Study Guide for Exam #4 General Biology II

Remember there is no FINAL exam

Last Part of Chapter 39 Animal Behavior has a separate study guide posted.

Chapter 40 Population Ecology

1. Define biosphere, ecosystem, community, and population. What is ecology and what
types of questions would an ecologist ask when studying each of the levels in the
biological hierarchy from individual organism to the planet?

bi·o·sphere
ˈbīəˌsfir/
noun

1. the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the earth (or
analogous parts of other planets) occupied by living organisms.

2. What is the difference between weather and climate?

The difference betweenweather and climate is a measure of time. Weather is

what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time, and climate is
how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of time.

3. What influence does the tilt of the Earth on its axis have on climate?
4. How do bodies of water and mountains influence regional climates.

MOUNTAINS AND RAINFALL

Tall mountain ranges, like the Andes of South America and the Rockies of North
America, act as an obstacle to traveling air masses, forcing them to rise over their
lofty peaks. When this happens, air temperatures drop; as the water vapor
cools, fog forms, and rain or snow may fall on the windward side of the mountain.
When the same air mass descends on the other side of the mountain, it contains a
minimal amount of water vapor. As a result, a "rain shadow" or dry climate
develops on the far side of the mountain.

OCEANS
Air masses that travel across large bodies of water often pick up a substantial
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amount of water vapor. In the case of an ocean, the air mass may contain
considerably more moisture when it reaches the far shore. Therefore, the climate
 of such coastal regions tends to be wetter; the Pacific Northwest is a well-known
example of this effect.

LAKES, BAYS AND GULFS

Like the oceans, a large lake, bay or gulf can act as a moderating influence on
climate, resulting in cooler summers and warmer winters. For example, North
America’s Great Lakes modify the temperature of air masses that travel across
them, which produces a comparatively mild climate. At the same time, these air
masses pick up a large amount of moisture from the lakes, which precipitates
annually on the downwind shores in the form of heavy rain and snow.

5. Explain the climate of the windward side of the mountain compared to the leeward side.

WINDWARD MOUNTAIN SLOPES GIVE AIR (AND PRECIPITATION)

A BOOST
Mountain ranges acts as barriers to the flow of air across the surface of the
earth. When a parcel of warm air travels from a low valley region to the
foothills of a mountain range, it is forced to rise along the slope of the
mountain as it encounters higher terrain. As the air is lifted up the mountain
slope, it cools as it rises (a process known as adiabatic cooling). This cooling
often results in the formation of clouds, and eventually, precipitation which
falls on the windward slope and at the summit. Known as orographic lifting,
this event is one of three ways precipitation can form (the other two are
frontal wedging and convection).
The Northwestern United States and the Front Range Foothills of Northern
Colorado are two examples of regions that regularly see precipitation
induced by orographic lift.
LEEWARD MOUNTAIN SLOPES ENCOURAGE WARM, DRY
CLIMATES
Opposite from the windward side is the lee side -- the side sheltered from
the prevailing wind.

(Because prevailing winds in the mid-latitudes blow from the west, the lee
side can generally be thought of as the eastern side of the mountain range.
This is true most times -- but not always.)
In contrast to the windward side of a mountain which is moist, the leeward
side typically has a dry, warm climate.

This is because by the time air rises up the windward side and reaches the
summit, it has already stripped of the majority of its moisture. As this
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already dry air descends down the lee, it warms and expands (a process
 known as adiabatic warming), which causes clouds to dissipate and further
reduces the possibility of precipitation. This occurrence is known as the rain
shadow effect. It is the reason why locations at the base of a mountain lee
tend to be some of the driest places on Earth. The Mojave Desert and
California's Death Valley are two such rain shadow deserts.
Downslope winds (winds that blow down the lee side of mountains) not only
carry low relative humidity, they also rush down at extremely strong speeds
and can bring temperatures as much as 50+ degrees Fahrenheit warmer
than the surrounding air. Katabatic winds, foehns, and chinooks are all
examples of such winds. The Santa Ana Winds in Southern California are a
well-known katabatic wind infamous for the hot, dry weather they bring in
autumn and for fanning regional wildfires.

6. What is the rainshadow effect?

A rain shadow works in the same way: it's where moist air gets blocked by
mountains. A rain shadow is a dry area on the side of a mountain opposite to the
wind. We call this dry side of the mountain the leeward side.

7. What is a biome? Familiarize yourself with Figure 40.9 covering distribution, climate,
and organisms of each biome as well as human impact on each one.
8. What makes up the largest terrestrial biome? What is the largest of all biomes?
9. Name the various freshwater biomes. How much of the earth is covered by oceans and
what major effects does this biome have on the entire planet?

Lakes and ponds are considered still water since they do not move very
fast. Rivers and streams move water from one area to another and are known as
moving waters. Both still waters and moving waters offer a home to many different
types of plants and animals. Many of these organisms are structured to live in a specific
type of freshwater habitat. For example, some plants thrive in the nice calm waters of a
lake but don't survive in rivers and streams, unless they have a specific structure or can
hold onto objects like rocks.
Estuaries are the areas between the moving and still waters. They also offer a habitat to

many different plants and animals, including types of coral reefs, fish, shellfish, and

birds. Some of the animals in estuaries have a very unique ability to survive in both

fresh water and salt water.

Different areas of freshwater biomes have different structures and resources. For

example, a headwater, or the source of a river or stream, has water that is clearer and
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higher in oxygen levels than the middle of the river or the end, the mouth of the river.
 Examples of headwaters include springs, snowmelt, or even lakes. In the headwaters,

you will find trout and heterotrophs. In the middle there is much more diversity in

species. In the mouth, it is murky with all of the sediment the water picked up on the

way. Less oxygen and light leads to a lot less diversity of species in the mouth or end of

the river.

Climate
Freshwater biomes are found all around the world. They have many seasons. A single

pond during the summer season could be up to 39 degrees Fahrenheit on the bottom

and 72 degrees Fahrenheit on the top. This same pond could be 39 degrees Fahrenheit

on the bottom and 32 degrees Fahrenheit on top in the winter season. The climates

usually average 39 degrees Fahrenheit to 70 degrees Fahrenheit.

10. What factors impact freshwater biomes?

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As with terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are influenced by a series of
abiotic factors. However, these factors differ since water has different
physical and chemical properties than does air. Even if the water in a
pond or other body of water is perfectly clear (there are no suspended
particles), water, on its own, absorbs light. As one descends into a deep
body of water, there will eventually be a depth which the sunlight cannot
reach. While there are some abiotic and biotic factors in a terrestrial
ecosystem that might obscure light (such as fog, dust, or insect swarms),
usually these are not permanent features of the environment. The
importance of light in aquatic biomes is central to the communities of
organisms found in both freshwater and marine ecosystems. In
freshwater systems, stratification due to differences in density is
perhaps the most critical abiotic factor and is related to the energy
aspects of light. The thermal properties of water (rates of heating and
cooling) are significant to the function of marine systems and have
major impacts on global climate and weather patterns. Marine
systems are also influenced by large-scale physical water movements,
such as currents; these are less important in most freshwater lakes.
The ocean is categorized by several areas or zones . All of the ocean's

open water is referred to as the pelagic realm (or zone). The benthic

realm (or zone) extends along the ocean bottom from the shoreline to

the deepest parts of the ocean floor. Within the pelagic realm is the

photic zone, which is the portion of the ocean that light can penetrate

(approximately 200 m or 650 ft). At depths greater than 200 m, light

cannot penetrate; thus, this is referred to as the aphotic zone. The

majority of the ocean is aphotic, lacking sufficient light for

photosynthesis. The deepest part of the ocean, the Challenger Deep (in

the Mariana Trench, located in the western Pacific Ocean), is about

11,000 m (about 6.8 mi) deep. To give some perspective on the depth of

this trench, the ocean is, on average, 4267 m or 14,000 ft deep. These
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 realms and zones are relevant to freshwater lakes as well, as they

determine the types of organisms that will inhabit each region.

11. How would organisms vary in the various zones of a lake?

A typical lake has distinct zones of biological communities linked to the physical
structure of the lake (Figure 10). The littoral zone is the near shore area where
sunlight penetrates all the way to the sediment and allows aquatic plants
(macrophytes) to grow. Light levels of about 1% or less of surface values usually
define this depth. The 1% light level also defines the euphotic zone of the lake, which
is the layer from the surface down to the depth where light levels become too low
for photosynthesizers. In most lakes, the sunlit euphotic zone occurs within
the epilimnion.

Figure 10

However, in unusually transparent lakes, photosynthesis may occur well

below the thermocline into the perennially cold hypolimnion. For example,
in western Lake Superior near Duluth, MN, summertime algal
photosynthesis and growth can persist to depths of at least 25 meters,
while the mixed layer, or epilimnion, only extends down to about 10
meters. Ultra-oligotrophic Lake Tahoe, CA/NV, is so transparent that algal
growth historically extended to over 100 meters, though its mixed layer
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only extends to about 10 meters in summer. Unfortunately, inadequate

management of the Lake Tahoe basin since about 1960 has led to a
 significant loss of transparency due to increased algal growth and
increased sediment inputs from stream and shoreline erosion.

The higher plants in the littoral zone, in addition to being a food source
and a substrate for algae and invertebrates, provide a habitat for fish and
other organisms that is very different from the open water environment.

The limnetic zone is the open water area where light does not generally
penetrate all the way to the bottom. The bottom sediment, known as
the benthic zone, has a surface layer abundant with organisms. This upper
layer of sediments may be mixed by the activity of the benthic organisms
that live there, often to a depth of 2-5 cm (several inches) in
rich organic sediments. Most of the organisms in the benthic zone are
invertebrates, such as Dipteran insect larvae (midges, mosquitoes, black
flies, etc.) or small crustaceans. The productivity of this zone largely
depends upon the organic content of the sediment, the amount of
physical structure, and in some cases upon the rate of fish predation.
Sandy substrates contain relatively little organic matter (food) for
organisms and poor protection from predatory fish. Higher plant growth is
typically sparse in sandy sediment, because the sand is unstable and
nutrient deficient. A rocky bottom has a high diversity of potential habitats
offering protection (refuge) from predators, substrate for
attached algae (periphyton on rocks), and pockets of organic "ooze" (food).
A flat mucky bottom offers abundant food for benthic organisms but is
less protected and may have a lower diversity of structural habitats,
unless it is colonized by higher plants.

12. What is an estuary? Explain what species are typically found there and what adaptations
they would have to have.

Plants and animals that can tolerate a wide range of salinities are called euryhaline.
These are the plants and animals most often found in the brackish waters of estuaries.
There are far fewer euryhaline than stenohaline organisms because it requires a lot of
energy to adapt to constantly changing salinities. Organisms that can do this are rare
and special. Some organisms have evolved special physical structures to cope with
changing salinity. The smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) found in salt marshes,
for example, has special filters on its roots to remove salts from the water it absorbs.
This plant also expels excess salt through its leaves.

Unlike plants, which typically live their

whole lives rooted to one spot, many
animals that live in estuaries must
change their behavior according to the
surrounding waters' salinity in order to
survive. Oysters and blue crabs are
good examples of animals that do this.
Oysters can live in the brackish waters of
estuaries by adapting their behavior to the
constantly changing environment. Click on
image for more details and a larger view.
(Photo: Apalachicola NERRS site)

13. Why are wetlands often “protected”?

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 Wetlands and Nature
Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in
the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. An
immense variety of species of microbes, plants, insects,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals can be part of a
wetland ecosystem. Climate, landscape shape (topology), geology
and the movement and abundance of water help to determine the
plants and animals that inhabit each wetland. The complex,
dynamic relationships among the organisms inhabiting the wetland
environment are called food webs. This is why wetlands in Texas,
North Carolina and Alaska differ from one another.
Wetlands can be thought of as "biological supermarkets." They
provide great volumes of food that attract many animal species.
These animals use wetlands for part of or all of their life-cycle.
Dead plant leaves and stems break down in the water to form
small particles of organic material called "detritus." This enriched
material feeds many small aquatic insects, shellfish and small fish
that are food for larger predatory fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds
and mammals.
The functions of a wetland and the values of these functions to
humans depend on a complex set of relationships between the
wetland and the other ecosystems in the watershed. A watershed
is a geographic area in which water, sediments and dissolved
materials drain from higher elevations to a common low-lying
outlet or basin a point on a larger stream, lake, underlying aquifer
or estuary.
Wetlands play an integral role in the ecology of the
watershed. The combination of shallow water, high levels of
nutrients and primary productivity is ideal for the development of
organisms that form the base of the food web and feed many
species of fish, amphibians, shellfish and insects. Many species of
birds and mammals rely on wetlands for food, water and shelter,
especially during migration and breeding.
Wetlands' microbes, plants and wildlife are part of global cycles for
water, nitrogen and sulfur. Scientists now know that
atmospheric maintenance may be an additional wetlands
function. Wetlands store carbon within their plant communities
and soil instead of releasing it to the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide. Thus wetlands help to moderate global climate conditions.
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14. How is a coral reef formed? Why is it important to conserve our coral reefs?
 Coral reefs begin to form when free-swimming coral larvae attach to submerged rocks
or other hard surfaces along the edges of islands or continents. As the corals grow and
expand, reefs take on one of three major characteristic structures —fringing, barrier or
atoll. Fringing reefs, which are the most common, project seaward directly from the
shore, forming borders along the shoreline and surrounding islands. Barrier reefs also
border shorelines, but at a greater distance. They are separated from their adjacent
land mass by a lagoon of open, often deep water. If a fringing reef forms around a
volcanic island that subsides completely below sea level while the coral continues to
grow upward, an atoll forms. Atolls are usually circular or oval, with a central lagoon.
Parts of the reef platform may emerge as one or more islands, and gaps in the reef
provide access to the central lagoon (Lalli and Parsons, 1995; Levinton, 1995; Sumich,
1996).

15. Familiarize yourself with Figure 40.10 studying the terms in bold print.

16. What is the difference between an oligotrophic and eutrophic lake?

Oligotrophic lakes are characterized by low nutrient values, which limits the
lake's ability to support animal life. ... Eutrophic lakes are characterized by high
nutrient values, which allows microorganisms and algae to grow in large
numbers, which then allows animals that feed on those algae to also be
supported.

17. Figure 40.12 What factors limit the geographic distribution of various species?
18. Name some biotic factors that impact distribution of species.
19. Define density and dispersion. What are some abioitc factors that limit a species
distribution? How does each one affect living organisms?
20. Looking at Figure 41.14, what 2 factors increase population and what 2 factors decrease
density of population?
21. Name the 3 basic patterns of dispersion. Which one is most common in nature? Give an
example of each one.
22. Name some density dependent and density independent mechanisms and how they affect
population growth. Figure 40.23
23. Study your quiz from Chapter 40.

Chapter 41 Species Interactions Concepts 41.1 through 41.3 only

24. What is an organism’s ecological niche? What is a habitat? What is the difference
between a fundamental and realized niche?
25. Explain the competitive exclusion principle.
26. What is resource partitioning? Give an example.
27. What are some adaptations that help prey avoid being captured? Explain each of those
adaptations, for example coloration defenses. What are some adaptations that help
predators capture prey? Give an example of coevolution.
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28. Species interact in diverse ways. Explain each of the following interactions:
 Predation Herbivory Symbiosis Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism
Competition Facilitation
29. Explain species diversity (richness plus relative abundance) and how is diversity
important to community stability.
30. Describe a typical food chain. What forms the first trophic level? What is a food web?
31. Explain the terms keystone species, dominant species, and ecosystem engineers.
32. Does a keystone species always have to be an animal? Give examples.
33. What is a disturbance? Why does an intermediate level of disturbance promote species
diversity?
34. Explain the term ecological succession.
35. Explain the difference between primary and secondary succession. Give an example of
both.
36. What is the primary agent of disturbance of the environment today?

In biology, a disturbance is a temporary change in environmental conditions

that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act
quickly and with great effect, to alter the physical structure or arrangement of
biotic and abiotic elements. Disturbance can also occur over a long period of time
and can impact the diversity within an ecosystem. Major ecological disturbances
may
include fires, flooding, windstorms, insect outbreaks and trampling. Earthquakes,
various types of volcanic eruptions, tsunami, firestorms, impact events, climate
change, and the devastating effects of human impact on the
environment (anthropogenic disturbances) such as clearcutting, forest
clearing and the introduction of invasive species [1] can be considered major
disturbances. Disturbance forces can have profound immediate effects on
ecosystems and can, accordingly, greatly alter the natural community. Because
of these and the impacts on populations, disturbance determines the future shifts
in dominance, various species successively becoming dominant as their life
history characteristics, and associated life-forms, are exhibited over time. [2]
Acid rain in main disturbanc

37. What are typically the first macroscopic photosynthesizers during primary succession?

lichens and mosses

38. In what 3 ways are early-arriving species (pioneers) and later-arriving species linked?

The early arrivals may facilitate

the appearance of the later species by making the environ-
ment more favorable—tor example, by increasing the fertility
of the soil. Alternatively, the early species may inhibit arab-
lishment of the later species, so that successful "colonization
by later species occurs in spite of, rather than because of, the
activities of the early species. Finally, the early species may be
completely independent of the later species, which tolerate
conditions treated early in SUCCBSSIOH but are neither helped
nor hindered by early species
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39. What is a climax community?

In ecology, climax community, or climatic climax community, is a historic term

for a biological community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the
process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area
over time, had reached a steady state.

Chapter 42 Ecosystems and Energy Concepts 42.1, 42.3 through 42.5

40. Regardless of ecosystem size, two key ecosystem processes cannot be fully described by
the population or community phenomena we have studied so far: energy flow and
chemical cycling. In what form does energy usually enter an ecosystem?

Nutrient Cycles:

1. It involves circulation (cycling) of nutrients between abiotic

and biotic components of the ecosystem.

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 Image Courtesy : exploringnature.org/graphics/ecology/Nutrient_cycling_forest72.jpg

ADVERTISEMENTS:

2. There is no dissipation of nutrients at any level.

3. Reservoir pools of nutrients occur on earth.
4. All nutrients belong to earth.
5. Microorganisms have an important role in maintaining
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nutrient cycles.
 Flow of energy:
1. The flow of energy is unidirectional and noncyclic.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

2. There is dissipation of energy at every level.

3. Energy pools do not occur on earth.
4. Energy supply is from outside.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

5. Microorganisms have little role in flow of energy.

41. The transfer of energy is referred to as energy flow but we refer to chemicals being
cycled throughout the ecosystem. Explain.
42. Ecologist group species into trophic levels based on their main source of nutrients and
energy. Name these levels and give an example of each.
43. Energy transfer between trophic levels in inefficient. What is the average percent
efficiency? What does the term secondary production refer to?

10%

44. Briefly explain production efficiency as opposed to trophic efficiency.

45. What is the pyramid of net production?
46. Explain the biomass pyramid. What is the implication for human consumers?
47. What is a biogeochemical cycle? Describe each of the cycles involved in interactions of
organisms and their environment. What is the reservoir for each chemical? How does
each chemical enter the ecosystem to be passed through the food chain? What activities
return it to the abiotic environment?
48. Why must bacteria “fix” atmospheric nitrogen?
49. What is unique about the phosphorous cycle? (Where does the cycle begin?)
50. Which biogeochemical cycle does not rely on decomposers?
51. Explain the goals of restoration ecologists. What is bioremediation and give an example?
52. Explain biological augmentation and give an example.
53. Review the examples of restoration projects across the world Figure 42.17
54. Study the Mastering homework.

Chapter 43 Global and Conservation Biology

Concept 43.1
55. What is involved in conservation biology?
56. What is biodiversity? Name the 3 main levels of biodiversity.
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57. Why should everyone care about the loss of biodiversity?

58. Name the major threats to biodiversity as identified by your text book.
59. What is the difference between introduced species and invasive species? Why does an
introduced species sometimes become known as an invasive species?
60. What is overharvesting?
61. How is global change a threat to biodiversity?
Concept 43.2-5
62. How do zoned reserves provide economic incentives for long-term conservation of
protected areas? How is landscape important in conservation?
63. What purpose do corridors serve? How are they helpful to maintain species diversity and
how can they be harmful?
64. Biodiversity hot spots are good choices for locations of nature reserves. What is a
biodiversity “hot spot”? Give a couple examples.
65. Give some examples of how earth is changing as result of human actions.
66. What is biological magnification?
67. Explain the greenhouse effect. In what ways is the greenhouse effect both beneficial and
detrimental? What is the main greenhouse gas?
68. What human activities contribute to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere?
69. Name some biological effects of climate change. See Figure 43.28
70. What is the population of the world?
71. How has the growth of Earth’s human population changed in recent decades?
72. What is an ecological footprint? What choices can you make to influence your own
ecological footprint?
73. Explain the term sustainability and sustainable development.
74. How might biophilia inspire us to conserve species and restore ecosystems?

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