987) to the
problem of negativity of the averaging kernel, but it has also been admitted
that the solution is not practical in view of its computational inefficiency.
Another important conclusion derived on the basis of experimentation
with different starting guess is that if any iterate, including the starting
guess, has sharp resistivity transitions, then onwards the convergence is
slow. That is, smoother models are better estimated and smoother initial
guesses should be preferred also. An interpretation with smoothest parameter
variation has been called Occam's inversion (Constable et al, 1977). It
seems, thus, that in BG approach, there is a bonus of rapid convergence for
such solutions and realities. This may be regarded as an advantage.
Conclusion
Software for BG inversion of 1-D magnetotelluric data was written and
tested with synthetic noise-free data sets. The motivation was two fold. The
material motivation came through a DST thrust area programme for which
this software was needed to invert magnetotelluric data from Singhbhum.
The other equally or even more important motivation was to have an
experience with and assessment of the BG method. It brought a nonuniqueness
as an integral part of inversion, but it nevertheless is not the last word in
inversion nor is it a completed formalism. It has internal contradiction in
that it gives averaging kemel with negative values, has an embarrassing
feature that these kernel do not necessarily peak on the nominal values of
depths for which they are intended or are even multi-modal. It applies only
to linear situations and linearizing nonlinear situations is open to criticism
(Moharir, 1990), pitfalls and mistaken compliance as the total range of
nonuniqueness is not illuminated (Oldenburg et al, 1984) by linearized
solutions. Therefore within the broader axiology of BG formalism, which
is quite appealing, a second revolution can be readily accommodated and
is due.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to DST for financial support under grant number
SP/S2/P20F/85 and to Prof. K.K. Roy of I.I.T., Kharagpur for initial motivation
and continual interaction. The authors are also grateful to Prof. D. Guptasarma,
Director, NGRI, Hyderabad, India, for permitting publication of this paper.
References
Backus, G. and Gilbert, E, 1967. Numerical applications of a formalism for geophysical

inverse problems. Geophys. J.R. Astr. Soc,, t 3, 247-276.
Backus, G. and Gilbert, E, 1968. The resolving power of gross earth data. Geophys. J.R.
Astr. Soc., 16, 169-205.
Backus, G. and Gilbert, E, 1970. Uniqueness in the inversion of inaccurate gross earth data.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 226, 123-192.
Barzaghi, R. and Sanso, E, 1988. Remarks on the inverse gravimetric problem. Geophys.
Jour., 2, 505-511.
Constable, S.C., Parker, R.L. and Constable, C.G., 1987. Occam's inversion: a practical
algorithm for generating smooth models for electromagnetic sounding data. Geophys.,
52, 289-300.
Huestis, S.P., 1987. Construction of non-negative resolving kernels in Backus-Gilbert theory.
Geophys. J. Roy. Astr. Soc., 90, 495-500.
Kane, R.P., 1986. Power spectrum analysis of geomagnetic indices. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
(Earth Planet. Sci.), 95, 1-12.
Marquardt, D.W., 1963. An algorithm for least squares estimation of non-linear parameters.
J. Soc. Indust., Appl. Maths., 11,431--441.
Moharir, ES., 1990. Inversion of potential field data. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet
Sci.), 99, 473-514.
Murphy, G.M., 1969. Ordinary differential equations and their solutions. Affiliated East-
West Press, New Delhi, 13-14.
Oldenburg, D.W., 1979. One-dimensional inversion of natural source magnetotelluric
observations. Geophysics, 44, 1228-1244.
Oldenburg, D.W., Whittall, K.P. and Parker, R.L., 1984. Inversion of ocean bottom
magnetotelluric data revisited. J. Geophys. Res., 89, 1829-1833.
Rodgers, C.D., 1977. Statistical principles of inversion theory, In: Deepak A., Inversion
methods in atmospheric remote sounding, Academic Press, New York, 117-138.
29. Stochastic Inversion of Magnetotelluric

Data
B.B. Bhattacharya I and R.K. Sarkar 2
1Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India
2G.S.I., Geophysical Division, P49 CIT Road, Calcutta, India
Introduction
The general stochastic inversion theory has been used for quantitative
interpretation of one dimensional magnetotelluric problem for a horizontally
layered earth model in which each layer is homogeneous and isotropic.
Stochastic inversion theory has been formulated on stochastic process and
defined on real Hilbert space i.e., the model space is generalized to a
Hilbert space with a fairly arbitrary norm. The solution is envisaged to be
the shortest solution measured in this norm sense satisfying the data. Along
with the parameter estimates obtained by the inversion, resolutions providing
the fidelity of the estimated parameters have also been obtained. Total
estimation errors and correlation co-efficients of the estimated parameters
have also been obtained. Data importance of the measured data, as utilized
in the inversion problem, have been evaluated. Data importance categorize
the data according to their relative importance in the inversion problem.
Summation of the data importance gives the "Number of Independent Model
Parameters (NIMP)" in an inversion problem and if the given inversion
problem is to be deterministic, N I M P should equal the number of free
parameters in the inversion problem.
The application of stochastic inversion applied to MTS data is presented
in this paper. Parameter resolutions, total estimation errors, correlation
coefficients, data importance and NIMP are estimated for the MTS curves.
Reduced chi-square statistical criterion is used as a goodness of fit test
between the measured data and theoretical data corresponding to the finally
estimated model obtained by inversion.
The stochastic inversion, as utilized herein, is only applicable to linear
inversion problems. Therefore, linearisations of MTS forward problem about
some suitable a priori values has been resorted to for initiating the inversion
scheme. It is imperative that the starting model (apriori values) must contain
all the relevant information pertaining to the structure being envisaged.
Therefore, the proposed technique, in essence, is based upon an iterating
perturbation algorithm relating to changes in the model to first order changes
in data rendered possible through the imposition of first order Taylor series
498 Bhattacharya and Sarkar
expansions of the MTS forward problems. As a result the inversion problem

gets reduced to solving a system of linear perturbation equations
simultaneously over constrained and under determined.
In this treatment the earth model is presumed to be horizontally stratified
in which each layer in isotropic and homogeneous.
Theory
The stochastic inversion formalism, as developed by Franklin (1970), is
only applicable to linear problems. Therefore, the non-linear MTS problems
need to be linearised in order that stochastic inversion formula may be
applicable to them. The first order Taylor series expansions of MTS forward
problem about some a priori parameter values (guess solutions) may be
expressed as
A S P + n = 5u (1)
where a is a linear operator, the row elements of which are the Frechet
kernels of the data, 5P is the difference between the actual parameter vector
P of the envisaged earth model and a priori parameter vector P, Su is a
vector which is difference between the observed data and theoretical data
functionals corresponding to a priori parameter vector P and n is the vector
containing the error components as associated with the data.
The stochastic inversion formula due to Franklin (1970) may be written,
following the modification made by Jackson (1979), as
SP - (AT Fn-~IA+.b-.-1
pp ~-1 a r p - 1 5 u
, -- . nn
(2)
If p be the number of unknowns (parameters) to be estimated and q be

the total number of data used in the inversion process, then in Eq. (2), A
is the q x p system matrix and A r refers to the transpose of A, F,,n is the
q x q noise autocorrelation operator and F~' is the inverse of Fnn, Fpp is
the p × p solution autocorrelation operator and FI~1 refers to the inverse of
Fpp. The estimation vector P is given by
P = P + 8P (3)
P, thus estimated gets gradually updated through successive iteration till
a goodness of fit criterion between observed data and theoretical data
functionals corresponding to an estimated model is satisfied.
An inspection of Eq. (2) makes it evident that before a solution of this
equation is attempted, solution autocorrelation operator Fpp and noise
autocorrelation operator Fnn ought to be obtained firstly. A justified choice
of the Solution autocorrelation operator is fraught with uncertainties. Fpp
acts as a filtration operator which may be so parameterised as to ignore the
unrealistic solutions based on physical considerations~geological constraints
etc. The various issues involved in the formation of Fpp has been discussed
Stochastic.Inversion of Magnetotelluric Data 499
at length by Wiggins (1972) and Jackson (1972). In the present study, Fpp
is parameterised to become q x q diagonal matrix in which the diagonal
elements are the squares of the expected parameter variations. Such a
parameterisation of Evp does imply that off-diagonal elements which provide
parameter cross correlations are not taken into account. For nonzero diagonal
elements Fpp has possessed the property of being nonsingular A strong Fpp
does ensure that the perturbations should be reasonably smooth. In other
words, it indicates that Fpp should work as a low pass filter. According to
Wiggins (1972), a judicious introduction of off-diagonal elements into Fbb
has the intended effect of polarising the eigenvalues of the problem into a
group of larger values and another group of smaller values. In the present
study, Fpp for MTS inversion problem is set up such that (i) the expected
parameter variability limits should be able to provide a satisfactory trade-
off between the resolution and estimation error of an estimate (ii) the computed
parameter perturbations provide smooth values and (iii) a satisfactory deltaness
criteria, to be explained shortly, may be obtained for the resolution matrix
computed for each inversion. For a N layered earth model (Fig. 1), if Pl,
P2 .... PN be the expected variations in resistivities and q, t 2. . . . ts-1 be the
expected variations in thickness the solution autocorrelation operator has
the diagonal representation as
Fpp = diag [p~,p92 ..... p~, t ~, t 2 .... t2_1] (4)

2 N 1 I N-1
Thus, Fpp may be generated.

The noise autocorrelation operator Fnn has the general representation as
Var (0-1) Cov(cr~,a~) ... Cov(0-~, o-p)

Cov (0"2, O"1) Var (0"2) ... Cov (0"2, O'p)
F/'/t/ (5)
Cov (o-p, (3"1) ... Var (o-p)
where al, a2 . . . . . aprC are standard deviations of the observed data. If the
assumption is made that the noise components of the data are uncorrelated
i.e., error in a data corresponding to a frequency, the noise autocorrelation
operator Fnn gets reduced to a diagonal matrix as
F,n = diag [or1, cr2. . . . . O'p]2 (6)
Thus, noise autocorrelation operator may be set up,

The resolution of the estimated parameters in MTS inversion problem is
given by the equation (Sarkar, 1988)
-1 A +
U = ( A T Fnn F~pl)_1A r F,,n
-1 A (7)
lln ?Ill
The degree to which the matrix U resembles an identity matrix is a

measure of the parameter resolution obtainable from the given data set.
Closeness of the rows showing unity on diagonals and zeros on the off-
diagonal elements is called the deltaness criteria of the resolution matrix.
The row elements of the resolution matrix are called the averaging kernels
that may also be regarded as windows through which the estimations of the
inversion problem may be viewed (Jackson, 1972).
F2,/*12 t2
t
PN.I,,UN.1 ~N-1
'°Nm,~N tN
t
Fig. 1
The total errors of the estimated parameters in MTS inversion problem

may be obtained from the equation given by (Jackson, 1979)
Cov (P) = (LA - I)Fee (LA - 1)7" + LFnnLT (8)
where P is the parameter vector being estimated, I is the q × q identity
matrix, (LA - / ) and Lr are the transposes of the matrices (LA - / ) and
L, respectively, and L is the minimum variance estimator (Jackson, 1979)
given as
Stochastic Inversion of Magnetotelluric Data 501
L = (A T F,-~IA + F~l) -' A r Fn-~IA (9)
The first term of Eq. (8) is the covariance of the resolution error of the
estimation vector and the second term is the covariance of the random error
(error propagated into the solution as a results of the noise content of the
data) of the estimation vector. Equation (8) may be simplified with the help
of the operator L as
Cov (p) = (A r F..A + F~plbb) -1 (10),
In Eq. (10), the diagonal elements are the variance terms of the estimation
vector P and the off-diagonal terms are the covariance terms of P.
The parameter correlation coefficients of an inversion problem may be
obtained from the equation given by (Sarkar, 1988)
Cov [ P]xz
cor [P]xz =[Cov (p)~2, Cov [P]:z1/2] (11)
It provides the parameter correlation coefficient between the Px and Pz

parameters. If Cov [P]zz .is nonzero then the parameters Px and Pz are
correlated. It shows that the value of the parameter Px affects the size of
the parameter Pz. On the other hand, if Cor [P]xz is near unity, the parameters
Px and Pz are strongly correlated and nearly linearly dependent.
Corresponding to any linear equation system appearing in an estimation
problem, it has been established by Minster et al (1974) that the symmetric
p x p matrix Y given as
Y = F-1/2A (ArF-1A)
- - n n ?In*-/'-
"-
A r F-1/2
"~ --nil
(12)
?In nn ?In
is an orthogonal projection operator. It has been shown by Minster et al

(1974) that the data importance of the mth data in an estimation problem
is [Y]mmand it satisfies the inequality 0 < [Y]mm < 1. Summation of all data
importance gives the number of independent linear combinations of the
data and if the problem is to be deterministic, this summation should equal
q, the Number of Independent Model Parameters (NIMP). It has been further
shown that data importance depend on the actual data values and they
weakly depend on the solution at which the system matrix A is evaluated.
The reduced chi-square (Z z) statistical criterion, used as a goodness of
fit test (Mills and Fitch, 1977) between the observed data and the theoretical
data corresponding to an estimated model obtained by inversion or otherwise,
is given by
P
Z 2 = ll(p - 1) ]E [gin(p, S m) - gin(P, S')]2/cr2., (13)
m=l
where gin(P, Sin), Crmand gm(P, S m) are the observed data, the corresponding
standard deviation and the theoretical data for an estimated model respectively
for the mth frequency S" in which S is a vector containing the frequencies.
In applying this criterion, it is assumed that the data are normally distributed
with zero mean and known variances in the presence of random errors
which fire also assumed to be normally distributed. If an accepted model is
to be acceptable, then
Z2 < 1 (14)
should hold good.
Inversion of MT Data
The theoretical apparent resistivity MTS curve (MTSI) is obtained
corresponding to parameters Pl = 40.0 ohm-m, P2 = 200.0 ohm-m, P3 =
40.0 ohm-m,/94 = 400.0 ohm-m, tl = 1.5 kin, t2 = 1.0 km and t3 - 3.0 km
for the frequencies 0.001, 0.003, 0.005, 0.007, 0.008, 0.01, 0.03, 0°04, 0.05,
0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 0.7, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0 and 7.0 Hz. The theoretical
apparent resistivities, thus obtained, are contaminated by random numbers
to the extent of about one percent of the corresponding theoretical values
to simulate noisy field data. The random numbers are obtained from a
pseudorandom number generator subroutine. The expected parameter
variability limits, appearing in the solution autocorrelation operator, are
taken as 18% and 43% of the corresponding a priori resistivities and
400
150
E
300
i?
24,0 0 ~
K
200
4
~..--
80
0 , I , ~ - ' - ' C
I 2 3 4 0 I 2 3 & 0 1 2 3 4
Iterations iterations IterQttons
Fig. 2
thicknesses respectively. Inversion of MTSI is initiated with a priori parameters

taken as Pl = 100.0 ohm-m, P4 = 300.0 ohm-m, t] = 1200.0 m, t2 = 700.0
m and t3 = 2000.0 m. At the fourth iteration, Z z criterion tums out to be
0.01. A priori parameters converge to the respective correct values barring
Pz, tl and t2 as shown in Fig. 2. On comparing actual P2, t] and t2 values
and the corresponding estimates obtained at the fourth iteration, it is found
that the estimated values.of the above mentioned parameters are 149.54 +
24.39 ohm-m, 1758.04 + 169.11 m and 869.73 + 101.27 m, respectively,
instead of the actual values 200.0 ohm-m, 1500.0 m and 1100.0 m,
respectively. Figure 3 displays the data (apparent resistivities) importance
1.00
o
~" 0,50
a
0.00
0-001 0.005 0.01
iI Ill
O,OS 0.I
Frequency ( H z )
0.S 1.0 2.0 7.0
Fig. 3
plotted along ordinate in linear scale against the correspondir/g frequencies

shown along abscissa in log scale. It is noted that the data corresponding
to frequencies 7.0 Hz and 2.0 Hz are quite important in the estimations of
near surface parameters Pl and t], as indicated by their high data importance
of 1.0 and 0.99, respectively. It is observed that the data importance show
small values for the frequency band 0.003 to 0.1 Hz. The data importance,
however, start increasing towards the low frequency part of the spectrum.
A data importance of 0.39 is found for the frequency 0.001 Hz. Thus, more
low frequency observations would improve parameter resolutions. On
summing up data importance for all the frequencies, NIMP for MTSI zs
found to be 7.0 i.e., the number of layer parameters in MTSI. Figure 4
a 61
i ~1:72,7t l-6]ohra-mt/~:ll
t1=175/LO/* i t 6 9 . 1 1 r n t
9.5~ .*21.19ohm,vn ~ /03 : . ~ 2 . 3 ~ . , 2 . ~ ~hm-m ~ Pg:/,¢toOtS. 58ohm-m
12~a6g.73!lOI.2?m,43=3059,$*,?~S.?(m ~nd X2:(101
1i • i i . , , , . , i i i , . . . , , I • , . • . , , . i , • 1 . . . . . 'I
e~o0~ 0~0t 0.1 1 !0
F r t q u i h c y ( ~il
Fig. 4
presents a good agreement between theoretical (noise-contaminated) apparent

resistivity values and the best-fit curve as expected since the introduced
noise level is small (only one percent). The optimally estimated parameters,
their error bounds and Z 2 criterion corresponding to the finally estimated
parameters are also presented here. The errors of the estimated parameters
are small (Table 1).
Table 1. Error components of the estimated parameters for MTSI
Estimation Resolution Random Total Estimation

Error Error Error
/91 0.87 ohm-m 1.37 ohm-m 1.62 ohm-m

/92 23.87 ohm-m 5.03 ohm-m 24.39 ohm-m
P3 2.58 ohm-m 1.22 ohm-m 2.86 ohm-m
/94 1.83 ohm-m 8.39 ohm-m 8.58 ohm-m
tl 163.16 m 44.44 m 169.11 m
t 96.03 m 29.00 m 101.27 m
t 255.54 m 74.79 m 266.26 m
For /91 and /94 estimates, the random errors exceed the corresponding
resolution errors. For the other parameters, the resolution errors exceed th~
corresponding random errors. The resolution error of 23.87 ohm-m in/92
estimation is high due to the poor resolution for P2 estimate. A study of the
correlation matrix of the estimated parameters (Table 2) indicates a strong
correlation between P3 and t3 having a correlation coefficient of 0.92.
The fl - t2 combination and tl - t3 combination show correlation coefficients
o f - 0 . 3 7 a n d - 0 . 4 5 , respectively. Correlation coefficients are rather
insignificant for the rest of the parameter combinations. The resolution
matrix of the estimated parameters (Table 3) shows good parameter resolutions
for Pl, P3, P4 and t3 estimates giving resolution values 0.98, 0.89, 0.95 and
0.91, respectively.
Table 2 Correlation-matrix of the estimated parameters for MTSI
Pl /92 P3 /04 tl t2 t3
1.0 - 0.31 - 0.21 - 0.01 0.35 - 0.32 - 0.23

1.0 - 0.28 - 0.02 - 0.12 - 0.17 - 0.06
1.0 0.02 - 0.21 - 0.34 0.92
1.0 0.08 0.02 O. 1 4
1.0 - 0.37 - 0.45
1.0 - 0.31
1.0
These values are given by the diagonal elements [U]11, [U]33, [U]44 and
[U]77 of the resolution matrix. The P2 estimate shows a poor resolution of
0.08 as given by the diagonal element [U]22 of resolution matrix. Therefore,
P2 estimation is in error.
Table 3 Resolution matrix of the estimated parameters for MTSI
0.98 0.02 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.04 0.08 0.27 0.0 0.01 0.03 0.0
0.0 0.03 0.89 0.0 0.0 0.01 - 0.01
0.0 0.01 - 0.01 0,9~ 0.0 0.0 0.0
- 0.32 0.07 0.14 - 0.14 0.31 0.41 0.18
0.18 0.24 0.12 - 0.01 0.15 0.28 0.07
0.34 0.26 - 0.18 - 0.12 0.21 0.09 0.91
The resolutions for h and t2 estimates are fair as indicated by their

resolution values. This resolution matrix is characterised by moderately
good deltaness criteria.
Conclusions
The fidelity of the estimated parameters is elegantly provided by the diagonal
elements as the resolution matrix, as explained earlier. In general, the
parameter resolutions in MTS inversion problem are good, barring the
instances of poorly resolved parameters brought about by the intrinsic
limitations of stochastic inversion or otherwise (Anderssen, 1975). A special
mention may be made of the possible attainments of local minima by the
iterating parameters. For all the soundings, the estimated resolution errors,
random errors and total estimation errors are small enough since stochastic
inversion has the specialty of giving more weightage to the minimisation
of parameter estimation errors, whereas general inversion technique improves
the parameter resolution at the sacrifice of the estimations. The total estimation
errors, in MTS inversion problems,~are found to be less than the corresponding
variability limits appearing in the solution autocorrelation operators of the
inversion problems. The data importance gives information distribution

associated with the observed data. It shows that some data carry more
information relative to the other data. The data importance may be used to
optimise data acquisition in the field. It implies that the data which contribute
to the importance over some minimal value should be collected. Stochastic
inversion, as applied to the MTS inversion problem, generally succeeded in
estimating the intended model parameters with varying grades of resolutions
and estimation errors.
References
Anderssen, R.S., 1975. On the inversion of global electromagnetic data: Phy. Earth Planet
Inter, V. 10, p. 292-298.
Frankline, J.N., 1970. Well-posed stochastic extension of ill-posed problems: J. Math. Anal.
Appl., V. 31, p. 682-716.
Jackson, D.D., 1979. The use of a priori data to resolve non uniqueness in linear inversion:
Geophys. J. Roy. Astr. Soc., V. 57, 19. 137-157.
Mills, J.M., and Fitch, T.J., 1977. Thrust faulting and crust upper mantle structure in East-
Australia: Geophys. J. Roy. Astr. Soc. V 48, p. 351-384.
Mir/ster, J.B., Jordan, T.H., Molnar, P. and Haines, E., 1974. Numerical modelling of
instantaneous plate tectonics: Geophys. J. Roy. Astr. Soc., V. 36, p. 541-576.
Sarkar, R.K., 1988. Stochastic inverse to optimal geosounding interpretation problems:
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis of ISM Dhanbad, India.
Wiggins, R.A., 1972. The general linear inverse problems implication of surface waves and
free oscillations on earth structure: Rev. Geophysics and Space Sc., V. 10~ p. 251-285.
30. Computational Efficiency of the Matrix

Method in the Inversion of Resistivity
Sounding Data
M. Israil, Sri Niwas and K.N. Khattri*
Earth Sciences,University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India
*Wadia Institute of HimalayanGeology,Dehradun-248001,India
Introduction
The success of geoelectrical data interpretation is intimately linked with
improvements in techniques for computing the functional relationship between
expected data and a partiCular contrived geoelectrical model. Extensive
reviews of various techniques of computations are available in Koefoed
(1979). With the development of convolution method of computations (Ghosh,
1971 a, 197 lb) the emphasis has shifted to automatic interpretation. Automatic
interpretations are carried out either in the resistivity domain (r-domain), or
alternatively in the kernel domain (A-domain). In A-domain interpretation
the kernel is first estimated from the observed apparent resistivity data and
then a comparison is made between this and the computed kernel for the
trial model. Recently developed matrix method (Sri Niwas and Israil, 1986,
1987a, 1987b, 1989 and Israil, 1988) present an alternative approach for
the geoelectrical computations.
This paper discusses the computational efficiency of the matrix method
by spectral analysis of the matrix operator using Singular Value
Decomposition. It has been shown that the matrix method is analogous to
the linear filter method at various computational stage yet it is efficient in
operation. The practical utility of the method has been shown for a few
synthetic and field data sets.
The Matrix Method

The expression for the potential difference between measuring electrodes
due to point current source and sink of strength I and - I respectively
impressed on a layered earth can be written using Stefanescu's (1930)
potential expression as
AV(r) = ~o T(A) [Jo(Ar) - Jo(Ar) dA ] (1)
Following Sri Niwas and Israil (1986, t987) and Israil, (1988) Eq. (1)
508 Israil et al
can be used to develop matrix equation by approximating the resistivity

transform function in the series form up to p terms
p
T(;~) = Zfie¢iZ; 50 = 0.0 (2)
i=0
as
R = GT (3)
and
R = S T (4)
(qxi) (qxq) (q×i)
where
S = G(EtE)-IE ' (5)
The column vectors are defined as follows
R = (pa(rl), pa(r2 .... pa(rq)) t

T = (TI(X), T2(/~) . . . . . Tq(Z)) T (6)
F =OCl, f2 .... )t
where t stands for transpose operation.
The element of matrix E are given by
e -¢iaj (i = 0, 1, 2 . . . . . p; j = 1, 2 . . . . . q) (7)
The elements of matrix G are derived from the appropriate G-function
given by, Sri Niwas and Israil (1986, 1987) as,
Gji ml_ [m rj/~i rnrj/~i ]

= - 1 (1 + (rj[~i)2) 112 - (1 + (mrj]~i)2) 112' (8)
for a symmetrical array; (m = 2.0, 1.1, oo for Wenner, Schlumberger and

two electrode configuration, respectively) and
Gji = [ (rj/~i)3 + (1- b) (rj/~i) ]

[1 + (rj/~i)2] 3/2 (9)
for a dipole array; (b = 0.0, 0.5, and 0.333 for azimuthal, radial and
perpendicular dipole configuration, respectively).
The method has been further extended (Sri Niwas and Israil, 1989) for
the transformation of apparent resistivity data from one electrode configuration
to the corresponding data in other electrode configuration
R A1 = G AI(GtA1GAI)-1 GtA2R A2 (10)

Computational Efficiency of the Matrix Method 509
where the apparent resistivity values RA2 for electrode array A2 are transformed
to the apparent resistivity values RA1 for the electrode array A 1.
Efficiency of the Matrix Method
(i) Appropriateness of approximation

The accuracy of the present technique depends upon the accuracy of the
approximation. Error may also arise due to finite word length in the particular
computer. Our goal is that the combined effect of truncated, generated and
propagated error (Householder, 1953) should be within a reasonable limit.
This may be achieved by using appropriate set of 5/values and the number
of terms in the exponential representation of the resistivity kernel function.
Efficient programming may further reduce the error. For the purpose of
assigning the suitable values to ffi some numerical trials were performed.
More efficient computations are performed when ~i are increased in a
geometrical progression with starting value of 0.2 and common ratio equal
to 2. In determining the resistivity kernel for various earth models the
values of ~i are kept same as determined above.
In the standard model form Eq. (4) can be written as
R = ST + • (11)
where d~represent truncation error with E(b') = 0, E(Stb") = creI and cr2 is
the variance of ~. S may be rank deficient, then least square inversion of
equation (11) may be written as
Z = (StS) -1 StR (12)
If the apparent resistivity values contain statistically independent error leading

to the generalised error a ' = # t a and corresponding error in resistivity
transform may be written i n t h e generalised form as fl' = /.t-la in the
direction. If kth principle axis it is given by
= ak, (13)
#k
or in the original axis form
flk = a__.Lk (14)

Pk
In general we observe btk > 1, thus the propagation of error will not diverge.
(ii) Resolution
For the in-depth study of efficiency of the matrix method, Eqs. (4) and (12)
may be written using singular value decomposition (SVD) of matrix S as
R = UpApV;T (15)
510 Israil et al
and
T = VpA-plU~pR (16)
respectively. Where Ap is a p × p diagonal matrix with eigenvalues (Bi) of

matrix S as its elements, Up is a p × p semi-orthogonal matrix with resistivity
eigenvectors of matrix SS t, ul, u2 ... Uq as columns and V.q is also a semi-
orthogonal matrix with kernel eigenvectors vl, v2 ... Vq of matrix SS t
forming columns of matrix V. The resolving power of the two matrix operators
S and (StS)S t in calculating the apparent resistivity values and resistivity
transform values, respectively, may be examined through the matrices UtU
and VtV. These matrices are identity matrix, hence the computation of
resistivity transform from apparent resistivity and vice-versa are reliable.
(iii) Linear tvflter analogy

The corresponding equations for three differentkind of filters can be written
in the form of discrete convolution integral (Koefoed, 1979) as
pa(Xj) = ~i aiT(yj - i A y ) (17)
T(yj) = Z cipa ( x j - i/t x) (18)
PaAl(Xj) = ~.~ biPaA2(X j - iA x) (19)

i
Here y = In A; x = In r; Ax and Ay are sampling intervals of apparent
resistivity function and resistivity transform function, respectively; ai, c i
and bi are inverse, direct and transform filter coefficients, respectively.
Filter coefficients are obtained by sampling the sinc response of the appropriate
filter function and their number depends on the length and sampling rate.
An analogy with the matrix method have been discussed by Wiggins (1976)
and Israil (1988). The system matrix S characterises a physical system in
a similar way as the impulse response function characterises a linear digital
filter. Singular value decomposition (SVD) of S matrix is analogous to the
decomposition of impulse response function of an ordinary linear filter in
terms of sinusoides (eigenvectors) having various amplitude (eigenvalues):
The important difference between these two systems lies in terms of a
• , , J
elgenvector charactensatxon. In the filter theory input and output eigenvector

are same (e/c°t) whereas in the system represented by matrix equation they
generally are different in the input and output spaces. For computational
point of view S matrix can be generated by simply inverting a matrix and
subsequent mlaltiplication of two matrices. The size of these matrices depends
upon the number of abscissa points and the number of exponent terms
included in the exponential approximation of resistivity kernel.
Singular Value Analysis (SVA) of S Matrix

The matrix method can be used for any special abscissa distribution of the
data without sampling or smoothing. We have examined sampling rates of
3, 4, 5, 6 and 10 per decade and found that the accuracy remains more or
less at the same level. As such the sampling rates of 3 sample per decade
are taken for further analyses. The rank of S matrix (or number of
nonvanishing eigenvalues is the number of basis function used in the
expansion of the kernel function• Figure 1 presents the SVA of S matrix
(Schlumberger) for half current electrode separation of 1000 m giving 10
sample points using sampling interval of 1/3 lnl0. Nine values of ~i are
Resistivity elgenvector e[gen v a l u e s Kernel elgenvector

÷1
~111 I , ~u ~ = 7'9122171 I I i
0
,i 1 I '1''
-4"1/-1
,, I 1 , /.I.2 =6•4191504 I
o I ' ' I 1 I J' '
-i ,+~
I . 1 • [ !
~u 3 =5•3462614
0 t
+l,-!
! I ~u4 =4'5127104 I
0 j i l
I
-I,÷~
, I ,u S = 5 ' 7 7 0 6 0 6 1 I 1
0 I t I t '1 I ,
+lt-I
I i ,u6 =5"1236071 I , , I I
0 I' I z
-1#t
o
....
,, I I i ,u 7 = 2 . 6 0 1 6 7 4 5
I I ~
I I I
' I
-{"I~- I
I I I , ~ 8 = 2.2486316
0
, I, I,~ ....
'I '1
-I,+~
, ~llt ,I ,u 9 = 2 . 0 6 3 5 9 0 0 , ~ I l l l l l
0
o~,~o~oF~o 0"2 ~ o ~ , o ~ _"2o

~ o ~ o
ff~O 0
"¢ 0
Abscissa values Abscissa values
Fig. 1 Spectral decomposition of S matrix for Schlumberger configuration.

512 Israil et al
chosen as i(1/3.5 lnl0) and C0 = 0.0. Using same set of ~i and sampling
rates SVA of all the matrix operator are carried out. The condition number
(U0 =/-q//.t0) for a few commonly used electrode configurations are presented
in Fig. 2. The particular aspect of eigenvalue eigenvector diagram is that
they indicate which apparent resistivity eigenvector or a linear combination
, 20[ I Rodiol d;pole
~1oL- 2 Schlumber ger
8F 3 w,o°.r i/"
E 6F 4 TWo electrode /-/
I
2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 t0
E i g e n v a i u e number
1 ln(lO)
AX : "~
Fig. 2 Condition number of $ matrices.
of the eigenvector are associated with largest eigenvalue. The resistivity
eigenvectors associated with the largest eigenvalue, points chiefly in the
direction of small electrode spacing whereas the smallest significant eigenvalue
having associated eigenvector which point chiefly in the direction of largest
spacings. In all the S matrices we get the nine significant eigenvalues, and
one almost zero eigenvalue whose associated eigenvector are excluded in
further computations for controlling error magnification. We get the highest
value of the first eigenvalue for dipole case which is almost twice as large
as for the Schlumberger case and thrice as large as for the Wenner
configuration. This has a relevance to the noise sensitivity of dipole and
Schlumberger configurations to near surface inhomogeneities. We observed
that the matrix operator S may be classified as well conditioned for all the
electrode configurations. However, they may be ranked in order of merit as
Wenner, Schlumberger, dipole. Pole-pole array may be placed inferior to
Schlumberger, due to the fact that the ninth eigenvalue is less than unity
which may decreases reliability in case of error prone data.
Sum of the reciprocals of the eigenvalues of matrix S are ]~/.t [l = 2.939,
2.589, 5.207 and 12.023, respectively, for Wenner, Schlumberge~, pole-pole
and radial dipole configurations. On the basis of our practical experience
o-2 lies in the range 10-9-10-12, the expected square distance of the estimated
and true T remains well within the acceptable limits. Therefore, the
estimation of resistivity transform function from apparent resistivity function
using matrix method is reliable, the propagation of error would be controlled
at the same level of observational error.
AX 2AX 3AX 4AX 5AX 6AX 7AX 8AX 9AX

0 + + 1' I 1 I J f I
+ ~ t + + -~
• • • ÷ •
Using Ghosh fTIter
lb-
+
+
~ -4- + •
u
o_ ÷ ÷ + Using m a t r i x method
o •
0 Using schlumberger data for
.J
-8 • Model" ,°=1~0.2~ 0 - 0 5 ; d = 1~25
+ M o d e l ' P = I~ 2% 0.1~ I ; d = I~ 2~3
-I0
.Fig. 3 E r r o r c o m p a r i s o n with filter m e t h o d
0 Model P= 1 , 0 . 2 , 0 . 0 5 Model P = I 25,5

d = 1,25 -"-~_ d = 1,4
-I
%%%
E -4
o L__- r - domain
o~-5
-J
i ,x - domai~ \~
-6
-7 I I I I I lift I I ! I I I I
I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Iteration number
0 -__.~ Model ~ = 1,0.1, I ~ ~ Model p=1,5,20

~ d = 1,4 "- d =1,15
-=- -I
0
>
-2
\
t.
0-3
.°~
J -4
-5 t I t t t |// I I I I I I I, I, t
I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Iteration number
Fig. 4
514 Israil et al
E
m
o~
o
• '
: /
• o
o
i ~.
0
0
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
o
0
- o
0
0 u~.,O.,O~ ) ± ~ D~ ~u-o-,(¥) 1 ~ oj
tf~
1-.
0
o
0
0~ J
J "t
m
(
o
(
0
0 o 0
0 o 0 0 0
0 -- 0
o
0 0 -
0
Let us next examine the cost factor in using the matrix method in resistivity
computations. The computation of S matrix is analogous to the computation
of since response of the filter function in the convolution method. The
subsequent process is the convolution in both the methods and depends on
filter length/size of the matrix and number of data points. The error in the
estimation of the resistivity transform function from Schlumberger apparent
resistivity data using matrix method (no. of ~l = 9) and obtained using the
12 points filter (Ghosh, 1971) for the two different models are shown in
Fig. 3.
Several theoretical examples of the multilayered model of earth have
been interpreted in r- and J,-domains. A few examples are presented in
Fig. 3 using ridge regression schemes for three and four layered-earth
models. The algorithm iteratively works until the specified level of
convergence is obtained or the number of iteration exceeds the predefined
limit. Since the theoretical data contain no noise (except due to finite word
size) a very small rms error.is desired. Here for normalised data it is of the
order of 10-3 or less, which produces the final model parameters within an
accuracy of 0.0t per cent in earth parameter. Convergence obtained in the
two domain are plotted in Fig. 4. Field sounding taken at Khara power
House Badshahi Bagh (VES-1) and Bhagwanpur, Roorkee (VES-2), district
Sharanpur, U.P., India for the Schlumberger configuration have been
interpreted. Since field data may contain noise the rms error obtained are
0.041, 0.07 and 0.01 and 0.017 in r-domain and A-domain, respectively, for
normalised data. Figure 5 shows the match of observed and theoretical data
in the two domains along with interpreted models.
The matrix method is efficient and accurate alternative in all type of
resistivity computations. This may be used to develop automatic interactive
package, which may extensively be used for the interpretation of resistivity
data. This technique has a potential for the expansion to deal with 1D
electromagnetic data.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Prof. V.K. Gaur for his inspiration. Financial
support for this work provided by CSIR is thankfully acknowledged.
References
Ghosh, D.E, 1971a. The application of linear filter theory to the direct interpretation of
geoelectrical resistivity measurements. Geophys. Prospect., 19, 192-217.
Ghosh, D.E, t971b. Inverse filter coefficient for the computation of apparent resistivity
standard curves for a horizontally stratified earth. Geophys.Prospect., 19, 769-775.
Householder,A.S., 1953. Principle of numerical analysis. McGraw-HiltBook Co.
Israll, M., 1988.Matrix methodfor the interpretation of direct current resistivitydata: Ph.D.
thesis, Roorkee University.
516 Israil et al
Koefoed, 0., 1979. Geosounding principles. Elsevier Publishing Co.

Sri Niwas and Israil, M., 1986. Computation of apparent resistivities using an exponential
approximation of kernel function. Geophysics, 51, 1594-1602.
Sri Niwas and Israil, M., 1987a. A simple method of interpretation of resistivity sounding
data using exponential approximation of the kernel function. Geophys. Prospect., 35,
548-567.
Sri Niwas and Israil, M., 1987b. A simple method of interpreting dipole resistivity soundings,
Geophys., 52, 1412-1417.
Sri Niwas and Israil, M., 1989. Matrix method for the transformation of resistivity sounding
data of one electrode configuration to that of another configuration. Geophys Prospect.,
37, 209-221.
Stefanescu, S.S. (in collaboration with Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger), 1930. Sur la
distribution electrique antour d'une prise deterre ponctuelledoms un terrain a counha
horizontales homogenes et isotropes, Le Journal de Physique et le Radium, 7, series 1.
Wiggins, Ralph A., 1976. Residual statics analyses as a general linear inverse problem.
Geophysics, 41,922-938.
VI
Transient Electromagnetics
31. Application of Ground Transient EM

Systems in Geophysical Exploration
Ajit K. Sinha
Mineral ResourcesDivision, Geological Surveyof Canada, 601 Booth Street,
Ottawa, Canada
Introduction
Transient electromagnetic (TEM) systems have been used in exploration
since 1950s. However, they gained widespread popularity only after the
commercial systems such as the USSR-made MPPO-1, Australian-made
Sirotem and the Canadian-made Crone PEM and Geonics EM-37 became
available in the 1970s (Buselli and O'Neill, 1977; Crone, 1977; McNeill,
1980). All these systems use a rectangular pulse as the excitation source
and a rectangular ungrounded loop as the transmitter. Another system called
UTEM (West et al, 1984), developed in Canada shortly thereafter uses a
saw tooth current pulse. The systems have undergone several updates since
their introduction and can operate with several base frequencies and record
decay parameters for several tens of milliseconds starting a few microseconds
after the current turn-off. Recently, a new system called LOTEM (Long
Offset TEM) has been developed for very decp exploration, e.g., crustal
investigations and hydrocarbon exploration. The method uses a long linear
cable, several km long as the transmitter and field decays are recorded at
distances of several km from the transmitter. The depth of investigation is
of the order of the transmitter-receiver separation and compares favourably
with those from magnctotelluric and seismic methods.
The EM group at the Geological Survey of Canada has carried out
extensive tests with the Geonics EM-37 and the Sirotem systems (in
collaboration with BGR, Germany) to assess the potentials and limitations
of these systems for sounding and mapping. This paper will highlight some
of the results obtained at various locations in Canada.
The Soundings
For all of our work, TEM soundings were done in the in loop sounding
mode using square loop transmitters with side lengths from 150 to 500 m
depending on the depth penctration desired. Using the Geonics EM-37
system with two base frequencies of 3 and 30 Hz, decay voltages could be
recorded at 30 time channels from 0.087 to 71 ms after the current turn-
off. Thc receiver consists of a small multiturn loop and was located at the
520 Sinha
centre of the transmitter loop, where the decay of the vertical component
of the induced magnetic field is recorded. The vertical component of the
late time (when the current system flowing in the ground has stabilized)
decay voltages near the centre of the loop is relatively insensitive to small
errors in position and orientation. Normally, a number of readings are stacked
before recording and the average of several readings are taken to reduce the
d.c. bias and improve the signal/noise ratio. From the decay amplitudes,
late time apparent resistivities are computed for each channel which are
plotted against channel time for visual inspection and graphical interpretation
(McNeill, 1980; Sinha, 1983, 1990). Sounding data are normally interpreted
using an inversion routine (Anderson, 1982), which also provides a measure
of the reliability of the interpretation in the form of an RMS error.
Permafrost Environments
Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground covers much of Canada north of
the 60 ° parallel. The presence of permafrost in the ground alters the mechanical
properties of the ground, especially if the permafrost thaws because of a
rise in ground temperature.
Thus, its presence and extent must be known before undertaking any
engineering construction work in northern Canada. In the Richards Island
area of Northwest Territories, Canada, bore hole temperature measurements
in several holes indicated a sharp decrease in permafrost thickness from 700
m to about 100 m over a distance of 25 kin. Hence TEM soundings were
135"35' 134,*Z*0"
Fig. 1
Grand Transient EM Systems in Geophysical Exploration 521
done on a 25 km long profile to obtain detailed information about the depth

and distribution of permafrost. Figure 1 shows the location of the area and
the survey profile.
TEM soundings were done at intervals of about 1.5 km using square
transmitter loops with side dimensions of 150 m and 450 m at each site.
The data from the small and large loops were jointly interpreted such that
the interpreted model satisfied both sets of data. Figure 2 shows the composite
interpretation on the line, the numbers indicating resistivity values in ohm-
m. Permafrost (high resistivity material) is less than 100 m thick west of
the river channel and is underlain by unfrozen sediments (low resistivities).
The permafrost thickness, however, increases sharply east of the channel.
The soundings indicate the presence of a thin unfrozen layer at about 100
m depth at all stations east of the river. This may indicate a zone that had
thawed because of the close proximity to warm lakes or rivers and subsequent
refreezing of the top segment. Some of the sounding curves exhibit scattering
of data points, perhaps reflecting the presence of lateral inhomogeneities
due to the complex geological history of the area.
DISTANCE FROM STATION 1 (kin)
0 2.0 L,.0 6.0 0.0 10.0 !2.0 ~.0 1 6 . - 0 18.0 20.0 22.0 2&.0 26.0
i i i i ! | , i t i i ! j
A E.H. SOUNOIN5 STATIONS $
O
2 ... 3
. j .
~I 5l. . . . . 6I . . 7I tlI 9 10 11I
12
|,
13 1~
I
15 16 17
, !
100- ~ : - .,CIh (~m n, e ."~"~"

\ ' ./. . .~'',. \ / j ~ -/ ~~ / / j Tj /' j~ / ' "]~ - ' -. - - /. ~. ./ ' / / / ~ / ~ / '
200 """ . . . . "'"'"": " ~

,
E
300- :'-:':,'.:~.'-2 ~ .~: ." .
t-
/.,00" ""
500" ~ Frozen ground
s00- ~ U.f,oz.n g,ou.. ....

" : """ :"'" "" ::" :3"~,~":'; "" .. 4
700 ~ Unfrozen ground (clay and =and ? )
Fig. 2
Unfrozen Environments
TEM soundings were conducted at several locations over the gently slgping
paleozoic sedimentary formations of Southern Ontario. Since overburden
covers most of the ground, previous subsurface geological maps Were prepared
based on information from a limited number of drill holes. Geologists had,
however, suspected for a long time that many structural features like folds
and faults are present in the area, whose locations were not known. TEM
soundings were done to examine if stratigraphic mapping is possible in
areas of concealed bedrock or when drill holes are sparsely distributed.
522 Sinha
WF%T
E 200
z MSL
o
C--2oo
~-400
1. Saline Fm (dolomite with shale, gypsum) 7. Meaford-Dundos Fm (shale with limestone

2. Guelph Fm (dolomite) and dolomite)
3. Guelph Fm (dark brown bituminous 8. Blue Mountain Fm (bituminous shale)
dolomite) 9. Trenton Gp., Coburg Rm (limestone with
4. Amabel Gp (dolomite with bioherm reefs) minor shales)
5. Cataract Gp (shale with dolomite) 10. Black River Gp (linestone with silts
6. Queenston Fm (red shale and mudstone)
Fig. 3
Figure 3 shows a generalized geological section near Kitchener, about

100 km west of Toronto, based on information from a number of drill holes
in the area. Seventeen deep EM soundings were done along the profile to
obtained a more precise subsurface map. Figure 4 shows a section of the
same area obtained from TEM soundings. While the general trend of the
formations is still the same, there are indications of two possible faults
between stations 1 and 2, and 5 and 6. At the eastern end, east of the
escarpment, the top layer is shown to be resistive. The simplified geologica~
section, however, shows the top layer to be a shale formation in this area
and hence conductive. This anomalous result can be explained by the presence
of a fault between stations 13 and 14, or by a fold. Furthermore, the interface
PROFILE B
SurfaceTopography
WEST1 2 3 4 5 67 89 1011 121J /
"' - I 0 0 i ....... I
• 'Sounding Station
(b)
4 '~ ~ ~ r n B/_Lue.~ .......
i loo+--',.~
• .. t-.',
J ~ ' .
J - ~ - - ' - ' ~ - , ~ ~ : o ~ , "'..
F
M=,q , .- . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . "---'-t
-100
~ ~- Possible f a u l t s
Interpreted inter face 0 5 10 km
.... Possible interfoce
- - ! - Uncertain interface
Fig. 4
between the second and third layer is not detected east of the escarpment.
The resistivity of the second layer at the eastern end seems to fall in the
range of the second layer resistivity west of the escarpment. Similar surveys
at other locations to Southern Ontario have detected the presence of folds,
faults, grabens and structures that resemble salt domes. Hence, TEM soundings
have helped in precise stratigraphic mapping of the areas by revealing the
presence of structures, unknown previous to our work.
TEM Profilings
Systematic surveys over several deep sulphide conductors were carried out
in Canada to examine the usefulness of TEM methods in mineral exploration.
Figure 5 shows the surface projection of a large zinc-copper deposit, the
Winston Lake deposit in NW Ontario near the town of Thunder Bay. The
deposit is the form of a steeply-dipping plate, dipping 50 ° ENE, with an
average thickness of 6 m, length and breadth of 800 m and 350 m, and
plunge of 25°N. The ore-zone contains about 65% sulphides with about
33% sphalerite, 21% pyrrhotite, 8% pyrite and 3% chalcopyrite. A peripheral
zone of less conductive material surrounds the main deposit as shown in
the diagram. The deposit occurs in a highly resistive host rock consisting
mostly of massive metavolcanics and metasediments. A 1000 m × 500 m
transmitter loop was placed over the deposit (Figure 5) and the surveys
were made on three survey lines using two instruments, Geonics EM-37
and Sirotem IL Vertical and horizontal components of the decay voltages
were recorded with the two receivers using the same transmitter loop.
Figure 6 shows the corrected decay responses in horizontal and vertical
directions on line 10,000 N for the 15th channel (2.2 ms) of the EM-37
using a 30 Hz base frequency and the late time computed response over a
model consisting of two distinct conductors. The agreement between the
field and computed response is good in the central and western part of the
profile, but deteriorates towards the east. This is possibly due to the presence
of stray conductors in the ground which have not been considered in the
modelling. The interpretation presented in Table 1 shows the main conductor
(#1) which agrees well with the information from drill holes. The existence
of the second conductor at a depth of 40 m was not known previously.
However, a well-known fault zone which is water saturated exists at this
location and conductor #2 probably reflects the fault zone. The model is by
no means unique and several similar models are possible. However, this
model is consistent with known geology.
In areas of conductive overburden, the TEM methods have not been so
successful in detecting finite conductors at large depth. For example, a
TEM survey over a massive conductor, at a depth of 400 m near Matagami,
Quebec, failed to detect the conductor primarily because a layer of clay
(20-30 m thickness) covers the area. A computer simulation showed that
the conductor under 30 m of clay will not be detectable with a base frequency
524 Sinha
N
10700 N
•
500 x 1000m
LOOP
!
10400 N
10200N
1001
°
l!":';_
.. : ,%"
9700N
gS00N
Z ~,', Z
8 8
0
~ Surface projection of deposit,

-Conductive-zone pheripheral to massive sulphide
Fig. 5 Winston Lake survey grid
of 30 Hz if the clay conductivity was 0.1 S/m (estimated from drill logs)
or if the thickness of the clay was variable. Presence of conductive overburden
can therefore severely limit the depth penetration of TEM systems.
Table 1 Interpreted dimensions of the two conductors on line 10,000 N, Winston
Lake grid transmitter loop Size: 500 x 1000 m
Conductor 1 Conductor 2
Location 9900 E Location 10175 E

Strike 30 ° NNW Strike 20 ° NNW
Dip 50 ° ENE Dip 50 ° ENE
Plunge 25 ° N Plunge 20 ° N
Length 1000 m Length 500 m
Depth extent 375 m Depth extent 200 m
Depth to top 200 m Depth to top 40 m
Conductance 8.3 S Conductance 8 S
Conclusions
Much of the research and development in ground EM systems in the last
ten years has been directed towards the development of TEM systems. This
is because of the recognition that transient measurements, normally measured
in the absence of a primary field offer superior data quality compared to

frequency-domain measurements (FEM), which involve measurement of a
small secondary field in the presence of a much larger primary field. The
late time TEM measurements are also insensitive to small errors in position
and orientation of the receiver coil in the "in-loop" sounding technique.
! . t i v
Line =I()000N . ~o,. Field volu~,s
8 C h a n n e l : I S ( 2 . 2 0 3 ms~ Computed volu~
Loopsize: 500 xlO00 m ~ 1 = 15A
m 2
Z X Z
o 0
Q.
~ -L, Z~ ~ I ~..... I , I
98~00E t0000E 10200E 10/~00E
STATION POSITIONS ( m )
9900E 10175E
I ........... | L i n e 10000N
,I ~Conductor 2
I
Co n d u c t o r 1
Fig. 6
This makes TEM measurements more practical than FEM measurements

from field operation point of view. The TEM measurements are particularly
useful in areas of high surface conductivity. Modelling has shown that the
optimum time for detection of a finite target is over a time window at
which the target response is greater than the response from the overburden
and host rock. Using TEM systems with variable base frequencies, one can
take measurements over that window, although signal/noise deteriorates at
long decay periods.
Two developments, one instrumental, and the other in interpretation seems
to offer the most promise for TEM surveys in the near future. The Long
Offset TEM (LOTEM) system (Strack et al, 1989) developed in Australia
and Germany offers very deep penetration, of the order of several kms.
Since the system measures both electric and magnetic fields, it is ideal for
detecting both resistive and conductive targets. A recent inl~erpretation method
called ground conductivity imaging (Macnae and Lamontagne, 1987) offers
a new technique for presenting TEM results as depth images of the subsurface,
much like a seismic reflection section. This method bypasses the old route
of interpreting individual soundings at every station and can be handled
routinely. The present depth imaging software currently works with the
layered ground model, but efforts should be made to extend the technique
to interpret finite conductors as well.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to my two colleagues, the Late L.E. Stephens and Derek
526 Sinha
Gresham, formerly with the Geological Survey of Canada, for help in carrying
out TEM surveys at many locations. I also thank Ms S. Davis for drafting
the diagrams and Mrs. M.L. Wilson for typing the manuscript.
References
Anderson, W.L, USGS Open File Rep. 82-1129, 35p (1982). Buselli, G. and O'Neill, B.,
Bull. Australian S.E.G., 8, 82-7 (1977).
Crone, J.D., Bull. Australian S.E.G., 8, 38-42 (1977).
Macnae. J, and Lamontagne, Y., Geophysics, 52, 545-554 (1987).
McNeill, J.D., Geonics Tech. Note TN-7, 17 p. (1980).
Sinha, A.K., In: Uranium Exploration in the Athabasca Basin, Canada (ed. E.M. Cameron),
GSC Paper 82-11,273-280 (1983).
Sinha, A.K., Geophysics, 55, 1148-1157 (1990).
Strack, K.M., Hanstein, T.H. and Eilenz, H.N., Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,
53, 261-269 (1989).
West, G.E, Macnae, J.C. and Lamontagne, Y., Geophysics, 49, 1010-1026 (t984).
32. Diffusion of an Electromagnetic

Pulse in a Heterogeneous Earth
Saurabh K. Verma
National GeophysicalResearchInstitute, Hyderabad-500007, India
Introduction
The transient (or time-domain) methods of electromagnetic prospecting
exploit the diffusion of an electromagnetic pulse in to the earth. An
understanding of the involved diffusion process is useful in selecting optimum
survey parameters for a given geological setting. In frequency domain, the
corresponding problem can be solved by image theory exploiting the validity
of the quasi-static approximation for distances larger than the skin depth in
the earth but smaller than the wavelength (Wait, 1969; Wait and Spies,
1969; Thomson and Weaver, 1970; and Weaver, 1971). For example, for a
uniformly conducting half-space the secondary fields due to a vertical
magnetic dipole can be approximated by a negative image at a depth, D,
given by
D=h o +(1-i) tr/.tto (1)
where i = a/S]-, h0 = height of the dipole, to = 2~rf(fbeing the frequency),

and ty,/~ = conductivity and permeability of the half-space, respectively.
In the time-domain case, current pulses of alternating polarity, normally
separated in time are injected into the ground (with the exception of the
UTEM system which uses continuous triangular pulses). The response of
the earth is recorded after the transmitter current is abruptly switched off.
At this instant (when t = 0+), the initial currents are confined only to the
surface, irrespective of the subsurface distribution of conductivity because
the response is close to the inductive limit. The currents are localized in the
proximity of transmitter and follow the geometry similar to that of the
transmitting loop. With the passage of time, however, the quasi-static
conditions are satisfied and diffusion becomes the dominant physical process.
The currents induced at the surface start to diffuse into the deeper parts of
the earth decaying in intensity and moving outward with time. In addition
to time, this diffusion of currents is also controlled by the subsurface
distribution of conductivity.
In this paper, the diffusion phenomenon is studied for uniform, layered,
528 Verma
and two- and three-dimensional earth models comprising geological
inhomogeneities. In the following sections the results obtained for these
models by various workers are reviewed and analyzed to evolve a general
understanding of the diffusion process in different earth situations.
(A) Uniform and Layered Earth

For a homogeneous or horizontally stratified earth the induced surface
currents retain the exact shape of the transmitting loop. Thus the currents
diffusing into the earth also reflect approximately similar shape. For example,
for circular loop and rectangular transmitters, the shapes of the diffusion
currents migrating downward and outward with time are shown in Fig. 1(a)
and (b).
The transient electric fields in a half space were studied by Lewis and
Lee (1978). Nabighian (1979) described the subsurface diffusion of .currents
as 'smoke rings' blown by the transmitter. For a uniformly conducting half-
space excited by a step current ~n a vertical magnetic dipole, the vertical
(Vz) and horizontal (VH) velocities of the migration of 'smoke rings' are
given as
Vz=~-~¢rt = 1.12838 ~ a/~t

1 (2)
and VH = 1.0455 .[ 1
V a/.tt
(3)
The velocity with which the current filaments move out radially can be
written by combining Eqs. (2) and (3) as
Vp = ~ z + V~
or, = 1.53828~ crb/t

1 (4)
It may be noted that these velocities are functions of time, varying as t-lr2.
Thus, initially the velocities are high but reduce significantly with increasing
time as shown in Fig. 2.
Another noteworthy aspect of the diffusion process is that the peak of
the 'smoke rings' system broadens and looses its sharpness With time. This
is shown qualitatively in Fig. 3 for the 'smoke rings' system generated by
a vertical magnetic dipole in a uniform half space. The numerical values in
the figure are arbitrary and given only to illustrate relative variations.
Nabighian (1979) further showed that the amplitude of the current decays
as t-1, while for large times the horizontal and the vertical components of
the magnetic field decay as t-2 and t-3n, respectively, in agreement with
the results by Wait and Ott (1972). In the field, however, the receiver coil
Diffusion of an Electromagnetic Pulse 529
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1 (a) 'Smoke rings' due to a circular loop transmitter at the surface of the
earth. (b) 'Smoke rings' due to a rectangular loop transmitter at the surface
of the earth.
measures the induced voltage which is the time derivative of the magnetic
field component. Therefore the decay of the emf for the horizontal and
vertical components is proportional to t-3 and t-5/2. This results in a more
complicated geometrical relationship (Boyd, 1980) between the field
530 Verma
components recorded at the surface and the location of the equivalent current
filament proposed by Nabighian. Contours of the current density in the
'smoke rings' of current induced in a uniform earth by a step current in a
transmitting loop of dimensions 400 x 800 m, at four different times are
shown in Fig. 4. T!3e radial migration of the 'smoke ring' centers takes
place at an approximate angle of 30 ° while for the equivalent current filaments
this angle is 47 °. For the time-derivative (emf) measurements, Silic (1987)
showed that the subsurface current system comprises two-'smoke rings' of
opposite sign (Fig. 5). These two 'smoke rings' diffuse in a manner similar
to those shown in Fig. 4. The main contribution to the field measurements
comes from the 'smoke rings' system closer to the receiver.
DIFFUSION VELOCITIES
7-
p-lO00
p-lO0
6
"7
E p-10
p-1
0
,.d
v,
., .........
v.
3
-5 -'~ :3 :2 -'i ~ 1
L O G (t) (sec)
Fig. 2 Vertical (V=), lateral (VH)and radial (Vp) diffusion velocities as a function
of time, in a uniform half-space for various resistivity values.
For a magnetic ground, Ignetik (1992) studied the influence of permeability

contrast on the direction and position of the maximum of the induced
toroidal current density pattern in the earth using an asymptotic approximation.

He showed that the maximum (center of the 'smoke rings' system) moves
on a steeper cone as the permeability,/.tr, of the earth is increased (Fig. 6).
DISTANCE (KM)
0 05 1 1,5
10 ps R~elative Intensity
25 ps
l d 0. . 10-5
75 PSl
0,5
v
v
750 ps
-I-
2500/Js
> i
ILl
r~
p = 1 0 0 f2m
1,5
Fig. 3 Broadening of an electromagnetic pulse with time as it diffuses into the
e a r t h . Figure is schematic and values are arbitrary---shown only to present
relative v a r i a t i o n s .
In a layered earth the diffusing current system is similar to that in a half

space. However, in individual layers the velocity and attenuation are governed
by the parameters of the layer. Results for layered earth are presented by
Hoversten and Morrison (1982), Strack et al (1989) and Strack (1992). A
comparison of the induced diffusion currents for a uniform and a two-layer
earth (Strack, 1992) is presented in Fig. 7. For a conducting sandwiched
layer in a less conducting half space (Hoversten and Morrison, 1982), it is
interesting to note (Fig. 8) that a current center is induced in the conducting
layer, remains within it and travels away from the source with increasing
time.
532 Verma
DISTANCE (rex100)
1o.~C4 8 t2 16
',)// '
F x10"eAm-Z 8 ~ , x lo-7
!
0 12~ t = O.OlsmS" 12l- _t = O.Ism$"
0 cr G
LOOP' 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 LOOP 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
X 0.. I' I I = = 1 ~ 0--
E
-r
zo ~
28 t = 1.6sinS"
G
Fig. 4 Current-density contours of the subsurface 'smoke rings' at different times

in a uniform earth due to a 400 × 800 m loop at the surface (modified after
Nabighian, 1979).
DISTANCE ('M)
o) 500 ,ooo
n
500 / / ,'
/ / t, . . . - l / /
w / t . ~00
% /
t - 2.5 cr2a4~ ~~E x I0 ~

crl t a 2
1000 ~ I
Fig. 5 Contours of the time-derivatives of the 'smoke ring' system in

Fig. 4 (modified after Silic, 1987).
(B) T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l E a r t h
For the two-dimensional earth model some results are presented here using
the program 'TOTEM' (Verma, 1984)--a modification of the program written
Tx-Rx
4 8 12 16 20 r
! ! l i I
/At " - - 3
I1
0 #,-=1
10
= 100
crpa 2
2
Fig. 6 Changes in the location of 'smoke ring' centers for various values of the
permeability of a uniform earth. Z and F are the normalized coordinates
of the cylindrical coordinate system (r, ¢, z) and a is the loop radius (modified
after Ignetik, 1992).
by Oristaglio (see Oristaglio and Hohmann, 1984). 'TOTEM' includes the

effect of ramp function excitation and finite receiver channel width. In
addition some aspects of the original program that caused substantial error
and instability were corrected. These include:
HALF-SPACE TWO-LAYER EARTH
200 fLm p, = 200 f2.nz, p~ = 2000 fLm,

h, = 3000 In
GROUNDED WIRE
DIPOLE "~k
"1"
~km
cI ......" iii
-6 km 6 km
Fig. 7 Comparison of the diffusing 'smoke rings' due to a grounded wire dipole
on a uniform and a two-layer earth. The dashed contours represent opposite
polarity (modified after Strack, 1992).
(1) Selection of optimum time step." The program solves the diffusion
equation directly in time-domain using a finite difference time-stepping
solution. If the time step is chosen too small, the error made in ignoring
534 Verma
MODEL
p, = 5 0 ~ . m , p~ = 1 ~2.m, p, = 50 ~2.m
h,=50m, h.=50m
200 300 400
°1\ ~)')/'/
"oot//////,d
[a) t • LO (b) t • I0 (¢} t - 1 5
/////,/.~
(((( ( ~((( ( (-,..~
I
-Z_
(all t - 2 0 (el t - 3 0 if} t s40
Fig. 8 Subsurface induced electric fields in a 3-layer earth (modified after Hoversten
and Morrison, 1982).
displacement currents becomes important and can lead to erroneous solutions.

If the initial time-step is too big, a n error results from lack of sufficient
time discretization in much the same way as if inter-nodal spacings are
chosen too big in the spatial finite difference solutions. The optimum time-
stepping depends on the conductivity of the host.
(2) Revising the transmitter calculation: Comparison with an analytic
model has shown that calculating the effect of transmitting cables
simultaneously leads to significant late time errors. 'TOTEM' overcomes
this problem.
For the time ranges of practical interest, the Maxwell's equations are
shown to reduce to the diffusion equation. For a two-dimensional source
the pertinent diffusion equation is solved numerically using the central
difference in space and the Dufort-Frankel averaging in time. This time-
averaging, by virtue of its explicit nature, avoids any inversion of large
matrices, and thus provides an efficient and reasonably fast way to solve
the diffusion equation in two dimensions. Due to the geometrical constraints,
the present approach should be valid, in a strict sense, only for the Turam
configuration as two infinite cables carrying currents of opposite polarity

can accurately simulate a Turam transmitter for the profile passing through
the middle points of the cables. However, this numerical scheme can also
be used to get approximate central profile responses for the SIROTEM and
EM-37 systems using large transmitting loops and dipole receivers. The
results for a simplified model, representing a mineralized dike-like ore
body in a conducting host-medium, are presented. The effects of the host-
medium conductivity and the conductivity and depth parameters of the ore
body are investigated in detail.
Formulation
A two dimensional finite-difference scheme is followed to model the TEM
response of a heterogeneous earth.~The mathematical details are available
in Oristaglio and Hohmann (1984), Adhidjaja et al (1985) and Adhidjaja
and Hohmann (1988). However, for the sake of completeness, a brief outline
of the formulation is presented below. Let us start with the maxwell's
equations •
OH
V×E=-/2 0t (5)
0E
Vx H= J + e-~- + J, (6)
V.B=0 (7)
and
V.D=q
where E is electric field intensity (volts/m), H the magnetic field intensity
(amps/m), B the magnetic induction (w/m2), D the electric displacement
(coulomb/m2), J the electric current density (amps/m2), Js the magnitude of
external current source,/2 the magnetic permeability (henry/m), e the dielectric
permittivity (farad/meter) and q is the charge density (coulomb/cubic meter).
The total electric field about a line source parallel to the y-axis, i.e.,
parallel to the strike of the two-dimensional structure, is a TE field, so that
Ex = Hy = E z = 0/0y = 0. Thus the above equations can be simplified into
the following form:
OEv OHx
0"--Z =/2 0t (8)
OEv OHz
....0x = p '0t (9)
and
OHx OHz 0E v
- - =J+c,'-'~'-+Js (10)
Oz Ox
536 Verma
Using Eqs. (8) and (9), Eq. (10) can be re-written as

0~ 2Ey o~E,,, o3 2Ey o3Js
~Oz 2 + ~ = o ' # ~ + E p - - ~ +/.t cgt (11)
tgEy °32Ev 8Js

or V2Ey - a].l---'~- - E~--~-- = ~ 8t (12)
Equation (12) provides a complete description of EM phenomenon of

our problem. It is interesting to note, however, that this equation is similar
to alossy wave-equation with second and third terms on the left hand side
representing the diffusive and the wave-like nature of the propagation. For
exploration geophysics purpose, the contributions from the diffusive term
are much greater than the wave term so that instead of Eq. (12) we can use
OEy OJs (13)

V2Ey - t r ~ - - ~ = # Ot
Mathematically, this approximation changes the equation from a hyperbolic
partial differential equation (PDE) to a parabolic PDE. It is desirable, therefore,
to understand the physical character of this approximation. The effect of
neglecting the second time-derivative in Eq. (12) can be seen clearly in the
Green functions for Eqs. (12) and (13). Following Morse and Feshback (1953)
these can be written as
GLW
"- c'e-ta#c2 {
2 ~ 4 c 2 t 2 _ p2 U(ct - p) 1 + 2 sinh 2
("~" 4c2t 2 - p2
)} (14)
1 (a12P2)U(t)
and Go = ~ ' t exp 4t (15)
where c = (Poe0)-1/2 is the velocity of light, p = (x2 + z2)m, U is a unit step-

function, and suffixes LW and D represent the lossy wave and the diffusion
terms, respectively.
In Fig. 9, the function GLw and Ga are plotted against time for p = 30 m
and tr = .01 S m -1 (taking free-space values for e and ~). It can be seen that
both the functions become identical after the time 10 -7 sec. For earlier times
(t < p/c), however, GLw becomes zero whereas Go yields a very small value
(indicating that the diffusion phenomenon propagates almost instantaneously).
Thus, it is clear that the wave-character of Eq. (12) is revealed at very early
times (t < p/c) and that the diffusion equation is a reasonably good approxi-
mation of the lossy-wave equation. Mathematically, it can be shown that Eq.
(-14) reduces to Eq. (15) when
( 4 e 2 p2 ) u2
t >> ~,--~- + 7 ) (16)
3
10
$
1
I.kl 10
c~
Z
(.9 lo"
<
:E o - GD
10-
- GLW
-g
~0-
-3 O,t # SeC 1 m sea

10 ~o°,,,,,,,,J' , ,-[" I I ~|,
16 a 16 16~ ld 5 16~ 16 3
TIME (s) --~
Fig. 9 Time-response of diffusion and lossy-wave Green functions.
For most of the time-ranges and the physical and geometrical parameters
of geophysical interest, the above condition is satisfied. Therefore, we are
justified in using Eq. (13) to describe the pertinent physical phenomenon.
This equation gives the total field for any arbitrary distribution of conductivity
in the earth.
As will be shown subsequently, it is more efficient to formulate the
problem in terms of primary and secondary fields as follows. Let
ETota1 = E P + E s,
(17)
and HTota~ = H e + H s,
where E e and H p are primary fields that would be present in a homogeneous
earth. Again, it can be easily shown that for line sources on a homogeneous
half-space E e satisfies:
2 e OE,P. OJs (18)

V Ey - Cr~l,t--~-= p 3t
crn being the conductivity of the half-space without any inhomogeneity.

Subtracting Eq. (18) from Eq. (13); we get
538 Ve rma
~E v OE~P
V2(E,, - E~) - ~ o----~- - uo,-, - 7 = o (19)
or
v2E _ + + = o (20)
which yields
OE,S~ OE,~,
V2E s - s~a--~- = s t ( o - crH) ~i (21)
For a single inhomogeneity in an otherwise uniform earth, it is more

efficient to solve the above equation as it does not include the primary
sources. Thus, the problem of fine discretization near the source(s) is avoided.
This approach also results in simpler implementation of boundary conditions
within the half space. The total fields can be obtained by using Eq. (17).
Numerical Solution of the Diffusion Equation

The diffusion equation can be solved numerically using the integral equation,
finite-difference or finite-element methods. While the first method is
mathematically elegant and computationally efficient, the latter two are
advantageous in modeling a complex arbitrary geological situation. For the
present computations, a finite-difference approach has been used. A description
of this approach can be found in any standard book on numerical analysis
(for example, Richtmyer and Morton, 1967; Claerbout, 1976; Noye, t978;
and Mitchell and Griffiths, 1980).
In finite-difference approach various time and space derivatives are
approximated by difference formulas. For the initial value problem described
by Eq. (13), the selection of an appropriate time-differencing scheme is
very crucial. Most of the implicit schemes (Crank-Nicholson differencing,
for instance) yield sparse and banded matrices. On the other hand alternating
direction implicit (ADI) methods, which involve multi-step differencing
and split a multi-dimensional problem into a series of one-dimensional
calculations, work well mostly for constant Dirichlet or Neumann boundary
conditions. The ADI methods, therefore, are most popular for solving the
diffusion equation with constant boundary conditions.
The geophysical boundary value problems, however, have no simple
boundary conditions at the earth-air interface. Also, it is practical to use
absorbing boundary conditions (elaborated later) which ensure that no energy
is reflected from the boundary of the grid. An explicit time-differencing
scheme due to Dufort and Frankel (1953) provides an efficient alternative
to solve the diffusion equation of our interest (Eq. 13). Like most of the
explicit schemes it does not require any large matrix inversion and thus
provides a considerable saving of the CPU time and memory. The Dufort-
Franket method uses a central-difference formula for the space-derivatives
and a leap-frog scheme in time that couples three-time levels. The
computational molecule and the two-dimensional space-time grid for the
Dufort-Frankel method is shown in Fig. 10 (a and b). In the figure (and
also in the text that follows) the subscripts i and j refer to the x and z
coordinates while the superscript n refers the nth time level.
n+1
Ei,j-1
\
E
n
i-1 ) E n
i+1 ,j
En-1
i,j+l
(a)
yf/] ,-x V2E=0

z
. . . . __' " "; .... ~ . . . . . . . . . ,o-0
z2
zl
xI x2 . . . . . x,!
(b)
Fig. 10 (a) Computation molecule for the Dufort-Frankel metho d. (b) Grid ol'
the 2-dimensional model space along with the equations governing various
regions.
540 Verma
At point (xi, zj), i.e. at the point (iAx, jAz) the application of the central-
difference in space at time tn gives
v2Ea = EL+ , + - +' +ca-')

AZ 2
.
En+l,j + El_l, j _ (E~+I
.-q + Eijn-l )
+ " (22)
zix 2
and the leap-frog scheme in time yields

n En+l n-t
3Eo = -'J - Ei~ (23)
at 2At
These approximations for the time and space derivatives can be substituted
in Eq. (13) and the terms can be re-arranged to yield the solution for the
unknown field value at the advanced time level, E - O "+~ , as
n+l 1 - 4 0 i j n-I
Eij = t + 40ij Eij
n n +E n n
(Ei, j+l + Ei, j - I i+l,j + E i - l , j )
+ 20ij 1 + 40ij (24)
At
where Oij = ~ (the local/nesh ratio)
~ ij ]J A 2
A = Ax = AZ,
and 0"6 = conductivity at the node ij (taken as the average of the conductivities
in the blocks surrounding the node (xi, zj)).
Since the above approximation of the diffusion equation involves only
one value at tn+l, the method is explicit, if the field is known initially at two-
time levels, tl and to. The time-marching then can be achieved via Eq. (24).
Caution
The stability test (Noye, 1978; for example) shows that the Dufort-Frankel
method is unconditionally stable. Very large time steps, however, cause the
Fourier modes to oscillate. Also, the Taylor series expansion of En+l
-O reveals
that Eq. (24) actually approximates a hyperbolic equation (With a second
derivative in time! Mathematical details are avoided here. The curious
readers are referred to Noye (1978) or any other standard book.) Thus, Eq.
(24) approximates the diffusion equation only when in addition to the limit
At --~ 0, Ax --~ 0, the ratio At/Ax --0 0, If At and Ax --o 0 in such a way
that ,~t/Ax --~ K, a constant, Eq. (24) approximates the lossy-wave Eq. (12)
rather than the diffusion Eq. (13).
Equation (24) thus requires extreme care in the selection of At and Ax

values for an accurate approximation Eq. (13). Dufort and Frankel (1953)
suggested the following solution to this difficulty. Note that for 0/j = 1/4,
the termEi~-1 drops out in Eq. (24) and the difference equation couples
only two time levels, tn and tn÷l. Thus, if the calculations are started with
Oij = 1/4 and then increased after a number of steps by an odd integral
factor, the diffusion phenomenon can be represented accurately for larte
times. This is a very desirable feature for TEM computations as we are
mainly interested in late time responses which are associated with deeply
buried good conductors. The Dufort-Frankel method simulates the diffusion
process well when
At < u _z (25)
- 4
where tYhis the conductivity of the host-medium (half-space). It is interesting

to note that Goldman et al (1986), while solving the similar problem
employing a finite-element scheme, arrive at a time step limit given by
At < I't° cr*A 2

8
where o* is the lowest conductivity value in the model. To make the

computations valid for late times, they used the Crank-Nicholson scheme
by starting the computations with several backward Euler steps (Rannacher,
1982).
Variable Grid Spacing

If we want to model a large grid, it is economical to use a variable grid
spacing as it results in a significant reduction of the nodal points. For the
variable spacing grid the time-derivative remains unchanged (Eq. 23), but
the space-derivatives take the form
0 3 2E/j
n 1 f" 2Axi+I n 2Axi . ~+1 + E~-1 )}
o3x 2 -- A x i k x m [ A x i + Axul Ei-l'j + dxiAxi+~ Ei+l'j - (Eij (26)
and
02E/~ 1 t 2Azj+, n+2z(lZjn }

0z 2 = AzjAzj+l (Az~-+"~)+l E~'j-1 AzjAzj+l Ei,J+l-(E~I +EiT-1) (27)
The average conductivity tr0 at the node (xi, zj) is given by the following
weighted average:
a ~i( z~Xi z ~ j ) -l-a i+l,j( A~Xi+l~ j ) + a i,j+l( Z ~ i z~tZj+l ) + a i+l,j+l( Z~Xi+lZ~ j+l )
go = (ax i + Ax ~1 ) ( Az s + Az :+,)
(28)
542 Verma
It may be noted here that comparable results are obtained by the Galerkin
method (in finite-element approach) using linear basis functions over triangular
elements.
Boundary Conditions
Considering the conductivity of the air to be zero, we find that in the
source-free region above the earth the electric field satisfies Laplace's
equation
V2Ey = 0 (29)
This static equation must be coupled to the time-varying diffusion phenomenon
inside the earth. Also, an examination of Eq. (24) reveals that the fields
values on one grid layer in air (E,."_1 terms) are required to use this difference-
equation. These values can be derived in the following manner:
Consider the electric field Value at the surface of earth, Ei,~o, and take its
Fourier transform
Eino(k) = Ei~o • exp (ikz) dz (30)
Since the electric field satisfies La place's equation in air, its Fourier
transform at one grid layer up in the air can be obtained by the upward
continuation of Eq. (24). Thus
E~_l( k ) = Ein,o(k )'exp (-1 k. AZ I) (31)
An inverse Fourier transform operation then yields the values El" 1.

To solve the diffusion Eq. (13), the initial value (at t = 0) of the electric
field E i,j
° is described by the initial condition. The difference Eq. (24) is
then used to calculate field at the advanced time level tl = At at all nodes
on and below the earth-air interface. For this time level, the values E i,-I
1
can then be obtained using Eqs. (30) and (31). The fields Ezj at time-level
t 2 can now be computed using Eq, (24). The values, E~_1, are again obtained
by the upward continuation. This sequential operation of using Eq. (24) and
then continuing the fields upward, can be repeated to get the field value at
any desired time.
The above scheme is a very efficient way of coupling the time-invariant
Laplace's equation in the air to the time-varying diffusion equation in the
earth. By incorporating the Laplace's equation, the radiation condition in
air is automatically satisfied. Computationally it is very advantageous as
there is no need to consider a large grid to model the air region.
Satisfying the radiation conditions inside the earth in a more difficult
problem. As already mentioned, we consider artificial absorbing boundary
conditions to simulate the 'no reflection' condition. To achieve this, we

consider a large grid which is truncated by an analytical solution for a line
source on a half-space. This provides a reasonably good approximation to
the actual 'radiation condition', and avoids the use of enormously large
number of grids to describe the rapid diffusion phenomenon in resistive
host media.
Computational Approach
The results presented in the subsequent sections were computed using the
program 'TOTEM'. This program uses an automated time scheme which
selects a particular time-discretization depending on the properties of the
model. Also, there is an option to obtain step, SIROTEM, EM-37, or user-
specified input pulse response. The space mesh is designed in a manner
such that there is a fine sampling region of 1000 m in horizontal direction
and 375 m in vertical direction. Surrounding this fine region are the
increasingly coarser grids which provide reasonably good approximation
for the implementation of absorbing boundary conditions in the earth.
The output from the program 'TOTEM' can be obtained in the form of
time-response (at specified observation points at the earth's surface) or as
space-response (profiles) (for different values of time). These outputs can
also be displayed on a graphics terminal or plotted if desired. The finite-
difference numerical scheme generates field values at all grid points for
each time-step. This enormous data can be used to get instant 'snap-shots'
of the field (or current) distribution inside the earth (Oristaglio and Hohmann,
1984). A provision is made in the program to get an alphanumeric contour
plot of the subsurface current distribution at desired times.
Accuracy Tests
The first order checks on the numerical accuracy of 'TOTEM' were made by
comparing the results with the analytical step pulse response of a uniform
half-space. This is shown in Fig. 11 for a half-space of conductivity 1 Sm -l.
The computations were done using two cables, at positions 1760 and 2060.
Computations for several other resistivity values were also made. It was
found that the match was reasonably good up to the resistivity value of
about 200 ohm-m. For higher resistivity values it starts deteriorating because
for higher resistivities the initial time-step is ~¢erysmatl (At = or. 7c- 10-5, for
Ax = AZ = 10 m) and the time-scheme used in computations was found to
work well for a maximum of about 4.5 log cycles in time. This observation is
valid for a half-space only, The time-scheme works well for much later times
if there is a conducting body in the half-space. Next, the computed results
were compared with the numerical results presented by Adhidjaja et al (1985)
and Oristaglio and Hohmann (1984). In general, a good agreement was
observed.
544 Verma
Fig. 11 Test comparison of the numerical results and analytical results for a
uniform half-space of conductivity 1 Sm -1.
Results
Computations for various field components at the surface of the earth reveal
that while the x-component of the induced emf (/~/x) shows a peak above
the source cable or a buried conducting target, the vertical component (/4z)
shows a zero value. This zero crossover above a good conductor can be
readily seen in the profiles observed at the surface. On the other hand the
peak response in (/S/x) may not be very pronounced and could be influenced
by the shallow lateral heterogeneities. Thus, in the following sections,results
and analyses are presented only for the US/z) Component.
First the computation was done considering a single source cable
(Fig. 12) over a half-space of conductivity .01 Sm -1 and it was found that
the zero cross-over remains at a position same as that of the transmitting
cable. This implies that for a single source the 'smoke rings' do not migrate
laterally but only downwards in vertical direction.
Detailed results for two-dimensional TEM modeling considering a
representative mineralized zone in uniform and layered host media were
presented by Verma (1984). In this section some illustrative examples for the
simple model of a conducting dike in a half-space are presented. For these
computations a dike of depth-extent 325 m, buried at a depth of t00 m in a
conducting host-medium is considered. The source cables are taken to be
300 m apart and the body is located 300 m away from the nearest cable. The
step pulse response is presented for times corresponding to first 16 SIROTEM
delay times covering a time range from 400 p sec to about 15 msec. In the
figures that follow, the cables are located at 1610 m and 1910 m, the body
(20 m thick) at 2220 m and the results are presented from the edge of the
nearest cable.
Fig. 12 Response of a single source cable over a half-space of conductivity

0.01 Sm-k
Effect of the Host-medium Conductivity

To show the effect of the host-medium conductivity (oH) a dike of conductivity
(0"8) 3.3 Sm -1 is considered. The results for half-space conductivities of 0.003,
0.1, 0.03 and 0.3 Sm -1 are presented in Figs. 13 (a-d). For aH = 0.003 Sm -1
it is observed that all the channels show the presence of the conducting dike.
It is difficult to see any effect of the host medium. As the half-space conductivity
is increased, the effect of the host-medium starts showing up in earlier channels.
The presence of the dike is reflected at increasingly late times. When the
contrast between the conductivity of the dike and the host medium becomes
less than or equal to 10, it is difficult to detect the presence of the dike.
Effect of the Dike Conductivity

The effect of the dike conductivity (0"8) is shown for a fixed half-space
conductivity of 0.01 Sm -1. The results for dike conductivities 10, 1.0 and 0.1
Sm -1 are presented in Figs. 14 (a-c). For 1000:1 contrast (Fig. 14a), it is
found that while the first channel shows the influence of the half-space, the
later channels clearly show the presence of the body. The results for cr8 = 1.0
Sm -1 (Fig. 14b) are even more interesting. In this case the late channels do
not shown the effect of the dike. These channels represent the situation when
the total response is not dominated by the field induced in the dike anymore.
The Currents, after stimulating the dike, once again tend to diffuse into the
host-medium. When the contrast is reduced to 10 (Fig. 14c), it is found once
again that it is not possible to detect the dike.
546 Verma
iiiiiit I ~.,HII i -J~,,,,ll i ~ ~ i , . , i i i "~llH,li s
.. I ~ =:::::-- -
~o g-:'i!~ ! ! :." ". n
~ X-:'-'ii i i i "'. "'.
i ~:::::::---......
~-:'i!i~" " - ". "'. ".
r~
L.
- ~_~/~dwu ~plzNp- a~
"~.
c • I,.H, i ~,.~H,, ~.J,t i J "~,,.H i i "I~..H i i
i "1" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o
..s . ° ~ °. .
,'-.~..
i d
.J
~"aS_w/'~ dwU ~'p/ zHp"

z
"
'///!I
5"'~S-w/~dw~
M ........
$"p/ zH~
%
~J~
(a n = .01 Sin-') ( o n = O1 Sm -~, o'~ = 10 Sin-')

DYKEII~ 5/R) l~ IIFLF-SPRCE(.BI $/H1: L~3~B N,[~l~[I H DYKE(IB 5/R) IN HRLF-SPACE(.el 5/M): L$=3~ H,[~41~ H
~z~ z
u~
~ ~) Gs = I0 Sm -~ ~1
N
N,~4 ~4
z~s ~B5
l~e.n 199e.~ ~Te.~e ~Jse,n A~2~e.ee 231m.ee 2~9~.H
× X
DYKE(I S/MI lN M~LF-,QPRCEI.BI ~/141:L5~300 M,D:I~ ~I M DTKEII~ S/H) IN HRLF-SPREE(.BI S/N); LS=3BB M,~'-IBB M
CHANNFa. "~ ( 0,4 m sec ) 0"~ = 1 , 0 S.'n -z , I ~HA~L~(O.4msec) D=lOOm

Ul I ......
i :L~ " ...................
n
ci:
,~3
i
~ ; ~ . ~ ' - , , ~ \ \ \ ~ ! ....
Jl 4ff
N
!
N~p
l(b) , I~ ~
lglJLn 199~.ell ~Tll, m 2~se.ee ~'~3~.U 23~p.eO ~gJ~,e;
X X
OYKE(.I S/i'll IN HRLF-SPREE(.~I B/H): LS=3BB H,O=I[I~ ['I gYKE(I~ 5/141 IN ~LF-SPRCE(.BI 5/HI~ L5=3~ H,O=lSfl }t
O.
CHANNEL 1 ( 0.4 m sec ) O"s =
...
0.1 Sm-~
............ !
E
:~- ~.~
~:~4 CHANNEL 16 ( 15.8 m see.) =~4
;5
(c) i
X
Fig. 14 Effect o f dike conductivity (Gn) Fig. 15 Effect of the burial depth for a
for a fixed o-H = 0.01 Sm-l: (a) 10 Sm -1 dike in a 0.01 S m -1 h a l f
GS ffi 10 Sm-l: (b) crB = 1.0 S m "~ space: (a) Depth (D) = 40 m, (b)
and (c) Gn = 0.1 Sm -1. D = 100 m and (c) D -- 150 m.
548 Verma
Effect of Depth
This is studied for tyn = 0.01 Sm -1 and tYB = 10.0 Sm -1. The results for
depth values of 40, 100 and 150 m are shown in Figs. 15 (a-c). While all
the channels show the presence of the dike for the shallowest case (Fig.
15a), for deeper locations only the late channels are able to sense the
presence of the dike.
Effect of Conducting Overburden

Detailed results for the effect of a conducting overburden were studied by
Verma (1984) comparing the situation crH = 3.3 Sm -1 and 0"8 = .003 Sm -1 in
the presence of a 100 m thick overburden layer of conductivity 0.03 Sm -1,
with the early time (first 3 channels, or up to 1.5 m sec) responses of uniform
half-spaces of conductivity 0.03 Sm -1 and 0.003 Sm -1. It was observed that
the first channel yields a response similar to that for a half-space with the
conductivity (0.03 Sm -1) of the overburden layer. At late times, the response
is mainly influenced by the dike. The effect of the host medium (o H = 0.003
Sm -1) appears to be negligible in this case.
Diffusion Phenomenon
In view of the above results and those obtained by Nabighian (1979),
Oristaglio (1982), Oristaglio and Hohmann (1984), Nabighian and Oristaglio
(1984), Adhidjaja et al (1985), Goldman et al (1986), and Adhidjaja and
Hohmann (1988), etc., the process of subsurface diffusion of an
electromagnetic pulse can be understood with the help of some simplified
models. The diffusion phenomena in some models of increasing complexity
are described below.
Uniformly Conducting Medium

Let us consider a uniformly conducting medium with a two-dimensional
source current of the form
Js(x, z, t) = 12I dl • t$'R(1 - H(t)] (32)
where I d! is source strength and 6'R-is the radial derivative of the two-
dimensional detta function ~;(x) • S(z) and H(t) is the Heaviside step function.
For such a situation the electric field diffuses radially away from the source
(Oristaglio and Hohmann, 1984) with its maximum located at a distance,
Rmax, given as
Rmax = / 2 t (33)
The corresponding diffusion velocity is
CgtRmax = 4/ 2/20"t
1 (34)
V
This radial outward diffusion of the induced electric field is shown

schematically in Fig. 16a for different conductivity values, aws, of the
medium (whole space, denoted by suffix ws). As Crwsreduces, the induced
fields travel to greater distances. The numerical values in Fig. 16a are
arbitrary, given only to provide a comparison.
When two current sources with opposite polarity are placed in a conducting
medium (whole space), electric fields of the same polarity will be induced
(a) (c)
Ows=1 SIN O'ws= 0"1 S / M ~ SINGLE SOURCE : WHOLE SPACE SINGLE SOURCE : RALF SPACE
~ 102 t~ ~lO'~
c,5.1-o.2-0.3-o.$-o IMS}
......... TWOSOURCES: WHO'iESPACE' TWOsOUnCtS : H~LFSPACE
Ows=0"03-~
~/( 100 101 1O'z 10,1
(b) (d)
SINGLE SOURCE: WHOLE SPACE TWO SOURCES: WHOLE SPACE CURRENT DIFFUSION
@ 0-0Sm~,
0"2 ms
, c ~ .........
@ @ ....
Hz
t=O'OSm~
STAlrlONAR!COIIEIT CEHTEll li10110GCURRENTCEOTER
HZ t=O,OSms
LINEAR
Fig. 16 Schematic behavior of the current systems induced in a whole-space or

a half-space due to two-dimensional current source(s). The numerical
values are arbitrary, given to illustrate relative magnitudes. (a) Outward
migration of diffusion currents due to a single current source for different
values of the whole-space conductivity at different times. (b) Comparison
of the diffusion patterns due to single and double current sources in a
whole-space along with the i/z profiles passing through the center(s) of
the cable(s). (c) Comparison of current diffusion patterns in a whole-
space and a half-space due to single and double current sources. (d)
Subsurface diffusion patterns in a half-space at different times due to
two current sources on the surface. Corresponding/~/z profiles measured
at the surface are also shown in logarithmic and linear scales.
550 Ve rma
in the region between the two sources as shown in Fig. 16b. Thus, the
induced fields will repel each other and migrate laterally in opposite directions
away from the current sources. In Fig. 16b, the corresponding emf values
induced in a horizontal coil receiver (time-derivative of the vertical magnetic
field component, /~/z) are also shown along perpendicular profiles passing
through the center(s) of single/double cable sources. It may be noted that
for a single source there is a zero crossover coinciding with the location of
the source cable. With two cable sources (with opposite polarities of current
flow), the individual fields induced by the two sources will be of the same
sign in the region between the sources. These induced fields will repel each
other. Thus, the zero crossover, initially located at the respective source
positions, will start migrating laterally away from each other with increasing
time.
Half-Space
In the case of a uniformly conducting half space with a single current
carrying cable at its surface (Fig. 16c), it is apparent from Fig. 12 that the
maxima of the induced electric fields travel only vertically downwards
(This can also be verified using Eqs. (30) and (35) in Oristaglio and Hohmann,
1984). There is no lateral movement of the induced 'smoke rings' system.
However, for two current sources of opposite polarity, the direction of the
induced electric fields in the region between the two cables is once again
the same. Thus the induced electric fields or the 'smoke rings' system has
a resultant radial direction of movement (Fig. 16c). For the purpose of
comparison, the induced field patterns in a whole space due to single and
two cable sources are also shown in Fig. 16c. The contour plots of current
density numerically computed by Oristaglio (1982), shown in a modified
form in Fig. 17(a and b), clearly demonstrate this behavior.
The current diffusion pattern (or the induced 'smoke rings' system) at 4
different times due to two current cables at the surface of the earth (half-
space) and the corresponding Hz profiles are shown in Fig. 16d. At very
early times zeros crossovers are located very close to the two cables. With
increasing time they migrate laterally away from each other. For a uniform
half-space and cables of the same source strength, the positions of these
migrating zeros will be symmetrical with respect to the middle point between
the two cables.
It may be interesting to note that special loop (such as 'Dual Loop'
(Spies, 1975), shown in Fig. 18) or multi-wire source configurations (Lewis
and Lee, 1981) have been investigated to explore the possibility of steering
the maxima of the induced electric fields to achieve favorable illumination
of specific geological targets.
Heterogeneous Earth
To represent a heterogeneous earth, let us consider a model with a conducting
(at Single Line Source (b) Double Line Source

0 2O 40,~
i I
' ' ) + I A +1 A tl O "IA
' " q!iiliil [. . . . . . . ~l "
i[ [~ .... iT,., ' - l'p-
* h]i~ i ,~ ~ i ! ~ : t . . ,]
• ,::'J!'!ii, : ::!~i]~or • j'-
• ' " ~i d i ~ i 7:.." *2r'i~iii "

. . . . . . :i iiii~i!:ii~[ii 1] !"
. . . . . . . . . . . [i]i!ii i!ii[ t/o~a = 103 m 2 ii

. . . . . . . . . . --'bh I: ii. .,, ,, , ~
Contom Levels (10 -~ amps/rn ~) Contour tevel~ ( IO -5 amp~/m z)

B=8.0 C-7.0 0-0.0 E--5.0 F--4.0 (~-3.0 H-2.O 1-|.0
8 =3.0 C ~2.0 D ~ 10 E =00
H~ ±3,0 G =-20 F =-t0
'~ t • 0
I . . . . I li " ' "

ti ,1~ ': . . . . . i ' " ' I " "
[ I i "q !:r,, ~ , "~ "" [i ""~i)/ iJ ~i:''. ~'

~, -'-": : ,.-~ J~ .uii
i ~. :-i
m,, T~.,,,~:
hlil' ,'..
' .Ji:i! ltl~"1 :,'!-~L:~:iL
. ::
~ :h?'..ff jl iff I
, i]Jfl' .
= :i "':!:-"i~i~l!li.G" [; 'z ":":: • ~ ]jii=

:" " : :':: :, ' " "i"lii ''li'',.... ,t:,
li
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~:~ii~::!:L:l
ffib'*:b::}:i!:ffl:~iiii!~i}[ii
Contour Levels ( 1 0 - 0 arnps/m 2)
Cf~odt Levels (10 -S amps/m ~ }
B-ll C-IO 0-09 E-OIl F-I~.? 8-0~ x--O$
x - .) ~ w - -le v - - 0 9 , - -co ~ - -oi; ~ , -oo o - -os
o --o,I e--o:l o--o2 N--Ol

0 0
=, l~::!fi: . . . . . . . . . . rt:: l: :
t: .iiHt,:ittlt~h~lt)!b))~r:-";-":T::~::~ I I} : qi~ =J
I: , ' ~ q i): ,:i [ :l!!i~ .[
: :;
,..........,.:::.!:!::::::,.'.::-r:
Contour Levels | 1 0 : - 6 amps/m 2) . Conlour Levels (H) -e amps/m 2 )
B -2.t0 C - 2.08 D - 2.00 8=4,0 C =3,0 D-2.0 E = 1.0.
J = -4.0 4 = -3,0 tl = -2,fl G = -1,0
Fig. 17 Subsurface contours of current density at different times for: (at Single
line source and (b) Double line source (modified after Oristaglio, 1987).
552 Verma
geological target, such as a mineralized zone, a conducting dike or a fracture

zone filled with conducting fluids, embedded in a uniformly conducting
host medium. In the following sections we shall consider the diffusion
process for models with: a vertical dike, a dipping dike and a vertical dike
in the presence of an overburden layer.
i X ~NGLE LOOP
v
DUAl-BLOOP
A
t.OOP CONFIGURATION
\ / - ~~~ -
MAGNETIC FIELD DIRECTION ~ >ZO

LINES OF" FLUX) ['~ 10-S0
kOOP CURRENT iNTO PAGE
LOOP CURRENT OUT OF PAGE ~ S-10
CONTOURS OF EQUAk FIELD STRENGTH ~ 2-S
"*--~** ( x l O "5 TESt.A ) ~ <2
Fig. 18 Comparison of the strength and direction of the surface primary magnetic
field for single and dqal loop configurations (after Spies, 1975).
Vertical Dike in a Uniform Medium

The behavior of the currents diffusing in to the earth is significantly modified
due ' to the presence of the dike. At very early times the 'smoke rings' do not
penetrate very deep and migrate downward and outward following the pattern
as if they are diffusing in to a uniform half space with the conductivity of
the host medium. However, after some time the currents induced in the more
conducting geological target become predominant. In a two-dimensional target
the induced currents are geometrically similar to those in a long current
carrying cable. Thus a good geological conductor with a long strike behaves
like an elongated source of current. The induction process is sustained for a
long time by the conductor and the 'smoke rings' stop their lateral migration.
This behavior is very similar to the response obtained for a single current
source in a conducting medium. The values of the /:/z component remain
zero at the location of the conductor. If the geological target is a very good
conductor and located at a shallow depth, the currents induced in it will
influence the response even at early times. The f/z profile at the surface
measured across the strike of the target will also show zero values for most
of the channels (time values) at a point located more or less vertically above
it. The schematic behavior of various time channels of the/:/z profile measured
at the surface is shown as a cartoon in Fig. 19. It may be noted that the
behavior of the induced 'smoke rings' system is very different on either side
of the loop. While on the left side the centers of the induced 'smoke rings'
uniformly migrate outward in the half-space, on the right side this outward
migration is arrested after some time (> 2.0 msec) and the induced current
system is mostly confined in the dike.
The position of the zero crossovers in the Hz profile at the surface
mainly depends on the conductivity contrast between the target and the
host medium, the burial depth of the target and its geometry. These parameters
govern the relative strengths of the secondary field and the total field. As
an example the contour plots for the secondary electric fieldand the total
electric field for a model consisting of a 0.3 f~ • m dike in a host medium
of resistivity 300 f~ • m (after Adhidjaja et al 1985) are shown in Fig. 20.
Though at 1 msec both the secondary field as well as the total field reveal
well developed contours at the top of the dike, the/~/z profile at the surface
(Fig. 2 of Adhidjaja et al 1985) shows a crossover that occurs beyond the
dike at 1 m sec. However, it gradually migrates towards the dike and at 15
m sec (and at later times) is located directly above the dike. The migration
of the crossover is due to the interaction between the secondary and the
primary fields. Another important behaviour to note is that at early times
the contours are located at the top of the dike. With increasing time they
migrate towards the center of the dike. When the resistivity of the dike is
increased to 1 g~ • m Adhidjaja et al (1985) found that at late times the
crossover migrates away from the dike indicating that secondary fields no
more dominate the primary field (Fig. 21).
In another interesting model with a 1 12 • m dike in a 30 f~ • m (more
conducting) host medium, Adhidjaja et al (1985) observed that the total
field/-7/z profiles did not reveal the presence of the dike (Fig. 22a). On the
other hand the corresponding profiles of the secondary fields show a clear
crossover located directly above the dike at all times (Fig. 22b). Thus, the
removal of the host effect can help in enhancing the detectability of the
targets producing weak responses.
554 Ve rma
rr
0
11.1~
m ~
U.I m ~ k
Z
kL
0
Z
0
Z ~g
u. II
Z
i
[zl i = ,=
I Q
I -
\
\ --
,\ LL
,\
= 0
\
\
i l
!
1;/"
L,,. W.,
,i ]
I
/
l -~ m x
.+-+ ..\ /I -- / + ...... ", E ',, °~
+ ++ / -, ~ i n
C:+,,,, t < , ..
~(. ...-; ,+ + I
',;-7-?-')/ ......"'"
I.
.
"I
I.i. Icl
.--I
"r" I- °~
I- 0
I- it
.< /+ .... .. ~
jt
14.1
...... ~<i._ t .----. m~
I-- , ",~---+.-'..'," ,' / ]
Z ---~+~-J / ]
"--.~.........~L / .i /
=~ t , I I +..............++I/" >i+
i , ,. .... I I ] I" /
1-
..............
-17-.....
".
• II
1.1.1
_1
II
.--I
I- Ill
0
I- 11 x\ Ii \X
1.1.1
n-
i-
I: t\\
2~)
L #l i+
x /l
iq
z
_2 /
iv,
.<
z
+:]
0
LI.I
5
(pl
~ . / / ~/ "'"-"....~....,,,,,,
I"-;-__;;;/,,/, ]'
°~
556 Ve tTna
Hz PROFILESOVERA MODERATECONDUCTOR
~tr~
t msec
] ~°°S2" !L,,q.
01o-o-~
to-~t g'
/ 3
I ]/ ~o.O9-o-o-~o'°'°"°" - -o -o- 1
![,/ *~ .o-~o~o-o-° ....
'°" ..............
/o
ro
10"6
o
I
*oo
I
zoo
I
300
1/ I
400
I
soo
, I
6c,o too
OIS TAIICE {m)
Fig. 21 Lateral migration of zero crossovers at late times for a moderately

conducting (1 f~ • m) dike i/i a 300 f~ • m host medium (modified alter
Adl~djaja et al 1985).
Dipping Dike
In the case of a dike dipping away from the current source, the zero crossovers
exhibit a gradual migration away from the source providing a qualitative
information about the dip of the dike (Fig. 23a). The corresponding contour
of the total electric fields are also oriented in the direction of the dip
(Fig. 23b).
Conducting Overburden
As already described eadier, the effect of the overburden is mainly reflected
in the initial channels. The crossover correspond to the diffusion process
taking place in a urfiform half-space with the conductivity same as that of
the overburden layer. Depending on the conductivity contrasts, burial-depth
of the dike, etc., the influence of the host may or may not be seen at
intermediate values of time. Thus, the migration of the zero crossovers
away from the dike is arrested after some time when the secondary response
dominates the total response. The crossovers then migrate back to a point
located vertically above the dike. The current diffusion pattern in a two
layer half-space with a mineralized zone is shown schematically in Fig. 24.
(a) TOTAL MAGNETIC FIELD (b) SECONDARY MAGNETICFIELD
NOOI~L
I~ -. "-_~: I WOn
eo-a -
- ~.~-~'~"~.-o...,.
I 1
I 'ff~]
~Ot~. ~tft*
I msee
I
.... -.Jo.,
\
Itz 12
~ * /.... , 6 ~
" \ 11 7
! .........21,,7,.. ...... :;2
. . . . . . . . /--
I , I
\t(; ~11/* ~ | ,
io-i
~oo ~o~ lee ~oo ~ ~ roe I~f~
OlSTtid~(|m) DISTANCE |m)
Fig. 22 (a) Total /~/z profiles for a 1 ~ • m dike in a very conductive half-space
(30 [2 • m). No crossovers above the dike are seen. (b) secondary H z
profiles showing the crossovers above the dike at all times (modified
after Adhidjaja et al, 1985).
The contour plots of the total electric field in the earth with a 30 ~.m
conducting overburden a 0.3 ~.m dike in a 300 fLm host medium are
shown in Fig. 25. Initially the diffusion process is slow and dominated by
the overburden which is relatively more conducting than the host medium.
Subsequently the diffusion in the host medium takes place at a faster rate
and soon the total field is dominated by the response of the dike. The
contours centered in the top region of the dike gradually migrate towards
its center. The presence of the conducting overburden basically delays the
response of the dike.
(C) T h r e e D i m e n s i o n a l E a r t h
Studies considering the TEM response of three dimensional conductors in
a conducting earth have been carried out by San Filipo and Hohmann
(1985), Newman et al (1986), Adhidjaja and Hohmann (1989), Wang and
Hohmann (1993) and Wang and Tripp (1996) among others. Newman et al
(1986) have presented comparisons of the TEM responses of elongate 3-D
conductors excited by large rectangular loops and 2-D conductors with
similar cross-section in the presence of two current carrying cables. Depending
on the conductivity contrast and the size of the 3-D inhomogeneity, the EM
558 Ve rma
m sec
~ / .,o 9 o_o_Q.o_o_o_o_ c
I i o"
HZ '6~
i
/
/
•
,f 2~ _ o - o - - ' a - - o - o -
o.o- o
io "4 /
II
,'oo ," ~'o ,~ ,Lo o~ ,oo

OISTAII¢[ (m)
(a) Hz PROFILES OVER A DIPPINGCONDUCTOR

//" /" . i - - - . • ", ~, "too. '
I ,/ ', ~ .
/, ~ i '~
\
~" / i ',,,.
i
\ \ / ',~oo-.,,
\ Co,~ou, l,e.,,.t:
"- . . . . . . .
50~,V/,, /b.Z ms
,,
I/"
I I ~ "x '
\ \ ,, • , -. .... ,
I /,V/.", ""'-.. ~ ms
0 2 /, V/m
". zS ms
(b) TOTAL ELECTRICFIELDCONTOURS

Fig. 23 Response of a dipping conductor: (a) Hz profiles, (b) Subsurface total
electric field contours at different times (modified after Adhidjaja et al,
1985).
DIFFUSION OF CURRENTS IN A TWO LAYER

HALFSPACE WITH MINERALIZED ZONE
Fig. 24 'Smoke rings' system for a model comprising an ore body located along
a fracture zone, in a two-layer earth. Currents migrate laterally into the
half-space on left, but on right side, due to the presence of the conducting
ore body and the fracture zone, the lateral migration has practically
stopped.
ELECTRIC FIELD IN A TWO-LAYER EARTH
\ \ ",. /- i
Contort Inter~ol: I00 p . V / a

t~. 0.2 m s
! i , , , ,,-,...;---..
/,
i
;
i #
i
Fig. 25 Subsurface distribution of total electric field in a two-layer earth (modified

after Adhidjaja et al, 1985).
560 Ve r m a
response can be dominated by the induced (Vortex) or the galvanic ('current

channeling' or 'current gathering') response. The comparison reveals a
number of interesting features (Figs. 9 to 14) in Newman et al, 1986). For
a more realistic comparison, however, it would have been desirable to
consider a large loop excitation for the 2-D conductors also to include the
effects of the galvanic response. However, mathematically it is a rather
difficult problem.
Considering a modified version of the Dufort-Frankel method, Wang
and Hohmann (1993) have presented a scheme to solve the 3-D TEM
problem for arbitrary conductivity and permeability values in the model.
For a vertical magnetic dipole excitation, expectedly, the pattern of the
crossover in the H z profiles over a uniform 3-D half-space (Fig. 26) is
qualitatively similar to that obtained over a uniform 2-D half-space.
Considering a somewhat complicated model comprising two quarter spaces
of different resistivities, a 3-D mineralized zone along the contact and overlain
by a conducting overburden (Fig. 27a and b), Wang and Hohmann (1993)
show (Fig. 27c) that at early times (up to 0.75 m sec) the response is similar
to that of a two-layer earth. For intermediate channels (at times 2.4 and 3.4
msec) due to the influence of the mineralized zone and the conducting quarter
space, the lateral migration of the crossovers slows down. However, since
a 3-D conductor has a limited volume in comparison to a 2-D conductor, the
induced secondary fields decay faster and the zero crossover moves away
from the conductor at later times (5.3 and 7.8 m sec). Thus, in contrast to
the 2-D case the backward migration of the crossover is not observed in this
model.
Hz PROFILESOVER A UNIFORM 3-D HALF-SPACE

10-3 ', .............
10 4 FDTD solution
-- - - - - Analytical solution
10.~
10"*
/-'Iz 10.7
10 4
I0.0
lO*
10-1o
Distance trom dipole (m)
Fig. 26 H z profiles over a 3-dimensional half-space of conductivity 0.01 Sm-x

excited by a vertical magnetic dipole (modified after Wang and Hohmann,
1993).
DESCRIPTION OF A 3-D VERTICAL CONTACT MODEL
(a) SECTION VIEW

Loop ~dm
Ground surlace
50m lO~,m
100- E . - 1 ~,rn
loo •, m
/ - / z PROFILES O V E R A VERTICAL C O N T A C T M O D E L
(b) PLAN VIEW IO~ . . . . . . ~ -
i
I 0~3rm
-300 I
I
~.r,om 0.7~\ "*" .... Drusldn & irmlz~a'~rrran'e
=oltaJon
A
E * I Q O . TX loop
7i I0"~ " •
z ~
I¢~-[. 2.4 ,, "
~E
0r" 0-
¢0 Hz ao-, I 5.3
104~. ?.g .... --
IO-SL. (
300-
10.6/ I ~ I I [ I I I ,~ I
I 0 I00 200 300 400 $00 fA~ 700 8QO 900 lO00
0 200 400 600 800
Distance ltom 100pcenter (m)
Distance (m)
Fig. 27 Response of a model comprising two quarter-spaces, and a conductor

along their contact below and overburden layer: (a) Section view of the
model, (b) Plan view of the model and (c) /~/z profiles at the surface
(modified after Wang and Hohmann, 1933).
I m p l i c a t i o n s o f the Results
In this article the diffusion of an electromagnetic pulse in to the earth is
reviewed considering different geological scenarios. Influence of the physical
and geometrical parameters on the involved diffusion phenomenon is studied
in detail for a few simplified gcological targets cmbcdded in a uniform or
a layered earth. Employing the simple, illustrative concepts like 'smoke
rings' and the subsurface snap shots at various times depicting the distribution
of current density, and total and secondary electric fields, it is demonstrated
that the diffusion process can bc visualized without much difficulty cvcn
for relatively complex geological situations. How the subsurface diffusion
is reflected in the measurements of /:/z field component at the surface is
also analyzed to develop a clear understanding to correlate field transient
electromagnetic profiles with the subsurface distribution Of conductivity.
The results presented in this paper also have important implications in the
areas described below.
Survey and Equipment Design

The zero crossovers recorded in the [/z field component at the surface can
be considered as reflection of the lateral migration of the 'smoke rings' or
562 Verma
the maxima of electric field inside the earth. An array of receivers, placed
along a profile perpendicular to the two current carrying cables, wilt record
these crossovers at different times at different locations. A plot of the zero
crossover times against the distance will yield a curve similar to the time-
distance curve used in seismic refraction to determine velocities. Employing
expressions similar to Eq. (3) for a given transmitting set up it should be
possible to-determine the conductivity value assuming that the permeability
value is known. In this respect the transmitter can be compared with the
shot point while the receivers represent the geophones. The array of receivers
will thus provide the lateral component of the diffusion velocity. For a
uniform earth the time distance curve will show a single gradient while for
a two-layered earth there would be two different gradients (Fig. 28). It may
be noted that this analogy is not valid for all situations. For example, when
a good conductor is present at shallow depths the zero crossovers will be
almost stationary at one point to yield a velocity very close to zero (Fig.
28). It is interesting to note that the time-distance curve over a vertical
inhomogeneity in seismic refraction also yields a complex curve. To determine
the diffusion velocities, a number of receiver arrays can be laid on the
ground (or in bore holes for tomographic imaging) to cover a large area and
optimally utilize the signals from a single transmitter.
UNIFORMHALF-SPACE
S
i
S
UNIFORMHALF-SPACEWITH .'/
AVERYGOODCONDUCTOR. J
, , I S
/ .'~''. " I~'O~-AYEREARTH

7 "'~, ~"~"~"
m
d
r'~
TIME
Fig. 28 Schematic diagram depicting the possibility of determining the lateral
diffusion velocities with the help of time-distance plots.
Data Processing and Interpretation

The above analogy suggests that in principle it should be possible to process
the TEM data utilizing the techniques currently used in the seismic methods.
Such multi-channel TEM surveys would record enormous volumes of data
requiring new processing paradigms. Already some research efforts are
being made in this direction. For example, employing a wave transform
inversion that relates the response of a diffusive medium to that of an
equivalent wave propagation medium, Jia et al (1995) have shown that
seismic data processing system may be used to process and interpret the
TEM data. They have been thus able to obtain diffusion velocities in a 6
layer model.
Conductivity Imaging
The current trend in the interpretation of the transient electromagnetic data
is to present conductivity-depth sections (Nekut, 1987; Macnae and
Lamontagne, 1987; Eaton and Hohmann, 1989; Macnae et al, 199t; Smith
et al, 1994; Christensen, t995; Wolfgram and Karlik, 1995 and Zhdanov et
al, 1995; etc.), In a technique developed for resistivity imaging by time
domain electromagnetic migration (TDEMM), Zhdanov et al (1995) follow
an approach similar to that used in seismic methods wherein the real velocity
distribution is replaced by the model of the mean velocity. In tomographic
TEM measurements with an array of receivers in bore holes and at the
surface, it should be possible to determine the lateral and vertical components
of the diffusion velocities with greater reliability. This would then provide
a better definition of diffusion depths in different parts of the model space
improving the accuracy of the image sections.
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Richtmyer, R.D. and Morton, K.W., 1967: Difference Methods for Initial Value Problems,
2nd ed., J. Wiley.
San Filipo, W.A. and Hohmann, G.W., 1985: Integral equation solution for the transient
electromagnetic response of a three-dimensional body in a conductive half space,
Silic, J., 1987: The nature of step and impulse TDEM systems, presented at the 5th
ASEG Conference, Abstract in Bull. ASEG, 18, 204--207.
Smith, R.S., Edwards, R.N. and Buselli, G., 1994: An automatic technique for presentation
of coincident loop, impulse reponse, transient, electromagnetic data, Geophysics, 59,
1542-1550.
Spies, B.R., 1975: Dual loop configuration of the transient EM method, Geophysics, 40,
1051-1057.
Strack, K.-M., 1992: Exploration with Deep Transient Electromagnetics, Elsevier, The
Netherlands.
Strack, K.-M., Hanstein, T., LeBrcq, K., Moss, D.C., Vozoff, K. and Wolfgram, EA.,
1989: Case histories of long-offset transient electromagnetics (LOTEM) in hydrocarbon
prospective aera, First Break, 7, 467-477.
Thomson, D,J. and Weaver, J.T., 1970: Image approximation for quasi-static fields over
a 2-layer conductor, Elec. Letters, 6, 855-856.
Verma, S.K., 1984. Two-dimensional Time-domain Electromagnetic Modelling, Special
Investigation Report, CSIRO Energy and Earth Resources, Division of Mineral Physics,
Sydney, Australia.
Wait, J.R., 1969: Image theory of quasi-static magnetic dipole over a dissipative half-
space, Elec. Letters, 5, 281-282.
Wait, J.R. and Ott, R.H., 1972: On calculating transient EM fields of a small current-
carrying loop over a homogeneous earth, Pure and Appl. Geophys., 95, 157-162.
Wait, LR. and Spies, K.P., 1969: On the image representation of the quasi-static fields
of a line current source above the ground, Can. J. of Phys., 47, 2731-2733.
Wang, T. and Hohmann, G.W., 1993: A finite-difference time-domain solution for three
dimensional electromagnetic modeling, Geophysics, 58, 797-809.
Wang, T. and Tripp, A.C., 1996: FDTD simulation of EM wave propagation in 3-D
media, Geophysics, 61, 110-120.
Weaver, J.T., 1971: Image theory for.an arbitrary quasi static field in the presence of
a conducting half-space, Radio Sci., 6, 647-653.
Wolfgram, P. and Karlik, G., 1995: Conductivity-depth transform of GEOTEM data,
Exploration Geophysics, 26, 179-185.
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domain electromagnetic migration (TDEMM), Exploration Geophysics, 26, 186-
194.
33. The Theoretical Study Of a Possible High

Resolution Resistivity Sounding Technique
for Groundwater Exploration in
Hard Rocks
M. Poddar
National GeophysicalResearch Institute, Hyderabad-500007, India
Introduction
Geoelectric sounding is a technique used for studying variation of earth
resistivity with depth and is often applied in investigation of sites for
engineering structures and exploration of groundwater and mineral deposits
such as coal. Soundings may be carried out using either direct current (DC)
galvanic or varying current electromagnetic (EM) energization of the ground.
In practice, the DC sounding technique had been more widely used than the
EM. This situation is, however, fast changing with EM techniques becoming
practical for sounding in recent years and with the growing realisation that
these techniques have, in general, several ad'~antages over the DC sounding.
One very important advantage is that it is possible to control the depth of
investigation by changing only the frequency content of the transmitted
signal without changing the separation between the transmitter and receiver.
The effect of lateral variation in layer parameters on geosounding data can
be hopefully reduced if sounding can be conducted without changing the
transmitter-receiver spread and especially if a large depth of investigation
can be achieved with a short spread.
In India, the DC electrical sounding has been very popular for groundwater
exploration for a very long time. Geophysical exploration for groundwater
in hard rocks basically means investigating a three-layer earth Section with
the top layer representing the surface weathered rock, the middle layer the
subsurface fractured/fissured rock and the bottom layer the compact hard
rock. The interest mainly lies in the middle layer of moderate resistivity
and the DC technique is known to work well for such moderately resistive
rocks. However, in the presence of lateral variation of layer parameters, the
DC technique is handicapped by the fact that it requires an expanding
electrode spread to carry out the sounding. What is required is an EM
sounding technique which is at least as sensitive as the DC to relatively
resistive layers. The current practice of using a horizontal current carrying
insulated loop as the source of the primary field in EM sounding is only
Sounding TechniqueHigh Resolution Resistivity 567
suited for detecting relatively good conductors (Poddar and Dhanasekaran,

1986). Kaufman and Keller (1983) showed that the EM technique which
has as its source a horizontal electric dipole (HED) is the best for detecting
the presence of relatively resistive layers. Long Offset TEM (LOTEM) is
such a technique recently reported by Vozoff et al (1987) for use in the
depth range of interest to petroleum exploration. A version of this technique
suitable for much shallower exploration, is, perhaps needed. A detailed
theoretical analysis was, therefore, undertaken of the transient EM (TEM)
fields of a horizontal electric dipole source placed on the surface of a n-
layered earth. The important results of this modeling exercise for a three-
layer model are presented here.
Theory of Modeling
The theory of EM fields of a HED source carrying time varying current on
the surface of a layered earth is well known and is given by many authors.
I have followed Anderson (1974) for the field expressions in the frequency
domain, and Anderson (1977) for the Fourier transformation of the frequency
domain fields into the corresponding time domain for step function excitation.
A computer program was written coding the relevant formulae given in
these two references, in order to calculate the two horizontal components
(Ex, EO of the transient electric field and the one vertical component (H:)
of the transient magnetic field, at any given point (x, y) on the earth surface
with the transmitter dipole centered at the origin of the co-ordinate system.
The geometry assumed in the formulation is shown in Fig. 1. The usual
digital filter technique was used in the calculation. Of the two electric field
components the Ex component in the equatorial configuration (~ = 90 °) was
normally calculated and the model results relating to this component only
are presented here.
Z
~ (x,y,o)
~-dx~
W~thered (z
over bufdzn h1
FtocturedI l
fissured hz
g
rock t /
Unfractured
su bstrotum CC
Fig. 1 A three-layer earth model of groundwater repository in hard rock, wih a

horizontal electric dipole (dx) source and point of observation (x, y) on the
surface of the earth.
568 Poddar
In a hard rock area underlain by granitic/gneissic or basaltic rock, the

shallowest source of groundwater is, of course, the surface weathered layer.
Normally there is no difficulty in determining the thickness and resistivity
of this surface layer using the DC technique. Problem arises when one
wants to determinethe condition of the rock between the top weathered
layer (overburden) and the bottom fresh compact rock (substratum). If the
rock is fractured/fissured in this part of the section, the chance of striking
plentiful groundwater is very bright. I model this middle part of the rock
as a layer of resistivity between that of the overburden (<100 ohm - m) and
the substratum (>1000 ohm • m). The model is illustrated in the Fig. 1.
For the purpose of presenting the transient model results in a form suitable
for direct comparison with the DC results, a normalized apparent resistivity
is defined as follows:
"a/A = t e x ) (1)
where the denominator is the electric field observed on the surface of a
horizontally layered earth (layered half-space), while the numerator is the
field that would have been observed at the same instant on the surface of
a uniform half-space with the resistivity Pl of the top layer. This definition
is adopted in accordance with the formula given by Kaufman and Keller
(1983, page 384) for the late stage of the transient fields observed when the
dipole current is switched off. The transient sounding data are here presented
as graphs of Pa/Pl vs.z/ht, where hl is thickness of the top layer and 7: is
defined as "r = (2zrpl t x 107) 1/2, in which real time is measured from the
instant current is turned off. In one case (Fig. 2a) ~ - s c a l e is also provided
to give an idea of the real time (delay) involved.
Model Results and Discussions

Figurcs 2 (a) and (b) show the normalized apparcnt resistivity vs. z/hl and
the corresponding Schlumberger apparent resistivity vs. normalised spread
length (AB/2hl) graph respectively for five models which differ in thickness
of the middle layer. The transient sounding curves at the late stage
asymptotically approach the DC sounding curves, as they should since the
expression for the normalized apparent resistivity in the stationary (DC~
dipole arrangement is the same as that for Schlumbergcr arrangement when
the earth is horizontally stratified (Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968). In other
words, all the basic features of the DC sounding curves are also present in
the late stage of the transient dipole sounding. Additionally, the early stage
of the transient sounding possesses features which are missing in the DC
curves. Thus at the early stage thicknesses ranging from 1 to 20 m of the
middle layer (h2) at a depth of 20 m are all very clearly resolved unlike the
late stage when the resolution is poor. This dramatic higher resolution at
Sounding TechniqueHigh ResolutionResistivity 569
102 / _ h2: Im
:10
=20 = lm
101 ~
c~k.o
z X: O,y=40m
100
p,:so.,, hi':12' m
, .,'~'~r y /~:200 h2 ii-
-1
10 10-0.-~, 10i "[Ih, 102 103
1 ......... I ". - - . . . . . . 1
10 -3 10 -2 10 -I
~/~ (s~c)
Fig. 2a TEM apparent resistivity curves for the model of Fig. 1, based
on the transient electric field measurement, w i t h the layer
thickness h 2 being the parameter for the individual curves.
the early stage is achieved for a dipole spread (r) of 40 m which is only
twice the layer depth. The resolution of the layer resistivity for the middle
layer is studied in Fig. 3(a, b). Again I find that resistivities ranging from
1000 to 50 ohm-m are much better resolved at the early than late stage. The
same conclusion drawn about the bottom layer resistivity, based on the
model curves of Fig. 4(a, b). In this last exercise, however, the roles of the
102 -
qo
101 :y h : le. Zm-~
= 10
10o
q •
~ Pz c2
i i L
~=SO.'lm 51 = ~ m
"TrfrwlffJflJwr¢
A B
OC
16 t . . . . . . . . ,,d_., ,...,..~J___L-,-~.~..~J
100 101 102 103
AO ! ] h 1
Fig. 2b DC Schlumberger apparent resistivity curves corresponding to Fig. 2a.
570 Poddar
102 :- ¢ : 1000 Llm
:SO0
=;ZOO
: 100 = 1000 O,m
101 : .SO"
z x:0,y:40m
10 o ~ ~ [r, lh I : 2
P'I:$OAm h i : [~m
y - hz:po
x P :1000
1G1
100 101 102 10 3
~/hl
Fig. 3a TEM apparent resistivity curves for varying resistivity
(P2) of the middle layer.
second and third layer have been intercha0,ged. It can be further shown by
varying the spread that the resolution at the late stage unlike the early stage
is practically independent of the spread length. This is shown for the resistivity
of the middle layer in Figs. 5 and 6. It was found that the late stage
resolution o f the middle layer resistivity is practially unaffected by this
change in the spread length although it is severely reduced at the early
stage. The same can be shown to be true fol" remaining layer parameters.
102 ,-
~=1000nm
=500 . .
101 -
1°° P e2 ¢z =so' m
i,o
A B , P3=1000 oc
1-
10" I L ,.~*l,,,! ............ I • I ...... l

100 101 102 103
AB I 2hl
Fig. 3b DC Schlumberger apparent resistivity curves corresponding to Fig. 3a.
That the late stage resolution is practically independent of the spread length
is in agreement with the result of Kaufman and Keller (1983, p. 390) for
a two-layer model, Thus, in the transient dipole E-field sounding, deep
Sounding TechniqueHigh ResolutionResistivity 571
probing is possible with short dipole spread without sacrificing the vertical
resolution of layers. This is a feature possessed by only one other active
geophysical technique, viz. the seismic reflection and will hopefully lead to
a higher horizontal resolution in the presence of lateral variation in the
layer parameters.
lO 2 m
/--~'.= 1,0o0 ~-m

f ,,~{
- - - - ~ = 500
10 ° --- I X :O,y : 40m

--- I r/h t =2
- . "'=I 2°"
- ' -,,ooo
",,,(x ,y ) O t
/3 OC
I0- I J , , twit,1 i I , i~,I1] , , , ,,,,,I
10 ° 101 10 2 10 3
T'/h I
Fig. 4a TEM apparent resistivity curves for varying resistivity
(P3) of the bottom layer.
Concluding Remarks
The electric field modeling of TEM response of a three-layered earth to
HED excitation has shown that such TEM sounding yields at late time
results same as the DC galvanic resistivity sounding in resolving layer
parameters of an A-type earth section and it possesses the advantage that
the sounding is conducted at a short spread and without expanding the
spread. Hopefully this will reduce the sensitivity of the sounding process
to lateral changes in layer parameters. It has been further shown that provided
the TEM response is observed at an early enough time and the spread
length to target depth is suitably chosen, the technique offers a much higher
resolution of layer parameters than the DC measurement.
572 Poddar
102 - -
- ~: t,000 .'3.-m
~o~
= 200
I0 ¢
- c, P, P2 c2 #,=5o~-~ ,1,,= 120 m

I I
A B ~= t,000 h2= t I0
#_
10-1 I I I , ,,,,I ~ ;~, I llIll I , ~ ,,,I
I0 ° IO i I0 2 10 3
AB 12h I
Fig. 4b DC Schlumberger apparent resistivity curves

corresponding to Fig. 4a.
102
P2 : 1000~1m,
\ \_
101
(~,o
100
' ~ Y
-.T'~:'~,.~=s°~'hl
,2: I ....
= 20m
10
x ~. P): 100o
I , , ...... ~x,y) , .. .... I . , ,, .... I
10 0 101 T l h 1 102 10 3
Fig. 5 Same as Fig. 3a but now the spread has been reduced to 20 m.
Sounding Technique High Resolution Resistivity 573
10 2 -
101 P2==1000 0 rn
500 \.
:,ooo..y : ZOO
=100 /~.
,oo - 7 d:: ".O,Y:lOm

-
~~~rr
Ihl : 0'$ .~l:SO~'m ht :I10m
x ,. p3:tO00
-I {*'Y}
10 _, , ,,,,,,! . , ,,,,,,I , , ,,,,.I
10 o 101 10 2 103
Tth!
Fig. 6 Same as Fig. 5 with the spread further reduced to 10 m.
However, I realised that it will not be an easy task to build the necessary
hard- and software of a field system suitable for conducting grounded wire
TEM measurements for shallow investigations, It is also an open question
whether one can realise and to what extent, with such a practical system,
all the possibilities thrown up by the simple one dimensional modeling
based on an ideal system response. These issues are, however, beyond the
scope of this article which is only to draw attention to some interesting
features of the electric field behaviour of a transient. HED source on a
layered ground and their possible application to geophysical sounding for
groundwater in hard rocks.
Acknowledgement
I thank Mr. M. Prakasa Rao for assistance in typing the manuscript and
preparation of this paper. I am also grateful to Director, National Geophysical
Research Institute, Hyderabad, for permitting this publication.
References
Anderson, W.L, 1974, Electromagnetic fields about a finite electric wire source, U.S. Dept.
of Commerce, NTIS Doc. No PB-238 199, p. 205.
Anderson, W.L., 1977, Calculation of standard transient and frequency sounding curves for
a horizontal wire source of arbitary length, U,S. Dept. of Commerce, NTIS DOc. No.
PB-274 199, p. 61.
Bhattacharya, P.K. and Patra, H.E, 1968, Direct current geoelectric sounding: principles
and interpretation, Amsterdam, Elsevier.
574 Poddar
Kaufman, A.A. and Keller, G.V., 1983, Frequency and transient soundings, Amsterdam,
Elsevier.
Poddar, M. and Dhanasekaran, P.C., 1986, Electromagnetic sounding of the Kapurdi lignite
deposit in western Rajasthan, India, Geophysical prospecting, 34, 580-594.
Vozoff, K., LeBrocq, K., Moss, D., Pridmore, D. and Mcallister, K., 1987, Combind
application of reflection seismic and EM data to stratigraphic mapping, Exploration
Geophysics (ASEG), expanded asbstract, 18, 215-218.
34. Transient CFS Response Over a

Mulfilayer Earth
H.P. Patra and N.L. Shastri*
Departmentof Geology& Geophysics,I.I.T Kharagpur,India
*Presentlywith the ONGC, WRBC, Baroda, India
Introduction
Transient electromagnetic sounding is successfully applied in mineral and
groundwater exploration. Major advantage of the transient sounding is to
overcome the effects of conductive overburden where frequency-domain
CFS frequently fails. Today time-domain EM sounding is also an important
exploration tool to determine the permafrost thickness and for oil exploration
in ice covered areas.
Fourier transform approach is used for computing the transient response
due to different electromagnetic sounding configurations over a multilayer
earth (Mallick and Verma, 1978; Patra and Mallick, 1980). Digital linear
filter approach is used by Patra and Shastri (1991) for computing transient
CFS response due to a two-layer earth. Verma (1977) and Verma and Mallick
(1979) have studied the phenomenon of detectability with different layered
earth models.
Studies are made on CFS transient response in terms of resolution
characteristics and performance of transient CFS over multilayer earth models.
H and K type three-layer and some four-layer earth models are considered
for transient response computation. Different loop radii are also chosen in
order to study any significant change in the resolution characteristics for
detecting deeper layers. Finally, the applicability of transient CFS over a
multilayer earth is briefly mentioned.
Computational Procedure
Transient CFS response (Fig. 1) for a circular loop source is computed
when the source is placed on a layered earth model (Figs. 2-3).
The normalised magnetic field for CFS placed over a layered earth is
expressed (Patra and Shastri, 1991) as
hz - a 2
I; [1 +fl(m, h, if, f)] J1 (ma) mdm (1)
where fl (m, h, ~, 3') is the kernel function generated for a layered earth;
h the layer thickness; o" the layer conductivity; J1 (raa) the Bessel function
576 Patra and Shastri
RECE~V ER ( CFS )
AIR
~,,,¢'~/'////~" / / / / / /
0'1 OO
~ ~
/ //~" ,¢/g//////////~"
EARTH
/"
1
Fig. 1 Configuration of CFS system over a non-magnetic

homogeneous earth.
AiR p
~",""'-~"~-,'--,r----/,'--,'4H,",f / /
EARTH ,w' I ,..' I / /
. i
1
, h' i/
1
0"3,~o T h3
I
Fig. 2 Three-layer earth model for transient response
computation.
of the first order with argument, ma; m the integral parameter; a the loop
radius and f = frequency of the source.
The integral involved in Eq. 1 is evaluated with the help of digital linear
filter after having written the expression in suitable form in frequency-
domain. So the integral expression in Eq. 1 is written in the following form
for computing the normalized magnetic field value in frequency-domain
(Patra and Shastri, 1991).
h z = Convolution sum
= ~ Ck "f](Yk) (2)
k=O
where Ck is the filter coefficients at abscissa values (Fig. 4); f1(Y) = input
Transient CFS Response Over a Muttilayer Earth 577
function; Yk = x - rik = In (a) - ri0 + K ([In 10/10]); is the suffix of the last
filter coefficient used and rl0 the first value of the abscissa.
! q,a
L',, AIR
_X
J l .... r / 4 t # ¢ #
h2
-- 1 I , , " 1
EARTH
h
O'l'P 0
~3
, ~2 ~lao
/-/
0"3 'tuo
/
C~4 , IJ o
/
~s ~o
/
O'n-1 ' PO
t O'n, ,Uo
Z hn
Fig. 3 Circular loop over a multilayer earth.
The normatised magnetic field values thus computed in frequency-domain

have been Fourier transformed to time-domain. Fourier summation given in
Eq. 2 is used to obtain the transient response of CFS. The transient response
of CFS due to a subsurface conductor at any-instant of time is the total
signal at that particular instant of each Fourier component of the energising
waveform. A single transient measurement contains the information over a
wide range of frequency. An expression for amplitude of complex normalised
secondary magnetic field component values in time-domain is written as
hz(t) = ~ Vn[hz(O))~ cos (mOot) - (hz(co) i • sin (mOot))]

n=1,3,5
where hz(O))r, and h(co)in are real and imaginary quantities of complex
normalised values computed in frequency-domain and Vn are the coefficients
used in Fourier series summation. A few representative multitayer curves
are presented in Figs. 5 to 12 and the salient features explained.
Analysis of Results and Discussion

Observation of curves presented in Figure 5 shows a significant resolution
of layer conductivity for both pulses of excitation especially for values
if2 > ffl indicating slow and gradual fall of response both at intermediate and
late sampling times. The response resolution is poor with the case G2 < (Yl.
In this case, the response decay rate is faster at early times and it gets saturated
at intermediate and late times. The top layer thickness does not influence the
response variation much. But as shown in Fig. 6, with increase of second
layer thickness, the separation between curves is increased.
0.5
0.3
0.2
Y o | , !
1.0 3.~ ~ ~..o 5.0
Jn--
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
- OA
- 0.5
Fig. 4 Sinc-response of filter for CFS systems.
In general, for the contrast o'2/o't > 10.0, it is found that the decay of
response is steady at both intermediate and late times thereby indicating the
possibility of detection. The variation in layer thickness has got a considerable
effect on the response at early times for half-sinusoidal pulse. The response
decays rapidly at early times and disappears at late times (t > 1.5 ms) for
0"2/0"1 < 1.0. However, the response persists upto 2 ms for 0"2/o"1 > 1.0. In
general the influence of layer thickness is not reflected much on the curves.
Figure 7 indicates that, with large loop radius, early and late time events
are detected while with small loop radius, response becomes too low at late
times. Same is true for square pulse excitation. Figure 8 shows that responses
decay fast at early times for small loop radius and the decay is slow both
at early and late times especially with large loop radius. Square pulse, in
Transient CFS Response Over a Multilayer Earth 579
//////////s
9.Om 1.0 Sire
I. 0 m VARYING
25 50
e¢ O.0 5/m
H A L F ' S I N U S O I D A L PULSE t SQUARE PULSE
LOOP RADIUS = 2 5 m
20 /,0
I
/ i\ /- ~d o"1:0.03 x
o | I / : I0,00
o 15 = 3o.oo 30
~O0"J ::07oo
x 0o .,~
N
= I0 20
10
(o) o (b) 0
O.S 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
t Ires) --~. t (ms 1 - - - . -
Fig. 5 Time-domain response curves for three-layer earth with conductivity contrast
0"2/0"1 as curve parameter and for half-sinnsoidal (Fig. 5 (a)) and square
pulse (Fig. 5 (b)) excitation.
general, provides response of higher magnitude as compared to half-sinusoidal

pulse. Fig. 9 shows significant separation of response curves for a = 500
m and 1000 m and with different h2/hl (i.e., 2.0 and 5.0) values. The
change in layer thickness does not give rise to significant variation in the
anomaly pattern with both the loop radii.
LOOP RADIUS : 25 m
25 25
i/.~rr/l.1//o VARYING 1.0 Sire

20
VARYING 1.0 SIm 20 1.0m 0.1 S i r e
o
t 1.0m
ee 0.0S/m
0.3 SIm l
~ IS
o¢
HALF-SINUSOIDAL PULSE
0.0 Sire
15
HALF-SINUSOIDAL PULSE r-
x x
= /.- o/hl = 2.77
_ ~ 5.po
N "10 Qlh 1 = 2.77 N 10 : 12,50
t- :,::go e.-
0 ' I / I 1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 LO 2.5
t(ms) ,. f (ms )-.,,-
Fig. 6 Time-domain response curves for three-layer earth for different values of
alh 1 and for values G=,/GI < 1.0.
Compared to H-type earth, the separation of response curves is not significant

in K-type earth for both the loop radii and for all h2/hl values as shown in
Fig. 10. Careful observation of Fig. 11 shows that the variation in layer
thickness is not well reflected on response for loop radius a = 500 m and
it is not improved even with the increase of loop radius. The responses are
similar at both early and late times, since distribution of top and bottom bed
conductivities are the same.
60 60 SQUARE PULSE
P,~'/IrrllfTjj~
SO 30.Om 0.016Sire f
3o~; ~-~s st~ s01
=
t 4O HALF'SINUSOIDAL PULSE I ~C
~ a $OOm
=1000m
o
o l--o= SO0
x 30 t \\ :,ooo _ 3o
N20
1-. .= 20
10 10
0 I I ~ I 0 I
0.S 1.0 1.S 2.0 2.S O.S 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
rims) t Cms)----~
Fig. 7 Time-domain response for three-layer earth model with different values of
loop radius with half-sinusoidal (Fig. 7 (a)) and square pulse (Fig. 7 (b))
excitation.
Response curves presented for a four-layer earth in Fig. 12 show that

variation in layer conductivity is well reflected on the response curves with
increase of loop radius
The response decays rapidly at early and intermediate times for small
loop radius. Slow decay of response, particularly at late times, is due to the
presence of conductive and resistive layers in the four-layer earth model.
Similar situation is observed with square pulse excitation. Qualitative nature
of response due to five-layer earth (not presented here) is almost similar to
the respone obtained for four-layer earth. Slow and gradual change in response
both at intermediate and late times for large loop radius and rapid fall of
response at early times for, small loop radius are important criteria to identify
an additional layer inserted within four-layer earth situation.
Conclusion
A study of the variation in amplitude of normatised magnetic field on a
multilayer earth provides an idea of relative depth of investigation and the
resolution capabilities of transient CFS.
Transient CFS Response Over a Multilayer Earth 581
The variation in amplitude of normalised magnetic field component at

varying layer conductivity contrasts in a three-layer sequence is well reflected
particularly at late times and high conductivity contrast between first and
second layers. The resolution of layer thickness in three-layer models is not
so significant though it is improved with the increased second layer thickness.
The effect of variation in layer conductivity and layer thickness in a multi-
layer sequence on the separation between response curves is negligibly
small. An increase of loop radius in this case hardly improves the situation.
~°r~[ CURVE PARAMETER= * (m)
f \ 2oo~ ;.~, s,.

,o o. oz: =
: .AtF- ~ U S O ~ PUtSt
70 "~ zo \ \ ~ - , : soo
=
\
\ \ / ~
;,,oo
=1ooo
6O
l,°
,r- tlms)
x t,0 / ~QUARE PULSE "
N
d:Z
I\ /-o:,=
3O =ISO0
lO
o
O.S 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
tiros} •
Fig. 8 Time-domain response curves for a three-layer earth with different loop
radii for halfosinusoidal (Fig. 8 (a)) and square pulse (Fig. 8 (b)) excitations.
However, intermediate conductive layer in H-type earth is well resolved

with the increase of loop radius but same is not true for K-type earth with
intermediate resistive layer. Applicability and limitations of transient CFS
are thus evident from the analysis of theoretical data presented. However,
transient CFS is found to be promising as compared to Central Frequency
Sounding (CFS) dealt with, in detail, earlier by Patra (1970, 1976, 1978),
Patra and Shastri (1982, 1983, 1985) and Shastri and Patra (1983, 1988).
30m, 1000 m
0,001 Sire
3S
0,004 Sire
o.o'cqsire
3O J.L PULSE
'0 t 0
5.0/ : SOOm
x 20
N 15
2
.0~ 0 : 1000m
t0 5.0 J
-..._
0
0.S 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
t (ms)
Fig. 9 Time-domain response curves for a three-layer earth with two different
loop radii and h2/h 1 ratios.
SQUARE PULSE
60 30m 0.016 S l m 60[
30m 0.025 Slm
100m 0.010 Sire
5O
f
g
~,0
e-.
x
30 ~ 3O
N
2O / \ \
,oo /-a:
//-
soo
:1ooo :
N
10 l
0 1 I ~ 0 I t I , •
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
f{ms) t{ms}
Fig. 10 Time-domain response curves for a three-layer earth with two different
loop radii and hz/h] ratios.
Transient CFS Response Over a Multitayer Earth 583
H A L F - SINUSOIDAL PULSE
////////////,
. i . i ,;r..r/r,,i .r 100m 0.001 S / m
25 lO0m 0.001 Sire 25
VARYING 0,010 Sire
YAR~ING 0.0001S/m
oc 0.001SIm
m 0.001 Sire
20 2O
f t HALF-SINUSOIDAL PULSE
~
o
h2 Iht =0,9 1 °g1 5
x o=S00rn
=1.2J
w
N
' ' 10
r- /h 1 = 0+35
0,40
o=lO00m 0.4S
0.50
0.55
0,60
0 , ! 0 ! , f I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
t (ms} f(msl
Fig. 11 Time-domain response curves Fig. 12 Time-domain responses for a

for a three-layer earth with two four-layer earth with different
different loop radii and h2/h t thickness ratios and with half
ratios. sinusoidal excitation.
References
Patra, H.P. and Mallick, K., 1980, Geosounding Principles, 2, Time-varying Geoelectric
Soundings, Elsevier, 419 p.
Mallick, K. and Verma, R.K., 1978, Time-varying Electromagnetic Sounding with horizontal
vertical coplanar loops on a multi-layer earth, Geoexploration, I6, pp. 291-302.
Patra, H.E and Shastri, N.L., 1991, Computation of transient CFS response over a two-
layer earth. Presented to EGS meeting, Weisbaden, Germany.
Verma, R.K., Detectability by Electromagnetic Sounding System, t977, IEEE Trans. on
Geoscience Electronics, Vol. 15 (4) pp. 232-251.
Verma, R.K. and Mallick, K., 1979, Detectability of intermediate conductive and resistive
layers by time-domain EM Sounding, Geophysics, Vol. 44 (1), pp. 1862-1878.
Patra, H .E, 1976, Electromagnetic depth sounding for groundwater with particular reference
to CFS: Principles, Interpretation and applications, Geoexploration, Vol. 14, pp. 254-
258.
Patra, H.E, 1970, Central Frequency sounding in shallow engineering and hydrogeologicaI
problems, Geophys. Prosp., Vol. 18, pp. 236-254.
Patra, H.E, 1978, A three-frequency computational method for two-layer CFS data. Boll.
Geofis., Vol. 21, pp. 35-45.
Patra, H.E and Shastri, N.L., 1982 Relative performance of CFS and DFS over a layered
earth, Pageoph, Vol. 120, pp. 527-537.
Patra, H.E and Shastri, N.L., 1983, Theoretical Central Frequen6y Sounding curves over a
generalised three-layer model, Pageoph., Vol. 121, No. 2, pp. 317-325.
Patra, H.E and Shastri, N.L., 1985, Response characteristics of Central Frequency Sounding
over a multi-layer earth, Boll. Geofis., Vol. 25,.No. 105, pp. 41-46.
Shastri, N.L. and Patra, H.E, 1983, Computation of model curves for central Frequency
Sounding by means of digital linear filter, Boll. Geofis. Vol. 25, No. 25, No. 98,
pp. 119-130.
Shastri, N.L. and PatCa, H.E, 1988, Multifrequency sounding results of laboratory simulated
homogeneous and two-layer earth models, IEEE Trans. on Geoscience & Remote Sensing,
Vot. 26, No. 6, pp. 749-752.
VIII
Shallow Electromagnetics
35. Frontier Technologies for Hydrocarbon

Exploration, Deep Transient Electro-
magnetic Sounding (DTEM)
R. Karmann1, U. Matzander1,
J.R. Rossow 2, J.L. Seara 1,
K.M. Strack 2 and P.A. Wolfgram 2
lMetronixGmbH, Neue Knochenhauerstrasse5, D-38100 Braunschweig,Germany
2Institute f. Geophysiku. Meteorologie,Universityof Cologne,Albertus MagnusPlatz,
5000 Cologne41, Germany
Introduction
Far reaching changes in the field of electronics, both in the acquisition and
processing of data, have resulted in improved new technology for hydrocarbon
exploration. The deep or long offset transient electromagnetic method, DTEM
or LOTEM, is an electromagnetic method capable of measuring the resistivity
and thickness of layers at great depths and with a high degree of accuracy.
Recently, the DTEM or LOTEM method has bccn greatly improvcd by
METRONIX and its sister company GEOMETRA, in collaboration with
the University of Cologne (St-rack et al. 1989a, Struck et al. 1989b, Struck
1992, Strack et al. 1990).
DTEM is an active electromagnetic measurement method which guarantees
good results even in survey areas with a high proportion of man-made noise.
The rapid station setting up time (approximately 5-10 rain), and the short
measuring time (about 15-40 rain) results in high measurement productivity
and contributes to reducing exploration costs.
The DTEM is very useful for exploration in basins covered or interbcddcd
by basalt, volcanic layers, salt and anhydrite.
In these areas, the high velocity of the layers has a significant effect on
seismic transmission tosses, making seismic reflection methods difficult to
interpret.
In comparison with other electromagnetic methods, DTEM has the advantage
of being less sensitive to lateral inhomogeneities, having the best coupling
with subsoil and measuring in the absence of the primary field.
To prove the capabilities of DTEM, several demonstration surveys were
carried out in China in 1988. During the 63 days of field surveying, about
370 DTEM soundings were measured in four different locations, covering
approximately 180 line kilometers. The first two surveys were carried out
586 K a r m a n n et al
in the Bohai Basin (east of Tianjin city). The other surveys took place in
the Ubei Bawin (east of Nanjin city) (Fig. 1).
I1%
t - L
Fig. 1 Location of the survey areas where the DTEM method was applied to
hydrocarbon exploration.
The DTEM results from the area near Tangshan city are presented in the
paper by Rossow, Guodong, Seara, Strack, Wolfgram and Musheng entitled
"Case Histories of LOTEM Soundings In Lithosperic Investigations".
This article describes DTEM method and the instrumentation which was
used in China.
Introduction to DTEM
The DTEM field system has a fixed high power transmitter (typ. 100 KW)
and one or more receiver systems at a distance (offset) of 5-20 km from the
transmitter (Fig. 2). Offset depends on exploration depth and the resistivity
of the subsoil. Transmitter and receivers are all synchronised by very precise
clocks. The transmitter current of 40-400 amps is fed into a 1-2 km electric
dipole and changes the polarity controlled by the clocks, approximately
every 10 sec. Each current step induces eddy currents in the ground which
increasingly diffuse outwards and downwards as "smoke rings", with time.
Fig. 3 shows the contours of the electrical field strength of a finite grounded
wire dipole on the earth's surface. The electromagnetic field of the induction
current is recorded at the site of the receivers, as a time derivative of the
magnetic field I~I, using induction loops or as electric fields E x and Ey.
Fig. 2 shows typical receiver signals. The name, transient electromagnetics
(TEM) is derived from the transient shape of the output voltage of the
induction loop.
Receiver II "~
/'rror~iiter - ., , - - - , Ex ~ :
.~
/~, A :" ~ : -,-- --,-'a~ ~'~
/~ I ~.~D'2"L~
et Receiver I ,~;11~".::.~
F I"
E x ....
...:.:,... :
.: :: . . ::.: :
.-.:.:....~............................. ....... ..: ......
- - Time H - 0
TrcmsmiHer c u r r e n t - - Time
wove form
Receiver ~ o n s i e nt
s~gnal
Fig. 2 DTEM field system.
I000 m 1000 m
100A tOOA
-6 -3 0 3 6 -6 -3 0 3 6
290~ m
.... ...:Ui:.:.:.::i.ii.:.:.:.!!-!:::..'-... 2000J'L m
200 fi.m
%, :::::::!:.~/...'. ~.~'*..'.:::.. ..... 2000 J'L m
o
6.
o
200 -q m
Fig. 3
,oo 2000 .P,-m
Contours of electric field strength for a finite grounded wire dipole

(Strack 1992).
588 Karmann et al
It can be demonstrated that during the so-called early time, ET, when the
induction currents are still close to the transmitters, the induced induction
loop voltage V(t) at the site of the receivers in proportional to the apparent
resistivity Pa, of the subsoil:
ply= 2trZ5 V(t) (1)

3MoAY
where paer is the early time apparent resistivity, M0 the dipole moment
(which equals the source current by transmitter length), A the receiver area,
Y and r are the coordinates of the receiver, t is time and V(t) the measured
voltage at the receiver.
During the so-called late time, LT, when the induced eddy current centre
is close to the site of the receivers it is
( MAY ]2/3 1 ..2/3
pY = [. 40/r4%-.
"
(-~)5/3 I V--~) (2)
which leads to a decay of V(t) over time. Here pffr is the late time apparent
resistivity and/.t o is the free space magnetic permeability.
As with the early time, the induced voltage V(t) is directly proportional
to the apparent resistivity and the measurement results of Fig. 4 indicate a
direct sequence of resistor-conductor-resistor with increasing depth. The
transients H (t) or E(t) steps are usually imposed by very high cultural
electromagnetic noise. Even if standard stacking techniques are used, this
11.9
] ~'RESlSTOR
RE
E
LIJ
<~
t,--
,-J
O
>
L~Q NAK~,JJLJ .kL a ,ItlJ a
TIl,r] , , ,,, - r'p~fI~
-1.3 !
0 5 15 25 35 45
TIME (sec)
Fig. 4 Transient indicating a resistor-conductor-resistor sequence.
will not yield the required data quality as shown in Fig. 5. Only the off line
selective stacking together with smoothing techniques (Fig. 6), yield the
required high quality data which is then converted to appartment resistivities
over time (see Fig. 7). The early and late times are distinguished between
because there is no single mathematical solution for the whole time range.
1.76'
! l)
>
l.l.l
t.---
._J
F
A,t
0
Y
-0.38.
-3.6 0 21.9
TIME (sec]
Fig. 5 Transient stack output from standard average stack processing.
1.70-
>
I-.-
_J
O
>
-0.14 ~
-3.6 0 21.9
TIME (sec)
Fig. 6 Transient stack output from selective stack processing using the same data
as in Fig. 5.
Finally, the data is transformed into a resistivity to depth function in a one

or more dimensional inversion algorithm. The flowchart of the processing
software is shown in Fig. 8.
590 Karmann et al
104 - EARTH
MODEL 65.2 ,.~m
I 591 rn
E
.¢2
0 10 3 .
>.
7623.5 l").m
,o,
W
tiJ
r~
<[
13.
n
,o,/\ 59.7 ."1.m
3692m
5262m
<t
100 t,784.0 Am
10-2 10-I 10 0 101
TIME ( sec )
Fig. 7 Example of apparent resistivity curve and its inversion output model. Three
different layers are evident from the sounding data. The lowest boundary
is next to 5300 m.
D T E M Instruction
In the simplified block diagram (Fig. 9) the transmitter and receiver subsystem
of Metronix's DTEM instrumentation DEMS IV can be seen. At the site of
the transmitters, which is normally 5-20 km away from the target area, a
standard 380V AC, 50-200 KW power generator supplies the transmitter
unit, TRA 875. With the help of the TRA 875 the AC voltage is converted
to DC voltage and switched to the opposite polarity approximately every
10 seconds, controlled by the high precision reference clock, PCL 875. The
transmitter reference clock is synchronized with the receiver reference clock
once a day, before the surveying begins.
Finally, the 50-400 Amp DC current of changing polarity is fed into the
1-2 km long electric dipole. The dipole consists of irogated plates which
are dug into the soil. Layout of the heavy cable is facilitated with a motor
driven spitter. This is done in 10-20 rain. Cable is picked up the same way.
The receiver is shown in Fig. 9, and consists of an induction loop magnetic
field sensor and/or electric field sensors. A low noise and high gain
preamplifier, PRA 875, amplifies and filters the weak signals before they
are filtered again, digitized and stored with the data acquisition system,
DAS 875. The DAS 875 has a very powerful integrated computer system
which includes high resolution plasma display for checking the quality of
the data. Using the 20 Mbyte winchester plug in the DTEM data which is
stored daily, is easily transported and fed into the data processing work
station DPWS IV which is usually placed in the base camp.
Processing and Interpretation

The data processing work station, DPWS IV, allows the user to do final
¢-
A ¢',,1
I~I I~I
oo ~ g
. I I I
,J II~! e~
E.~II ~ I
~7-J
I ~I
~i
....... 1 i ;
,..z
o Lol ,=
~U
WO ~1/~"1/o.I
EE
ZI le;i !~711~il
c
0
592 Karmann et al
processing and interpreting of Deep Transient Electromagnetic, DTEM,

data which has been collected by METRONIX DTEM receivers. The
DPWS IV is a fairly durable unit which is usually used at the base comp.
It contains the easy-to-use packages LOPS and EMU, for data processing
and the modelling and interpretation of data respectively. Winchester units
are plugged in to transfer data from the DEMS IV receivers and the DPWS
IV units.
TRANSMITTER
280V
/,1,*(-)
Hierl~.~
swit hesl ILl
[ 2,
Grounded
- inter lock dipole
RECEIVER
Mognetic
•field sensor
,~Tm~Pre CP~ .. I lGrophiesl
arnpliler I--'-- ~Amplifier]---l
! leonwo.er ! Idisplay I
Ey~ ,[
Electric
tield sensor
b~tery opera(red
Fig. 9 Simplified block diagram of DTEM transmitter and receiver system (Strack
1992)
The LOPS and EMU are-easy-to-use packages which are fitted in the
standard operation system VMS. The user can learn to use the system very
quickly with the assistance of the helpful information provided at every
stage of the modular system.
The LOPS package is divided into five blocks and is used for DTEM
data processing. Fig. 8 below shows the LOPS flow chart. The five blocks
consists of: (1) file transfer and data Organization, (2) prestacking processing,
(3) stacking, (4)poststacking processing and inversion preparation and (5)
preparation for inversion.
Files are easily transferred from DAS 875 to the processing system. The
operator should begin by checking that he has all the required data by
referring to the book-keeping section. The field inputs should also be checked
graphically or manually, at this stage.
Prestacking processing includes all the data filtering, trace editing and
necessary for stacking.
The stacking is usually done using the standard selective stacking algorithm.
However, different stacking procedures are provided for different noise
characteristics.
Poststacking processing allows for further digital filtering and data
correction.
When the user prepares processing results for inversion, he must reduce
the amount of data to a smaller quantity of logarithmically spaced data
points. This can be done with either apparent resistivities or electromagnetic
field values.
DTEM Universal Inversion Package EMU

EMU uses a parametric inversion algorithm with a statistical analysis of
the jacobian problem. The program allows the user to:
(1) invert DTEM apparent resistivities or field values
(2) jointly invert DTEM magnetic and electric fields.
A conceptual description showing the inversion processing is given in
Fig. 10. The inversion results are plotted individually for each station.
joint inversion results,
electric magneticf i e l d s WELL 2 0 ]km
S 4 3 2,~,~1 -1P a
0 , ~w. ~1 w'
~l _..~L,---~ ~,.,=W b" 0 ~.eOlevel
(sec) 3 , I'1
,,~ 2 . ..... (see)
0 . 5 ' ~ e 03
Z.56~
1 . 5 , ~ 1.5
. . ~ 0 ~
5.3 0 O.Z a - k ; geological units
numbers: resistlvite$ i n ~ - m
• : recever sto, tion
WELL2 i , INYERSION [OUTPUT 1
ol
RESI STI Vt'TY(/3.m)
10 100 10(1010000
PAT'/ /PARAMETERI
k /1. resistivities !
NOISE I~ IMOOEL I [COMPARE ]12.!bickness ]
' ~ FUNCTION L _ ~ S Y N T H E T I C DATA[
÷ WITH FIELD "
/ t E..T.
E~
DEEP LATEROLOG
-~-8 Fig. 10 DTEM universal inversion package EMU.

594 Karmann et al
Assembling the results for a profile is done so that layer parameter variations
correlated with the available geological information.
Conclusion
As can be seen in Fig. 11 the electromagnetic methods, magnctotcllurics,
MT and deep DTEM, complement each other very efficiently.
Figure 12 shows that the cost effectiveness of MT and deep DTEM
almost entirely depends on logistics. There is always a crucially decisive
point on the cost analysis curve where these methods are no longer feasible
in terms of expense. For e×ample, in some areas in West Germany this
point is reached at approximately 15 MT stations.
Costs
MT
CrOSSpointOVer
~ T E M
Transmitter f
installation Number of
costs ~ measurement
MT ~ T E M points
more efficient I mote efficient
Fig. 11 MT and DTEM compliment each other very efficiently.
MT TEM
• High mobility • Short measurement time

• No active source ° High reproducibility
• Online data evaluation • Realtime quality control of
and interpretation data
• l - D , 2-D and 3-D ° Insensitive to "static
modelling effects"
• Reconnaissance tool • Target tool
• EM depth sounding • High station density for
structural soundings
Fig. 12 The cost effectiveness comparison of MT and DTEM.
References
Strack, K.M., Hanstein, T.H. and Eilenz, H.N., 1989, LOTEM data processing for areas
with high cultural noise levels. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interior,53,261-269.
Strack, K.M., Hanstein, T.H., Lebrocq, K., Moss, D.C., Vozoff, K. and Wolfgram, EA.,
1989, Case histories of tong offset transient electromagnetics(LOTEM) in hydrocarbon
prospective areas, First Break, 7, 467-477.
Strack, K.M., Luschen, E. and Kolz, A.W., 1990, Long offset transient electromagnetic
(LOTEM) soundings applied to deep crustal studies in southern Germany, Geophysics,
55,834-842.
Strack, K.M., t 992, Explorationwith deep transient electromagnetics,Elsevier,Amsterdam.
36. Recent Developments in Quantitative

Interpretation of VLF-EM Data
Ajit K. Sinha
MineralResourcesDivision, GeologicalSurveyof Canada,
601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Canada
Introduction
The very low frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) method, a widely used
technique for detection of shallow conductors, uses plane EM waves trans-
mitted by Navy communication stations in the frequency range 15-25 kHz.
Since no transmitters are needed with this method, the field operations arc
simplified considerably, requiring only one operator using a portable receiver.
VLF-EM methods, however, do have a few limitations. While the plane
primary VLF field couples well with long, linear conductors striking normal
to the direction of the primary magnetic field, conductors striking parallel
to the primary field remain undetected because of poor coupling. Therefore,
unless two or more VLF stations with different azimuths are available,
some of the conductors remain undetected. Also, no method is available for
quantitative interpretation of ground VLF data over conductors of low
conductance (0.1-0.7 S), such as those formed by water and/or clay-filled
fracture and shear zones in plutonic rocks of high resistivity (1000-10,000
~-m). Such plutonic rocks are being considered as possible repositories for
spent nuclear fuels in several countries, and VLF methods provide a uscfl~l
technique for studying the integrity of such rocks.
The Geological Survey of Canada has b ~ n involved in three VLF research
projects in the past few years: development of a portable VLF transmitter
for use when VLF stations with suitable azimuths arc not available;
development of quantitative interpretation procedures for ground VLF data;
and improvements in airborne VLF systems. Since two orthogonal VLF
primary fields are needed to map all conductors in an area, something that
is rarely available, a portable local loop VLF transmitter was designed and
tested at several sites. The field from the local loop transmitter, placed at
a suitable location could bc used in conjunction with the field from a VLF
station for a total conductor mapping of an area. Extensive numerical
modelling of the response of two-dimensional conductors of low conductance
placed in a host rock of finite resistivity resulted in preparation of a catalogue
of master curves for interpretation of ground VLF data over such conductors.
Current airborne VLF systems are somewhat unsophisticated and are used
600 Sinha
for reconnaissance surveys to provide qualitative information about the

ground. Our group is presently working with a private-sector firm in an
effort to improve the design of the sensors, as well as to assess the feasibility
of measuring all EM components using a digital receiver and of devising
a method of ground conductivity mapping using airborne VLF data. This
article summarizes the results of our investigation.
Local Loop VLF Transmitter

The primary plane wave field from a VLF transmitter consists of a horizontal
magnetic field and an orthogonal vertical electric field. This type of field
can be generated artificially by a grounded horizontal electric dipole. But,
in resistive terrain, it is difficult to send enough current through the dipole
" - ~P ANTENNA
10-S. 500m x 500m
5 Arnps
16.55 kHz
D.
E
<
v lO_S.
Q
(a) .J
u.I
2 3xlC
I11
Z
¢~ 10 -7 . I
< I
IE I
I
I
!
10-8 I
10 2 10 3 10 4
DISTANCE (m)
50-
1o, om
m 30
(b)
z OPTI MUM
< \ \ . SURVEY
\ \. /'OCATION
~X 1030 - ~ 1 I
103 104
DISTANCE (m)
Fig. 1 (a) Variation of the horizontal and vertical magnetic field strengths with
distance from the centre of a loop source. (b) Plot of tilt angle versus
distance from the centre of the loop.
Quantitative Interpretation of VLF-EM Data 601
due to high contact resistance. The contact resistance problem is eliminated

by using a large loop, which is energized inductively and placed on the
ground (Sinha and Hayles, 1988). An important consideration for the loop
antenna is the ratio of the signal wave length to the loop length. This ratio
determines the signal directionalitY and antenna impedance. Ratios less
than 0.1 ensure an almost uniform current, and the transmitter will be
omnidirectional in the horizontal plane.
Following Wait (1951) and Sinha and Bhattacharya (1966), the magnetic
field components from a loop placed on a uniform ground may be computed.
Figure 1a shows the variation of the horizontal and vertical magnetic fields
with distance using a square loop source for ground resistivities of 3000 and
10,000 ~ . m. Figure lb shows the variation of the tilt angle in degrees versus
distance for the two resistivities. It is evident that the total field becomes
almost horizontal at a distance of 3 km for the 3000 f2. m resistivity. Beyond
10 km, the field strength becomes too small. Hence, the optimum range for
local loop VLF survey using a 500 × 500 m loop will be from 3 to 10 kin.
Figure 2 shows a comparison of the tilt angle and quadrature measurements
at Chalk River, Ontario, where a local loop transmitter was set-up to simulate
the U.S. Navy station NAA, transmitting from Maine, U.S.A. The transmission
frequencies of NAA and the local loop were 17.8 kHz and 16.55 kHz,
respectively. The azimuths of the two fields differed by about 20 °, because
access problems prevented placing the loop at the optimum location. The
access problems also forced us to place the local loop only 1.5 km from the
survey area, and hence its primary field had a significant vertical component.
Nevertheless, the response from the two sources are remarkably similar.
The conductor axes determined from the tilt angle response from the two
sources are almost identical, demonstrating that the local loop could be
used instead of NAA for conductor location. Quadrature values (Fig. 2b)
from the two sources show relatively fiat response with minor level differences
between the two. This is typical of weak conductors located in resistive
host rock and explains why characteristic interpretation diagrams using tilt
angle and quadrature values are not useful for weak conductors in resistive
host rocks.
Quantitative Interpretation Development

Soon after the collection of the first set of ground VLF data over plutonic
rocks containing fracture and shear zones, it became apparent that existing
interpretation schemes devised for strong conductors could not be used for
interpreting such weak conductors. Since most of these conductors are
long, sheet-like features, numerical modelling of the VLF response of such
2-D bodies was undertaken to devise an appropriate interpretation scheme
for them.
Figure 3 shows a plot of the peak-to-peak ellipticity response (~max)
versus peak-to-peak tilt angle response (O~max) o v e r a vertical conductor of
602 Sinha
depth extent 50 m located in a host rock of resistivity 1000 ~-m. The

conductance value of 1/6, 1/3 and 2/3 S are typical of weak conductors
formed by water and/or clay filled fracture and shear zones. The diagram
shows that the variation of Ema~ is much smaller than that of O%ax.Furthermore,
Emax although sensitive to conductance variations, seems insensitive to depth
variations. This conclusion is borne out by survey data over many locations.
114N ItSN 116N 117 N lieN 119 N 120 N

I I I 1 I I I
FACING DIRECTION I,
(a)
4o1% "I''
2O
\ ...-----..~ CR-2
TILT ANGLE 0 "~'--'~'~]- , -~ ..... /* ~o3 E
(RAW DATA)
-20 I CR-~
.L
-4o I'.~..~.I./~---. /L',! " _~- ,04 E
i[, CR:-~-'~:""----"-T-f==:='''-"
:2....>~ ..........
/ .,..-,,A
I~.;--.. _I \~ . . . . . . . -:-_:_-_. OSE
## "\ | //---~'~.__.~--" SIMULATION
r, ~, ~',P ~;,~' ~ ___ " 106 E

"X" ...... -.J" \'%. / ...... .-.>~\.
l..... -" \'~>-J
CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR
NO. 2 No, I
114 N 115N 116N 117N 118 N 119 N I20N

I I I I I I I
4 0 T °/° FACING DIRECTION I,
(b) /
QUADRATURE o . . . . ,........ "'- ---~=~R~: . . . . . . ,03E
DATA ...... " CR-4
- 20 1 ~ C R - 3 OF NAA
-40 I . . . . . . " - - ~ ' - ~ - ' ~ ~ SIMULATION
" P ~ " / / 104 E ( LOOP 1 )
--" ". . . . -. . . . . . • 105 E
J
•< = - ~ ' - " ~,-<.T~.-~ .'Z.Z 7 ' ' = ~ ....... :"" ~ " - = . = , ' ~ " : . . . . . . . . . Io6 e
o
I
Metres
I
,oo
I
LC
°l\OO'(~ ! l -- NORTH
DIREC
TO NAA. LIMITS FOR DIRECTION TO
SIMULATED NAA,
Fig. 2 Comparison of the tilt angle and quadrature survey results at Chalk River,
Ontario, using NAA and the local loop.
QuantitativeInterpretationof VLF-EMData 603
In fact, in most locations, the emax variations are very small, often of the
order of the noise, making their identification and use difficult in interpretation.
Hence, an interpretation scheme was devised relying on the tilt angle response
~r~x and the horizontal separation between the peaks o~Ax for determination
of the depth, depth extent and conductance of weak conductors. The technique,
however, requires prior knowledge about the host rock resistivity and
conductor inclination, which can be obtained from a VLF resistivity survey
and filtering of the tilt angle response respectively (Karous and Hjelt, 1983).
16 g' g' ~;'
! ~ I/ / / /
"f ! A' I1 / ii
r I
,,i ,'I ,'
',,t- I/ .,' , / /
IV//
4 L!/ / /
/ /
/ /
/
lt71 / / / ° ~ o P,,,~ ~-t.~!t 5°m
/ / / / .I"'I" ~t~-
I~/ i ~ j ~'" O.o,,o lO00Q.m
o ,'<, ~'o ,o io -
C~max (%)
Fig. 3 Peak-to-peak eilipticity versus peak-to-peak tilt angle response over a vertical
conductor in a host rock of finite resistivity.
It is assumed in this study that no significant overburden is present in

the survey area. However, if overburden is present, the suggested method
of interpretation will be invalid. Figure 4 shows the characteristic interpretation
diagram for vertical conductors of low conductance located in a resistive
host rock of finite resistivity (3000 li-m). Figure 4a shows a plot of ~Xrnax
versus mAx in m for a conductor of infinite depth extent for three conductance
and four depth values. Using this diagram, the conductance and depth of
a Vertical weak conductor can be determined if the host rock resistivity is
close to 3000 ~-m and the depth extent is infinity. However, if the depth
extent is finite, this diagram cannot be used since the response depends on
the depth extent. If the depth to the conductor can be estimated from
drillhole data or from geology, the correct depth extent and conductance
can be estimated from another set of diagrams as shown in Fig. 4(b, c) and
4d. The depth extent is an important parameter for engineering geophysical
work, since it indicates the extent of fracturing.
Figure 5 shows a similar diagram for a conductor dipping at 45 ° with a
host rock resistivity of 3000 f~-m. Similar diagrams were prepared for different
combinations of dip and host rock resistivity. Hence, characteristic diagrams
604 Sinha
~oo
~o
<
o t"
,~ ,~o
,. . . . . . ~o 2o lo "° ~ do 20 ,o Eo
(11) PEAK TO PEAK a~. (~) (b) PEAK TO PEAK ~x~x (mt
,o ~/y/,-->~,., ,o
,,,[,/:I ,,'I o . °
~ "o °" I !@ ~---7''/ -" '° >"~t ' ~"
" - - ' - '"-:~'
< 1,4,/ / / " ~.4, I ,'2
I/I I ' ~ i '/,'~---dq
o I/ i //7I ,'_L.--.'~'
,,," j _ _ o ol Ii~, / I /i / "
;~o ell tom ~ 0 " ,~- iom

P~o.t " a oooli m .L.,U P~o.~. ~ oooo~
°~ ~o ,o ;o ;0 ,~o ° fo ,o ;o ;o ~o d
(¢) PEAK TO PEAK ~ x {m) (d) PEAK TO PEAK ~ 1 |~1
Fig. 4 Characteristic diagrams for VLF interpretation over a vertical conductor

in host rock or resistivity 3000 f~-m.
14o t #
~_. 12o
/ / /
leo / / /
~ '°
~ 0~ <
/--------/
// i/
<,,..~, // //
/ / /
~ ~o
o / / .//
•o ! /
! / Ii.om
ao / ~ . / / / / Ol,~,I . :i O000.m
I
' :o ' ,'o .'o ' ~o ' ,o'o '° ,'o ' ~'o ' ," ' .1o ..... :o ' 7o
(~) PEAK TO PEAK ~ A I (m) (b) PEAK TO PEAK (x•x (m)
iO
,/ ,° ,o
v 8o ro
// 1/ // d.20m
-.~ 7o // /// i/ eo
/ / -- /
// / o~.~ 13 / z 0*.=137 t- ~ .
¢ / // /
~ 5a
ii I .I 4C
o l - I/a/* °
./1 / / Y " ~ - - - - N ~ ' . . S'
< // •
Pho,~ " a OOOam "-~ t ~-

. ~ I I ,i
"o .......... ~'o "o ;o Lo '°,o " ,'o ' ,'o ' /o ' ............ ao
ao
(C) PEAK TO PEAK I:iZ,x (m) {d) PEAK TO PEAK C~Ax[m}
Fig. 5 Characteristic diagrams for VLF interpretation over a 45 ° dipping conductor

in host rock of resistivity 3000 D-m.
Quantitative Interpretation of VLF-EMData 605
like Figs. 4 and 5 can be used for complete VLF interpretation if the inclination
and host rock resistivity can be estimated independently. Such interpretation
can serve as the initial model for a trial-and-error forward modeling on a
computer for fine-tuning the interpretation (Sinha, 1990a, b).
Figure 6 shows an application of the method to data from Atikokan,
Ontario. The observed tilt angle response is asymmetric and indicates a dip
of about 45 ° after filtering. A prior AMT survey had indicated the ground
resistivity to be close to 3000 fZ.m. Using the observed tr~nax and c~Ax
values, the characteristic diagram yields a conductance of 0.2 S and depth
of 6 m. Using that as the initial model, several forward models were run
on a computer. The best-matched model provided a depth of 5 m, conductance
of 0.2 S and depth extent of 50 m. The comparison of the computedresponse
of this model and the field data shows good agreement.
(a) 50.
40- Facing //~ N <.---.-
30,
W
20"
-/
z
< 0 u , i ;"
I--
153N ~-~-x~152N ~' 151N 150N
_~ - 1 0 -
I-
-20- \ ~ - j~/ / / observed
-30 ------ calculated
-40
45
(b) Gt = 0.2S
3 0 0 0 Om
-~,t I-
Fig. 6 Interpretation of a VLF tilt angle anomaly at Atikokan, Ontario.
Airborne VLF Development

Existing airborne VLF-EM systems measure the total magnetic fields and
the vertical quadrature components at one or two VLF frequencies. However,
the measuring systems are not properly calibrated, and orientation of the
sensors are not compensated for aircraft movement, with the result that.
airborne VLF results arc mostly qualitative, limited to indicating the prescncc
of conductors, without being able to provide any information about their
depths, attitudes or conductanccs. GSC is currently supporting a propopsal
from industry which is aimed at developing a calibrated all-digital system
for reliable and absolute measurement of all field components and to allow
correction for variations in total field strength with time and distance using
606 Sinha
separate monitors. Theoretical results have been published (Poikonen and

Suppala, 1989) showing the response of common VLF targets with a view
to develop methods of quantitative interpretation of airborne VLF data. A
hardware development programme is now being initiated which will allow
measurement of ground impedance, and hence ground resistivity from airborne
VLF data. This should allow ground conductivity mapping of large areas
at a cost significantly less than the present cost of doing that using helicopter
or fixedwing EM systems using dipolar sources.
Conclusion
The VLF-EM method has not experienced the same degree of advance in
instrumentation and interpretation technique that has taken place in other
EM survey systems. One reason for the tack of effort is due to some of the
basic limitations of the method: first, the relatively high operating frequency
limits the depth penetration; second, it is basically a single-frequency system
(in the range of 15-25 kHz). Hence, there are fewer measurement parameters
than in EM systems with active sources (multifrequency and transient),
which limits the interpretation of complex conductors. Third, the azimuths
of the VLF primary fields are fixed. Hence, conductors that do not couple
well with the primary field remain undetected. Fourth, the method suffers
from a lack of reliable interpretation procedures.
The first two deficiencies are inherent in the method. However, the last
two deficiencies can be corrected, at least to a degree, by using portable
VLF transmitters, so that all conductors can be detected, and by the
development of suitable interpretation techniques. The interpretation procedure
outlined in this paper requires information about the host rock resistivity
and inclination of the conductors, which may be obtained from a VLF
resistivity survey and from filtering of the tilt angle response. The problem
of interpretation is worse in the case of airborne VLF data, since the measuring
systems currently in use are neither properly calibrated nor corrected for
aircraft motion, which limits any quantitative interpretation of airborne
VLF data. Efforts are under way to improve the airborne VLF hardware for
obtaining reliable field data and develop suitable interpretation procedures.
References
Karous, M. and Hjelt, S.E., GeophysicalProspecting, 31,782-794 (1983).

Poikonen, A. and Suppala, I., Geophysics,54, 1596-1606 (1989).
Sinha, A.K., Pure and Applied Geophysics, 132, 733-756 (1990).
Sinha, A.K., Geoexploration, 26, 213-231 (1990).
Sinha, A.K., Proc. Intl. Conf. on ElectromagneticMethods,Denver,Colorado,D.V.Fitterman
(ed.), in press (1991).
Sinha, A.K. and Bhattacharya, EK., Radio Science (New ser.), l, 379-395 (1966).
Sinha, A.K. and Hayles, J.G., Geoexploration,25, 37-60 (1988).
Wait, J.R., Can. Jour. of Physics, 29, 577-592 (1951).
37. A Study on the Possibility of Assessing

Anisotropy Due to 2-D Structures from
VLF-EM Data
I.B. Ramaprasada Rao, R.R. Mathur and
N.S. Patangay
Centre of Exploration Geophysics,Osmania University, Hyderabad-500007, India
Introduction
Study of macro-anisotropy or "effective anisotropy" in resistivity is an
interesting approach in electrical prospecting. The presence of 2-D structure
(including water bearing fracture zones (Adam, 1984) in an otherwise
homogeneous host rock results in the electrical anisotropy. Fischer et al
(1983) obtained expressions for apparent resistivity (p) and phase (~) as a
function of azimuth from two measurements at a given location, one with
E-polarization and the other with H-polarization VLF-EM fields. The polar
diagrams thus obtained showed maximum anisotropy just inside the walls
of the dyke. Thiel (1984) obtained a relation to determine the degree and
direction of electrical anisotropy by utilising the fields of two transmitters
w i t h frequencies in the same band and measuring surface impedance in two
different directions--one of the plane of incidence and the other at any
arbitrary angle. In this paper we are presenting a new approach to analyse
the effective anisotropy introduced by 2-D structures in a homogeneous
medium using single VLF-EM transmitter while the earlier attempts reported
in the literature made use of the fields due to different transmitters.
Theoretical Basis of the New "Effective

Anisotropy Parameter"
Consider a plane wave incident on air-earth boundary (Fig. 1). The various
field components in air Elz-vertical electrical component.
Following Rogachev et al (1965) and Svetov et al (1966) the electrical and
magnetic field components can be written as
Elz = 2~ (1)
2St
Elz
HI~ = 120a: (2)
608 Rao et al
El Z
#~Et
EIy PI
7/////~//~,///'////')" / / / / I/7-1// / i / / / / 1 1 1
EARTHAIR
BOUNDARY
~2E2~
~¢/ ,E2z
HIX / / / ~ E2y
,,#/ P2
H2X
Fig. 1 Plane wave propagation over earth-air boundary. PI and P2 are the Poynting
vectors in medium 1 (air) and 2 (earth), respectively. The electric and
magnetic field vectors (E and H) are also indicated.
( BoP ~112
E b, = (I + i) ~,I-"~ } EI:
2~2dfE° (3)
Sr = aX
where/.t is the magnetic permeability; P the dipole moment d the transmitter-

receiver distance; o9 and X are the angular frequency and wavelength of the
EM field, respectively; p = l/o" is the resistivity of the homogeneous earth
and e the dielectric permittivity,
The power (Pt) of the VLF-EM transmitter can be written as (Jordan,
1964)
80/I:21212
Pt = Z (4)
where I is the current through the transmitter and I the length of the dipole
antenna.
Since P = II/o9, we can write
80;¢2P 2 o9
P, = ~ 2 (5)
and ~t~ = 120zr, Eq. (1) can be written as

Anisotropy Due to 2D Structures from VLF-EM 609
- 3600c2(Pt)~/2 • e (2xifd)lc (6)

Elz = rc~/-~f2d2p
where ~ = c/f and c is the velocity of light in vacuum. Hence
3600 c2 (pt)1/2
I EI~ I = (7)
TC.ff~ f 2d 2p
From Eq. (3) we have
( 2p )u2 ~Oc 3600c2~t

IElv I= ~ j IElz I= • rc~-.~f2d2p (8)
The horizontal electrical field I El a I in any direction a from the transmitter

direction, can simply be obtained using the Eq. (8) as
I Elal = I EI~, I cos a (9)
clearly I E1c~ I = 0 when a = 90 °, i.e. perpendicular to transmitter direction
(Y-direction) and is maximum when o~ = 0 °.
Further, from Eqs. (2) and (3) using boundary condition I E b. I = I E2v I
at the air-earth boundary, the resistivity of the homogeneous earth can be
obtained as
," t ",1t2
t #11"~ ;
Thus, on measuring the impedance of the VLF-EM field on the earth, the
resistivity of homogeneous ground can be obtained which in turn can be
utilized for computing Exa.
The Anisotropy Parameter M

A new parameter is introduced by us in the present study to analyse the
effective anisotropy.
The apparent resistivity value measured along ith azimuth (with respect
to the transmitter direction) at an observation point is noted as Pfi while the
corresponding apparent resistivity value at chosen base station, sufficiently
removed from the local target is designated, as Phi. The apparent resistivity
measured at the observation point in the transmitter direction is designated
as Pymax- On measuring the apparent resistivity in a number of azimuths
(i.e., i = 1 ... n) at the observation point and at the chosen base point.
parameter M is computed as
M=
•I ~ (P~ - ~i) 2
i="ln(Pfma x )2 (11)
610 Rao et al
In case the electric field is measured instead of apparent resistivity, the

corresponding notations used are Efi, Ebi, Efmax, where Efi is the electric
field measured at the observation point in the ith azimuth, Ebi is its
corresponding value at the base point and Efma~ is the electric field measured
in the transmitter direction, at the observation point. Thus
I ~(Eli Eb)2i
i=I
-
(12)
M= n(Efmax )2
At the base point, the measured Ebi can be replaced by theoretically computed
E1c~(Eqs. 8 and 9), the necessary p involved in Eq. (8) can be obtained by
measuring the impedance and using Eq. (10). Thus two different computations
(using Ebi i.e., actually measuring the E field in different azimuths at the
base point or using Ela-computing by Eqs. (8) and (9)) are possible when
the electric field at the air-earth boundary is used.
~ . ~Pfi(orEft}
" Stotion direction
Fig. 2 Effect of ardsotropy on azimuthal VLF measurements. Curve 1 corresponds

to an isotropic situation and curve 2 is a typical distortion in the AVLF
measurements because of anisotropy.
Figure 2 schematically shows the procedure for data acquisition in the

field. In actual practice it is convenient to take the field observations at 30 °
interval and later digitize at 10° intervals through interpolation for computing
the M parameter.
Field study
Case 1: Conductive 2-D target

The imaginary (curve a) and the real components (curve) obtained using
Geonics VLF-EM system along with the special components H z (curve d),
•~ ~,.__~.~ (b)
-I~ ,,,.---~
-2
v "q'<<~Pr ~fi lit
; °r5r_./~
< \ (f)
340
500
260
220
E 180
E
c- liiO
O
I00 II "--"
Sohtu rnbir l i t ~V/
60 I'llls tlvlty V
20
=6or
120 r
E VLF EM r e s i s t i v i t y //~ , . / y lVLFond
E ~'~ ..... ~ ~ AVES Locations
-
O
I00
4
7 0 20 40 60 80 I00 120 140 t60

~ AVLF Locations
180 200
mm ~, Exposed dyke
Distance metres
Fig. 3. VLF-EM (Geonics EM 16 and RP-2 equipments) data using NWC (22.3
KHz) EM field and Schlumberger resistivity profiling over a conductive
dyke: (a) EM 16 imaginary component.The imaginary componentcomputed
from RP-2 measurements are shown with full circles; (b) EM 16 real
component; (c) vertical component of magnetic field (i-Ix) using RP-2 system;
(d) Horizontal component of magnetic field (Hz) using RP-2 system;
(e) Ratio of ( H J H x ) % = A%; (f) Tilt angle (a) using RP-2 system;
Sehlumberger resistivity profiling; (g) Current electrode separation AB/2
= 50 m and (h) Current electrode separation A B I 2 = 30 m; (i) VLF-EM
resistivity measurements using Geonics E M 16 system.
612 Rao et al
A % = H z / H ~ 100% -curve e) and tilt (0 -curve f) obtained from RP-2 VLF

system (Mathur, 1989) designed and developed by us are shown in Fig. 3.
The double distance Schlumberger resistivity profiles with current electrode
separation of AB/2 = 50 m and 30 m shown in Fig. 3(g) and (h) indicate
the exposed dyke (doterite) as a conductive target within a resistive matrix
(granite).
The locations where azimuthal variation of apparent resistivity using
Geonics VLF-EM 16R and the azimuthal variation of electric field (dipole
length 10 m) using RP-2 system were measured, i.e., electrical sounding
locations (designated as AVES location and conducted by changing current
electrode spread directions, as AVLF location) are shown in Fig. 3. The
AVES were obtained by spreading the current electrodes in the directions
of N 25°E, N 70°E, N 24°W, N 68°W up to a maximum current electrode
separation of 150 m. The plot of the ratio 7= Pa(max)/Pa(min)for each polar
diagram as a function of half the current electrode separation (some typical
data are shown in Fig. 4) reaches a maximum of 2 at 90 m for AB/2 = 20
m indicating that the electrical anisotropy is maximum at this location.
The epicenter of dyke is at 85 m. Far away from the dyke (at -100 m) 7
2[ (c)
I (b)
I (o)
AVES-I(at - lOOm)
I I I I lllll I I i i I III
I I0 I O0 I000
AB/2 (m)
Fig. 4. Anisotropy parameters (P.(m.JP.~ml.) determined from Sehlumberger

soundings. Note the high anisotropy yalue in (b) and (c) corresponding to
AB/2 = 20 m.
is approximately 1.5 for all the electrode spacings indicating a fairly reduced
anisotropy.
Figure 5 shows the M parameter computed Eqs. (8, 9, 10, 11 and 12).
The base station was chosen at -100 m corresponding to a relatively
homogeneous ground. For computing E a resistivity of 10 ohm-m was
chosen based on Geonics EM 16R resistivity and phase data. Both the
anisotropy parameters obtained from the apparent resistivity measurements
and E field reach a peak value of 0.5 to 1 at the 2-D structure, well above
the background. Attention is drawn to the VLF-EM resistivity obtained
from Geonics EM 16R (Fig. 3, curve i) where the anomaly over the dyke
is not as prominent and located as in the case of M parameter.
Geonic5 RP-2
I'0
0.8
0.6
M
04 0.6t
04
M
0'2 0"2
0 ~ ~ I 0
-Io0 0 i ~00 200 300 - I00 0 ! 1<30 20O
"~dyke \ dyke
Distonce(m)-
Fig. 5 AVLF parameter M across the dolerite dyke in granitic terrain

(shown in Fig. 3).
Case 2: Resistive Target

A quartz (resistive target) situated in a granitic host rock exposed between
locations 205 and 215 m along a profile (shown in Fig. 6). The Schlumberger
apparent resistivity profiles with AB/2 = 50 m and 30 m detect the vein (Figs.
6c and d). The electrical field in the transmitter direction Ep (Fig. 6a) and
impedance (Ep/Hx, Fig. 6b) measured using the indigenous RP-2 system shows
the target as resistive. The VLF-EM anisotropy parameter M (Fig. 6e) is
computed based on the datum point chosen at 50 m station, far away from the
existing quartz vein.
The anisotropy introduced by a resistive 2-D structure is reflected as an
increased value of the parameter M(0.42) over the quartz vein.
Conclusions
(i) The azimuthal variation of the VLF-EM field (E field) due to a single
VLF transmitter helps in detecting the effective electrical anisotropy
introduced by a 2-D structure.
~ii) The parameter introduced which is a measure of the VLF-EM
anisotropy responds well to conductive as well as resistive targets.
614 Rao et al
~v '°° f VL,
0L
20 VLF impedance
3000 ~N Q
[_ \ //~ Sehlu mbergor profiUlnQ
E 2000 \
,oooI- ~ --" ---.~.,- "...'/' ~ = 30.,

F N
-"N:.X /~,~0" VL,-M p.,. •. ,,,

% ¢
0-4 %~/~'~¢' ~b,,.. 7AVLF-LOCATIONS
Q Profile Direation / "~..~
M 0.2 ,~ ~ / " ,,....
° ~ v I ~' v ~1~ I ! v IV V t T V t V 1
0 40 80 ,120 160 200 ~ 240 280 320 360
Quartz vlen
Fig. 6 VLF-EM data by RP-2 system using NWC (22.3 KHz) EM field and
Schlumberger resistivity profiling over a resistive target in a less resistive
matrix: (a) Electric component (E) of the VLF-EM field along transmitter
direction; (b) Impedance ( E I H ) computed from VLF-EM RP-2 system
measurements, Schlumberger resistivity measurements; (c) Current electrode
separation A B I 2 = 50 m; (d) Current electrode separation ABI2 -- 30 m;
(e) VLF-EM anisotropy parameter M computed using Geonics VLF-EM
16 R system.
References
Adam, A., 1984, Fractures as conducting dykes and corresponding two dimensional models,
Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 32, No. 4, 543-553.
Fischer, G., Le Quang, B. and Muller, J,, 1983, VLF ground surveys-:A powerful tool for
the study of shallow two dimensional structures, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 31,
No. 6, 977-991.
Jordan, E.C., 1964, Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems, Prentice-Hall of India
(Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi.
Mathur, Ram Raj, 1989,Developmentof the VLF-EM prospecting method for solving chosen
geological problems in hard rock terrain, Ph.D. thesis (unpublished),Osmania University,
India.
Rogachev, B.V., Sedelnikov, E.S. and Tarkhov, A.G., 1965, Using the field of extremely
long wave radio stations in geophysical surveys by the method of radiokip (in Russian),
Izv., Vish., Uche., Zav., Geological Rezvedka, Vol. 6, 104-114.
Svetov, B.S., Petrovsky, A.D., Ershov, E.M., g_amenetsky,EM., Kovalenko, V.F., Frantov,
G]S., Sokolov, A.D. and Shaub, Yu. B., 1966, Electromagnetic methods of prospecting
in ore geophysics (in Russia), Nedra, Moscow.
Theil, DN., 1984, One dimensional surface impedance measurements above an anisotropic
earth, Exploration Geophysics, Vol. 15, 43-46.
38. Response Resolution of Shielded

Conductors Through Multifrequency
Measurements: A review
D. Indira Nagubai and P.D. Saraf
National GeophysicalResearchInstitute, Hyderabad-500007, India
Introduction
Geoelectromagnetic prospecting data are usually interpreted with the aid of
analytical (using boundary value problems) and/or experimental (simulating
electromagnetic models) results. In both the cases the electromagnetic response
of the idealised models are obtained. One of the important approximations
with the natural occurrences is the presence of an overburden covering the
ore target. Hence, in electromagnetic exploration problems the basic
requirement is that the overburden formations must have properties
(geometrical and/or physical) favourable for penetration of the inducing
and secondary e.m. fields. It is well established that the presence of an
overburden may shift the phase, alter the amplitude and change the spatial
spectrum of the secondary electromagnetic fields. Hence the present interest
in induction prospecting problems is to separate the electromagnetic signal
due to massive or concentrated conductive deposits from the electromagnetic
noise arising due to the overlying formations.
In the recent works on transient field method of e.m. prospecting, it is
realised that this method has the capability to separate out the responses of
overburden and/or ore system as shown in Fig. 1 (A and B). In Fig. I(A)
Velekin and Bulgakov (1967) showed, through experimental result, that at
the early stages of transience, response of the composite system corresponded
to the response due to overlying sheet while at the later stages it corresponded
to that of underlying sphere alone.
Verma (1972) examined, theoretically, the feasibility of such a separation
of responses due to overburden and ore components, in time domain studies.
As shown in Fig. I(B), the general nature of curve consists of two humps
representing the responses dominated by the outer and inner shells,
respectively.
Another method of induction prospecting having the potentiality of
separating the responses of overburden and ore components is a multi-
frequency method. Multifrequency method has several advantages viz.,
(1) Reduce the time-spent on field measurements,
Response Resolution of Shielded Conductors 617
(2) Increase the distinct character of the resolving curves,

(3) Afford the possibility of resolving the overburden--ore combination
even when the overburden has a good electrical conductivity, and
(4) In some cases offer the possibility of unique interpretation of
determining size, depth, conductivity etc., of the ore formations.
(~ AFTERVELEKIN &
- SUL~XOV t~sr |
. . . . HORtZONT~
SHEET
w ~ER'E
102 - ~ COMBINED
RESPO~ISE
*~ (~ AFTERV'E~MA,197"2}
m.~ INNER SHELL
-
21o'- \
,o,ooo! @
,oo_
~1- i \ I
\ ,,,,,,,,, ,d .. II t
o 4 8 IO IO to io 2
T (m See.) T (m See, )
Fig. 1 (A) Time domain response of the composite (sheet sphere) system, and
individual components (sheet and sphere--experimental results, after Velekin
and Bulgakov, 1967). (B) Time domain response of the composite (two
shell) system, and individual components--Theoretical results (after Verma,
1972).
Hence, in this work, feasibility of the response resolution of the shielded

conductors in multifrequency e.m. measurements will be discussed for various
overburden-ore composite situations.
(1) Sphere-shell model

Raval (1972) and Fuller (1971) presented the cases of sphere-shell model
in galvanic and non-galvanic contacts (as shown in Figs. 2(A) and 2(B),
respectively).
Two peaks represent the sphere and shell i.e. the first peak at low
frequencies is mainly due to the induction in the sphere (ore) as the outer
shell behaves as transparent at these low frequencies while the second peak
occurring at higher frequencies correspond to the outer shell, only.
(2) Cylinder-shell model

Raval (1972) studied the cylinder-shell model in both galvanic (Fig. 3A)
618 Nagubaiand Saraf
(A) SHELL SPHERE (B)

iN GALAVANIC CONTACT IN NONGALAVANIC CONTACT
2,0
tO 0"~ -2 # ~l-O
/
I,..- ~-~=,o /
Z
14.1 I-6
Z
o
a.
o
u 0-6
O 0'8 o
Q ~o4
z
n 0.4 - QR
o
i0 z io 3 104 iOs ios ioo 105 106
FREQUENCY IN Hz FREQUENCY IN Hz
Fig. 2 (A) Variation of real (IP) and imaginary (QR) components of the response
factor against frequency of the e.m. waves for a composite shell-sphere (in
Galvanic contact) model (after Raval, 1972): (B) Variation of real (IP) and
Imaginary (QR) components of the response factor against frequency for
a composite shell-sphere (in Nongalvanic contact) model (after Fuller, 1971)
MULTIFREQUENCY SHELL-CYLINDER RESPONSE
IN GALAVANIC CONTACT IN NONGALAVANIC CONTACT
06 ~-=15 8
~ - = I-5
>-
Oi -2
Z _ ~-E2 = 1 0
~0.4
0-2 =~
--O'Z
0 I I 0
(A) o 1.2 2-I 0 0-2 0"4 0-6 f-0 t'4 I-6
R EA L (B) REAL
Fig. 3 (A) Multifrequency variation of real-imaginary components for a shell-
cylinder model (in galvanic contact) (after Raval, 1972). (B) Multifrequency
variation of real-imaginary components for a shell-cylinder model (in
nongalvanic contact) (after Raval, 1972).
and non-galvanic (Fig. 3B) contacts. Anomaly index diagrams (viz., plotting
of real component vs imaginary components for various frequencies), plotted
for both the cases, demonstrate the two conducting regions distinctly.
(3) Two shell coaxial spherical and cylindrical models

Lowell (1968) reported the coaxial symmetry of the alterations and
mineralization zoning in porphyry copper deposits as shown in Fig. 4(A).

Such a situation can be modelled idealistically, by coaxial thin shell models
as shown in Fig. 4(B).
(A)
San Manuel
Low Grade Fault
Marginal Mineral Zone
Pyrite Zone
UNIFORM FIELD
(B)
/ \
I [ Ill C
Fig. 4 (A) Schematic plan showing alteration and mineralizatiGn zones of Kalmazoo
ore body (after Lowell, 1968). (B) Two conducting concentric shells in
presence of a uniform EM field.
(a) Variation in radii of the shells

Coaxial two shells models have been studied by Negi and Saraf (1984) and
Nagubai and Saraf (1991) for spherical and Nagubai and Saraf (1995) for
cylindrical models, respectively.
Argand diagram shown in Fig. 5 (A) exhibits this variation of the radius
620 Nagubai and Saraf
of the outer spherical shell (B) (keeping the radius of spherical inner shell
(A) constant). The first peak obtained in the low frequency zone is due to
the inner shell only. This may be explained as the low frequency fields can
be penetrated through the outer shell. The second peak is due to the outer
shell which is obtained at higher frequencies. In such high frequency zones,
due to high shielding behaviour of the cover the inner shell is completely
shielded.
Similar to Argand diagram representation gradient (dReal/df) v e r s u s
frequency has been plotted for various B/A ratios. Here also contributions
from overburden (outer shell) and ore (inner shell) is clearly identified in
higher and lower frequency bands as shown in Fig. 5 (B).
In Fig. 5(C), cylindrical two shell coaxial model has been studied by
Nagubai and Saraf (1990c). Imaginary component vs. frequency variation
S P H E R I C A L TWO S H E L L MODEL
(A)
IN NONGALAVANIC CONTACT
MULTIFREQUENCY RESPONSE
>- 0-4 B
EC ~" ----1'4
<[
Z
0-3
~E 0-2
0"!
I I ..... I ..... i
0-2 0.4 0-6 o.8 I.o
REAL
SPHERICAL TWO SHELL MODEL
. ,6 = (B)
o~
8Z
Eo
"B
L,J 1
<%
i02 103 104 10 5

FREQUENCY IN Hz
(Contd)
Response Resolution of Shielded Conductors 62t
280 CYLINDRICAL MODEL

IN NONG~,LAV/~NICCONTACT /
y- 200
BE
/ (c)
z
oi
:E 120
40
i02 i03 104 105 106

FREOUENCY IN Hz
Fig. 5 (A) Argand diagram (real vs. imaginary) for change in frequencies and
BIA = 1.4 and 1.2 (Spherical Two Shell Model) (after Negi and Saraf,
1984). (B) Variation of dRealdf against frequencies for BIA = 2 and 5 (Spherical
Two Shell Model) (after Negi and Saraf, 1984). (C) Variation of imaginary
component vs. frequency for BIA = 1.5 and 2.5 (Cylindrical Two Shell
Model).
pattern shows the two distinct peaks representii~g the contributions from
inner and outer shells respectively. In multifrequency measurements, change
due to B/A is also clearly demonstrated.
(b) Variation with conductivity of the outer shell
Variation with conductivity of the outer shell (0-1) (keeping the conductivity
value of the inner shell, 0"2, constant) has been demonstrated for both
spherical (Fig. 6 A) and cylindrical. (Fig. 6 B) two shell models.
In Fig. 6(A), Argand diagram for two situations of 0-1 < 0-2 are illustrated,
for spherical model while the results for similar situations have been obtained
in Fig. 6 (B) for cylindrical model where the imaginary component of the
response factor has been plotted against the frequency of the e.m. waves.
In both the cases contributions of the inner (ore body) and outer shells
are observed (in the total response of the systems) separately in the different
frequency ranges.
(c) Variation with magnetic permeability

Studies on Effect of magnetic contrast of an ore body with the surroundings
has relevance in delineating ferrimagnetic material usually associated with
sulphide containing pyrrohotite. Some numerical results have been obtained
for changes in magnetic permeability of inner (P2) or outer shells (/-tl) for
both spherical and cylindrical two shell models.
In Fig. 7 (A) and (B) changes/.tl and ,u2 are demonstrated in the imaginary
622 Nagubaiand Saraf
S P H E R I C A L TWO S H E L L MODEL
IN NONGALAVANIC CONTACT
0.35 MULTIFRE•UENCY RESPONSE
0"25 i
0.15
~--"~ V ~'~
0.05
] ...... } I i I
0-2 0,4 0.6 0.8 I-0
REAL
(a)
CYLINDRICAL MODEL
IN NONGALAVANICCONTACT_
560
%
400
6-"
240
80
i ,1 1 I
Io 2 to3 1¢ io 5 Io6
FREQUENCY IN Hz
(B)
Fig. 6 (A) Argand diagram (real vs. imaginary) for change in frequencies and
GI/G2 = 10 -1 a n d 10 -2 (spherical two shell model) (after Negi and S a r a f 1984).
(B) I m a g i n a r y c o m p o n e n t s vs frequency for change in crl/G2 = 10 -2 a n d 10 -3
(cylindrical two shell model) (after Negi and Saraf, 1995).
components of reflection factor against the frequency content of the EM

waves. Effects of changing/.g are observed only in the higher frequency
ranges while changes in #2 are seen in the lower frequency bands and in
multifrequency measurements the permeable conductor is reflected earlier
than the corresponding non-permeable conductors.
SPHERICAL TWO SHELL MODEL
CHANGE WITH ~L I CHANGE WITH ~L2

t
(>40 - Ol =O2=lO M 0.40
= ~=i@ I A ~ " - P'I =P'O

o24 0-2 Zl ', _o.24
ql" - r ix2= 4 IxO ! '
-- _ 0-16
0-08 0-08
I I i i I r I I~"1 I 1
io ~ to" Io6 ,ot ~o" Io6
FREQUENCY IN Hz FREQUENCY IN Hz
(A) (B)
~oo'~ CYLINDRICAL MODEL
>-
PL2 P-O ~
-~'oo I I I t ,, J
iOI 102 iO3 io 4 iO~ ios
FREQUENCY IN Hz (c)
Fig. 7 (A) Variation of imaginary component vs. frequency for changes in the
magnetic permeability of the spherical outer shell /Z1 = 4 /~o, /to (after
Nagubai and Saraf, 1991). (B) Variation of imaginary component vs.
frequency for changes in the magnetic permeability of the spherical inner
shell/~2 = 4/Jo, Po (after Nagubai and Saraf, 1991). (C) Variation of imaginary
component vs. frequency of the outer cylindrical shell/~1 = 10/-to, 100 #0
(after Nagubai and Saraf, 1995).
In Fig. 7(C) effect of changing #1 (magnetic permeability value of the

outer shell) has been demonstrated for cylindrical model. Imaginary
component of response factor has been plotted against the frequency. When
the values of/.q is 10/.to, the outer shell response predominates the variation
pattern giving rise to a shm-p peak and magnitude of this peak decreases
with an increase in th e Pl Value.
(d) Variation with dielectric permitivity

Several works on EM exploration of the moon and some other terrestrial
situations require the inclusion of displacement currents particularly in the
regions where the extremely low values of conductivity results due to lack
of moisture or ice clad regions.
Hence, in Fig. 8 (A) and (B) modifications in the electromagnetic fields
due to dielectric covers for both spherical and cyl!ndrical models have been
presented.
One finds that in multifrequency measurements the imaginary component
of the response factor is affected appreciably with the changes in the dielectric
behaviour of the overburden.
(e) Variation in the thickness of the shell (inner D 1 o r outer D2)

Effects of changing the thickness of outer (D1) or inner (D2) spherical shell
on the variation of imaginary vs. frequency patterns are demonstrated in
Fig. 9 (A) and (B), respectively.
Here also, it is shown that the multifrequency measurements also resolve
the change in thickness of the shell as distinctly as changes in the
corresponding physical parameters.
3 (f) Shielding characteristics

Scattering coefficients for the covered and uncovered ore body are compared
in terms of reflection loss parameters (6) defined as 6 = 20 loglo I Co I/I Cl I.
Here Co and C1 are, respectively, the scattering coefficients when the outer
cover is absent and present.
Several numerical results have been obtained for changes in S for various
values of physical and geometrical parameters in both overburden and ore
formation in various frequency regions.
It is shown that the shielding factor vs frequency variation pattern can
be utilised to determine magnetic contrast between the overburden-ore
formations.
Concluding Remarks
This article attempts to deal with the idealised mineral ore bodies surrounded
by overlying formations by assuming the composite overburden-ore system
either in spherical or cylindrical shapes. Sophistication has been introduced
through realistic changes in the (i) Geometrical and (ii) Physical parameters.
SPHERICAL TWO (A)

ioo I- SHELL
/ 6t =50 co
ul 80
•1-o. 7 0 - /
60-
5o , I ,I
104 105
FREQUENCY. IN Hz
94 CYLINDRICAL MODEL (B)
78
)-
m
z
~ 62
46
30 t I i I J
I0 ~ lo z io ~ io4 io s ioe
FREQUENCY IN Hz
Fig. 8 (A) Variation of phase component vs. the EM response vs. frequency for
changes in the dielectric behaviour of the outer spherical shell Y l = Y o,
50 ~ (after Nagubai and Saraf, 1995). ~ ) Variation of imaginary component
of the EM response factor vs. frequency for changes in the dielectric
behaviour of the outer cylindrical shell ~1 = ]~0, 100 ]~0.
It is found that the frequency response of a composite overburden-ore

system gives rise to two distinct humps corresponding to overburden and
ore in different frequency zones, respectively. This phenomenon helps to:
(i) select suitable frequency zones in which the recorded response is due,
mainly, to the ore body.
(ii) understand the shielding processes due to permeable/dielectric
conductive overburden formations.
(A) S P H E R I C A L TWO SHELL MODEL (B)

O-32
0.32 - C H A N G E W I T H D! CHANGE WITH O2
a--=vS
A
0"34
>,- 0.24
- ~=,a~ j >..
G~
- ~'= lOOm O,=lM I
Z Z 0"16
0"16
(9
=[
~E
0"08 O'O8
/ /
IO ,d ,d io" ,o" I0 IOz iO~ Ib 4 Io s
FREQUENCY iN Hz FREQUENCY IN Hz
Fig. 9 Variation of phase component of the EM response factor against frequency
of the EM waves for changes in: (A) thickness of the outer shell D];
(B) thickness of the inner shell D2.
0 1 = 1.OH
Oz = LOll
10.5 - - (q = 2~. ~,,= st,o) or,= ~o-'s,u
A = tOOH
t.mJ
Z
">' 10.0
M,.
t.IJ
LO
z 9.5-
..J
u.I
9.0 I I
10z 10 ) 10~ 10s
FREQUENCY IN H z
Fig. 10 Variation of shedding effectiveness against frequency of the EM waves

for/~1 = #2 =/J0 and//2 >//t and ~l > / ~ (after Nagubai and Saraf 1991).
Ward (1959) has shown that the multifrequency measurements provide

the possibility of unique interpretation.
Our aim is to examine, theoretically such unique interpretations through
multifrequency measurements for several models representing complex
subsurface situations by incorporating inhomogeneity/anisotropy/nonlinearity
in physical parameters. Studies are under progress to simulate: (i) conductors
with arbitrary shapes, (ii) situations configurations to account for irregular

topography, and (iii) incorporate simultaneous presence of inhomogeneity,
anisotropy and random distribution of conductivity in natural geological
situations.
Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to Dr. R.N. Singh for constant encouragement and
profitable discussions. Mr. D.V. Subrahmanyam and Mr. S. Jamaluddin
helped in preparation of manuscript. Authors are also thankful to the Director,
NGRI, Hyderabad for his kind permission to publish this work.
References
Fuller, B.D. (1971), "Electromagnetic response of conductive sphere surrounded by a

conductive shell", Geophysics, Vol. 36, No. 1, p 9-24.
Lowell, J.D. (1968), "Geology of the Kalamazoo ore body, San Manual District, Arizona",
EconomicGeology, 63, p 645-654.
Nagubai, D.I. and ED. Saraf, (1991), "Multifrequency EM response of a permeable cover
target system", Bulletino di Geofisica, Vol. XXXIII, No. 132, p 309-380.
Nagubai, D.I. and P.D. Saraf, (1995), "On multifrequencyshieldingbehaviour of cylindrical
overburdencoveringconcentricelongatedore deposits",Acta GeophysicaPolonica,Vol.
XLIII, No. 1, p 63-74.
Negi, J.G. and RD. Saraf, (1984), "MultifrequencyEM response of a shielded conductor",
Geofisica International, 23(1), p 1-15.
Raval, U. (1972), "Study of EM diffraction by some conductive structures with special
reference to perturbationin shape, non-uniformconductivityand dissipativesurrounding
medium, Ph.D. thesis (unpublished), submitted to Jiwaji University,Gwalior.
Velekin, B. and J.I. Bulgakov, (1967), "Transient method of electrical prospecting (one
loop version)", International Seminar on Geophysical Methods, Moscow, USSR.
Verma, S.K. (1972), "Time domain EM interactionwith conductive geological structures",
Ph.D. thesis, submitted to Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi.
Ward, S.H. (1959), "Unique determination of conductivity susceptibility,size and depth in
multifrequencyEM exploration", Geophysics XXIV, 3, p 531-546.
39. Electromagnetic Depth Sounding on a

Transitional Earth Using Large
Rectangular Loop Source
K. Prabhakara Rao, P.D. Saraf and K. Mallick
Introduction
The presence of transition layer in different terrains has been demonstrated
by many investigators, for example Mallick and Roy (1968) in granitic
terrain, Patella (1978) in fissured limestone, at the interface of fresh and
brackish water as well as in delineating bauxitic clay sandwiched between
sterile clay and limestone in sedimentary clay formation (Mundrey, 1983).
Besides dc depth sounding (Jain, 1972; Koefoed, 1979; Mallick and Jain,
1979), solution techniques and applications have been extended to
electromagnetics (Mallick and Roy, 1971; Negi and Saraf, 1973) and magneto-
tellurics (Mallick, 1970; Abramovici, 1974; Negi and Saraf, 1976 and 1989;
Kao and Rankin, 1980; among others). In addition to assuming a linear
variation in electrical resistivity, exponential variation (Stoyer and Wait
1977; Kim and Lee, 1996) have also been considered.
In case of electromagnetic depth sounding, the source is commonly
considered as a time-varying magnetic dipole. However, for easier field
operations large loops having dimensions of hundreds of meters are often
used. A single-turn insulated cable in the form of a square or rectangle is
laid on the ground. The computations of electromagnetic fields of layered
earth due to such sources need different formulation (Poddar, 1982).
Computations of electromagnetic fields with large circular loop source have
been reported by Ryu et al. (1970). It is also observexl that if the measurements
are made at distances two to three times the loop dimensions, the square
loops can be treated as circular loops having the same turns-area product.
(Spies and Frischknecht, 1993).
Poddar (1981) has made a comparison of electromagnetic fields computed
at a distance of t00 m due to a square loop (side = 100 m) with that due
to circuit loop of radius 10 m (Ryu et al., 1970). The distance is measured
from the loop centres. The computations in both the cases show that there
is no deviation either in amplitude or in phase.
In the present communication, we consider a rectangular loop source
laid on a layered transitional earth. The computations have been carried out
ElectromagneticDepth Sounding 629
both for parametric and geometric sounding for varying thickness of the
transition zone.
Statement of the Problem

We consider a rectangular loop source on a three-layer earth as illustrated
in Fig. 1. The origin of the cartasian coordinate system and the centre of
the loop are concident. The sides of the loop, parallel to x-axis and y-axis
are 2a = 600 m and 2b = 400 m, respectively. The measurements are taken
outside the loop along y-axis, and the distance is measured as y-b. The
thickness and conductivity of the top layer are hi and cq, respectively. The
depth to the top of the basement is h2. Its conductivity is t72. The middle
layer sandwiched between the homogenous top layer and basement has
conductivity tY(z) that varies linearly with depth. For the frequency range
considered in the present study, the displacement currents are neglected.
The magnetic permeability of different layers is the same as that of the
free-space/.t o = 4 7t • 10-7 Henry/m.
ea
_______.__ ×
{7}
E
/¢ / //
¥ // /
/
/ /
/ /
/
/
7
Fig. 1 A large rectangular loop source on a three-layer earth with linear variation
of conductivity in the middle layer.
The radiation constants in the top layer and the lower basement are Yl
and Y2' respectively and in the transition zone it is given by
~/(z) = (•? + o¢(z - hi)} 1/2
= ~'1 at z = h i
= y2atz=h2 (1)
630 Rao et al
where
7(z) = ~/iwCtoCr(z)
F l = ~
Y 2 = ~
and a =
?q- r?
h2 - hi
Following Mallick and Roy (1971), the electric field component for the
rectangular loop source can be expressed as:
E¢ = - 2 i w p o m -~t RP - Qe -~qh~ ~2JI(X~) d~, (2)
where P = t + (Xtp:), Q = 1 - (Xll~l), R = (1 + iv)/(1 - iv)
uJ-213(~ 1) - J2/3(~ 1)
v=
UJ+l13(4 1) -t- J-1/3(4 1)
iJ2/3(~ 2) + J-113(~ 2)
u = iJ-2/3(42) - Jl/3(~2)
2iu~ ~2
with41 = 3a ' ul=~+
with42 = 2iu3
3~ ' u2 = ~ f ~ 4- ~2
Eq, component parallal to the arm of the loop, i.e. Eq, sin 0, is integrated
along the four arms of the rectangular loop so as to get the total induced
voltage, le iwt is the current flowing in the rectangular loop. The vertical
magnetic field, Hz at the receiver point on the ground surface is related to
induced voltage by
I
H z =-~---~(A+B+C+D)
where A = - (b - y) a~ K(X)Jl(Xr) d~,
with r = 4 ( x ' - x) z + (b _y)2
B = - (a - x) b -dy"
7- K(~ )Jl(~r) d2c
Electromagnetic Depth Sounding 631
with r = ~/(a - x) 2 + (y' _y)2
C = - (b +Y) J-afa dX'r ~o K('~)Jl(&r)dz
with r = ~/(x' x) 2 + (b +y)2
D = - (a + x) b --7--
dy' K(20Jl(~r) d~
b
with r = ~/(a + X)2 a (y' _y)2
K(•) = 1 ittXe_ZZ and
9' = R~ _ - ~ , , j -1
The computed field has been normalised by free-space field, Hzp. The
computer programme developed by Dhanshekharan et al. (1984) has been
suitably modified to accommodate the transition layer effect.
Numerical Results
In the present paper a variety of geological situations have been considered
to show the effect of the transition layer. The thickness of the overburden
has varied in one case, while that of the transition layer has varied in
another. The conductivities of the overburden and the basement have varied
too. The amplitude and phase values of the normalised vertical magnetic
field have been obtained for three-layer tranistional earth models at various
transmitter-receiver (TR) separations for geometric sounding and at various
frequencies for parametric sounding.
Geometric Sounding
In geometric sounding, keeping the frequency fixed, variation of the amplitude
and phase of the normalised magnetic field is measured commonly outside
the loop for different transmitter-receiver (T-R) distances. In case of central
frequency sounding (Patra and Mallick, 1980) measurements are taken inside
the loop. A number of geological models has been considered at different
fixed frequencies. In the following section, representative results have been
presented for only one transmitter frequency, f = 1344 Hz (a frequency
available with multi-frequency Em System at NGRI) and T-R spread has
been upto 300 m (i.e. 500 m from the centre of the source loop).
Resistive Basement
In granitic and basaltic terrains, the top soil, weathered zone and the basement
632 Rao et al
fresh rocks form the general geological sequences. The weathered zone has
variable resistivity while the fresh basement rocks are highly resistive.
Computations have been carried out for variable thicknesses at the transition
layer Fig. 2 shows the plots of the amplitude in decibel and the phase in
degrees of the normalised vertical magnetic field component HzHzp, with
transmitter receiver (T-R) distance Y - b). The top layer thickness is 10 m,
and the normalised thickness of the transition layer h = (hz - h l ) / h l = 0.0,
4.5, 14.0 and t9.0. The overburden conductivity crl = 0.02 S/m, and basement
conductivity.or2 = 0.001 S/m. For h = 0, the transition layer is absent and
the model reduces to a homogenous two-layer earth.
~.0 25
(a) (b)
hz-h, = ( ~ ' - , ~ "~.
, .,-,f ®\,., h2-hl = ( ~
2.0 -25
E / ffl
<
1.0 -5o 1 lhelo,,~:o.,2~/. ".
s,s~
= 0.001 s/m
0 t t I i I -75 I I I I I
so 1oo 15o zoo 2so 300 50 100 150 200 250 300
Y-b (m) Y - b (m)
Fig. 2 Geometric sounding on resistive basement: (a) Amplitude and (b) Phase of
the vertical magnetic field. Normalized thickness of the transitional layer
varies. Thickness h -- 0, corresponds to a two-layered earth model.
The following features are observed in Fig. 2:

(i) The amplitude of two-layer earth in Fig. 2 (a) shows a fast monotonic
rise. On the other hand, the phase in Fig. 2(b) decays slowly. The
amplitude and phase of the homogenous two-layer model are indentical
with those reported by Poddar (1982).
(ii) In the presence of the transition layer h = 4.5, 14.0 and 19.0. The
amplitude in Fig. 2 (a) increases with distance, attains a maximum
and then decreases. The maximum amplitude was nearer to y - b =
200 m.
For h = 14.0 and 19.0, the resolution between the response is poor
upto y - b = 150 m. Beyond this distance there is improvement in
the resolution. The peak values shift towards higher transmitter-
receiver distance.
(iii) The corresponding phase values show a decreasing trend, though there
is a high for intermediate transmitter distance in case of h = 4.5.
Electromagnetic Depth Sounding 633
The phase response of the model with thicker transition layer gets
flatter at the larger distances. As regards phase measurements, the
resolution is fairly good for all thicknesses of the transition layer from
y - b = 75 m and beyond.
In the next model, the top layer thickness has been increased from 10 m
to 30 m. The conductivity distribution remain same. Figure 3 shows the
corresponding geometric sounding curves for h = 0, 2.5, 12 and 17. We
showed the following features.
(i) The amplitude variation of the magnetic field components with
transmitter-receiver distance show "bell shaped" curves. However,
the curves show very little resolution and have several crossovers.
This will come on the way of interpretation.
(ii) The phase angle decays with transmitter-receiver distance and, in
contrast to the amplitude plot s , has good resolution over the entire
distance range. This is a significant feature so far as interpretation
is concerned.
3.0 ] ....
/' I t,,=3o,.r,=o.o2,~,',~ I ~ "-..\'-..

< ~
oT,=oJo,~\1, , °" ! "-... "\
"""
I I I I I I -TS , I I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 50 100 1'50 200 250 300
Y-b (m) Y-b (m)

Fig. 3 Geometric sounding on resistive basement. The model is same as in Fig. 2,
except the top layer thickness has been changed from 10 m to 30 m.
In order to illustrate the effect of the overburden further, the top layer
thickness has been increased to 50 m and transition layer thicknesses are
55 m, 150 m and 200 m, thereby giving h = (h2- hl)/hl = 0.0, 0.1, 2.0 and
3.0. Fig. 4 is a set of curves showing the variation of amplitude and phase
with transmitter-receiver distance. The amplitudes in Fig. 4 (a) increase
initially and then decrease. There is no significant rise in the magnitude of
the response. The phase angle in Fig. 4 (b) decays steadily from about 10 °
at y - b = 50 m to more than 70 ° at y - b = 250 m for h = 2 and 3. There
is a change in phase gradient.
Conductive Basement
The weathered transition layer in a sequence of sedimentary formations at
634 R a o et al
t~,o
(a) ~ . . (b)
h2-hl t'~
C:3
2.0 "•-2 5
OJ
"O
9
:O x:x_~(~_F"%.
CL 0,0 -50
E • " h 50 07, 002 ! "~"(" Q.. •, , ,,(-
<: "x\ "x
\ \ . x\
= 0.001S/ll
-2.0 I I I I 1 -75 I 1 I I t x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Y-b (m) Y-b (m)
Fig. 4 G e o m e t r i c sounding on resistive basement. The model is same as in Fig. 2,

except the top layer thickness has been changed from 30 m to 5.0 m.
times overlies conductive basement. Such a situation may arise in a

metamorphic terrain, if a zone containing base metals is covered by less
conductivity weathered rocks. In basaltic terrain, too, a weathered transition
zone may rest on water-bearing fractured zeolitic basalt. All such cases,
may be represented by a simplified earth-section and its response, as shown
in Fig. 5. Here the top layer thickness and conductivity are 30 m and 0.02
S/m, respectively). The middle layer thickness and conductivity are variable,
and the basement conductivity is fixed at 1.0 S/m.
Figure 5 shows plots of (a) magnetic field amplitude and (b) phase with
transmitter-receiver distance for normalised middle layer thickness, h =
0.0, 2.5, 12.0 and 17.0. The thickness, h = 0, corresponds to a homogenous
two-layer earth. The following features are observed:
(i) The amplitudes of normalised magnetic field for transition layer

thickness varying from 75 to 510 m show very poor resolution. The
10.0, O|
(a) (b)
A
ta
r'-)
0.0
25 \-'z:J . . . .
"o
3
..4--
" -10.C Q.
5° "
<
~hz O'{zl
J ~= tO s/-
I
-20.0 , i I I I -751 i ] I I
5o Ioo Iso zoo z5o 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Y-b (m) Y-b (m)

Fig. 5 G e o m e t r i c sounding on conductive basement. The top layer
thickness is 30 m.
Electromagnetic DepthSounding 635
magnetic field decays almost monotonically except between y - b =

150 and 200 m where there is marginal increase.
(ii) In contrast, the phase measurements exhibit good resolution. The
presence of thick middle layer is evident for transmitter-receiver
distance between 150 m and 250 m.
Parametric Sounding
In parametric or frequency sounding, the transmitter-receiver distance is
kept fixed and the source frequency is varied. Compared to geometric sounding
the field operation in the case of parametric sounding is simpler, less time-
consuming and more important the error arising out of surface inhomogeneities
is reduced as the receiver is not shifted from place to place.
Parametric sounding computation s in the present paper have been carried
for a fixed transmitter-receiver distance, y - b = 200 m and the frequency
has been varied between 200 Hz and 2000 Hz. As has been stated earlier,
the maximum amplitude was observed e~t y - b = 200 m in geometric
sounding. Once again, resistive and conductive basement have been considered.
Resistive Basement
Identical geological model, shown in Fig. 2, is considered here. The amplitude
and phase variations with transmitter frequency are shown in Fig. 6. The
salient features are as follows:
(i) Amplitude of the homogenous two-layer earth (h = 0) in Fig. 6 (a)
continues to rise upto 2000 Hz. The phase in Fig. 6 (b) decays at
higher frequencies.
(ii) As in case of geometric sounding the amplitude plot shows relatively
closer "bell shape" curve, with the maximum around 800 Hz. Here
the peak shifts towards lower frequencies.
- (a) _.~... . . . . " - . . ~ " \ \ ~ (b)
3.0
0
OJ
:3. 2.0
4,-
E Z/ %,"
< to
/(./" ./ t th,=~.,o;=o.ow~
P" /// lh~t " EIz)
•.-. ~=UOI~
0.0 i ) i i ] [11 t i i~ i i i Ii -80 I I I I lillI I i I I ( rT[~
10z lo ) to ,~ iO2 103 104
f (Hz) f (Hz)
Fig. 6 P a r a m e t r i c sounding on resistive basement on the earth model

shown in Fig. 2.
636 Rao et al
(iii) As regards the phase, the set of curves for parametric sounding is
quite different from that for geometric sounding. The log in phase
increases as the frequency increase. The resolution is fairly good.
In the next illustration a thicker overburden, hi -- 50 m, is considered.
Fig. 7 shows (a) the amplitude and (b) the phase. The coresponding geometric
sounding for the same model has earlier been presented in Fig. 4. The frequency
or parametric sounding in Fig. 7 (a) still show a "bell shape" curve. For
thicker middle layer, the amplitude peaks shift to lower frequencies. The
resolution is :poor both for amplitude and phase.
2.80
(a) -'~-."...x.,, (b)
t60 -2o
o \',
OJ o
-40
4-
O.
E n
< -o.iI( -6 oL
O"Izl
-2.0 l J [ I llll -B0 I r I i Jlrll] I I J II[I

10z 10 3 10 J' 10 t
f (Hz) f (Hz)
Fig. 7 Parametric sounding on resistive basement on the earth m o d e l
as shown in Fig. 4.
Next a conductive basement is considered.
Conductive Basement
The model for conductive basement has the same conductivity distribution
as has .been considered for geometric sounding shown earlier in Fig. 5.
Here the overburden thickness is 50 m, and the middle layer thicknesses
are 55, 150 and 200 m. Two-layer earth response has also been illustrated
for the comparison. The frequency of the transmitter varies from 100 Hz
to 2000 Hz. The computations have been carried out for transmitter-receiver
distance, y - b = 200 m. The amplitude and the phase variations with
frequency in Fig. 8 have the following features:
(i) For (h2 - hl)/hl = 0.0 and 0.1, the resolution is poor both in amplitude
and phase.
(ii) The resolution is poor again for (h 2 - hi)/h 1 = 2.0 and 3.0 in case
of amplitude, whereas there is marked difference in phase information
in the frequency range of t50-700 Hz. The resolutions deteriorate at
higher frequencies.
ElectromagneticDepthSounding 637
0,0 -2o , /
(a)
"%, h,-h,
-2.0 •i ~ ~ \".,,
ra t
_,.o.
I , #
ck
<E o60 ,,,'-.,'*\\
",. ~=tos/~
-8.0 t t I -401
lO 2 t03 10 ~, 10 z 103 10 ~
f (Hz) f (Hz)
Fig. 8 Parametric sounding on conducting basement with top layer
thickness h I = 50 m .
Conclusion
The transition layer is present in homogenous, metamorphic and sedimentary
terrains. It is therefore pertinent to take this zone into account at the time
of interpretation. Based on the models considered for numerical analysis,
the broad conclusions are as follows:
1. The amplitudes of the magnetic field shows "bell shaped ~' response
for resistive basement whereas in case of conductive basement this
pattern is absent.
2. The "bell shape" has mere lateral spread in geometric sounding, and
is closed in frequency, or parametric sounding.
3. Thicker overburden reduces the resolution.
4. The presence of conductive basement degrades the resolution,
5. At lower and higher T-R values in geometric sounding and lower
and higher frequency ranges in parametric sounding, the resolution
is poor.
6. The resolution in phase response is usually better than that for
amplitude component, and more so for resistive basement.
7. The ampfitude of the magnetic fieldis enhanced in certain ranges of
T-R distance in geometric sounding and in certain frequency range
in parametric sounding. This calls for careful choice of T-R spread
and frequency spectrum for field operations.
Acknowledgements
The author wish to thank Dr. H.K. Gupta, Director, NGRI for his interest
in the work and permission to publish this paper. The diagrams have been
traced by Mr. M. Jaya Rama Rao. Mr. G. Ramakrishna Rao has assisted in
the preparation of the manuscripts. The author thanks both of them.
638 Rao et al
References
Ambramovici, E, 1974, The forward magnetotelluric problem of an inhomogeneous and

anisotropic structure, Geophysics, 39, 56-68.
Dhansekharan, P.C and Poddar, M., 1984, A FORTRAN program to compute vertical
magnetic field of a horizontal rectangular loop on n-layered earth for EM depth sounding,
Computers and Geosciences, 10, 385-396.
Jain, S.C., 1972, Resistivity sounding on a three layer transitional model, Geophys. Prospect.
20, 283-292.
Kao, D. and Rankin, D., 1980, Magnetotelluric response on inhomogeneous layered earth,
Geophysics 45, 1783-1802.
Kim, H.S. and Lee, K., 1996, Response of a multilayered earth with layers having
exponentially varying resistivities, Geophysics, 61,180-191.
Koefoed, O., 1979, Resistivity sounding on an earth model containing transitional layers
with linear change of resistivity with depth, Geophy. Prosp., 27, 862-868.
Lal, T., 1970, Apparent resistivity over a three-layer earth with an inhomogeneous substratum,
Pure and Applied Geophys., 82, 259-269.
Mallick, K., 1970, Magnetotelluric sounding on a layered earth with transitional boundary,
Geophys. Prosp., 18, 738-757.
Mallick, K. and Jain, S.C., 1979, Resistivity sounding on a layered transitional earth, Geophy.
Prosp., 27, 869-875.
Mallick, K. rand Roy, A., 1968, Resistivity sounding on a two-layer earth with transtitional
boundary, Geoph. Prosp., 16, 436--446.
Mallick, K. and Roy, A., 1971. Vertical magnetic dipole over transitional earth. Geoph.
Prosp. 19, 389-394.
Mundary, E. and Zschau, H.J., 1983, Geoelectrical models involving layers with linear
change in resistivity and their use in the investigation of clay deposits, Geoh. Prosp., 31,
810-828.
Negi, J.G. and Saraf, P.D., 1976, Possibility of deep crustal probing in Orogenic regions by
studying variations of the surface impedance parameter of natural electromagnetic field,
Radio Science, 11,787-793.
Negi, J.G. and Saraf, ED., 1989, Anisortropy in Geo-electro-magnetism, Elsevier, P. 236.
Patella, D., 1978, Resistivity sounding on multilayered earth with transitional layers, Part
II, Theoretical and Practical examples, Geoph. Prosp., 26, 130-156.
Patra, H.R and Mallick, K., 1980 Geosounding Principles, 2: Time-varyingGeoelectric
soundings, Elsevier.
Poddar, M., 1982, A rectangular loop source of current on a two-layered earth, Geoph.
Prosp., 30, 101-114.
Poddar, M., 1983, A rectangular loop source of current on multilayered earth, Geophysics,
48, 107-109.
Ryu, J., Morrison, H.F. and Ward, S.H., 1970, EM fields about a loop source of current,
Spies, B.R. and Frischknecht, EC., 1993, Electromagentic Sounding, in Etecromagnetic
Fields in Applied Geophysics, V. II, Ed. Misac N. Nabhigian, SEG.
Stoyer, C.H. and Wait, J.R., 1977, Resistivity probing of an exponential earth with a
homogeneous overburden, Geoexploration, 15, 11-18.
Copyright © I998 Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India
40. Application of Electromagnetic

Propagation Logging in the Interpretation
of Fresh Water Neogene Sands of Upper
Assam Tertiary Basin (India)
G.K. Handique, A.K. Saikia,*
R.K. Mallick and S.C. Das*
Reliance Industries Ltd, Oil and Gas Division,
Santacruz (East), Mumbai-400 055, India
*Oil India Limited, Duliajan, Assam-786602, India
Introduction
The Neogene sand sequence in the upper Assam Tertiary basin has been a
source of perplexity for many log analysts. The standard log interpretation
procedures based on the knowledge of formation water resistivity (Rw)
reach their limits in these fresh water environments. Though the sands
produce water free oil, conventional interpretation of wireline log data
predicts very high water saturations (Sw) of typically more than sixty percent.
A new measurement technique based on electromagnetic propagation principle
has been found to be an useful alternative method that differentiates fresh
water from hydrocarbons.
Neogene sequences in upper Assam basin comprising Tipam sandstone
and Girujan clay formations were deposited in a fresh to brakish water
environment. The Tipam formation is sand dominated and has been interpreted
as a stacked sequence of braided stream deposits in contrast to the Girujan
formations which is clay dominated fluviatile multi-channel deposit. Presence
of producible oil has been established within Tipam formations in Naharkatiya,
Jorajan, Hapjan, Rajgarh, Digboi oilfields and in Girujan formations in
Kumchai and Kharsang oilfields located in the eastern part of upper Assam
basin (Fig. 1).
The resistivity curves help to locate the sands, but do not reliably
differentiate betwebn hydrocarbons and fresh water bearing formations in
these cases. Most of the shaly sand models fail to evaluate the oil section
where a clear resistivity contrast does not exist between water and oil-
bearing sections, With a view to resolving the above problems electromagnetic
propagation log was introduced in Oil India Limited (OILs') opertional
areas in Upper Assam basin in 1984. Since then a number of EPT logs has
been recorded in OIL's wells and the results are found to be reasonably
satisfactory.
640 Handique et al
J. . . ' , . . . . " S'I "iI ZH 11~11-1

g IM .... .
:,..... .... .'"
9 I'~
"Jr O "
=' ~-III: 90 '~m
il
=~
/ ~ ~ I- = .
=<I~= t
I = = ,,-4'~ t:
z
I / ".~
o [., / ":',I
,, '/,'. / o ~ , ~ .
z ~ '..~ ~ ":.~
-~ ~: ~ e ~ kJ ~ ". ~ . ,'.
< ,,,
/ = < £ ) f ,<- " - ~ . - .~.z ~=.. . ~~... ..
/1~. ~., OF..A~. '"
_=I~b~<x..Jr-W., ~<_'. J
'~ ~ ' ~ " I,", .~ "..i
~C~;~,.--~' '~ /" 4
'~,'"%... ~ ~ ~_~ . , ~,
. ~ ~. "~ ~==~-3 / " ~',
o
%.
,..ttX " . ~ -I
,o._
..<
~'~'-. % ~J ~ ~ F,. ,',~
X'X~4~ 9 I ~: .,, "... o-
),. ~ i .~ill C:~ "+'-, 4.
'6"'- '~ ~ ~
','.. ° ~' - ' - ' ° ~
,~= "'..:-so
.
Electromagnetic Propagation Logging 641
Electromagnetic Propagation Logging Principle

Propagation of an electromagnetic wave is governed by three properties of
the medium namely, electrical conductivity, dielectric permittivity and
magnetic permeability. Being practically same for most formations and
fluids of common geological occurence, magnetic permeability has no practical
bearing in the evaluation of petrophysical parameters. Measurement of
electrical conductivity and its interpretation using some models has been
the basis of log analysis. Parameter is limited to saline environment only
as in the case of hydrocarbon bearing ranges from water bearing ones.
Thus, in such situations, electrical conductivity cannot be the basis of reliable
log interpretation.
The entire concept of electromagnetic propagation logging is based on the
fact that water is one of the very few substances presen t in a typical formation
that are of polar nature. Because of this, the dielectric permittivity of water
is significantly higher than that of hydrocarbon and matrix (Table 1). The
dielectric permittivity of hydrocarbon and rock matrix are also very close.
As a result, the dielectric permittivity of a fluid bearing rock is primarily
determind by its water content.
Table 1 Relative dielectric constants and propagation times for common minerals
and fluids
Mineral Relative Dielectric Constant PropagationTime (ns/m)

Sandstone 4.65 7.2
Dolomite 6.8 8,7
Limestone 7.5-9.2 9.1-10.2
Anhydrite 6.35 8.4
Halite 5.6-6.35 7.9-8.4
Gypsum 4.16 6.8
Dry Colloids 5.76 8
Shale 5.25 7.45-16.6
Oil 2-2.4 4.7-5.2
Gas 1 3.3
Water 56-80 25-30
Fresh water 78,3 29.5
The total current (J) flowing in a medium can be described as sum of

two terms: (i) conduction current induced,by mobile charges and (ii) the
displacement current induced by fixed charges. The displacement current,
in turn, depends on frequency of the electromagnetic wave and dielectric
permitivity of the medium. Further development of each current term yield
the following equation for total current.
J = (or + i(oe)E
The above equation clearly establishes the operating frequency of

642 Handique et al
electromagnetic logging in relation to conventional electrical measurements.

Conventional electrical methods operate at low frequency level when we is
much smaller compared to ty so that currents are primarily of the conduction
type. On the other hand, displacement current would be predominant only
at high frequency so that the current measured is primarily of displacement
type with conducting losses at a minimum.
The electromagnetic propagation Tool introduced by Schlumberger is a
very high frequency (1.1 GHz) short spacing device with a shallow depth
of investigation with very sharp vertical resolution (2 inches) which helps
in identification of thin beds. The tool measures propagation time as well
as attenuation of a high frequency electromagnetic wave.
Interpretation Procedure
The commonly used method for interpretation of EPT log data is known as
Tp0 method. This empirical method corrects Tp in a global and approximate
way without making any assumption on the origin of the conducting and
dipolar relaxation losses. In a clean fresh water, sand water saturation in
the invaded zone (Sx) may be described in terms of Tp0 (which is Tpi
corrected for losses) by the following equation.
Sxo = ((rpo - rpma) + 0 (rpm a - rphyd))/O (Tpfo - Tphyd)
As Tpma and rphy d are quite close to each other,
Sxo = ( r p o - Tpma)]O ( r p f 0 - rpma)
In water bearing formations, Sxo = 1. Therefore,
ogvr = 0 = (rpo - rpma)/(rpf o - Tpma)
and in hydrocarbon bearing formations:
Sxo = OEPT/O
An overlay of the response of different porosity logs (Density, Neutron and
EPT) along with electrical resistivity feature under different situations is
schematically presented in Fig. 2. Oil and gas can be easily identified on
the basis of high degree of porosity separation in contrast to water zone
where these porosities practically overly on each other.
In water bearing zones, both OEPT and OND (Crossplot porosity) should
respond to total porosity and ideally overlay on each other. However, due
to varying standard of log calibration, quality control, varying water salinities
and shaliness, they fail to produce a good match on several occasions. In
such cases, the expected separation between O E P T and OND could be masked
to an extent that identification of hydrocarbon bearing zones becomes difficult.
The fact that these two porosites should read the same value against water
bearing zones is utilised in what is known as normalization procedure prior
to detailed interpretation.
Problem Afflicting Log Analysis

As already mentioned, quantitative interpretation of wireline logs has always
Electromagnetic PropagationLogging 643
POROSI T V
FORMAT~N RESISTIVITY FDC CNL EPT
FLUID ohm -m
0 50 30 C
1
GAS
II
h
!1
OIL
FRESH WATER
SALT WATER it
h
il
;I
Fig. 2
been very tricky for tipper Assam basin as far Neopene sands are concerned.
In this regard some of the uncertainities are:
(i) The contrast between hydrocarbon bearing and fresh water bearing
zone is not always apparent in conventional resistivity logs introducing
an element of uncertainly in the identification of nature of fluids;
(ii) In certain cases, interpretation of low resistive oil-bearing sands
within Tipam and Girujan formations poses problem. When normal
techniques are used, excessively high water saturation (Sw) values
for oil zones are obtained, even when clean oil is produced. Studies
indicate that while presence of small quantity of conductive minerals
in the zone could be responsible for reducing resistivity, reduction
of resistivity is mainly caused by the presence of montmoritlonite
and minor quantity of illite i.e. clays having high cation Exchange
capacity.
(iii) Fluorescence and oil content of sidewall/conventional cores could
be misleading in distinguishing between oil sands and gas sands. In
several cases gas sands have shown good oil fluorescence and high
oil content in cores probably because oil had accumulated in these
beds earlier but was displaced by gas subsequently, leaving behind
residual oil. Though identification of gas is done with the help of
compensated Density and Neutron logs, the combination has got its
own limitations in shaly sands;
(iv) In a similar way, zones containing oil and residual oil show identical
644 Handique et al
fluorescence and oil content in cores, particularly in Kharsang and

Kumchai oitfields with producing horizons within the Girujans.
Scope of E P T Applications
EPT has been recorded in a number of wells in OIL's operational areas in
Upper Assam basin mainly to address the above problems. As secondary
benefit, EPT has enabled:
(i) thin bed identification through its good vertical resolution;
(ii) quantifive determination of cementation factor m.
Case Studies
A few case studies from different oilfields in Upper Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh are cited to illustrate the utility and effectiveness of electromagnetic
logging.
Case A
This case represents a well drilled in the Kharsang oilfield wherein the
hydrocarbon bearing sand ranges are mainly confined within younger Giurjan
formation. Girujan formation represents massive claystones with thin interbeds
of sand channels. The identification of hydrocarbon bearing sand ranges
as well as differentiation between oil, gas and residual oil-bearing zones
determination o f an accurate water saturation are the major problems
confronting log interpretation in this field.
The recorded and processed log data against a section of the well is
presented in Fig. 3. Track 1 shows Gamma-Ray (GR) and caliper logs,
Track 2 presents the Neutron-Density crossplot porosity (OND) and normalised
EPT porosity (OEPT) overlay while Track 3 shows the resistivity logs. The
presence of hydrocarbon is quite evident from resistivity log in zone A
while of zone B is water-bearing. However, the resistivity contrast of zone
C with respect to zone B is too limited to infer the presence or absence of
hydrocarbon. The EPT log data has been processed normalizing porosity
response in water bearing zone B. Based on this normalization, a clear
separation between OEPT and OND (OEPT < OND) is evident in zone A as
expected corroborating the evidence from resistivity log. Extending the
same interpretation to zone C, the separation between OND and OEPTindicate.
likely presence of oil. Though the sand is yet to be tested, it is expected to
produce oil. It may be highlighted that the hydrocarbon bearing sandbody
(zone A) which appears to be massive from conventional logs is indeed
comprising of alternate thin sand and shale laminae as evident from EPT.
Case B
Figure 4 presents log evidence against a Tipam section of a well drilled in
Hapjan oilfield. In tracks 1-2, the recorded SP, CGR (Uranium corrected
CASE A
646 Handique et al
GR) and resistivity logs are presented, while tracks 3-5 present hydrocarbon
saturation and porosity from schlumbergers GLOBAL analysis and Track
6 shows the porosity overlay.
CASE B
lO o mma my umnium DPT relfil.livity Ave groin density Dielectric oonstQnt | Non -r moved
mov~l
a m .
iret. COR ( A P I ) ~leQr DRNE(ohm .-m) R~,IGA(glcc) 3 0 DPT, EDEEP
o.o 16o.o 1.0 100.0 I'_ . . . . . . . '_ 100.0 OO
Water solution Dielectric constant Moved hydrogen
DPT resistivity SW(%) from ILD recomputed EREC
potential ( - mY+ ) DRMX (ohm-m)
- 100.0 0.0 100.0 O.C Water
1.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 PXND
Spontaneous ~/ate $ o t u t i o n Cofineor-BM size gs--- (PU) . . . . ~'i
potential- SP(- mY+} ILD resistivity (ohm-n SW('I,) from DPT DCAL ( in )
3.0 100.0 10o.0 0.~ o : o . . . . . . . . . . ?0...0.
1.0 100.0
Hole diometer - E f fective porosity PEPT
HD ( i n )
o...o.. . . . . . . . . 1.§...9.. S0PHF ( % ) 0.0 ~" . . . . . . iK6'~ . . . . . . . . . . i'~
- ~ ~-,- .
I;. kl i
I:~ ~
7-
~il :tl
I ~I:I I -
Fig. 4
Zone A
SW from GLOBAL indicates that low saturation is possibly due to presence
of hydrocarbon. The positive separation between OND and OEPT also
corroborate the above fact. However, the sand gave inflow of mainly formation
water with traces of oil during a brief production testing. Confirmation of
EPT results will necessitate detailed testing of the same zone in the
neighbouring wells.
Zone B
SW from GLOBAL shows decreasing water saturation from 80% at the
bottom of the zone to about 70% at the top of the zone. EPT results show
that the sand is interbedded and the upper section contains movable
hydrocarbon. Results of production testing carried out in two stages,
demonstrate presence of mainly water in the lower section (perforations~
2679-2682 m) and producible oil in the upper section (perforations: 2665-
2670 m).
Zone C
This zone is characterised by comparatively lower water saturation of the
order of 60% from GLOBAL. A high degree of separation between OND
and OEPT suggest clear presence of hydrocarbon, most likely to be gas.
Case C
This case deals with a well drilled in Kumchai oilfield located in the deeper
part of Upper Assam basin. The well encountered several hydrocarbon
bearing sand ranges within Girajans. The porosity overlay alongwith GR,
caliper and induction resistivity logs is presented in Fig. 5. From the resistivity
log, the presence of hydrocarbon is apparent in zones A and B, though the
distinction with regard to nature of hydrocarbon i.e. oil and gas is not
straight forward. In the normalized porosity overlay section, a somewhat
clear separation exists against zone B (OEPT < OND). The zone produced
clean oil on testing. Based on the same normalization procedure, presence
of hydrocarbon appears certain in zone A. High resistivity and side wall
core evidence would apparently indicate presence of gas separation between
OND and OEPT in the upper and lower part of the zone it appears that there
is a distinct change in the nature of hydrocarbon. The separation in the
lower part of zone A is quite similar to that of zone B which produced
water free oil. Based on these, it can be inferred that the lower part of the
zone is possibly oil-bearing while the upper is gas-bearing.
Variable 'm' analysis

The calculation of water saturation rests on one major underlying assumption.
Though log analysts have been aware that the value of m vary but they are
forced to assume a constant value of m typicaly of the order 2. Occasionally
when core data from the logged or the nearby well is available, an approximate
value could be determined using empirical equations. However, the problem
of constant 'm' assumption remains.
The fundamental advantage of EPT tool lies in the fact that it allows to
determine water saturation in the invaded zone independent of m. That EPT
and micro resistivity measurements within the invaded zone 'see' the same
proportion of fluides provides a way to compute m accurately at individual
depths using the following quation:
Rxo = Rmf]OmSxo,,
648 Handique et al
Consideration of varying rn with depth allows a refinement of water saturation

determination. A case study (case D) is presented in this regard.
CASE C
I IPlIII I III
• I lltllll I III
~"-',- - "'-~- ~ "" , ~ - IIIIttL IIII
: + ~+'>" ,. ~1 llllll'~,,~: "d~l II
~ :'~ ~ ~ I I I lllJ-',,'.7 :;' I I I 1
:I ...... ['J -11111111 - "L r'L".I I[
I
: . ~I' I I IIII L2111
"" '" ~I IIIIII ' 2 ITJL
3400 I tllllt f Iltl
..-" - I IIIIII III~L
"." .'~ I IIIIII .+ I,I@I
|
L~ t IIIH III
]'I I IIII 11111
i..,......... ,+~+,.-~ I I I l'lll

t t I I.Ill
llJll
I III~
IIIII
l llll
"~: ~ ~. hi I I [ l l J I lJJ
"'I I I IIII'L +, lilll

I T;;+J " ~ - I ! [|[11 ~, I', I till
I 3950
.......... | _~= IIII/I.,F~+! '~ IIlll
I li:l , ""
...,
'--." -
~'
"~ I I IILl[
i lll.li+,,
tllrm.,
} IIIII
l lill
IilU
t ,:1:::!t%-7 .
• >:_
'~?.:
..~
"
IllllN
I lllllk
llt.,r,
I]JLI
IIIII
ltllZ
I I .l,7:t lIIu+I, ,+.i
"" :~
C.~.d .., ~- I I IIi+V ;+ Illtt
- ~--LI lll|h , lilll
~-~ f l Ii l l l l l , : I l]l.I
• '" lllllx ~", llllt
}IIIIIEI t ~'I IIII
",' ,..- :"I I I I lfi-" ....' Illll
,-"- ), IIIIIkl ,~ Ilill
" Ja::M11.r, ,., IIIII
._._.<"'-'~? --~ lllblH] III11
.'.-. . . . . . =, II IIL'<. 1'"'
IIII151i ~ ~
......... I I +llit~' :' Illll
i [ .. I 1t~1 ~. '~ tltll
II
[ < I I III|LA.- tltll
I t t l t l l ;; IItII
1 l.:=l"'l<L. t ...... ~'i "~':":'-,~ , ~ II111"'+ IIII|
GR PEPT
0 (GAPI) ISO ~s ( PU ) is
CALl PXND
4-s- . . . . . . . . . F~T . . . . . . . 7 ~
[ ~sF___L (o HM
_:_ _ _ LL_S_(0_H~ )
1"'" ........... L~ p_to~ ~.)...
Fig. 5
Case D
The global analysis using variable m as computed from EPT and MSFL against
Girujan section in a well drilled in Kharsang oilfield is presented in Fig. 6. A
quick glance of Track 2 indicate the value of m to be varying within a wide
range from 1.4 to 1.8 in contrast to generally accepted value of 2. The global
analysis presented in Track 3 has been carried out using variable m and water
saturation results could be considered to be more reliable.
Electromagnetic PropagationLogging 649
CASE D
Wall n
Moved hy drocat bonl,
V~rio,ble M trom nt
~0000 (CPS) 60000
SW Variable N FIuid votume from V M
]00 000 (PU) 000 10000 60000 500000 (PU) 0000C
SXO DCAt
100000(PU) 0 0 0 0 0 200000 (PU) 200000
(, :
~C : < %
: ("
~; , < r
,oo
/ d"
Fig. 6
Limitations
The depth of investigation of the E P T tool is relatively shallow (ranging
from 1 to 4 inches depending on conductivity). The presence of thick mud
cake aginst the borehole wall deteriorates EPT measurement consideraby.
Moreover, it is desirable that the hydrocarbon in the reservoir must be
relatively immobile to flushing by mud filtrate invasion for E P T to see its
presence. Hence, presence of gas or low gravity oil in highly permeable
reservoire which are characterised by high mobility leaves little trace of
indication in the invaded zone limiting E P T application.
As stated earlier, the comparison of the E P T porosity measurements
650 Handique et al
with the total porosity derived from the neutron, density measurements or
neutron-density crossplot allows a quick look determination of the presence.
However, nature of hydrocarbons in case of gas bearing zones, the total
porosity obtained from neutron log could be lower because of the excavation
effect (a function of invasion) which in turn will affect the neutron density
crossplot porosity. In such situations, the separation between the qND and
qEPT wiUnot be so apparent, thereby limiting the usefulness of the technique.
Case E
Figure 7 presents porosity overlay against a gas-bearing Tipam section in
CASE E
GR
0 { G-~-PI ) 150
0 (IN) " tS
Fig. 7
a well drilled in Jorajan oilfield. The porosity overlay does not conclusively
show any positive separation between OND and OEPT. However, detailed
production testing of this reservoir has established it to be gas bearing.
Conclusions
The OEPT and OND overlay technique has been tried and found to be quite
succesful in distinguishing between hydrocarbon and water zones in fresh
water Tipam and Girujan sands, some of which could have been easily
overlooked other wise, in a number of Upper Assam oilfields. The EPT-
MSEL combination offers reliable values of m which could be utilized for
estimation of more accurate values of water saturation. E P T measurement
has also proved to bc particularly useful in resolution of thin beds in the
wells of Upper Assam basin.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their thanks to the Management of Oil India Limited
for permitting them to present this paper in the International symposium on
'Deep Electromagnetic Exploration' and workship on New Concepts on
"Electromagnetic Methods of Geophysical Exploration to be held at Indian
Institute of Technology Kharagpur during January 13-16, 1991".
Nomenclature
0 = Total porosity
ON = Neutron porosity
019 = Density porosity
OND = Neutron-Density crossplot porosity
OEPT = EPT derived porosity
Rxo = Resistivity of the flushed zone
Rmf = Resistivity of the mud filtrate
m,n = Usual Archie connotations
Sxo = Water saturation in the flushed zone
Tpf o = Propagation time in water
Tphyd -- Propagation time in hydrocarbon
Tpm a = Propagation time in matrix
Tpo = Loss free propagation time of the medium
[TP I2 - (,4 - 60)/3600]
Tpi = Propagation time of the medium
A = Attenuation of the electromagnetic wave in the medium
J = Total current
E = Electric field
=
Electrical conductivity
E = Dielectric permittivity
W = Angular frequency of~the electric field
j = ~/-1
652 Handique et al
References
1. Wharton R.E, Hazen G.A., Run R.N., Best D.L.: "Electromagnetic propagation
logging Advances in Technique and Interpretation". SPE 9267 (Sept. 1980)
2. Wharton R.P., Delano J.M.: "An EPT Interpretation procedure and Application in
Fresh water, shaly Oil sands. Jour. of petroleum Technology (October, 1984)".
3. Schlumberger, 1986: Formation ,Evaluation Conference Indonesia. S.E.S.C.
document.
4. Schlumberger, 1984: Electromagnetic propagation Tool.

Deep Electromagnetic Exploration (J. R. Wait, K. K. Roy, S. K. Verma, K. Mallick)

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Deep E1ectr0ma9net1c

Nar05a Pu6115h1n9 H0u5e

5.K. Verma and K. Ma111ck

C0pyr19ht • 1999 Nar05a Pu6115h1n9 H0u5e

Cata1091n9-1n-Pu611cat10n data app11edf0r

Exc1u51ve d15tr16ut10n 1n N0rth Amer1ca (1nc1ud1n9 Mex1c0), Canada and Eur0pe 6y

158N 3-540-63503-3 5pr1n9er-Ver1a9 8er11n He1de16er9 New Y0rk

I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1-18

II. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

t0. Deep Electrical Conductivity Investigations in Some

III. OCEAN FLOOR ELECTROMAGNETICS 227-280

IV. ELECTROMAGNETIC MODELLING 281-438

22. Fast Difference-Differential Modelling for Geophysical

V. INVERSE PROBLEMS 439-516

VI. TRANSIENT ELECTROMAGNETICS 517-596

34. Transient CFS Response Over a Multilayer Earth 575

VII. SHALLOW ELECTROMAGNETICS 697-652

1. Electromagnetic Waves in Geophysics:

Electromagnetic (EM) exploration fascinates the mathematically minded

Since Maxwell's equations cannot be solved in closed from if the

the case of a layered ground, the ambiguities cannot be resolved in many

of propagation of EM signals make it essentially different from the situation

3. Antennas in the Geophysical

Dipoles in a Homogeneous Region

will provide the basis of a geophysical probing scheme. We discuss such a

where we have assumed, for convenience, that 1R t >> I. As shown elsewhere

Freq. (MHz) 1.10 2.10 4.40 7.60 10.20

The deduced values of cr and K were reasonably close to those actually

Audio Frequency Antennas

¢-a 1.2 t.l.

Many other loop configurations are employed in exploration schemes

ANTENNA / - - - t ~''- 7~" ~ . . ~ \ ~ {r°'~°'0)

,, I,. ! I I I~1~1 J I I I,,ttl

Fig. 1 Pannonian geotraverse with MT measuring sites and Rhom.Xdirections

Magnetote!luric research along the geotraverse determines the parameters

(a) Szoinok tlysch belt

- - It reaches its greatest values if the Rhomax direction varies vs period

hRhominand $1 values, referring to the galvanic distortion although

around 30-40 km.

/~ S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 l& Sl(Siemens) = 100

Zxyma x varies vs T o hRhomin

Fig. 3 Depth values (h) to the asthenosphere vs conductances of sediments ($1) in

Regional EM field distortions due to isolated graphitic schist blocks in

Fig. 4 MTS curves in three-dimensional model with elliptical inclusion; a/b .~ 2,

Site Thickness Average $1 (Rhomax) Depth to the asthenosphere

detail by ,/~d~imand Varga (1990). A very characteristic regional effect and

,~ 7 .... I B " llI'

8 dikes 100 100 m 8 ¢likes

getting a more and more important rOle, therefore in interpretation of M T

Adam A. (1981): Statistische Zusammenhange zwischen elektrischer Leitfhhigkeits

5. The Fennoscandian Shield: A treasure box

knowledge on the electrical structure of the Earth's lithosphere and upper

Fig. 2 Methodological framework for lithospheric electromagnetic studies

surface expressions of deep conductors. Locally AMT soundings (Kaildconen

Table 1 Electromagnetic and electric methods used for studies of lithospheric

Methods Survey characteristics

1 Magnetovariational (MV; or geomagnetic depth sounding; GDS) and airborne

Fennoscandian Shield and Geoelectric Data Sets

\y:.- . , ~ ,-.< _~ I .~ ~.....~ .~,~1 ~.~

\ ~-~ ~, : ::..~ ~ X "~

t .. ,...,, t,~ ° " ~1 0

Fig. 4 Near-surface conductors (black) observed by airborne electromagnetic

b e d r o c k h a v i n g the s a m e ages as the b e d r o c k in the F e n n o s c a n d i a n Shield.