BIOCHEMISTRY 1.

01
JUNE 14, 2013
Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach
Allan L. Hilario, M.D.

CELL  Classification According to Nutritional Patterns

Key Concept: Organisms can be classified according to their nutritional
pattern – their energy source and source of carbon. Thus, there is metabolic
Outline
diversity among organisms.
I. Introduction IV. The Cell Membrane
 Cell Phylogeny  Structure: Fluid Mosaic Model
 Classification  Functions Nutritional Classification of Organisms:
 Types of Cells (Comparisons):  Composition a. Phototrophs- energy from light
o Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes  Membrane Fluidity
o Animal vs. Plant Eukaryotic o Lipid movement Two kinds of phototrophs:
cells o Self-sealing 1. Autotrophs- carbon from carbon dioxide
 Method of Cell Organelle o Selective permeability Ex. cyanobacteria, plants
Identification  Membrane Proteins
o Integral proteins 2. Heterotrophs- carbon from organic compounds
II. The Prokaryotic Cell o Peripheral proteins Ex. purple and green bacteria
 Bacteria  Membrane Microdomains
 Structure o Lipid raft
 Components o Caveola b. Chemotrophs- energy from chemical compounds
 Biochemical Reactions  Cell Membrane Transport 1. Lithotrophs- energy from inorganic compounds
o Metabolism o Passive transport Ex. sulfur bacteria, hydrogen bacteria
o Metabolic terms, functions  Simple diffusion
and locations  Facilitated diffusion 2. Organotrophs- energy from organic compounds
- Transporters: Ex. most prokaryotes, all nonphototrophic
III. The Eukaryotic Cell  Transporters vs.
eukaryotes
 Cytoplasm Channels
o Cytosol  Ionotropic channels
o Organelles vs. Ionophores *Note: Heterotrophs can also be chemotrophs.Lithotrophs
 Cytoskeleton o Active transport
and Organotrophs are also examples of heterotrophs.
 Microfilaments  Primary Transport
 Intermediate  Secondary Transport
filaments o Diseases Involving Defects in  Types of Cells
 Microtubules/Tubulin Membranes
 Nucleus  Artificial Membranes (Liposomes) A. Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Mitochondria V. Review Questions Key Concept: In general, prokaryotes are structurally simpler and smaller
 Endoplastic Reticulum VI. Answer to Review Questions than eukaryotes. Eukaryotes on the other hand are structurally larger and
 Smooth ER more complex than prokaryotes.
 Rough ER
 Golgi Apparatus
 Vesicular Organelles
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes

INTRODUCTION
 Cell Phylogeny
Key Concept: Grouping organisms according to common properties implies
that a group of organisms evolved from a common ancestor.Based on the
similarities in ribosomal RNA, living organisms are classified into 3 domains.

Three Domains of Life:

1. Archaebacteria- prokaryotes that do not contain
peptidoglycan in their cell wall.
E.g.extreme halophiles, methanogens and extreme
thermophiles
2. Eubacteria- prokaryotes with peptidoglycan in their cell wall
E.g. purple bacteria,cyanobacteria, flavobacteria, gram
positive and gram negative bacteria, and thermotoga
3. Eukaryotes- consist the animals, ciliates, fungi, plants,
flagellates and microsporidia

Fig1.2. Comparisons of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

B. Comparison of Eukaryotic Animal and Plant Cells
Key Concept: There are unique features that distinguish plant cells from
animal cells.
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Lysosomes Cell Wall
Mitochondria Glyoxysome
Centrosome Plasmodesma
Vacuole (smaller) Vacuole(large)
Thylakoids
Chloroplast
Fig. 1.1 Phylogenic Tree of the Three Domains of Life Starch Granule
Plastids

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Transcribers: Aclan, J.V., Advento, V., Bolos, C.,Cabiscuelas, Y.N., Cuaderno, C., Gamboa, K.A., Javier, K., Laurilla, L.B., Rodenas, E., Roxas, F.
 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

Organelle Isolation Biochemical Reactions

 Metabolism – the entire set of enzyme-catalyzed

transformations of organic molecules of living cells. It is the
sum of anabolism and catabolism.
 Anabolism – the phase of intermediary metabolism concerned
with the energy-requiring biosynthesis of cell components
from smaller precursors
 Catabolism – the phase of intermediary metabolism
concerned with the energy – yielding degradation of nutrient
molecules

Metabolic Terms Cellular Location

Glycolysis - Cytoplasm of cells

Gluconeogenesis Cytoplasm of
hepatocytes, renal cells
and in special condition
the intestinal cells

Hexose Monophosphate Shunt Cytoplasm of all cell

Glycogenesis Cytoplasm of
hepatocytes and muscles

Tricarboxylic Acid Mitochondria in the

Cycle or TCA or cytoplasm
Kreb’s Cycle
Oxidative Mitochondria in the
phosphorylation and cytoplasm
the electron transport
chain
Lipolysis Mitochondria
(BetaOxidation)
Fig. 1.3. Isolation of cell organelles
Lipogenesis Cytoplasm and SER of
 The large and small particles in the suspension can be separated
hepatocytes and
by centrifugation at different speed
 Particles of different density can be separated by isopycnic
adipocytes
centrifugation
Alpha and Peroxisomes
THE PROKARYOTIC CELL BetaOxidation
Omegaoxidation Peroxisomes

Replication Nucleus

Transcription Nucleus, most rRNA in

the nucleoulus
Translation Rough endoplasmic
Reticulum and cytoplasm

Post-translational Smooth Endoplasmic

modification Reticulum and Golgi
apparatus

Protein Golgi apparatus

Sorting
Ketogenesis Matrix of the
mitochondia of
hepatocytes, and in
special condition, renal
cells

Urea Cycle Mitochondria in the

cytoplasmof the
hepatocytes
 The plasma membrane and the layers outside it
constitute the cell envelope Amino Acid Cytoplasm of all
Synthesis nucleated cells
 The nucleoid contains a single, circular molecule of
DNA, and the cytoplasm contains one or smaller, Amino Acid Cytoplasm of all cells
circular segments of DNA called plasmids Catabolism

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 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

THE EUKARYOTIC CELL As the ionic strength increases, G actin aggregates

reversibly to form F actin, a helical homopolymer. G
 Cytoplasm actincarries a firmly bound ATP molecule that is
- portion of the cell enclosed by the cell slowly hydrolyzed in F actin to form ADP. Actin
membrane and outside the nucleus where therefore also has an enzyme property (ATPase
the cellular organelles are found. activity). Myosin is the globular protein that
- Most of the biochemical reactions interacts with actin in myocytes for muscle
happens in the cytoplasm: contraction.
a. Glycolysis b. Intermediate filaments (10 nm)
b. Gluconeogenesis - belongs to five related protein family
c. Fatty acid synthesis with cell type-specificity. These
d. Protein synthesis includes:
e. Part of urea cycle 1) Cytokeratins (ectoderm)
f. Purine metabolism 2) Desmin (ectoderm)
g. Amino acid synthesis 3) Vimentin (mesoderm)
4) Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)
MAJOR PARTS OF THE CYTOPLASM: (endoderm)
o Cytosol 5) Neurofilament (endoderm)
- fluid portion of the cytoplasm - These proteins have a rod-shape
- Biochemical reactions in the cytosol: structure at the center called super
a. NADPH production (pentose phosphate helix.
pathway; malic enzyme) - The intermediate filament is produced
b. [NADPH]/[NADP+] high from 8 protofilaments.
c. Isoprenoid and sterol synthesis
d. Fatty acid synthesis c. Microtubules (25 nm)
- Basic components: α– and β–tubulin
o Organelles (53 and 55 kDa).
- tiny structures that perform different - Thirteen protofilaments form a ring-
functions in the cell. shape and polymerize to form a long
- specialized structures within the cell
tube.
that have characteristic shapes
- Important during mitosis.
- they perform specific functions in
cellular growth, maintenance, and
reproduction.
- linked together by cytoskeleton of the
cell.

 Cytoskeleton
- network of protein scafolding which
mainatains cell’s shape and serves as
tracts for organellar movement.
- assembles as polymers from protein
subunits.
- 3 types of protein filaments:
a. Microfilaments (6–8 nm)
- Actin is the protein component of the Plant alkaloids:
microfilaments.  Vinblastine- vinca alkaloid; acts in G & S
- 2 forms of actin: phases by inhibiting microtubule
 G-actin (globular) formation, inhibits DNA/RNA synthesis;
 Monomolecular form antineoplastic
 Vincristine- vinca alkaloid; acts in M & S
 asymmetrical molecule with a mass of
phases by inhibiting microtubule
42 kDa, consisting of two domains. formation, inhibits DNA/RNA synthesis;
 F-actin (filamentous) antineoplastic.
 Polymer form  Colchicine- disruption of cytoskeletal
functions through inhibition of β-tubulin
polymerization into microtubules which
prevents activation, degranulation, and
migration of neutrophils thought to
mediate some gout symptoms;
antigout(acute gout).
 Paclitaxel (Taxol)- natural taxane, prevents
depolymerization of cellular microtubules,
which results in DNA, RNA, and protein
synthesis inhibition’ antineoplastic

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Transcribers: Aclan, J.V., Advento, V., Bolos, C.,Cabiscuelas, Y.N., Cuaderno, C., Gamboa, K.A., Javier, K., Laurilla, L.B., Rodenas, E., Roxas, F.
 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

 Nucleus Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)

- largest organelle of the eukaryotic cell. -coated with ribosomes
- repository and cellular localization of Function:
storage, replication and expression of - site of protein synthesis
genetic information. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER)
-without ribosomes
- contains almost 99% of the cell DNA
Functions:
except for the 1% present in the - site of carbohydrate and lipid synthesis
mitochondria. - helps to detoxify certain compounds
- Biochemical reactions inside the nucleus:
a. Replication (replication also occurrs in the  Golgi Apparatus
mitochondria)
b. Synthesis of rRNA by the nucleolus (dense
part of the nucleus).
c. Transcription of the tRNA, mRNA, and
other types of RNA (occurs in the
euchromatin part of the nucleoplasm).
d. Biosynthesis of NAD+

 Mitochondria

Transport from the ER through the Golgi apparatus

-receives (on the cis-side) many of the transport vesicles produced
in the rough ER
-consists of flattened membranous sacs called the cisternae
-exports many substances (from trans-side) in transport vesicles

- compose the 1% DNA of the cell rERcis-Golgi network cisternae trans-Golgi network
cell exterior
- evolved from the “Endosymbiosis Theory”
Function:
Function:
- Production of energy (ATP)
- modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins and other
- Some processes occurring within the mitochondria:
materials
- Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
- Urea cycle
- Tricarboxylic acid cycle/Citric acid cycle/Kreb's cycle  Vesicular organelles
- ß oxidation in animal cells Lysosomes
- ketogenesis -common in animal cells but rare in plant cells
Functions:
Endosymbiosis Theory - contain hydrolytic enzymes necessary for
Key concept: The endosymbiosis theory explains the origin of intracellular digestion
mitochondria and chloroplasts and their double membranes. This - get rid virus and bacteria, digest food particles and
concept postulates that chloroplasts and mitochondria are result of other damaged organelles
years of evolution initiated by the endocytosis of an aerobic Peroxisomes
bacteria and blue-green algae. With this theory, an accepted Functions:
mechanism on how eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells - involve in the breakdown of very long chain fatty
is explained. acids
- contain the enzyme catalase which decomposes the
toxic hydrogen peroxide
Secretory vesicles
Function:
- transport substances to the cell surface for release

THE CELL MEMBRANE

Key Concept: The central architectural feature of biological membranes is a

double layer of lipids, which acts as barrier to the passage of polar molecules and
ions.

Cell Membrane
 Endoplasmic Reticulum Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer and Nicolson) – according to this model, the
- network of tubules and flattened sacs that serve a variety
molecular arrangement of plasma membrane resembles a continually
of functions in the cell
moving sea of fluid lipids that contains a mosaic of many different
proteins.

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 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

group at the aqueous interface and the remainder of the

molecule within the leaflet.
Note: Cholesterol is distributed in both leaflets of the lipid
bilayer.
B. Proteins
1. Integral proteins
2. Peripheral proteins
C. Carbohydrates
1. Glycolipids
2. Glycoproteins

Cell Membrane Functions

1. Boundary
Cell Membrane Composition 2. Controlled metabolite transport
The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane is the lipid 3. Signal reception and transmission
bilayer. 4. Enzymatic reactions
5. Contact with other cells
A. Lipid bilayer 6. Anchor for cytoskeleton
1. Phospholipids – lipids with phosphate groups
a. Phosphoglycerides – most common phospholipid; consists Cell Membrane fluidity
of glycerol backbone to which are attached two fatty acids in
ester linkage and a phosphorylated alcohol (e.g. ethanolamine, Membrane Fluidity refers to the viscosity of the lipid bilayer or the
choline, serine, glycerol or inositol) degree of resistance of membrane components to move.

Several factors affect the fluidity of the membrane.

• Temperature (Higher temp., more fluid)

• Content of unsaturated FA (higher content, more fluid
- Double bonds produce kink structures. These structures
are hard to pack, making disorganization in the
membrane.
• Content of cholesterol (paradoxical- when cholesterol
interacts with unsaturated/ short-chain fatty acyl PL results to
less fluidity while when cholesterol interacts with
sphingolipids and long-chain fatty acyl PL tends to make it
more fluid.
b. Sphingomyelin – contains a sphingosine backbone instead - Cholesterol and temperature: when amphipatic
of glycerol: cholesterol is placed in a very fluid membrane because of
Ceramide = sphingosine + fatty acid high temperature, it can penetrate deep into the
membrane. low temperature makes the membrane less
fluid, cholesterol can’t penetrate into the first layer of the
membrane thus making it relatively more fluid.
[emphasized in the lecture]
- “Cholesterol inserts into bilayer membranes with its
hydroxyl group oriented toward the aqueous phase and
its hydrophobic ring system adjacent to fatty acid tails of
phospholipids. The hydroxyl group of cholesterol forms
hydrogen bonds with polar phospholipid head
groups”.[1D trans, 2012]
- “Part of the steroid ring (the four hydrocarbon rings in
between the hydroxyl group and the hydrocarbon "tail")
is closely attracted to part of the fatty acid chain on the
nearest phospholipid.
2. Glycosphingolipids (Glycolipids) – sugar containing lipids built o This helps slightly immobilize the outer surface
on a backbone of ceramide of the membrane and make it less soluble to
very small water-soluble molecules that could
a. Cerebrosides
otherwise pass through more easily.
b. Gangliosides
o Without cholesterol, cell membranes would be
too fluid, not firm enough, and too permeable
Note: The outer leaflet consists predominantly of to some molecules.In other words, it keeps the
phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, and glycolipids, whereas membranefrom turning to mush.”[1D trans
the inner leaflet contains phosphatidylethanolamine, 2012]
phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidylinositol.
Cell Membrane Lipid Membrane Movement
3. Sterols – steroidal alcohols
Membrane Fluidity allows various components of the membrane to
The most common of which is cholesterol, it intercalates
move in different directions. The lipid component may exhibit the
among the phospholipids of the membrane, with its hydroxyl
following movement:

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 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

Scramblases are proteins that move any membrane phospholipid across

the bilayer down its concentration gradient [from leaflet that has higher
concentration to the leaflet with lower concentration] activity is NOT
ATP-dependent.

Cell Membrane Self-sealing

The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane has the ability to reseal after a
small disruption through lateral diffusion of its lipid component. Larger
tear due to mechanical stress is an energy-requiring process through
Ca2+- dependent process similar to exocytosis-like process.
[emphasized in the lecture]

Cell Membrane Selective Permeability

The hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains in lipid bilayer provide an

impervious barrier for ionic and polar substances. Specific proteins
regulate the passage of these substances in and out of the cell.
Figure 2.1. Uncatalyzed lateral 6iffusion Aquaporins for water. Polar substances should shed its hydration shell
in order to pass the hydrophobic barrier.

Figure 2.2 Uncatalyzedtransbilayer diffusion

At physiological temperatures, transbilayer diffusion [flip-flop] of a lipid

molecule from one leaflet to the other occurs very slow [figure 1x].
Lateral diffusion IN THE PLANE of the bilayer is very rapid [figure 2x].

Cell Membrane Asymmetry

The cell membrane has different composition of lipid and protein in its
outer and inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer.

Figure 2.3 Three types of phospholipid translocatorsin the plasma

membrane [Nelson and Cox, 2010]

Flippase catalyze translocation of the aminophospholipids

[phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine] from the
extracellular to the cytosolic leaflet. Flippases consume 1 ATP per
molecule of phospholipid

Keeping phosphatidylserine out of the extracellular leaflet is important:

its exposure on the outer surface triggers apoptosis and engulfment by
macrophages that carry phosphatidylserine receptors

Floppase move plasma membrane phospholipids from the cystolic to the

extracellular leaflet.like Flippases, they are ATP-dependent. They are
members of ABC transporter family which actively transport
hydrophobic substrates outward across the membrane.

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 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

The lipid composition of the bilayer is asymmetric, with a higher content
of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin in the outer leaflet and a
higher content of phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine in
the inner leaflet. Phosphatidylinositol which can function in the transfer
of information from hormones and neurotransmitters is also only found
in the inner leaflet. [Lieberman and Marks, 2009]
CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
2. Caveolae – invaginations of lipid rafts by the action of caveolin.
Important in membrane breakage and sealing.
CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
- the transfer of solutes and information across membranes
TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
a. Cross-membrane movement of small molecules
a. Diffusion (Passive and Facilitated)
b. Active Transport
b. Cross-membrane movement of large molecules
(Endocytosis and Exocytosis)
c. Signal transmission across membrane
a. Cell surface receptors
1) Signal transduction (e.g. glucagon ->cAMP)
2) Signal internalization (coupled with endocytosis
eg LDL receptors, Insulin and Glut transporters)
b. Movement to intracellular receptors (steroid hormones, thyroid
hormones, retinoids, Vit. D)
d. Intracellular contact of Communication

Types of Membrane Proteins
Integral proteins
Have alpha-helical structure (with
15-20 amino acids that have bulky
side-chains)
Interact intensively with the
phospholipids (require the use of
detergents of solubilisation)
Removable only by agents (e.g.
detergents, organic solvents) that
interfere with hydrophobic
interactions
A. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- transport that do not require energy
-movement of solute from an area of HIGH CONCENTRATION to an area
of LOW CONCENTRATION
-depends on concentration gradient; creation depends on
1. chemical gradient
-difference of solute concentration or its ratio C 2 /C1
2. transmembrane electrical gradient (Vm in millivolts).
-Solutes follow the 2nd law of thermodynamics where it tends to assume
spontaneously the greatest randomness and the lowest energy
Peripheral proteins
Have amphiphatic alpha-helical 1. Simple diffusion
structure - without membrane protein
 movement of solutes down its electrochemical gradient due
Do not interact directly with the torandom thermal movement or simply because the solute is
hydrophobic cores of the permeable through the lipid bilayer because it is small enough
phospholipids in the bilayer and/or hydrophobic.
Removed by relatively mild 2. Facilitated diffusion
treatments that interfere with  movement of solutes down its electrochemical gradient
electrostatic interactions or through either transporters or ion channels (membrane
break hydrogen bonds (e.g. proteins).
carbonate at high pH)  Transporters allows the passage of hydrophobic solute by
LOWERINGthe energy of activation of the solute

Hydropathy plot- the specific number of a transmembrane segment

based on its amino acid sequence.

CELL DOMAINS

Figure1. Lowering of Activation energy with the use of transporters

These are specialized features of plasma membrane.

1. Lipid rafts – thickened portion of the bilayer involved in signal

transduction and anchorage. It is where GPI-anchors and
interacting peripheral proteins can be found.
Figure 2. Illustration of Passive and Active Transport

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 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

Transporters vs. Channels

+ 2+ +
*Acetylcholine- Na and Ca *Valinomycin- K channels

Transporters
-Bind molecules and ions with high
specificity, undergo conformational
changes allowing the transport of
molecules and ions across
membranes
examples
Channels + +
*Serotonin and Glutamate- K , *Monensin- Na channels
+ 2+
They show some specificity but Na , Ca *Gramicidin- folding creates
-
does not act like an enzyme and *Glycine- Cl Specific channels hollow channels
only forms pores which open or
close with much conformational +
*Dendrotoxin (mamba snake)- K *Diptheria toxin and activated
changes

Biological
+
*Tetrodotoxin (puffer fish)- Na complement- create large

-Catalyze transport at rates well
below the limits of free diffusion
-saturable in the same sense as as
enzymes so that futher increase in
substrate conc.
-does not provide a greater
transport which SLOWER THAN
with channel
Involve in passive (facilitated
diffusion) and active transport
Types of Transport Systems based on Direction of Movement
sources
- does not act like an enzyme, it *Cobrotoxin and alpha cellular pores causing lysis
conotoxin- Acetylcholine *Alpha-hemolysis (Strep.)- leak
is not saturable with ion
receptor ion channel out ATP
substrate (in contrast with
saturation kinetics seen in
transporters)
- Type of cell membrane transport that requires energy expenditure
-transport is FASTER
- Active transport is the diffusion of molecules and ions against its
THANtransporter which may
electrochemical gradient with the use of energy which is mostly
reach the limit of unhindered
supplied by ATP.
diffusion
o Its protein transporter has an ATPase activity hydrolyzing
Mostly involve in facilitated ATP to ADP producing the needed energy.
diffusion TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1. Primary Active Transport - solute accumulation coupled directly to
an exergonic chemical reaction such as breakdown of ATP
2. Secondary Active transport - occurs when endergonic (uphill)
transport of one solute is coupled to an exergonic (downhill) flow of a
different solute that was originally pumped uphill by a primary active
transport.

Uniport system- moves one type of molecule bidirectionally

(egused in transporting glucose in the cell through the influence
of insulin)

Co-transport system- transfer of one solute depends upon the Figure 4.1. Illustrative concept of the types of active transport.
stoichiometric simultaneous or sequential transfer of another solute.
>>2 types
 Symport- moves these solutes in the same direction
(eg Glucose – sodium transport)
 Antiport-move two molecules in opposite directions
+ 2+
(eg, Na in and Ca out; Chloride-bicarbonate exchanger of the
RBC membrane)

Aquaporins
• water channels that only allow the passage of water molecules in
the membranes of RBC and cells of the collecting ductules of the
kidney.
• composed of tetramerictransmembrane proteins
• Mutation in some of these channel (AP-2) proteins may cause
nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus

Ionotropic Channels vsIonophores

Ionotropic Channels Ionophores

Non-receptor compounds that

produce channels or pores in the
cell.
Receptors that are themselves -If it produces pores or channels
description

acts as channels and in bacteria, they serve as anti-

DOES NOT NEED a secondary
messenger
bacterial.
-if they cause production of
pores or channels on cell
membranes of human cells, they
cause injury or disease.
Figure 4.2 A concept of how a transport ATPase works; here, the binding of
Phosphate from ATP to the receptor found on the Transport ATPase would facilitate a
conformational change to allow the material to go into the cell.

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Transcribers: Aclan, J.V., Advento, V., Bolos, C.,Cabiscuelas, Y.N., Cuaderno, C., Gamboa, K.A., Javier, K., Laurilla, L.B., Rodenas, E., Roxas, F.
 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

Figures 4.4 & 4.5 Some diseases associated with abnormalities in the cell membrane
and in ion channels. What is important to note here is the general concept that:

Genetic Mutations  genes encoding for ion channels are therefore abnormal  Ion
channel mutations  abnormalities in ion transport  diseases d/t channelopathies.

ARTIFICIAL MEMBRANES & THEIR IMPORTANCE

- Drug delivery where liposome being hydrophobic can easily enter the
cell, cancer cell and bacterial cells(Liposomal Doxurubicin or
ticarcillin and tobramycin).
- Gene therapy- liposome can easily penetrate the nucleus that gene
insert may be easily incorporated.
• The PL may be attached to an antibody where drug
delivery may be target-oriented.

LIPOSOMES
Liposome-like structures underlie such things as LDL-particles and are
being used in medicine among other areas.
- Liposomes are bilayered lipid vesicles
Figure 4.3 Taken directly from the lecture slide; here are some types of ATP-driven - Form by sonicating lipids in aqueous solution
Active transporters. When ATP-driven is mentioned, it means that the channel
requires the use of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as energy in order to establish the - Vehicles for drug, nucleic acid, Ab delivery
transport of the cellular material. - Used in cosmetics
- Liposomes can be filled with drugs, and used to deliver drugs for
NOTE: The discussion on Nerve Impulses involving ion channels and pumps is cancer and other diseases.
extensively discussed in Cell and Muscle Physiology; you may refer to your
Physiology trans or book for an easier concept.

****
Review Questions:
1. These interactions are the main driving force for the formation
of lipid bilayers.
a. Hydrophilic interactions
b. Hydrophobic interactions
c. Hydrogen bonding
d. Ionic bonding
2. Which of the following characterstics is shared by simple and
facilitated diffusion of glucose?
a. Occurs down an electrochemical gradient
b. Is saturable
c. Requires metabolic energy
d. Is inhibited by the presence of galactose
+
e. Requires a Na gradient
3. The following biochemical reactions occur in the cytoplasm,
EXCEPT:
a. Glycolysis
b. Glycogenesis
c. Kreb’s cycle
d. Amino acid synthesis
4. Prokaryotic cells, but not eukaryotic cells have:
a. Endoplasmic reticulum

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 BIOCHEMISTRY Cell and Cell Membrane: A Biochemical Approach

b. Histones
c. Nucleoid
d. Nucleus
e. Plasma membrane
5. Mitochondria is associated with all of the following, EXCEPT:
a. ATP synthesis
b. DNA synthesis
c. Protein synthesis
d. Hydrolysis of various macromolecules at low pH
e. Two different membranes
6. Which of the following can transport a solute against its
concentration gradient?
a. Primary active transport
b. Facilitated transport
c. Simple diffusion
d. None of the above
7. According to the fluid mosaic model of a membrane:
a. Proteins are always completely embedded in the
lipid bilayer
b. Transverse movement (flip-flop) of a protein in the
membrane is thermodynamically favorable
c. The transmembrane domain has largely
hydrophobic amino acids
d. Proteins are distributed symmetrically in the
membrane
e. Peripheral proteins are attached to the membrane
only by noncovalent forces
8. The ion channel that is affected in cystic fibrosis.
a. Na+
+
b. K
c. Ca2+
d. Cl-
9. The most abundant type of phospholipid in cell membranes.
a. Sphingomyelin
b. Phosphoglycerides
c. Glycolipids
d. Cholesterol
10. Which of the following will specifically increase the fluidity of
the cell membrane?
a. Decrease in temperature
b. Increase the unsaturated fatty acids
c. Increase the saturated fatty acids
d. Removal of cholesterol

Answers
10.B
9.B
8.D
7.C
6.A
5.D
4.C
3.C
2.A
1.B

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Transcribers: Aclan, J.V., Advento, V., Bolos, C.,Cabiscuelas, Y.N., Cuaderno, C., Gamboa, K.A., Javier, K., Laurilla, L.B., Rodenas, E., Roxas, F.