SIMPLIFIED

TRENDS IN EDUCATION

AND

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
(EXAM FOCUS)

BY

E. K. O. N.
 PREFACE
This book is primarily written for the students reading Trends in Education and School Management in Ghana with a
view to making them understand the concepts ‘Management, Leadership and Administration” and be abreast of the
Educational Systemin the country. The topics are practically demystified in this book to make each student grasp topics.

Many students complain about the difficulty in comprehending this course. It is in the light this that the writer has thought
it quite expedient to put the various lecture notes and reference materials into digestible and comprehensible units so as to
make every student understand this course.

The writer hopes that this small piece will go a long way, not only to make students pass this course with ease, but also
prepare them for life.

The writer accepts the responsibility for inconsistencies, inaccuracies and errors that may be found in this book.

First Edition, October 27, 2014.

Cell number: 0241240787

Email: manuelnyamekye@gmail.com

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Glory and adoration be ascribed unto God for leading me to come out with this small book. May His name be praised! I
thought you would say ‘AMEN’. AMEN!!!

DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to YOU. I mean YOU (who have a copy of this book).
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: The meaning of administration, leadership, &management

Chapter 2: Functions of the administration (POSDCORB)

Chapter 3: Organization as a process – Theories X, Y and Z

Chapter 4: Leadership theories and styles

Chapter 5: Characteristics of an effective leader

Chapter 6: Administrative tasks/duties of such head

Chapter 7: Motivation

Chapter 8: Effective delegation in educational organizations

Chapter 9: Decision-making in educational organizations

Chapter 10: Communication in educational organizations

Chapter 11: Organizational climate

Chapter 12: School-community relationship

Chapter 13: Solutions to some past questions

 CHAPTER 1:

LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Leadership can be defined as the ability to influence individuals to work toward the attainment of organizational goals or
objectives.

Educational leadership is the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of teachers, pupils, and parents
toward achieving common educational aims.

Administration involves an overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, the identification of general
purposes and laying downof broad programmes and projects.

Educational administration is a systematic arrangement of resources and programmes that are available for education
and carefully using them systematically within defined guidelines or policies to achieve educational goals.

Management is the act of coordinating the efforts of people to accomplish desired goals and objectives, using available
resources efficiently and effectively.

Educational management involves the planning and formulation of educational policies or programmes with a view of
achieving educational goals.

Functions of an Administrator

Luther Gulick andLyndall Urwick ask rhetorically "What is the work of the chief executive?POSDCORB is the answer.
In Gulick and Urwick’s own words, POSDCORB represents planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,
reporting and budgeting.

Planning: This involves working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to
accomplish the purpose set for the organization. It also entails deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it,
and who should do it.

Organizing: This entails the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are
arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined objective. Organizing must take into account delegation of
authority and responsibility and span of control within supervisory units.

Staffing: This is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favourable conditions
of work. Staffing may also de explained as filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves
determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the positions, as well as
evaluating their performance and providing opportunities to ensure their personal and professional growth and
development.

Directing/commanding: This is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general
orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise. It involves leading people in a manner that achieves the
goals of the organization. Directing also involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system
as well as formulating rules and regulations to guide the conduct of both students and staff.

Coordinating: Coordination is the act of organizing, making different people or things work together for a goal or effect
to fulfill desired goals in an organization. It is a managerial function in which different activities of the organization are
properly adjusted and interlinked.

Reporting involves keeping those to whom the administrator is responsible informed as to what is going on, which thus
includes keeping himself/herself and his/her subordinates informed through records, research, and inspection.

Budgeting: This is the financial management function carried out by the administrator. It has to do with planning,
accounting and controlling the finances of the organization.
 CHAPTER 2

LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND STYLES

Leadership Theories: Two broad categories of theories could be identified in educational leadership and management
literature. One of them contends that there is ‘one best way’ of exercising leadership and, therefore, that there is a
particular set of characteristics which ‘good’ leaders should possess. The other argues that there is ‘nobest way’ of
exercising leadership, but there are a range of leadership styles which should be applied differently according to the
situation in which leadership is required.

Four of such theories are the trait theory, the transformational leadership theory, the great event theory, the
situational/contingency theory and the path-goal leadership theory.

Trait theory: The theory argues that some people are born with some qualities (intelligence, integrity, physical
appearance, etc) which make them assume leadership positions naturally. The key idea in this theory is that leaders are
born, but not made. There are a few people who have a natural talent for leading others.

Transformational leadership theory (the behaviour theory): This theory argues that people can choose to become
leaders and that leaders are made not born. According to this theory, it is possible for ordinary people to acquire the
relevant knowledge, skills and competences that could make them assume leadership roles. This is the most widely
accepted theory today.

Great Event Theory: A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion, which brings out
extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. A typical example of a political leader who was born out of crisis
is the former President Jerry John Rawlings. He was an unknown ordinary person, but became a ‘great’ leader in Ghana
during the political crisis in the late 1970s and 1980s.

Situational /Contingency Leadership Theory: (Professor Paul Hersey - Situational Leader, and Ken Blanchard - The
One Minute Manager). The fundamental idea ofthe situational leadership theory is that there is no single "best" style of
leadership. The theory states successful leaders should change their leadership styles based on the maturity of the people
they are leading and the details of the task.

Path-goal Theory of Leadership: This theory assumes that performance, satisfaction and motivation of a group can be
affected by the leader in a number of ways:

1. Offering rewards for the achievement of performance goals;

2. Clarifying paths towards these goals;
3. and Removing performance obstacle

Characteristics of Effective Educational Leaders

According to Jones (2006);

1. Effective leaders are able to picture a range of possibilities several stages ahead of current phase of
organizational development.
2. They have a forward thinking outlook. They invest their rime in developing people and their capability for the
future of the school and manage the current needs of the school.
3. They have a great sense of timing – they are sensitive to the need to change when necessary and have the patience
to wait until the time is right to make a major intervention. Yet has the boldness to strike decisively when the
moment is right.
4. They study the situation in which they find themselves and decide on the styles of leadership that are suitable to or
appropriate for that situation.
5. They employ diverse appropriate techniques to motivate group members to work to achieve organizational goals.
In other words, they perceive the needs of the group and organize the group’s efforts towards satisfying those
needs.
6. They are willing to work with others in alliance and agreements to make a more significant intervention than
either part would be able to make alone.
7. They attempt to make the organizational goals complementary to thegroup’s objectives and direct the group’s
effort towards those objectives.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the manner
and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Thethree major leadershipstyles: the
autocratic, democratic or laissez-fair styles.Others include affiliative, pace-setting, transactional and coaching styles.

Autocratic/authoritarian leadership style: An autocratic leader keeps strict, close control over followers by keeping
close regulation of policies and procedures. He/she centralises power and authority in the management and does not
involve individual workers in decision-making process; dictates in order to attain the determined goal; and sets the
workers to perform the roles they are given. The following scene is a pictorial representation of an autocratic style.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Autocratic leadership Style

1. This style does not initiate rewards in order to motivate workers

2. It impels the workers to work quickly for high production, and ensure decisions are taken more quickly for
implementation.
3. It does not encourage initiative and creativity.
4. Also, the leaders ensure that close supervision is exercised and this is resented by workers.
5. Leaders who are autocratic ignore the needs of workers leading to frustration and low morale, and conflict
between administrators and workers arise constantly.

Democratic /Participative Leadership Style: The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-
making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality.
This style of leadership encompasses discussion, debate and sharing of ideas and encouragement of people to feel good
about their involvement, as the picture below depicts.

A leader who employs the democratic leadership style:

 • Considers the needs, interests, rights, and freedom of workers or subordinates.
• Gives his/her subordinates a substantial amount of freedom and are involved in decision-making.
• Influences his/her subordinates, but does not dominate their thinking; he/she offers suggestions rather than issue
orders.
• Acts as facilitator and provider of information rather than being authoritarian; it praises workers instead of
criticising them.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Democratic Leadership Style

1. It leads high morale and cooperation among workers.

2. It also gives freedom to workers to exercise their responsibilities. It promotes initiative and creativity.
3. It promotes high job motivation which leads to increased productivity.
4. A leader who uses the democratic style may take long to involve workers in decision-making and they may get
lazy and start taking things easy.

The Laissez-faire / Delegative Leadership Style (Lewin, Lippitt, and White in 1938): The laissez-faire style is sometimes
described as a "hands off" leadership style because the leader delegates the tasks to their followers while providing
little or no direction to them. If the leader withdraws too much from their followers it can sometimes result in a lack of
productivity, cohesiveness, and satisfaction.

1. Laissez-faire leaders allow followers to have complete freedom to make decisions concerning the completion of
their work.
2. It allows followers a high degree of autonomy and self-rule, while at the same time offering guidance and support
when requested.
3. The laissez-faire leader using guided freedom provides the followers with all materials necessary to accomplish
their goals, but does not directly participate in decision making unless the followers request their assistance.

The laissez–faire style is an effective style to use when followers are highly skilled, experienced, and educated; have pride
in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own. It is also appropriate when outside experts, such as staff
specialists are used by the organization.

The laissez-faire style implies the attitude that everyone may do what they want. However, in practice, there is no real
leader in an organization which adopts this style. The committees set goals which no one feels bound to adhere to and
since there is no hierarchy of authority, the leader is merely a symbol.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Laissez-faire Style

1. It allows mature people to feel free to do what they want to do, thus promoting initiative and creativity, and they motivate
themselves to enhance productivity.
2. It is inappropriate when followers feel unsecured at the unavailability of a leader, and the leader cannot or will not provide
regular feedback to their followers.
3. Moreover in a context where laissez-faire leadership prevails, there is no clear leadership and control, and chaos and
conflicts often arise due to unguided freedom.
4. Also, the style leads to high rate of unhealthy competition among its members.

Transactional Leadership Style: (first described by Max Weber in 1947 and then later described by Bernard Bass in 1981). It
mainly used by management, transactional leaders focus their leadership on motivating followers through a system of rewards and
punishments. There are two factors which form the basis for this system: contingent reward and management-by-exception.

Contingent Reward: This means the leader provides rewards, materialistic or psychological, for effort and recognizes good
performance.
Management-by-Exception: The leader maintains the status quo. The leader intervenes when subordinates do not meet
acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve performance. This helps reduce the workload of
managers. It also identifies the needs of their followers and gives rewards to satisfy those needs in exchange of certain
level of performance. He/she focuses on increasing the efficiency of established routines and procedures, and is more
concerned with following existing rules than with making changes to the organization.

Affiliative style of Leadership: A leader who employs the affiliative style of leadership focuses on promoting friendly
interactions among workers, and places more emphasis on meeting staff’s emotional needs than on defining goals, tasks
and standards. He/she pays attention to and cares for the whole person and stresses things that keep people happy. The
leader identifies opportunities for positive feedback and avoids performance-related confrontations.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Affiliative Leadership Style

1. It allows the leader to give support to individuals and promotes harmonious working relations among diverse
groups.
2. The affiliative style is inappropriate in crises or complex situations needing clear direction and control, and with
staff members who are task-oriented or less concerned about forming relationships with team leaders.
 CHAPTER3:

MANAGING MOTIVATION IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The Concept of Motivation: It is a process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. Motivation is
what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

Motivation is pivotal for team leaders because it is what makes people want to do things. It is what makes them put real
effort into what they do.

Types of Motivation: Basically, motivation is classified into two – intrinsic or internal motivation and extrinsic or
external motivation.

Intrinsic or External Motivation: This is the need, want, and desire which exists within the individual. It comes as a
result of natural curiosity, degree of interest derived from an experience or excitement and future aspiration.

Extrinsic or External Motivation: This is seen in staff members who work hard for reward/s such as gifts, salaries, etc.
Extrinsic motivation takes two forms – tangible rewards (e.g. Salaries, bonuses, etc.)and intangible rewards (e.g. praise,
compliments, etc.)

Theories of Motivation: Several theories of motivation can be identified in management literature. However, three of
them are useful for this course:Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, Two- Factor Theory and Theories X and Y.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory- Abraham Maslow: Abraham Maslow’s (1943, 1970) need-based theory of motivation is
the most recognized and the most referenced of the theories.According to this theory, a person has five fundamental needs
and these are thephysiological, security/safety, social, esteem and self-actualization needs.

i. Physiological needs: These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the needs for water, air, food,
and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs
become secondary until these physiological needs are met.

ii. Security/Safety Needs: These are relevant for survival, but they are not as demanding at the physiological needs.
Examples of security needs include the desire for steady employment, health insurance and shelter from the environment.

iii. Social Needs: These include needs for belonging, love and affection. Maslow considered these needs to be less basic
than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments and families help fulfil
these needs for companionship and acceptance.

iv. Esteem Needs: After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs become increasingly important. Esteem
needs include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition and accomplishment.

v. Self-actualization Needs: This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-
aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others and interested in fulfilling their
potential.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory:

1. Self- Actualization
2. Esteem Needs
3. Social Needs
 4. Security and Safety Needs
5. Physiological Needs

Two-factor Theory of Motivation (Herzberg, Mausner&Snyderman, 1959) Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman’s
(1959)

Two-factor theory is heavily based on need fulfilment because of their interest in how best to satisfy workers. They carried
out several studies into the relationship between job satisfaction and productivity, leading to the development of the two-
factor theory of motivation. These writers identified a number of factors and classified them into motivators/satisfiers’
and ‘hygiene factors’/dissatisfiers’

Motivators, according to Herzberg et al (1959), are those factors that drive people to work to achieve goals.
Motivatorsinclude achievement, recognition for achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement (promotion)
and the possibility of personal growth.

The researchers noted that motivational factors result in strong satisfaction and good job performance. However, they do
not cause dissatisfaction when they are absent in the work situation.

Motivators (based on Herzberg et al., 1959) cited in (Jones, 2006)

Motivators Why they work

Achievement Reaching or exceeding task objectives is particularly

important because the onwards and upwards urge to
achieve is basic human drive one of the most powerful
motivators and a great source of satisfaction.

Recognition The acknowledgement of achievements by others is

motivational because it helps to enhance self- esteem.
Staff may see recognition as a reward in itself.

Job Interests A job that provides satisfaction for individuals and

groups will be a greater motivational force than a job
that does not sustain interest. Match responsibilities to
individuals’ interest.

Responsibility The power to exercise authority and power may demand

leadership skills, risk-taking, decision- making, and self-
direction, all of which raise self- esteem and are strong
motivators

Advancement Promotion, progress and rising rewards for

achievement are important here. Possibly the main
motivator, however, is the feeling that advancement is
possible.

By hygiene factors, Herzberg et al. (1959) refer to basic needs at work which, in themselves, do not motivate, but their
absence causes significant dissatisfaction. The hygiene factors are related to the context/environment of the job and
include parking space, holiday entitlement, office space, fringe benefits. According to the researchers, when these factors
are present in the work context, the employee will not necessarily be either satisfied or motivated. If these factors are
absent, the employee will dissatisfied.
Hygiene Factors (Based on Herzberg et al., 1959) cited in (Jones, Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors Descriptions

Salary and benefits Income, bonuses, holidays, etc
Working conditions Working hours, workplace layout, facilities,
equipment, etc.
Organizational policies Rules and regulations, formalities and
informalities, etc
Status Rank, authority, relationship to others, etc
Job security Degree of confidence employee has
regarding continued employment.
Supervision & control Extent of control that an individual has over
the content and execution of the job.
Relationships at work Level and type of interpersonal relations
within the work environment
Personal life Time spent on family, friends and interests.

Some criticisms that have been levelled against the two-factor theory

1. The sample studied was made up of professionals of white-collar jobs (accountants, engineers and scientists) and
therefore was unrepresentative of the working population.
2. The research was conducted in the Western advanced countries. It has to be conducted in other non-western
contexts in order to strengthen its findings.

Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas McGregor (1960) studied people’s attitudes towards work and revealed two sets of
contrasting beliefs about people and work. They are known as Theories X and Y.

Assumptions of Theory X Assumptions of Theory Y

The average human being has an People are, by nature physically

inherent dislike for work and and mentally energetic.
would avoid it if possible.

Because of this human People do not need to be

characteristic of dislike for work, externally controlled or directed.
most employees must be coerced, They will exercise self-direction in
controlled, directed and pursuit of objectives of objectives
threatened with punishment to get to which they are committed.
them to put forth adequate effort
towards achieving organizational
objectives.

Most people are not ambitious, People will seek and accept
have little desire for responsibility under the right
responsibility, and prefer to be conditions.
directed or led.

The average man is, by nature, People have the capacity to

indolent – he/she works as little as exercise a high degree of
creativity, imagination and
possible. ingenuity.

Most people have little capacity Most people are inherently self-
for creativity in solving centered, indifferent to
organizational problems. organizational goals.

Motivation occurs only at the Man, naturally, resist change.

physiological and safety levels.

How Theory X Principles are exhibited in Educational Organizations

1. Theory X management philosophies are operationalised by professionals in education in the following ways:
2. Leaders who are theory x oriented do not involve their subordinates in decision- making in the organization
because they are considered immature, irresponsible and as lacking creativity.
3. Leaders who apply Theory X principles also employ autocratic/ authoritarian styles in managing their staff.
4. Leaders who believe in these principles monitor and supervise their staff closely and carefully.
5. Leaders/managers often issue instructions which must be adhered to by their staff.
 6. Staff members/employees are often threatened with dismissal and punishment for non-performance.
7. Leaders who are Theory X oriented are more interested in performance than fulfilling the welfare needs of their
staff and therefore tend to exploit them.

How theory Y management philosophies work in schools

1. Administrators who are Theory Y oriented seek information from their workers and listen to them. They are
concerned with their workers and willing to listen to their problems.
2. In the classroom, the teacher who is Y oriented will be student-oriented and givethem freedom to express their
ideas, and the students also receive support from teachers during class-work
3. The theory leads to decentralization of activities/power and delegation of authority. That is, responsibilities are
shared among workers
4. The workers are given authority to a certain extent. e.g. They are given a large measure of self-esteem, self-
direction, freedom to act (participate), responsibility and recognition for achievement. By this the worker
becomes highly-motivated.
5. Workers are regarded as responsible and matured and therefore treated with due respect.
6. Finally, a theory Y managerial behaviour would reflect a more democratic leadership style.

Theory Z: This is the Japanese approach to management, propounded by William G. Ouchi (1981). Ouchi advances that
the theory, as a management style, does not only yield greater productivity and profitability, but also higher degrees of
worker satisfaction, company loyalty and performance. Theory Z managers assume that average worker wants to be
involved in managing an organization and building trust among organizational members is central to raising
productivity.

Some Key Principles in Theory Z

1. Employees are free to make their special contributions and to advance their ideas for the solution of problems.
2. Managers trust their employees and share information with them. Basic to the Theory Z is the belief that a person
treated with trust will perform more efficiently not only on the job, but in all areas of life.
3. Promotion within the theory z oriented companies is slow, but opportunities for new experiences and for taking
responsibility are deliberately provided.
4. Participative decision-making is cherished in theory Z oriented organizations. In such organizations, decisions
taken are based on deliberations and consensus.
5. Theory Z managers offer their employees lifetime employments.
6. The theory emphasises long-term development of the company’s employees as well as its products. Resources are
committed to develop activities that may not show results for many years. This emphasis is especially strong for
managers. Experience managers are expected to mentor the young ones for future development of the
organization.

Presence and Absence of Motivation among Staff Members

It is important for leaders to know whether their staff members are motivated or not if the objectives set will be achieved.
This knowledge enables them (the leaders) take right actions in the organization. The table below indicates the signs of
presence and absence of motivation among staff members of organizations.

Signs that motivation is present

1. High performance
2. High results being consistently achieved
3. Unstinting cooperation to overcome problems.
4. Willingness to accept responsibility
5. Willingness to accommodate necessary change
Signs that motivation is absent

1. Apathy and indifference towards the job.

2. Poor record of time-keeping and high absenteeism.
3. Exaggeration of the effects/ differences encountered in problems, disputes and grievances.
4. Lack of cooperation in dealing with problems and difficulties
5. Unjustified resistance to change
 CHAPTER 4:

EFFECTIVE DELEGATION IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Delegation is a process by which managers, such as head teachers transfer part of their authority to their subordinates for
the performance of certain tasks and responsibilities.

Delegation involves entrusting another person with a task for which the delegator remains ultimately responsible. In other
words, the leader remains responsible if something goes wrong with the tasks delegated since he/she is the manager.

Importance of Delegation

1. It enables a leader to concentrate on high-level tasks such as planning, monitoring, coordinating, and
controlling;
2. It is way of training and developing staff to handle higher and more challenging responsibilities;
3. It builds the confidence of staff or subordinates;
4. It encourages cooperation and teamwork;
5. It helps leaders to manage their workload;
6. It reduces stress;
7. It facilitates efficiency and quick actions; and
8. It improves employee morale.

Importance of Delegation

1. It enables a leader to concentrate on high-level tasks such as planning, monitoring, coordinating, and
controlling;
2. It is way of training and developing staff to handle higher and more challenging responsibilities;
3. It builds the confidence of staff or subordinates;
4. It encourages cooperation and teamwork;
5. It helps leaders to manage their workload;
6. It reduces stress;
7. It facilitates efficiency and quick actions; and
8. It improves employee morale.

Different Kinds or Levels of Delegation

These are the ‘gofer delegation’ and ‘stewardship delegation’.

1. The former means ‘go for this, go for that, do this, do that, and tell me when it is done’.
2. The latter is focused on outcomes instead of methods. It offers the team members a choice of how to do things and
responsibility for whatever happens.

Why some leaders may feel uncomfortable to delegate responsibilities

1. Responsibility: They believe that if they are responsible for the job, it normally means they are the ones who
actually carry it out.
2. Authority: This relates to the decision-making part of the job. Leaders make decisions about the way the job is
done.
 3. Accountability: This relates to the ownership part of the job. Leaders are accountable, even if, they didn’t
actually perform the task themselves.

Principles of Effective Delegation

1. Set standards and outcomes

2. Ensure clarity of authority and responsibility
3. Involve staff members
4. Ensure the completion of tasks
5. The principles of willingness and proficiency
6. Apply adequate control measures
7. Principles of applicable authority
8. Principle of unity of command

Barriers Caused by Management

1. The belief that something may go wrong

2. Desire to gain recognition from stakeholders
3. Conservative and cautious temperament of the manager
4. Desire to dominate subordinates
5. They believe that task will be completed quicker by doing it themselves
6. They attempt to avoid overworking team members
7. Some of them may operate within their comfort zones – they believe they always carry out some tasks themselves:

Barriers Caused by Staff Members/Subordinates

1. Too much dependence on the manager for decisions:

2. Fear of criticism:
3. Lack of information:
4. Absence of positive incentives
5. Difficulty in decision making
6. Poor superior-subordinate relations:
7. Fear of being exposed:
The Stages of Delegation: Heller (1997) presented the following as stages of delegation:

1. Analysis [Sorting tasks to be delegated]: Select tasks and define parameters.

2. Appointment [Naming the delegate]: Appropriate person should be assigned the tasks.
3. Briefing [Defining the task]: You cannot hold people responsiblefor vague or undefined tasks.
4. Control [Monitor and encourage]: Monitoring should be used for control and coaching rather than interference.
5. Appraisal [Reviewing and revising]: How well has the delegate performed? What changes, on both sides, need to
be made to improve performance?

CHAPTER5:

CONFLICT AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests between people
working together. It is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values
or needs.

Forms of Conflicts in Educational Organizations

1. Goal conflict: When one person or one group of people seeks a different outcome from others.
2. Cognitive conflict: When a person a group holds ideas that conflict with those held by other.
3. Affective conflict: When one person’s or group’s emotions, feelings or attitudes are incompatible with others.
4. Behavioural conflict: Where one person or group behaves in a way that others find unacceptable.
Causes of Conflicts in Educational Organizations

1. Resources: Competing for limited resources in an organization can lead to conflicts between or among staff
members.
2. Information: New information which challenges old ideas, contradictory information, misinformation
andincomplete information
3. Specific Problems or issues: These can be both simple and complex in nature: At their simplest, they are
misunderstandings that can be corrected very easily. At their more complex, they could stem from deeply held
views which a team member may be unprepared to concede ground.
4. Personal antagonism: Personality clashes and antagonism towards an individual. e.g. This can precede an
appointment the individual.
5. Defensiveness: Conflict often causes people to be defensive; they try to protect whatever is important to them.
6. Poor Communication: When team member’s understanding of issues is unclear they often feel insecure, and that
can lead to conflict. Free movement of information helps to create a more open culture.
7. A closed culture – People can often feel threatened which, in turn, can lead to an increased risk of conflict.
8. Stress: Stress and conflict go hand in hand. The pressure at work that provoke stress and conflict include the
workplace ( the working environment and physical conditions); the nature of the job- workload, involvement in
decision- making; roles and responsibilities; boundaries; and relationships – both working and personal’
9. Polarization– Team members will seek support from others in the team to help them press their case or oppose
change, leading to conflict.

Negative Effects of Conflicts

1. Conflicts involve stress and anxiety and often produce negative interpersonal attitudes and perceptions;
2. It may also cause physical injury and the social climate within the organization to deteriorate;
3. It often develops into hostility which causes people to withdraw physically and psychologically.
4. Lead to outright hostile or aggressive behaviour such as property damage.

Positive Effects of Conflicts

1. Builds self-confidence:
2. Helps to develop assertive principles:
3. Improve status and respect:
4. Encourages recognition:
5. Helps to clear the air

Resolving Conflicts in Educational Organizations

1. Avoidance (low concern for self and others)

2. Compromise (intermediate in concern for self and others): Collaboration (win-win)
3. Confrontation:
4. Forcing/Dominating (high concern for self and low concern for others)
5. Accommodation
 CHAPTER 6:

DECISION-MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

What is decision-making? - A decision is a choice between two or more alternatives and arises in an infinite number of
situations, from the resolution of a problem to the implementation of a course of action.

Kinds of Decisions

1. Routine –Most decisions fall into this category because they are decisions that often recur and the proven course
of action has been determined over time.
2. Emergency– these are decisions that tend to be without precedent. You are given no time to rehearse – you make
the decision on the spot as events unfold.
3. Strategic – By far the most important, these decisions involve strategic choices and are complex since they
involve decisions relatingto aims and objectives which then need to be converted into realistic plans.
4. Operational – operational decisions require quite sensitive handling since they tend to be day-to-day ones, e.g.
Managing people, time and space.

Simon (1960) identified two types of decisions: Programmed and Unprogrammed decisions.

1. Programmed Decisionsare made in routine, repetitive, well-structured situations with predetermined decision
rules or procedure for handling them.

2. Unprogrammed Decisionsare unique decisions that require a 'custom made' solution. They are out of the
ordinary and cannot be easily delegated. There is no 'cut and dried solution'
Decision-making Process: can be regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a course of action among
several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The following steps may be
considered in an attempt to make a decision.

Stage What does it involve?

Stage 1 – Define the purpose of
the action
Stage 2 – Collect the information.
Stage 3 – List the options
available
Having recognised the need for a
decision, specify the aim or
objective, i.e what exactly has to
be decided?
Collect and organize data, check
facts and opinions, identify
possible causes, and establish time
constraints and other criteria, i.e.
What information do I need to
help me?
List possible courses of action and
generate ideas, i.e. What are the
alternatives that I have to choose
from?

Stage 4 – Choose between the List the pros and cons, examine
options the consequences, measure
against criteria, trial and test
against the original objective, and
select the best, i.e. What
alternative is the best?
Stage 5 – Convert the choice into Take action to carry out the
action decision, monitor the decision and
review its impact. i.e. What action
needs to be taken?
Characteristics of good decisions: They

1. Offer realistic expectations;

2. Allow for flexibility and modification;
3. Are consistent with your goals and values; an
4. Relate directly to the problem.

Characteristics of bad decisions

Bad decisions are often made when you:

1. Don’t analyse all the relevant information;

2. Feel rushed into making a decision;
3. Make a decision for somebody else;
4. Don’t have control over the process; and
5. Are not clear about why you need to make that decision.
 CHAPTER 7:

ORGANIZATIONAL OR SCHOOL CLIMATE

A school climate is ‘a set of internal characteristics that distinguish one school from another and influence the behaviour
of people in it’. Hoy and Miskel (1987)

A school climate is the melieu, atmosphere, feel, tone or the internal quality of an organization, especially as experienced
by its members and noticed by visitors to the organization. Taguiri and Litwin (1968)

Organizational Culture vs Organizational Climate: School climate refers mostly to the school's effects on students, while
school culture refers more to the way teachers and other staff members work together in the organization.

Positive school climate vs Negative School Climate: A positive school climate exists when all students feel comfortable,
wanted, valued, accepted, and secured in an environment where they can interact with caring people they trust.
Conversely, negative feelings such as concern, fear, frustration, and loneliness would negatively affect learning and
behaviour.

Determinants of School Climate

1. The school size and structure;

2. Leadership style employed be the manager
3. Decision-making practices –the degree to which students, teachers, and staff contribute to decision-making at the
school;
4. Concern for employees;
5. Equitable and fair treatment of students by teachers and staff;
6. Quality of interpersonal relationships between and among students, teachers, and staff;
7. Communication strategies;
8. Safety and comfort;
9. Resource availability; and
10. Monitoring student progress and promptly reporting results to students and parents.

Kinds of School Climate

Open Climate: This depicts a situation which has relatively more openness. The leader and teachers are genuine in their
behaviour and nothing is hidden from the staff.

Autonomous Climate: The headmaster gives almost complete freedom to teachers to provide their own structure-
for-interaction so that they can find ways within the group of satisfying their social needs.

Controlled Climate: Is marked by emphasis on achievement at the expense of satisfaction of social needs. There are
a few genuine, warm relations among teachers but social.

Familiar Climate: The main feature of this climate is the obviously friendly manner of both the leader and the teachers.
Social needs satisfaction is extremely high while little is done for the group activities to be directed towards goal
achievement. As the leader does not want to disrupt the 'big, happy family' he/she is afraid to make changes.

Paternal Climate: This exists in schools where the head is, on the average, older than the staff members. He/she is
everywhere at once - checking, monitoring and telling people how things should be done but still nothing seems to get
done. Students tend to look to the leader for virtually everything and discipline suffers.

Closed Climate: This depicts a situation in which the group members get little satisfaction with respect to either task-
achievement or social needs. The leader is ineffective in directing the activities of teachers; at the same time he/she is not
inclined to look out for their personal welfare.

Importance of School or Organizational Climate

1. There could be higher grades, engagement, attendance are often experienced in the school; expectations and
aspirations, a sense of scholastic competence, and fewer school suspensions.
2. A fewer behavioural and emotional problems could be experienced in the school;
3. Students will have higher self-esteem and self-concept;
4. There could be less anxiety, depression and loneliness among the students;
5. There could be less substance abuse among students; and
6. Staff’s job satisfaction increases.
How to Improve a School Climate

1. A climate of a school can be improved if parental and community involvement in the management and affairs of
the institution is increased.
2. The use of violence-prevention and conflict-resolution-curricula ;
3. Prevention of acts of bullying.
4. Implementation of character education or the promotion of fundamental moral values in children is another
strategy that can be employed to improve a climate of a school
5. Teachers and headteachers treating students fairly, equally and with respect ;
6. Provision of a safe environment for staff and students
7. Personalization through honouring most-improved students, and block scheduling
 CHAPTER 8:

SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP

A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction of teachers.

A community can refer to a usually small, social unit of any size that shares common values. A community can be a
group of people living in a specific geographical location and unified by a common interest.

Relationship refers to what the school and the various agencies in the community have to do with each other, or the way
in which the school and the community stands to each other

Types of School Community Relations

1. The school as a closed system: The school and the community exist as separate entities. Each of them performs
different functions and hardly interferes in each other’s affairs.

2. The interpretation system: The school head and other staff members communicate with the community on the
school’s activities, programmes, and need aspirations.

3. The cooperative system: The school and the community work collaboratively. They share information, discuss
the school’s activities, and the school fulfils the needs of the community.
4. Also, the school participates in the activities of the community, and the community, on the other hand, supports
the school in diverse ways.

Why is it important for the school and the community to relate continually?

Students’ achievement: When parents relate closely to the school, students and, for that matter, the organizational
performance can be enhanced.

Political support: Schools that work hand-in-hand with their communities gain political support from such communities.
This is because the communities understand and sympathise the schools policies, objectives, programmes, activities – the
communities ensure that these are fulfilled.

Avoidance of conflicts: Effective collaboration between the school and the community enables good decisions to be
taken. Absence of dialogue, closed relationship and misinterpretation of issues lead to conflict.

Positive child development: Although the school has a fundamental responsibility of developing or educating the child,
parents have important roles to play in supplementing at home what the school will be providing the child. Collaboration
between the school and the community enables the child’s needs to be met fully.

Dissemination of information: The community must be kept informed of the changes that are taking place in the school.
Structure of education, contents of courses taught at various school/institutional levels, etc.

Fulfilment or perpetuation of societal culture: A society establishes a school so that it could fulfil the society’s goals,
values, norms, beliefs and aspirations. A school that ignores its community is likely to go astray, and operate in vacuum.
Barriers to School-community Relation

1. Lack of recognition of the community:

2. Teacher professionalism:
3. Community interference:
4. Incompatibility of the school and the home:
5. Lack of time:
6. Uncertainty about information:
7. Lack of focus:

Means of Reaching the Community

1. Giving information and letters to students and pupils for them to give to their parents;
2. Provision of school magazines;
3. Schools and colleges reports;
4. Inviting the community members to attend special events organised by the school; and
5. Through parents’ groups such as the PTA., the SMC, etc.

SOLVED PAST QUESTIONS (2013/2014)

1. Which of the following cannot be considered as a determinant of a school climate? (students’ safety and comfort,
resources available, concern for employers, none of the above)
2. (Family, controlled, paternal, autonomous) climate is characterized by obvious friendship of both the leader and
his/her staff.
3. A process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid support of others in the accomplishment of a
common task is referred to as (administration, educational leadership, leadership, management)
4. When A plans, accounts for and controls the finances of an organization, he/she is (forecasting, projecting,
budgeting, accounting)
5. Low morale and cooperation among workers is a weakness of the (laissez-faire leadership style, democratic
leadership style, autocratic leadership style, an effective leadership style)
6. Which of the following is not an assumption of the theory X?
a. Naturally, human beings dislike work
b. inherently, human beings resist change
c. naturally and average human being is indolent
d. human beings seek and accept responsibility
7. Which of the following are characteristics of good decisions, except (they offer realistic expectations, they relate
directly to the problem, allow for flexibility and modifications, they are popular among workers)
8. Delegating a task to subordinate helps to activate all the following except (improve employee morale, reduce
stress, bringing cooperation and teamwork, fostering accountability)
9. When one person or one group of people seeks a different outcome from others, there is (goal conflict, affective
conflict, cognitive conflict, intra-conflict)
10. Self-awareness and concern with personal growth and development are (social needs, self-actualisation, esteem
needs, safety needs)
11. One of these is not an aspect of staffing. (advertising, interviewing, placement, budgeting)
12. Which of the following theories takes into consideration job extensions and performance appraisal? (Theory X,
Theory Y, Theory Z, Theory X and Y)
13. A self-actualised person’s include all of the following except (wisdom, justice, truth, money)
14. An outsider’s understanding of the role of the head-teacher is described as (role prescription, role description, role
expectation, role perception)
15. One of the following is not ascribed to be the ‘Father of Scientific Management’? (Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick,
Frederick Taylor, Bernard)
16. One of the following is not a way of involving students in the running of school? (The Committee System,
Suggestion box, The prefectoral system, Parent-Teacher Association)
17. Which of the following personalities defined the work of chief executive as performing seven functions with the
acronym POSDCORD? (Elton Mayo, Mary Parker, Luther Gulick, Douglas McGregor)
18. Decentralization in education delivery in Ghana beneficial because (it promotes good school-community
relationship, it makes teachers less effective because of local community leadership in school affairs, it stifles the
creativity and imitativeness of the teachers, non-performing teachers are sanctioned by local community
leadership)
19. A school can reach its community through all the following except (organization of special event, school
magazines, parent-teacher association meetings, all of the above)
20. To delegate means.. (to give all responsibility out to subordinates, to empower all subordinates to perform a task,
to sometimes give part of responsibilities to subordinates, to give positions to subordinates)

2012/2013

1. It is important to have leadership in every organization because (every organization has to have leaders,
organizations which have leaders, paths of organisations are paved by leaders, only leaders can make
organization)
2. Even when a connected action of an organization is in place, there is still the need for leadership because (the
people can get distributed, there is the need for coordination of individual efforts, leaders ensure discipline,
organizations need respect through their leaders)
3. Even though educational leadership may give status, it is fundamentally and etymologically about (support,
vision, mission, service)
4. Effective leadership ought to bridge the gap between what is and (what was, what ought to be, what is not, what
can be)
5. A major characteristic of educational administrators in Ghana is that they (are voted into power, are graduates of
universities, support the government in power, have not had formal training in leadership)
6. Educational leadership in Ghana often faces cases of trial and error because (government interference is too much,
there is lack of financial support, most school heads have not been trained in the field, leaders are born, not
made)
7. Schools are important for nation building because (when money is invested there better results are derived, those
trained contribute to nation building, schools heads are nationalistic, politicians expect schools to be patriotic)
8. The main functions of leaders in any organization are (five, six, seven, ten)
9. The functions of the organizational leader as we know them were created by (Taylor, Urwick, Fayol, Gulick)
10. The main concern for the functional known as “staffing” concerns which dimension of the organization? (leaders,
facilities, finance, workers)
11. The best leadership style is (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, none of the above)
12. Which of the functions of the educational administrator is the starting point? (staffing, recruiting, reporting,
planning)
13. One of these is not an aspect of staffing: (advertising, interviewing, budgeting, training)
14. A school head who does not involve his/her staff in decision-making and shows no concern about their welfare is
(autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, paternalistic)
15. Which of the functions of the organizational head requires effective communication the most? (planning,
budgeting, reporting, staffing)
16. (Poor communication, Semantic problem, Differing perception, Misinterpretation) happens when we use words
or phrases that are above the understanding of those at the receiving end.
17. When a head-teacher sets procedures and regulations which provide guidelines teachers can follow, he/she is
likely to create (a controlled, an open, an autonomous, a familiar) climate in the school.
18. (Familiar, Autonomous, Paternal, Closed) climate depicts a situation in which the group members get little
satisfaction with respect to their task achievement or social needs.
19. Which of the following personalities is credited for ‘Division of Work’ as a principle of administrative
management? (Mary Folet, Elton Mayo, Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick)
20. Which of the following is not an effect of a healthy school climate? (less substance abuse among students, less
anxiety among staff, low self-esteem among staff and students, less security)
21. All the following are hygiene factors of motivation except (working conditions, job security, matching tasks
with employee’s interest, salary and benefit)
22. Judicious use of means to accomplish an end in educational organizations is known as (management, leadership,
educational management, educational administration)
23. A head-teacher who is influenced by ‘Theory X’ management philosophy exhibits all the following behaviours
except (involving staff in decision-making, close supervision, autocratic style of leadership, disrespecting staff)
24. Body posture and facial expressions are examples of (written communication, non-verbal communication,
verbal communication, vertical communication)
25. All the following are purposes of downward communication except (for discussing of particular job-related
problems, for specific task directives or job instruction, for information about the rationale of a job, for
information about organizational policies, procedures and practices)
26. (Diagonal, Horizontal, Informal, Upward) communication takes place among workers of the same level in an
organization.
27. Which of the following is not a barrier to effective communication in educational institutions? (differing
perceptions, lack of basic communication skills, semantic, none of the above)
28. A school climate could be improved through all the following strategies except (increased parent and community
involvement, prevention of acts of bullying, provision of a safe environment for staff and students, employing
autocratic leadership style)
29. To delegate means (to give all responsibilities out to subordinates, to sometimes give part of responsibilities to
subordinates, to empower all subordinates to perform)
30. Which of the following personalities is associated with Theory Z? (Elton Mayo, Lyndall Urwick, Frederick
Taylor, William G. Ouchi)
31. One of the following assumptions is related to the ‘Theory X’ management philosophy. (people by nature desire
to achieve, people by nature lack integrity, people by nature accept responsibility, people by nature want their
organizations to succeed)
32. All the following statements are true about ‘Theory Z’ except (non-specialised career path, rapid evaluation and
promotion, job security, collective responsibility)
33. One of the following is not true about Y. (people work towards progress and welcome change, people are
generally bright and would want to work, coercion is necessary only in some cases, the average person seeks
responsibility if conditions are favourable)
34. One of the following is an implication of Theory X for leadership practice in schools. (considering all workers as
responsible and mature, practice of decentralization in administration, rigid pattern of control of staff and
students, concern for employee welfare)
35. Leadership is ………………………………
a. the ability to formulate, plan, create efficient organizational structure and oversee day-to-day operations
b. the ability to influence a group toward achievement of specific goals
c. a trait shared by all managers
 d. an inherited trait
36. If trait theories of leadership are correct, then leaders are (trained, born, self-confident, visionaries)
37. The (path-goal theory, Fiedler’s contingent model, leader-member exchange theory, managerial grid) proposes
that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to which
the situation gives control to the leader,
38. The type of leader who inspires followers to transcend their own self-interests for the greater good of the
organization is referred to as (transitional, charismatic, integrity-based, transf0rmatonal) leader.
39. Which of the following is notgenerally true about charismatic leadership? (attention to detail, behaviour that is
out of the ordinary, ability to articulate vision, self-confidence)
40. Legitimate power is based on the subordinate’s perception that the leader has the right to exercise influence
because of the leader’s (expertise of knowledge, personal characteristics and personality, role or position within
the organization, ability to punish or reward)

2011/2012
1. Which of the following is technically charged with the daily detailed responsibilities of an organization?
(leader, administrator, manager, superior)
2. “The great man theory” is also called (behavioural theory, theory Z, trait theory, theory X)
3. What type of theory underlies the leadership style which believes that decisions should be collective; there
should be delegation of power, and respect for all. (ideography, democratic, autocratic, laissez-faire)
4. Which of type of power operates on the anxieties and fears of individuals in an organization? (coercive
power, legal power, reward power, expert power, expert power)
5. The acronym POSDCORB was coined out of the work of one of the following (Henri Fayol, Max Web,
Luther Gulick, Abraham Maslow)
6. Which theory is often referred to as “man –the-machine”? (classical organization approach, human relations
approach, behavioural approach, theory of organizational approach)
7. The term TQM in education administration stands for (teacher quota meetings, teacher quality management,
total quality management, total quality maintenance)
8. A self-actualised person’s needs include all of the following except (knowledge, truth, justice, money)
9. One of the following is not true of the theory Y. (the average person seeks responsibility if conditions are
favourable, people work towards progress and welcome change, people are generally bright and would want
to work, coercion is necessary only in some cases)
10. The inner strength that enables a person to carry out his/her wishes or beliefs in spite of the possible
disapproval of others is called (authority, force, power, leadership)
11. Which leadership style emphasizes institutional needs and insists that subordinates conform to roles expected
of them even at the expense of individual convenience? (democratic, ideography, nomothetic, autocratic)
12. As an administrative head of a school, one of the following is not your duty. (pupil personnel, staff personnel,
school-community relationships, culture and family needs)
13. A set of internal characteristics that makes one school different from another and influences the behaviour of
people in it is known as (organizational culture, school climate, the milieu, school culture)
14. All the following statements are true about delegation except (it allows the leader to concentrate on the high-
level tasks, it encourages cooperation and teamwork, it is a way of training and developing staff for higher
responsibilities, it does not allow the leader to retain accountability)
15. In communication, (encoding, decoding, noise, a dynamic system) refers to anything that disrupts or distorts
filters or interferes with the intended message.
16. Which of the following statements is untrue about an effective leader? (uses appropriate techniques to
motivate staff in order to get the best out of them, ensures free-flow of information within the organization,
 his/her leadership style is a function of the situation in which he/she finds him/herself, pays more attention
to staff than organizational goals)
17. When one person or group’s emotions, feelings or attitudes are incompatible with others, what type of conflict
is being experienced? (behaviour conflict, goal conflict, cognitive conflict, affective conflict)
18. When a leader centralises power and authority in management and does not involve individual workers in
decision-making process, he/she is said to be employing (democratic style, autocratic, affiliative, laissez-
faire) style.
19. Which of the following personalities is associated with Theory Z? (Elton Mayo, Frederick Taylor, Lyndall
Urwick, William G. Ouchi)
20. All the following statements are true about Theory Z except (job security, rapid evaluation and promotion,
non-specialized career path, collective responsibility)

SECTION B QUESTIONS

Discuss With Your Functional Study Group Members

(2013/2014-Last year)

1. “A climate that prevails in educational institutions in Ghana can be attributed solely to the leadership of the
school head”. How far do you agree with this statement? Discuss this statement using any five relevant points.
2. Critically five barriers to effective delegation in basic institutions in Ghana.
3. How different is management from management? Outline the management functions of an administrator.
4. How important is communication to the day-to-day running of school as an organization?

(2012/2013 – Two years ago)

1. Involving student leaders in the management of educational institutions has often been resisted by some heads.
From your readings and class discussions, what would be your stand on the role of student leadership in the
development and life of an African University?
2. State and discuss any five importance of communication in educational organizations.
3. In your capacity as the head of an educational institution, outline and discuss five ways of promoting a healthy
relationship between the school and the community.

(2011/2012 –Three years ago)

1. With relevant examples from an educational context, discuss five administrative duties of a head teacher.
2. Discuss five barriers to school-community relations in Ghana. Support your discussions with relevant examples.
3. As a leader, how would you effectively boost the morale of your subordinates to ensure job satisfaction and high
productivity?

(2010/2011 – Four years ago)

1. A good number of scholars of Educational Administration and Management have suggested that for administrator
to be effective, they need to communicate effectively. As a basic school head teacher, state and explain five ways
you can effectively communicate with your staff.
2. As a Municipal Director of Education in charge of Human Resource, explain the relevance of Abraham Maslow’s
Pyramid to your school heads in their tasks as educational administrators
3. In what ways can decentralization enhance effective administration of Ghanaian schools?
4. What is staffing? Discuss five effective ways you will use to achieve effectiveness and efficiency in staffing?