CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES

3.1 CATERGORIES

Commercial explosives comprise two groups: low and high explosives. Black powder (also known as
gunpowder), which is the only commercially available low explosive, is essentially a mixture of
pulverized potassium nitrate (or sodium nitrate), charcoal and sulfur. A mixture of these ingredients
is also the basis for manufacturing some explosive accessories such as safety fuse and plastic ignite
cord.

Black power explosion is initiated by a flame and the combustion takes by deflagration or burning.
When such a burning composition is confined in a borehole so that as pressure can rise the reaction
becomes self-accelerating as regards pressure and an explosion results. The action of black powder
can be described as push rather than blown, owing to the release of gas energy rather than strain
energy derived from detonation. Black power is used where a gentle heaving action is required to
break rock for dimensional stone, such as marble and slates in slab form for building construction.
It’s particular advantage over high explosives is that it produces few of the hairline cracks that are
almost unavoidable when detonating explosives.

All other explosives are high explosives. They cannot be initiated by flame under normal
circumstance and required shock or impact detonation. The term detonation means that the
chemical reaction is developed by a shock wave moving through the explosive charge faster than
the speed of sound.

Explosives an explosive reaction are characterized by seven distinctive main properties, most of
which are normally specified by the manufacturer or supplier. These are now described.

3.2 CHEMICAL STABILITY OR SHELF LIFE

This is the ability of an explosive to remain chemically unchanged when stored. The shelf life of
explosives varies from a few hours to a few years depending on the composition, and is stated in
the manufacturer’s specifications. Chemical

Decomposition can occur during prolonged storage of explosives. Particularly in humid or hot
conditions. If decomposition occurs, the explosive eventually becomes either insensitive to
detonation, or more sensitive an unsafe to use (see section 20.3)

3.3 DENSITY

The density of most commercial explosives is the range 0.8 g cm-3 to 1.6 g cm-3. Generally, for
nitroglycerine explosives, high density indicates high energy concentration. However, for water-
based explosives such as emulsions or slurries, density and energy are not so related. The critical
diameter of ammonium nitrate-based explosives, for example ammonium nitrate fuel oil mixtures
(ANFO), generally increases with increasing density until a critical density is reached beyond which
detonation may not be archived.

Most explosive charges have an optimum density for maximum efficiency and their sensitivity can
be significantly affected if the density is too high or too low. The optimum density ranges for the
four common types of explosive are:
3.4 VELOCITY OF DETONATION

Velocity of detonation is the rate at which the detonation ware passes through the explosive charge,
and with the most explosives it falls in the range 2500 to 5500m s-1.

The velocity of detonation of an explosive can be determined indirectly by the Dautriche test
(figure3.1). the basis of this test is that a length of detonating cord detonates at a uniform aped
(approx. 7 km s-1), and if two ends of a length of detonating cord are detonated simultaneously the
detonation waves will meet at the middle of the length of the cord. Similarly, if the two ends are
detonated at different times, the distance from the middle of the cord of the point where the two
detonation waves a meet is directly proportional to the interval of the time between the
detonations of the two ends of the detonating cord. Furthermore, if the distance can be measured,
the interval between the detonations can be calculated, since the detonation velocity of the
detonating cord whose two ends and inserted into and explosive cartridge at points A and B, and P
is the meeting point of the two detonations, detonations, the VOD of the explosives cartridge is

The VOD is important in determining explosive performance and generally higher velocity explosives
are required for satisfactory fragmentation of stronger rocks. As a general rule. Explosives with a
lower VOD tent to release gas energy over a longer period. Compared to an explosive with higher
VOD. Hence an explosive such as ANFO with a low VOD has more heaving action than a high degree
of fracturing, which may be advantageous in some applications.

3.5 STRENGTH AND ENERGY

Strength is a measure of the work that a particular type of explosive can do. Manufacturers measure
explosive strength or energy release ways. One is the use of a ballistic mortar where a small charge
(10 g) is detonated in the explosion chamber of a 400 kg mortar (figure 3.2) the angle of recoil of
the mortar due to a projectile expelled by the detonation is measured. The greater the degree of
swing, the higher is the strength of the explosive.

Another method estimating the energy of a detonating explosive Is the underwater bubble test
whereby an expanding gas bubble of reaction components follows the shock wave (figure 3.3). the
time elapsing between the initial pressure peak after reaching hydrostatic equilibrium and a the
collapse of the gas bubble is called the bubble period. An effectively stronger explosive has a longer
bubble period.

Theoretically, explosive strength can also be calculated on the assumption that all ingredients react
completely, although this is an idealized assumption.

Although these strength values are not fully descriptive of an explosive’s potential in practice, they
do provide a useful guide. It is now usual to rate an explosive compared to ANFO at a standard
mixture (94:6, ammonium nitrate: fuel oil) and density (0.8 g cm). usually, two strength vales are
used: weight strength and bulk strength. Weight strength and bulk strength refer respectively to the
useful energy output per unit weight and per unit volume of explosive, and bulk strength is the
product of the explosive and its density. It is important since it reelects the energy actually available
per charged unit volume of blasthole. This means that if the energy release per metre of blasthole
is increased, the degree of fragmentation and quantity of blasted rock pile that can be obtained
using a large blasthole patter will be the same. In this way there is a saving in drilling cost.

3.5.1 Energy ratings

Some of an explosive potential energy is wasted on detonation in the form of airblast and heat. It is
important, therefore, for the blasting engineer to know the amount of energy available for effective
blasting work and this is often evaluated by the relative effective energy. (REE) of an explosive in
comparison to that of ANFO with standard density of 0.8 g cm-3.

An explosive’s total energy (TE) is utilized in fragmenting and dislodging the rock being blasted. The
effectiveness of an explosive is the therefore dependent on the compatibility of the properties of
both the explosive is composed of shock or strain energy (SE) and heave or bubble energy (HE or
BE). The function of shock energy is to create cracks in the rock, which is the fragmented further and
dislodged by the gas expansion of the heave energy of the explosive.

3.5.2 Explosion energy

Explosion energy can be calculated by the theoretical reaction from the composition of the
explosive, or measured directly by using a calorimeter. It is expressed as het of explosion (in thermal
units) or as explosion energy (in mechanical units) in MJ kg-1.

3.6 SENSITIVITY

There are three primary criteria of sensitivity. Two relate to performance and one to safety.

3.6.1 Gap sensitivity (sensitiveness)

Gap sensitivity is important because it determines the ability of an explosive to propagate through
discontinuities. In cylindrical charge, for example, adjacent cartridges might be accidentally
separated in the borehole. This could lead to a misfire if the explosive is not sufficiently gap sensitive.
However, too night sensitiveness could lead to premature initiation of charges in adjacent
boreholes.

A gap sensitivity test is conducted on unconfined samples with an air gap between donor and
receptor cartridges (figure 3.4). This air gap varies with types of explosives and their cartridge
diameters (typically between 2 and 20 cm).

3.6.2 Initiation sensitivity

Initiation sensitivity relative ease with which the explosive can be detonated. Some explosives are
sensitive to detonators with very small base charges and are called cap-sensitive explosives, whereas
others respond only to a primer or booster charge that is itself initiated by a standard detonator.

3.6.3 Drop and friction sensitivity

In tests of safety characteristics, explosives are subjected to various forms of mechanical. Thermal
and electrical stimuli to determine their response to standard usage. Various weights are dropped
from different heights up to 100 cm. in another test, an explosive sample is subjected to the action
of steel sliding across steel, to determine whether friction phenomena will initiate the charge.
3.7 FUME CHARACTERISTICS

Detonation of an explosive charge produces copies gases consisting ideally of water vapour, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. In reality, however, a variable quantity of other, often toxic, gases is produced
owing to oxygen imbalance in the reaction. Moreover, certain types of explosives produce more
noxious fumes, and consequently the obligatory waiting times before returning to the site, vary
according to the types of explosives used.

An excess of oxygen in the explosive reaction can generate nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide,
whereas a deficit can use carbon monoxide to form. All these gases are toxic and prolonged
exposure to any of them may prove fatal.

The fume rating of a cartridge explosive will not be removed from its original packing. To do so often
leads to excess fumes and to reduction in efficiency. Other factors that affect the fume
characteristic are inadequate priming, the presence of water. Subcritical diameter, partial
detonation, and confinement.

3.8 WATER RESISTENCE

Water resistance is an explosive’s ability to detonate after exposure to water. The test designed by
the manufacturer to measure this property vary with intendent usage and product sensitivity. The
ability of an explosive to resist water and to maintain its explosive properties in the presence of
water can be described as excellent, good, fair or poor. Generally, the lower the density of an
explosive, the less is its water resistance.