Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 129–134

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Performance of natural rubber latex modified concrete

in acidic and sulfated environments
Bala Muhammad ⇑, Mohammad Ismail
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Deterioration of concrete due to chemical aggression is a serious menace to the two major properties of
Received 2 June 2011 concrete; strength and durability. Hence, precautionary measures towards curtailing chemical attack on
Received in revised form 26 December 2011 concrete could be of great importance. This paper reports experimental findings regarding performance
Accepted 26 December 2011
of natural rubber latex (NRL) modified concrete in acidic as well as sulfated environments. Normal and
Available online 25 January 2012
modified concretes were developed and subjected to two simulated aggressive curing mediums; 5% sul-
furic acid (H2SO4) and 2.5% sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). Latex/water ratio was varied from 0% to 20%. Con-
Keywords:
crete phases were studied through SEM. In addition, capacities in moisture ingress, being the main
Concrete
Latex modified concrete
gateway to chemical attack on concrete was also investigated through water absorption test. Results have
Compressive strength shown that inclusion of appropriate quantity of latex into concrete plays a significant role in curbing
Water absorption attack from H2SO4 and Na2SO4. For instance, considering Na2SO4 alone, strength gain in the modified con-
Sodium sulfate crete was 86.2% higher than the corresponding value in normal concrete within a period of 84 days. How-
Sulfuric acid ever, physical observations revealed a high volume change associated with latex in the modified
specimens subjected to H2SO4 which suggests attack by acidic agents on hydrocarbon substances.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Generally, concrete is expected to effectively serve its intended
purpose throughout its designed life span. However, its perfor-
mance depends much on the immediate surrounding environment
or rather exposure conditions [1–4]. One of the major environmen-
tal factors threatening effective performance of concrete is the at-
tack from chemical agents such as acids and sulfates [5–8]. Indeed,
chemical reaction as a typical mechanism of deterioration in con-
crete normally occurs between a reactive substance (i.e. alumi-
nates) and an aggressive substance (i.e. sulfate ions) already
present within the concrete or around the environment where con-
crete is serving [9]. Typical repercussions include; weakening of
the binder, leaching, crack formations and eventual dilapidations.
Failure of normal concrete (NC) to perform satisfactorily in
aggressive environments during its service life has been attributed
to the particulate orientation of its compositional matrix which
normally allows for the intrusion of both moisture and aggressive
agents. Indeed, concrete matrix consists of voids resulting from
either incomplete consolidation of fresh mix or from evaporation
of mixing water that has not been used for hydration of cement
[10]. Morphological observations on hardened cement products
are reported to entertain scattered voids which apparently
transform the matrix into a honeycomb-like network of hardened
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 172687860.
E-mail address: engrbmuhammad@yahoo.com (B. Muhammad).
regions and pores [11]. Eventually, chemical and of course general
moisture ingress was observed to be primarily based on the extent
of these voids. Indeed, presence of moisture within the service
environment of concrete has been regarded as the main initiator
and promoter of chemical aggression on concrete. According to
Dhir and Newlands [12], chemical attack on concrete is only possi-
ble in the presence of a transporting agent, usually moisture.
Several efforts have so far been made in order to protect con-
crete against chemical attack. Ramakrishnan [13] reported that
ever since the introduction of cement concrete, attempts have been
made to address issues to do with its weaknesses including that of
poor chemical resistance. One such attempt was the modification
of concrete through inclusion of polymeric substances such as elas-
tomeric latexes [14]. In fact, one of the most impressive character-
istics of this modification is its ability to check moisture ingress,
thereby improving its impermeability and consequently saving
the concrete from undue deterioration due to aggressive attack.
It is believed that the latex film lining the inherent capillary pores,
voids and micro cracks does an excellent job in subsiding fluid flow
in modified products [15].
Presently, many effective polymeric latex systems for cement
concrete have been developed and are already in use for various
applications in the construction industry [16–18]. Neelamegam
et al. [19], reported remarkable reduction in water absorption of
NRL-modified mortar when compared with the normal mix. It fact,
according to the report, the high impact of the latex made on the
total water absorbed by the modified mortar was mainly due to

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.099
130 B. Muhammad, M. Ismail / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 129–134
reduced porosity in the modified phase. In another development,
inclusion of styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) into light weight
aggregate concrete (LWAC) has shown significant reduction in
the water content of the concrete, and its corrosion resistance
was observed to increase as the latex provides blockage to chloride
ions penetration, which suggests the use of such SBR–LWAC in
structures exposed to marine environments [20]. In fact, latexes
and the general polymeric substances have been successfully used
in aggressive environments especially industries due to high dura-
bility characteristics exhibited by these substances [21].
The present research therefore seeks to explore performance of
NRL-modified concrete (MC) in both acidic and sulfated environ-
ments by assessing optimum quantity of latex for maximum water
exclusion followed by evaluation of initial and residual compres-
sive strengths after subjection to chemically simulated environ-
ments. In addition, possibilities of surface leaching and mass loss
were also observed and concisely discussed. Indeed, morphological
observations aimed at identifying physical changes between the
normal and modified phases were also involved. Ability of NRL to
guard against chemical attack and moisture ingress on concrete
could save concrete from undue deterioration during its service life
particularly in acidic soils, factory sewage, agricultural domains,
coastal belts and saline clays.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials and material mix-proportions
Ordinary Portland cement was used throughout. Chemical composition and
physical properties of the cement are shown in Table 1. Crushed granite stones of
maximum nominal size 10 mm and naturally occurring river-washed quartz sand
were employed as coarse and fine aggregates respectively. The fine aggregate passes
ASTM sieve No. 4 (4.75 mm) and it has a fineness modulus of 2.40. Concentrated la-
tex treated with 0.2% low ammonia–tetramethythiuram disulfide/zinc oxide (LA-TZ)
was used as the modifier. Chemical analysis of the latex is presented in Table 2. The
latex was supplied by ‘Sime Darby Research Center’, Segamat, Malaysia.
Cement content and w/c ratio are 425 kg/m3 and 0.54 respectively. Latex/water
percentages; 0–20%, 0–10% and 0–5% were considered for water absorption, acid
and sulfate resistances respectively. While the highest range was considered for
the purpose of identifying optimum content for maximum moisture tightness, up
to 10% was adopted for acid resistance test as against 5% for sulfate resistance so
that possible acid attack on the latex is fully motivated hence clearly recorded.
However, in order to avoid excess water, the mixing water was reduced by 52%
of the volume of latex meant for each batch [22].
2.2. Specimen preparations and curing regimes
Batching and mixing were conducted in accordance with BS 1881-125:1986. In
the process of mixing the concrete however, latex is thoroughly dispersed into the
mixing water by gentle stirring prior to discharge into the mixer. Mixing was
carried out in a pan mixer conforming to BS 1881-125:1986 and casting was
Table 1
Chemical composition and physical properties of the
cement.
Composition (%)
Chemical
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 20.1
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 4.9
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2.4
Calcium oxide (CaO) 65
Sulphur oxide (SO3) 2.3
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.1
Insoluble residue 1.9
Loss on ignition 2
Lime saturated factor 0.85
Property Value
Physical
Surface area (Blair’s) m2/kg 290
Initial setting time (min) 105
Final setting time (min) 190
Soundness (mm) 8.7
Table 2
Chemical analysis of the latex.
Property Value
Total solid content 61.54%
Dry rubber content 60.09%
Non rubber contents 1.45%
Volatile fatty acid 0.018%
Alkalinity 0.25%
pH 10.07
Mechanical stability time 1227 s
Specie Multiple
conducted in accordance with BS 1881-108:1983. Standard steel cube molds;
100 mm were employed for all specimens. However, 75 mm diameter cored speci-
mens are used as water absorption samples. In fact, coring was diligently carried
out in order to avoid visible cracks. Fig. 1 presents coring and cored samples for
water absorption assessment.
Two curing mediums containing 5% H2SO4 and 2.5% Na2SO4 each are used as
aggressive environments. In order to understand what really happens when con-
crete is ‘cast-in-situ’; where concrete is introduced to the service area during its ini-
tial age, specimens for H2SO4 were placed into the aggressive curing environment
immediately after removal from moulds. However, specimens for Na2SO4 as well
as water absorption test were given one month treatment in ordinary water at
23 °C and 80 ± 5% RH before subjection to the aggressive medium and coring
respectively. In fact, in the case of specimens for Na2SO4, 72 h air drying at
20 ± 3 °C and 80 ± 5% RH was entertained before immersion into the diluted curing
medium.
Although, air-curing in addition to the moist-curing is necessary for latex film to
develop in the modified specimens, these were given similar moist-curing treat-
ment with the NC. Uniform curing treatment was considered important so that
MC do not absorb higher content of the simulated aggressive moisture when im-
mersed into the curing medium. This could obviously render results from the two
categories of concrete non-comparative.
In the case of morphological observations, samples were cured for 6 months un-
der laboratory atmosphere; 20 ± 3 °C and 80 ± 5% RH. Latex-film was obtained by
drying few drops of latex in an oven at 85 °C. The latex-film was also stored under
similar laboratory atmosphere until day for testing. Conditioning specimen for SEM
observations is necessary in order to expel moisture so that a clear realization of
microstructural matrix is achieved.
2.3. Testing program
2.3.1. Scanning electron microscopy
JEOL Scanning Electron Microscope JSM 6390 LV was used. Morphologies were
obtained at a current and working distance of 15 kV and 9 mm respectively. Spec-
imens were coated with 10 nm platinum in an ‘Auto Fine Coater’ before positioning
against electron gun. Platinum coating was carried out at 20 mA for about 60 s.
2.3.2. Water absorption test
Measurement of water absorption was conducted in accordance with BS 1881-
122:1983; ‘Method for Determination of Water Absorption’. The cores were kept in
an oven for 72 h at 105 ± 5 °C followed by subsequent cooling for 24 h in dry air-
tight vessels. At the end of drying and cooling processes as described in the stan-
dard specimens were immersed in water for 30 ± 0.5 min at 20 ± 1 °C and then
weighed. Average water absorption of three cored specimens expressed as a per-
centage of dry samples is considered as the water absorbed in each particular batch.
2.3.3. Chemical resistance
In order to determine the level of destructions caused by the two chemically
aggressive environments; H2SO4 and Na2SO4, specimens were removed from the
curing mediums at the end of each observation period followed by compressive
strength test. The entire compressive strength tests were in conformity with BS
12390-3:2002. An average compressive strength of three cubes is considered as
the strength value of a particular batch. Indeed, during the process of compression
tests, it was observed that there was no significant aggressive destruction from the
chemical agents to cause an abrupt termination in the tests.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Morphologies
Fig. 2 presents morphologies of normal mix (NM), modified
mixes (MM-10% and MM-20%) as well as latex-film. NM was ob-
served to entertain voids or inter particle spacing including gaps
 B. Muhammad, M. Ismail / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 129–134 131

Fig. 1. (a) Coring and (b) cored samples for water absorption test.

at interfacial boundary between cement oxides and aggregate par-
ticle as portrayed on the lower right portion of Fig. 2a. Indeed, the
comparatively porous textured features shown in this matrix indi-
cates a typical level of porosity associated with normal mixes.
Modified mixes on the other hand, have shown more com-
pacted features depending upon the latex contents included in
the mix. For instance, while MM-10% shown in Fig. 2b yielded a
relatively denser texture than NM, MM-20% shown in Fig. 2c por-
trayed a texture free from inter particle gaps. In fact, except for
shallow depressions, modification by 20% latex/water appeared
to have completely filled up voids and possibly coated all surfaces
of cement oxides as well as aggregates particles.
The latex-film in its entity has demonstrated a fine-grain tex-
tured membrane as shown in Fig. 2d. In its liquid state, NRL mainly
consists of a dispersion of poly 1–4 isoprene particles. However, as
the dispersed medium which is normally water, drains away,
inter-particle spacing diminishes until coalesceness is achieved,
thereby resulting into a continuous film. However, when added into
concrete in small quantities a continuous film may not be achieved,
rather a cluster of the isoprene particles may be present in capillary
pores and voids. This is manifested in NM-10% where the previously
observed larger and deeper voids in NM appeared to become smaller
and shallow without a continuous bridging across the cement and
aggregate particles. Meanwhile, denser features exhibited by the
modified mixes have indicated suitable qualities for raising level
of restriction to fluid flow into and within these phases. Thus, the la-
tex performs its action by blocking the access of the moisture which
normally transports the chemical agents into the concrete matrix.
Indeed, differences in microstructural units of modified mortars
due to changes in latex content as witnessed in the present work
have been reported. For example, polymer particles in polymer
modified concrete were observed to be partitioned between the

Fig. 2. Morphologies; (a) normal cement-sand matrix, (b) cement-sand with 10% latex, (c) cement-sand with 20% latex and (d) latex-film.
132 B. Muhammad, M. Ismail / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 129–134
inside of hydrates and the surface of anhydrous cement grains [23].
In addition, total porosity of pore volume was reported to diminish
with increase in polymer content thereby raising impermeability
and durability characteristics [14].
3.2. Water absorption
Fig. 3 presents water absorption results. From the results, MC-
5% absorbed the least water content, above and below which more
water was absorbed. In fact, the more the latex content above this
limit the higher the water absorbed.
Since NC contains voids as depicted in its structure by the mor-
phology in Fig. 2a, it follows that latex content below 5% is insuffi-
cient to provide the most effective water rejection qualities. Even
though, MC-2.5% indicated a marked improvement over NC, this
content failed to yield optimum result. Similarly, modifications be-
yond 5% depicted poor water exclusion properties perhaps due to
excess latex over that which is sufficient for the most effective
voids filling. Indeed, excess latex beyond that which is necessary
to fill capillary pores may prevent proper compaction of aggregates
by appearing at interface boundaries. Thus, as the latex coalesces,
which is normally accompanied by volume reduction, more voids
may arise over that witnessed in MC-2.5% and MC-5%.
In fact, another important point regarding the issue of voids for-
mation in the modified systems due to withdrawal of water around
hydrocarbon particles is in relation to the morphologies previously
discussed. It was observed that inclusion of latex up to 10% yielded
traces of inter particle spaces after dry conditioning for 6 months.
This suggests that prolonged air curing or heat treatment as in
the water absorption test employed in this work could cause in-
crease in void contents mainly due to higher expulsion of moisture.
Meanwhile, NR latex has been reported to cause increase in
water absorption of concrete [14]. But, the quantity of latex used
in the research was 10% latex/cement ratio which represents about
20% latex/water ratio. Indeed, the effect of adding 20% latex/water
ratio was observed in the present research to cause more than 50%
increase in the water absorption of NC. However, according the
present work a 5% addition causes reduction in the water absorp-
tion by about 6.6%.
3.3. Resistance to sulfuric acid
Results of compressive strength after aggressive treatment by
H2SO4 are presented in Fig. 4. Generally, strength in both NC and
MC are low among all immersion period since specimens were
introduced into the aggressive medium immediately after demoul-
ding as already explained under specimen preparations. While NC
entertained gradual increase in strength until 56 days where it
drops and later pickups at 84 days, MC-1.5% continue to experience
reductions until 84 days before it shows signs of strength develop-
ment. The other modifications; MC-5% and MC-10% continue to
depreciate throughout the 84 days observation period.
Latex/water Content (%)
MC-20%
MC-15%
MC-10%
MC-7.5%
MC-5%
MC-2.5%
MC-0%
0 2
Fig. 3. Effect of latex content on water absorption.
Even though, concrete is expected to progressively continue to
develop in compressive strength especially during the first one
month, in this case, only the NC increases by a very small amount.
MCs on the other hand, not only failed to increase in strength but
suffer minute reductions. Obviously, lack of appreciable progress in
strength particularly in the first one month could be the result of
counter destructive effect caused by H2SO4. At 28 days old for in-
stance, the NC should have reached the designed concrete strength,
but the impact of attack coming from the H2SO4 clearly hindered
this normalcy. Thus, the main consequence of introducing fresh
concrete into aggressive environment is the initiation of attack
prior to the development of normal strength. In this type of situa-
tion, concrete may never achieve its designed strength.
Comparatively, NC develops strength at a rate higher than MC,
perhaps due to lack of favorable condition for the formation of la-
tex-films. In general, strength development in polymer modified
concrete is known to be a combine action of cement hydration
and latex-film formations [13,14]. Therefore, as long as there is
moisture around the latex molecules not only its expected contri-
bution will cease to exist but its presence in between the binder
particles may further reduce the binding capacity thereby affecting
the overall strength.
However, where the latex in the modified matrix is relatively
small, hydration process may easily drain the water around the la-
tex molecules since the moisture around the molecules should be
proportional to its contents. This might serve as an opportunity
for the latex particles to effectively block the passage of external
moisture and possibility contribute to the strength also. To this re-
spect, MC-1.5% is of the outmost advantage and this could be the
key factor towards its strength increase after 56 days of immersion.
Indeed, during the third month, strength development in MC-1.5%
was 33.7% as against 15.1% in NC. Meanwhile, positive strength
development in the other modifications; MC-5% and MC-10%
may be registered when the moisture surrounding the larger con-
tents of latex in these mixes are drained through cement hydration
or air curing. In fact, the little increase in MC-5% during the final
curing period could be a testimony to this hypothesis.
Another factor which might contribute to the low performance
of modified phases especially MC-5% and MC-10% could be attack
on the hydrocarbon particles by the H2SO4. In fact, at the end of
the last two curing regimes a layer of latex was found on the sur-
face of specimens. Close observations revealed that the peripheral
latex especially at the top horizontal surface has been transformed
into jelly like form with substantial increase in volume. This was
believed to be caused by the action of the H2SO4. Previous reports
regarding acidic substances coming into contact with polymer sub-
stances suggested that harm can occur on the polymeric Si–O–Al
bonds with consequence strength weakening through ejection of
tetrahedral alumina from the aluminosilicate [24,25].
Therefore, while the NC suffers from the usual acidic attack on
cement paste only, the MC receives double fold; conversion of
compounds of the cement to calcium sulfate, and ejection of tetra-
hedral alumina from the aluminosilicate framework. Thus, as the
10.4
9.5
8.3
6.9
5.7
6.0
6.1
4 6 8 10 12
Water Absorption (%)

25
NC MC-1.5%
Compressive Strength (N/mm 2)
20
15
10
5
0
7 28
Curing Age (Days)
Fig. 4. Effect of sulfuric acid on compressive strength.
latex bulges out the aggressive agents percolates to occupy the
places previously occupied by the hydrocarbon substances. As a re-
sult, greater reduction in strength was registered in the modified
concrete containing higher contents of latex.
3.4. Resistance to sodium sulfate
Fig. 5 presents compressive strength results of both NC and MCs
after 84 days immersion in Na2SO4. Unlike in the previous assess-
ments where initial strengths among all specimens were observed
to be low due to immediate transfer of specimens from moulds to
the aggressive curing medium, in this case, initial strengths were
relatively high since specimens were cured for 28 days before
immersion into the Na2SO4. During the 84 days, all categories of
specimens gain strengths at the beginning but suffer strength loss
towards the end. However, NC suffers the highest strength loss. In
fact, NC with second highest strength value ended up as the least
strength among all.
Superiority of MC-1.5% over NC at the initial strength margin
indicates 1.5% modification as a suitable content for increase in
strength. Indeed, about 1.5% latex/water ratio was reported as an
optimum value for maximum compressive strength [26]. Inclusion
of latex beyond optimum content resulted in lower strength values
as witnessed in MC-3% and MC-5%. Meanwhile, strength develop-
ment in both NC and MCs was observed to initially retard and as
the aggressive curing advances further, this was followed by a
gradual reduction in the overall strength.
However, since common initial strength does not exist among
the four categories of concrete, relative percentage strength gain
and loss were therefore considered as the main criterions for judg-
ing the individual performance qualities. Fig. 6 presents strength
gain and loss percent in each of the categories. The strength gain
and loss (fg and fs) percents were expressed as ratios (f28 f0)/
f0  100 and (f28 f84)/f28  100 respectively, where f0, f28 and f84
45
Compressive Strength (N/mm 2 )
40
35
30
25
20
0 7
Fig. 5. Effect of sodium sulfate on compressive strength.
B. Muhammad, M. Ismail / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 129–134 133
are the compressive strength values at 0, 28 and 84 days of immer-
MC-5% MC-10% sion into the Na2SO4 respectively.
Considering lowest and highest strength gains against NC and
MC-3% respectively, it follows that the increase in strength associ-
ated with the modified concrete was 86.2% higher than the corre-
sponding increase in NC. Since at this stage most of the mixing
water has been utilized through cement hydration, the latex is ex-
pected to give a positive impact towards filling the voids and thus
blocking the passage of the Na2SO4.
On the other hand, absence of latex particles in the capillaries
and voids as in the case of NC might have rendered the matrix vul-
56 84 nerable to attack through ingress of the surrounding Na2SO4 ions.
Indeed, sulfates react with the hydrated aluminates in the cement
to give high-sulfate tricalcium sulphoaluminate or ettringite which
normally occupy more than twice the molecular volume of the alu-
minate and its formation in hardened pastes is accompanied by
expansive forces which can exceed the tensile strength of the con-
crete [27].
Furthermore, highest strength loss; 18.9% was observed against
NC and this dramatically falls to 2.86% only in the MC-5%. Another
interesting observation was that of decrease in strength loss with
increase in latex contents; 6.1–2.9% as indicated in Fig. 6. This de-
scribes suitability of using NRL as a precautionary measure to-
wards curtailing chemical attack form sulfate contaminated
environments particularly Na2SO4. According to Liguang et al.
[28], chemical resistance of ordinary concrete could be improved
when blended with polymeric substances.
3.5. Surface leaching and mass loss
In the case of H2SO4, physical observations revealed that a neg-
ative volume change was entertained in the concrete matrix
through slight facial leaching. In fact, close inspections on speci-
mens particularly at the end of the 84 days curing period discloses
minute leaching of the cement paste, gradual disintegration of fine
aggregate particles and exposure of some coarse aggregate parti-
cles. This indeed correlates previous report where the action of
acids on Portland cements was observed to cause leaching of cal-
cium hydroxide from the cement paste [27].
However, high positive volume change was entertained in the
latex particularly at the top face of the modified specimens. The ex-
panded latex contains moisture thus behaved like swelled jellies
and these form layers on the surfaces affected as mentioned previ-
ously. Attempt to completely remove the jelly-like latex threatens
the integrity of the surfaces. Eventually, the overall weight was
found to be balanced or even slightly greater than the original
weight most likely due to the moisture present in the remaining
latex which sticks to the surfaces.
Unlike specimens in the H2SO4 environment where slight sur-
face leaching was noticed, samples cured in Na2SO4 medium
20 18.9
Gain (%) Loss (%)
Compressive Strength (%)
16
12 10.8
8.5 9
8
5.8 6.1 6.0
NC MC-1.5% 4 2.9
MC-3% MC-5%
0
28 56 84 NC MC-1.5% MC-3% MC-5%
Age (Days) Concrete Type
Fig. 6. Effect of sodium sulfate on gain/loss in compressive strength.
134 B. Muhammad, M. Ismail / Construction and Building Materials 31 (2012) 129–134
showed no sign of leaching throughout the 84 days curing period.
In fact, at the end of the last batch there was no eroded residue of
cement paste, sand particles or latex at the base of the plastic con-
tainer. Hence, variation in weights of specimens at the end of the
curing exercise was observed to be insignificant.
4. Conclusions
Based on the experimental parameters and investigation condi-
tions employed in this work, the following conclusions were
drawn.
(1) Inclusion of NRL into concrete transforms fairly porous
microstructural features of NC into a relatively denser
matrix. In fact, SEM observations have shown reductions in
the inter particle gaps with increase in latex contents. This
is an indication of qualities suitable for raising the level of
restriction to fluid flow into and within the modified phases.
(2) Presence of NRL in the capillaries and voids of concrete
enhances its water exclusion capacities. The improvement
attained at 5% latex/water ratio was observed to be about
6.6%. However, absence of the heat treatment involved in
the water absorption test might improve the moisture tight-
ness, since draining of moisture around the latex molecules
seems to be responsible for additional empty spaces as the
latex forms films.
(3) Regarding H2SO4 environment, initial strength development
in NC was observed to be higher than in MC, perhaps due to
lack of favorable condition for the formation of latex-films.
However, during the third curing month the rate was higher
particularly in MC-1.5%; 33.7% as against 15.1% in NC, which
suggests effectiveness of NRL towards blocking internal con-
tact between the aggressive agents and cement paste.
(4) With respect to Na2SO4, highest strength loss; 18.9% was
observed against NC and this dramatically falls to 2.86% only
in the MC-5%. On the other hand, considering lowest and
highest strength gains against NC and MC-3% respectively,
it follows that increase in strength associated with the mod-
ified concrete was 86.2% higher than the corresponding
increase in NC. Thus, absence of latex particles in the capil-
laries and voids of NC might have rendered the matrix vul-
nerable to attack by the surrounding Na2SO4 ions.
(5) Close inspection on specimens subjected to H2SO4 environ-
ment discloses some leaching of the cement paste, minute
disintegration of fine aggregate particles and slight exposure
of gravels. Indeed, this observation was noticed in both NC
and MC specimens, especially on the batches cured for
84 days. However, samples cured in Na2SO4 medium
showed no sign of leaching or weight loss throughout the
curing period.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial backing
received from Bayero University Kano (BUK) Nigeria, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Group of Six (G6); Husaini M.D., Sa-
nusi B.K., Ali G.T., Mustapha M.K., Umar S.Y. and Hassan H.K.
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