SURVIVAL KIT in

ELECTONICS ENGINEERING
ELECTRONICS
 Branch of Physics dealing with the behavior of electrons in vacuums and in
gases, with their conduction, with effect in semiconductor and with the utilization
of these properties for the design of electronic devices.

Brief History
 Hans Christian Oersted showed that an electric current produces magnetic 1820
effects.
 The element Silicon was discovered. 1824
 Michael Faraday discovered that magnet in motion can generate electricity 1831
 The element Germanium was discovered 1886
 J.A. Fleming introduced the first vacuum tube diode called Fleming Valve. 1904
 Dr. Lee DeForest introduced the first vacuum tube amplifier called audion tube 1906
1948
 Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain developed the 1st transistor at Bell Telephone
Laboratories.
1958
 Jack St. Clair Kilby invented the 1st integrated circuit, which is a phase shift
oscillator at Texas Instruments.

Basic Law of Electronics

1. like charges repel
2. unlike charges attract

VACUUM TUBES

 Emission wherein electrons are emitted from the emitter by supplying heat THERMIONIC EMISSION
energy.
 The most widely used type of emission
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
 The process in which electromagnetic radiation (light) incident upon a metal
surface causes its energy to be transferred to free electron and eject them form
the surface.

 The emission of electrons by a metal surface when it is bombarded by rapidly SECONDARY EMISSION
moving electrons resulting to collision of some electrons within the metal surface
that causes them to be projected outward like a billiard ball.
HIGH-FIELD EMISSION
 The emission of electrons takes place by the application of strong electric field at
the surface of metal, usually at room temperature.

 The amount of additional energy required to emit an electron from the surface of WORK FUNCTION
a metal measured in eV.

VACUUM TUBE
 An electron tube containing an almost perfect vacuum that emits electron from a (THERMO-IONIC VALVE)
hot metal cathode, precursor of the transistor.

Types of Vacuum Tubes

1. Vacuum Tube Diode (Fleming Valve)
a. An electron tube with two-electrodes (anode and cathode)
b. Used primarily as a rectifier
c. Problem is existence of space charge
 The cloud stream of electrons formed on the space between cathode and plate SPACE CHARGE
that introduce repelling effects thus reducing plate current.

2. Triode (Audion Tube)

a. a thermionic vacuum tube with three electrodes, anode, cathode and
control grid
b. used to amplify signals and eliminated space charge that is present
in a vacuum tube.

3. Tetrode
a. A four electrode electron tube containing an anode, a cathode,
control grid and a screen grid.

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 4. Pentode
a. A thermionic valve which has five electrodes (anode, cathode,
control grid, screen and suppressor grid)

5. Beam Power Tube

a. An electron-beam tube built so that directed electron beams
contribute substantially to its power handling capacity.

Vacuum Tube Coefficients

1. Amplification Factor(μ)
 The ratio of the change in anode voltage of an electron tube to a
change in control electrode (grid) voltage that produces the same
change in anode current when other voltages and current are held
constant.

2. Plate Resistance (rp)

 The circuit resistance of the internal plate to cathode circuit

3. Transconductance (gm)
 It is the ratio of a change in anode current with respect to a change
in control grid voltage.

SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

 An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains the ATOMS
characteristics of that element
 Atomus in Greek meaning invisible

 Consists of positively charged particles and uncharged particles NUCLEUS

 Basic particles of negative charge. ELECTRONS

 An atom or molecule that has been electrically unbalanced by the loss or

OIN
gain of one or more electrons.
POSISTIVE ION
 An atom that has lost an electron
NEGATIVE ION
 An atom that has gained an electron

 Are formed when the electron in the outer shell of an atom gains sufficient FREE ELECTRONS
energy from the surrounding media and break away from the parent atom.

Broad Categories of Materials

1. Conductor – any material that will support a generous flow of charge

when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its
terminals.
2. Insulator – a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under
pressure form an applied voltage source.
3. Semiconductor – a material that has a conductivity level somewhere
between an insulator and a conductor.
a. A class of material whose electrical properties lie between the
extremes of conductors and insulators.

Element – Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)

Compound – Glaium Arsenide (GaAs)

 Semiconductor whose electrical properties are dependent on semiconductor INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

added to the semiconductor crystals.

 Impurity that gives up electrons DONOR IMPURITY

 Impurity that accepts electrons ACCEPTOR IMPURITY

 The process of adding impurity elements to increase the number of free DOPING
charges that can be moved by an externally applied voltage.
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 A semiconductor whose density of hole concentration in the valence band N – TYPE MATERIAL
exceeded by the density of electrons in the conductor band.

Pentavalent Impurities (Donor Atom) – N-type

1. Phosphorous (P) z = 15
2. Antimony (Sb) z = 51
3. Arsenic (As) z = 33

*Majority carrier is Electrons

 A form of semiconductor material whose electron density in the conduction P – TYPE MATERIAL
band is exceeded by the density of holes in the valence band

Trivalent Impurities (Acceptor Atom) – P-type

1. Boron (B) z=5
2. Aluminum (Al) z = 13
3. Gallium z = 31
4. Indium (I) z = 49

*Majority carrier is Hole

 The tendency of an atom to share electrons with their neighboring atoms to COVALENT BONDING
achieve stable condition

 The merging of a free moving and spatially separated electrons and holes, RECOMBINATION
stopping their movement and current carrying capability.

 The amount of time between the creations and disappearance of free LIFETIME
electrons.

 A two-terminal semiconductor device that exhibit a nonlinear current voltage SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
characteristics.

 In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any UNBIASED DIODE
direction for a semiconductor is zero. CONDITION

REVERSE SATURATION
 The current that exists under the Reversed biased condition which is a
CURRENT (Is)
function of temperature alone.

 The semiconductor diode condition where the association of p-type and n-

FORWARD BIASED
type material has been established.
CONDITION
Diode Parameters
 The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can with stand without destroying PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE
the junction. (PIV)
 Current that flows through a RB diode caused by thermally produced minority REVERSE SATURATION
carriers. CURRENT (RSC)
 Caused by surface impurities and imperfection in the crystal structure. SURFACE LEAKAGE
CURRENT
DIODE CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS
1. Clipping Circuit

a. Limiter (clipper)
i. A diode circuit whose output is a function of the
instantaneous input amplitude for a range of values between
predetermined limits.
ii. A diode network that have the ability to “clip” off a portion of
the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform.

Two Categories
1. Series Limiter – the diode appears as series element
2. Parallel Limiter – the diode appears as a shunt element

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Methods of determining the output waveform of a clipper
1. Determine the output waveform without the effect of the diode by:
a. Shorting the diode for series limiter
b. Opening the diode for parallel limiter.
2. Determine the clipping line
a. For series limiter, clipping line is at the abscissa
b. For parallel limiter, clipping line is the output reflection of the
voltage source if there is no voltage source present; the clipping
line is at the abscissa.
3. Inspect the position of the diode
a. For series limiters, if the arrow head of the diode is:
i. Pointing to the right the output waveform is above the
clipping line.
ii. Pointing to the left, the output waveform is below the
clipping line.
b. For parallel limiters, the procedure is:
i. Pointing upward, the output waveform is above the
clipping line.
ii. Pointing downward, the output waveform is below the
clipping line.
4. For double diode clippers, the procedure is:
a. Determine the output waveform without the effect of the diodes.
b. Draw the clipping lines as dictated by the voltage sources.
c. The resulting waveform is between the two clipping lines.

 A circuit that shifts the DC level of the input signal CLAMPER OR DC RESTORER

 Is two or more peak detectors or peak rectifiers that produce a dc voltage VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER
equal to a multiple of the peak voltage.

 A rectifier that gives approximately double the output voltage of a HALF-WAVE VOLTAGE
conventional half-wave rectifier by charging a capacitor during the normally DOUBLER
wasted half-cycle and discharging it in series with the output voltage during
the next half-cycle.

 A type of diode circuit that converts alternating current into a current with a DIODE RECTIFIER
large unidirectional component (DC)

 A rectifier circuit consisting of a transformer with a single diode in the HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
secondary circuit that conduct current during positive or negative half-cycle
of input AC signal at a rate determined by the input frequency.

 The maximum allowable instantaneous reverse voltage that may be applied PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE
across the diode. (PIV)

Advantages of half wave rectifier

1. simplicity
2. low cost
3. requires only one diode and can be used with or without transformer

Disadvantages of half wave rectifier

1. it is very efficient since only half of the input is used
2. average output voltage is low
3. ripple frequency is hard to filter

 Employs two diode and a center tapped transformers enabling current to FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
conduct through the load during both half cycle of input voltage (CENTER TAPPED)

FULL WAVE
 A bridge arrangement of four diodes providing full wave rectification of the
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
full secondary voltage of the power transformer consequently, eliminating a
center tapped secondary.

Advantages of full wave rectifier

1. it is more efficient since it operates on both half cycle of the sine wave
2. ripple frequency is easier to filter
3. since the current sin the halves of the transformer secondary are
opposite, there is no problem with DC core saturation.
.

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Disadvantages of full wave rectifier
1. it requires a center tapped transformer
2. diodes require higher PIV rating
3. for a given transformer, the peak voltage requirement is lower in the full
wave rectifier than in the half-wave.

 Changes the available electrical energy (usually AC) to the form required by POWER SUPPLY
the various within the system (DC).

 Changes the line voltage to the desired AC voltage with little loss of power TRANSFORMER

 Its function is to transform the AC voltage to DC voltage RECTIFIER

 Smoothens the output of the rectifier so that the DC voltage is relatively free FILTER
of ripple.

 To provide a DC voltage of minimum ripple content REGULATOR

 The AC component of the output waveform RIPPLE

 Holds the DC output voltage constant, regardless of changes in the load or REGULATOR
input voltage.

Filters
1. Capacitor Filter
2. RC Filter – used to further reduce the amount of ripple across the filter
capacitor while reducing the DC voltage

 Its ability to hold the output under conditions of changing input or changing
REGULATION OF A POWER
load
SUPPLY

Special Purpose Diodes

1. Light Emitting Diode (LED) – a semiconductor PN junction that when
forward biased, emits light at a wavelength that is a function of its
material and dopants.
Typical Average Forward Current – 10mA to 20mA
Typical Forward Voltage – 2.2 V to 3 V

2. Photodiode – a semiconductor PN junction device whose region of

operation is limited to the RB region. The application of light to the
junction will result in a transfer of energy from the incident travelling
waves (in the form of photons) to the atomic structure resulting in an
increase number of minority carrier and in return increase the level of
reverse current.
3. Optoisolator – a solid state device that provide high electrical isolation
by converting the input signal to light emission and reconverting it to an
electrical signal.
4. Schottky Diode (Hot Barrier or Surface Barrier) – a semiconductor
diode formed by contact between a semiconductor layer and metal
contact; it has a non-linear rectifying characteristic.
5. Zener Diode – a silicon PN junction of reference diode that provides a
specified reverse reference voltage when it is operated into its reverse-
bias avalanche breakdown region. It exhibits a sharp reverse breakdown
at less than 6V.
6. Tunnel Diode - a heavily doped junction diode that has negative
resistance in the forward direction over a portion of its operating range,
due to quantum mechanical tunneling.
7. Varactor Diode – a PN semiconductor diode whose capacitance varies
with the applied voltage. It is variable-reactance tuning element in
oscillator and amplifier circuits, including parametric amplifiers.

Advantages of Transistor over Vacuum Tubes

1. smaller and light weight
2. has no heater requirement or heater
3. has rugged construction
4. it is more efficient since less power is absorbed by the device itself
5. it is instantly available for use; requiring no warm-up period
6. lower operating voltages are possible.

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Transistor Base Configuration
1. Common Base Configuration
a. The input signal is applied at the emitter, the output is taken at
the collector and the base is the common terminal.
b. Very low input impedance

 In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to majority carrier are related by a ALPHA (α)
quantity of alpha. The ratio of a small change in IC to small change in IE.

2. Common Emitter Configuration

a. The input is applied at the base, the amplified output is taken
from the collector, and the emitter is the common terminal.
b. The best combination of current and voltages gain

 In the DC mode the levels of IC and IB are related by the quantity beta. The BETA (β)
ratio of a small change in IC to a small change in IB and is also called
common-emitter forward current amplification factor.

3. Common Collector Configuration

a. The input applied at the base, the output taken at the terminal
and the collector is the common terminal.
b. This is often used for impedance matching

 Forward current gain in common collector configuration GAMMA (δ)

Comparison of Amplifier Configurations

Characteristics Common Common Common
Base Emitter Collector
Power Gain MODERATE HIGHEST MODERATE
Voltage Gain HIGHEST MODERATE LOWEST
(Less than 1)
Current Gain LOWEST MODERATE HIGHEST
(Less than 1)
Input Impedance LOWEST MODERATE HIGHEST
Output Impedance HIGHEST MODERATE LOWEST
Phase Inversion NONE 180° OUT OF
PHASE
Application RF AMP UNIVERASAL ISOLATION

Regions of Transistor Action:

1. Active Region – emitter-to-base junction is forward biased and the
collector-base-to-base junction is reverse biased.
2. Saturation Region – both junctions are forward biased, amplifier
3. Cut Off Region – both junctions are forward biased

Transistor Biasing

 An electrical, mechanical or magnetic force applied to a device to establish a BIAS

desired electrical or mechanical reference level for its operation
 Is a DC voltage or current that sets the operating point for amplifying the AC
signal.

Reasons for biasing

1. To turn ON the device
2. To place it in operation in the region of its characteristics where the
device operates most linearly.

Types of Bias Circuits

1. Fixed Bias – is taken from a battery or power supply
2. Self Bias (Emitter-Stabilized Bias) – the amplifier produces its own DC
voltage from an IR drop across a resistor in the return circuit of the
common terminal.
3. Voltage Divider Bias – the most stable type of biasing
4. Signal Bias – the AC signal produces its own bias by rectification in the
input circuit of the amplifier.

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AMPLIFIERS

 A circuits designed to increase the amplitude or level of an electronic signal AMPLIFIER

Classification of Amplifiers:

I. According to Function
a. Voltage amplifier
b. Current amplifier
c. Power amplifier
II. According to Configuration
a. Common base amplifier
b. Common collector amplifier
c. Common emitter amplifier
III. According to class of operation
a. Class A amplifier
b. Class B amplifier
c. Class C amplifier
d. Class AB amplifier

Comparison of Amplifier Classes

Class A Class B Class C Class AB

Efficiency 50% 78.5% 100% Between

A and B
Conduction 360° 180° 180° Between
Angle A and B
Distortion LOW HIGH EXTREME MODERATE
Bias (Base LINEAR CUT-OFF BELOW ABOVE
Emitter) PORTION CUT-OFF CUT-OFF

IV. According to Frequency

a. DC amplifier
b. Audio amplifier
c. RF amplifier
d. IF amplifier
e. Video amplifier
V. According to the Signal being amplified
a. Small signal amplifiers
b. Large signal amplifier
VI. According to method of coupling
a. Direct coupling
b. Capacitive coupling
c. Inductive coupling
d. Transformer coupling

BJT SMAL SIGNAL ANALYSIS

H – Parameters
 Short circuit input impedance hi

 open circuit reverse voltage gain hr

 short circuit forward current gain hf

 open circuit output admittance ho

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Compound Configuration
1. Cascaded Connection – a series connection with the output on one stage
then applied as input to the second stage. The cascade connection provides a
multiplication of the gain of each stage for a larger overall gain.
2. Cascode Connection – has one transistor on top of (in series with) another.
This arrangement is design to provide high input impedance with low voltage
gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is minimum.
3. Darlington Connection – the composite transistor acts a single unit with a
current gain that is the product of the current gains of the individual transistor.
4. Feedback Pair – is a two-transistor circuit that operates like the Darlington
circuit. It uses a PNP transistor driving an NPN.
5. FET (Field Effects Transistor) – a unipolar device which operates as a
voltage controlled device with either electron current in N-channel FET or a
hole current in a P-channel FET.
a. A three-terminal unipolar device which depends for its operation on the
control of current by an electric field.

Difference between BJT and FET

1. its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only (unipolar
device)
2. simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in integrated form than BJT
3. extremely high input resistance. Can take more input signal voltage.
4. less noise than BJT
5. exhibits no offset voltages at zero drain current. Excellent signal chopper
6. relatively immune to radiation
7. greater thermal stability than BJT
8. less internal noise as an amplifier.

Disadvantages
1. Less gain
2. Smaller power ratings
3. switching speed is slower

FET BJT
Source Emitter
Drain Collector
Gate Base

 terminal where the charge carriers enter the channel bar to provide current SOURCE
thru channel

 terminal where the current leaves the channel DRAIN

 controls the conductance between the source and the drain GATE

Two Types of FET

1. JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
2. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET)
or IGFET (Insulated Gate FET)
a. Depletion Enhancement MOSFET
b. Enhancement only MOSFET

 Linear OHMIC REGION

 Indicates that for low values of Vds, current varies directly with voltage
following ohm’s law.

 Saturation region/ amplifier region PINCH-OFF REGION

 JFET operates as a constant current device because Id is relatively
independent of Vds.

 If Vds increased beyond its value corresponding to Va, JFET enters the
BREAKDOWN REGION
breakdown region where Id increase to an excessive value.
IDSS
 Drain current with gate shorted to source condition

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Proper Biasing for a JFET

VDS VGS
N-CHANNEL + -
P-CHANNEL - +

DC Biasing for a JFET

1. Fixed Bias – a separate power source
2. Self Bias
3. Source Bias
4. Voltage Divider

Static Characteristics of JFET

1. Drain Characteristics – gives relation between ID and VDS for different
values of VGS (running variable).
2. Transfer Characteristics – gives relation between ID and VGS for
different values of VDS.

Small Signal JFET Parameters

1. AC Drain Resistance, rd
a. The AC resistance between drain and source terminals when
JFET is operating in the pinch-off region
b. Dynamic drain resistance.
2. Transconductance, gm (U or S)
a. Forward Transconductance or forward trans-admittance
b. Slope of transfer characteristic
c. Similar to gm characteristics of vacuum tubes.
3. Amplification Factor
4. DC Drain Resistance, RDS

 Neutrally or lightly doped silicon

 Serves as a platform on which the other electrodes are diffused IGFET or MOSFET

 Channel has free charge carriers

 Current can be produced in the channel with voltage applied between drain DEPLETION ENHANCEMENT
and source but no gate voltage.
 The gate voltage can deplete or enhance the charge carriers in the channel
to a greater or lesser extent to control the drain current.
 Normally ON device

 Normally OFF device ENHANCEMENT ONLY

MOSFET
 The channel has very little doping
 Gate voltage must be applied to enhance the amount of charge carriers in
the channel to produce drain current.
DUAL GATE IGFET or
 Either or both gates control the amount of drain current MOSFET
 Region void of free carriers and therefore unable to support conduction thru DEPLETION REGION
the region.

Proper Biasing of MOSFET

VDS VGS
N-CHANNEL + +
P-CHANNEL - -

Proper Biasing of Depletion Enhancement

VDS VGS
N-CHANNEL + +/-
P-CHANNEL - +/-

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FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER AND OSCILLATORS
FEEDBACK
 The application of a portion of the output signal of a circuit back to the input
circuit.
 One in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the input circuit.

Two Parts
1. amplifier
2. feedback circuit

Types of Feedback
1. Positive Feedback (Regenerative)
a. if the feedback signal is combined in phase with the input signal
b. if the feedback voltage or current is so applied to increase the
input voltage or current
c. application: Oscillator circuits
2. Negative Feedback (Degenerative)
a. If the feedback signal is combined 180 degrees out-of-phase
with the input signal
b. If the feedback voltage or current is so applied to reduce
amplifier input
c. Application: Amplifier circuits

Signal Sources
1. Thevenin’s Source
2. Norton’s Source

Two Types of Sampling

1. Voltage Sampling – if the feedback network is connected in shunt
across the output node.
2. Current Sampling – if the feedback network is connected in series with
the output loop.

Two Types of Mixing

1. Series Mixing – the feedback network is connected in series with the
input loop so that the feedback signal is in the form of voltage.
2. Shunt Mixing – the feedback network is connected in shunt with the
input terminal so that what is added to the input is current.

Effect of Negative Feedback

1. Stabilize the amplifier
2. Increase the bandwidth of an amplifier
3. Improve the linearity of the amplifier
4. Improve noise performance
5. Improve the characteristics of an amplifier to approach ideal condition
(Raise or lower the impedance of an amplifier)

Effect of Positive Feedback

1. increased pain that may lead to oscillation

Feedback Configuration
1. Voltage Series Feedback
2. Voltage Shunt Feedback
3. Current Series Feedback
4. Current Shunt Feedback

Parameter Voltage-Series Current-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-Shunt

Zif increased increased decreased decreased
Zof decreased decreased decreased increased

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 Process by which variations in amplitude are repeated continuously at a OSCILLATION
specific frequency
 Accomplished by using an amplifier in a circuit where part of the output is fed
back to the input.
 The use of positive feedback which results in a feedback amplifier having a
closed loop gain greater than unity

 If the output signal varies sinusoidally SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR

 If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage and later drops quickly to SQUARE WAVE OR
another voltage level. PULSE OSCILLATOR

 Uses an Op Amp and RC bridge circuit, with the oscillator frequency set by WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
the R and C components.

Oscillator Type Reactance Element

X1 X2 X3
Colpitts C C L
Hartley L L C
Tuned input LC LC --
Tuned output

 Inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling, M, which must be taken into HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
account in determining the equivalent inductance for the resonant tank circuit

 Basically a tuned circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
tank circuit
 The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater stability in holding constant at
whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate

 Exhibits the property that when mechanical stress is applied across opposite QUARTZ CRYSTAL
faces of crystal, a difference of potential develops across opposite faces of
the crystal
 Piezoelectric effect

2 Resonant Frequencies
1. Series Resonant Circuit
a. The reactance of the series RLC Leq are equal (and opposite),
the impedance is very low (=R).
2. Parallel Resonant Circuit
a. Higher frequency
b. The reactance of the series RLC Leq equal the reactance of
capacitor, Cm
c. Very high impedance

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 A very high gain, high rin directly coupled negative feedback amplifier which OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
can amplify signals having frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 1 MHz.
 Originally designated to perform mathematical operations like summation,
multiplication, differentiation and integration.

An Ideal Operational Amplifier would have

1. infinite input impedance – it would consume no current from the source
2. zero output impedance – it would like a perfect voltage source to a load
3. infinite gain – any input would be infinitely amplified

Typical Uses of Op Amp

1. scale changing
2. analog computer operations
3. instrumentation and control system
4. phase shift and oscillator circuit

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 The terminal marked (-) INVERTING INPUT
 Whatever signal polarity is applied to the inverting will cause the opposite
polarity on the output terminal.

 The terminal marked (+)

 Whatever polarity is applied to the non-inverting input terminal will cause the NON-INVERTING INPUT
same polarity in the output terminal.

Op Amp Circuits
1. Constant Gain Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
3. Unity Follower – provides a gain with no polarity reversal
4. Summing Amplifier
5. Integrator – feedback component (capacitor), the output is the integral
of the input with an inversion and scale multiplies of 1/RC
6. Differentiator – the output is proportional to the time derivative of the
input. The magnitude of the output is increase linearly with increasing
frequency, and the different circuit has high gain at high frequencies.
7. Differential Amplifier – the differential amplifier is the marriage of both
the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. The output is the result of the
difference between the two inputs.
8. Comparator – can be used as a limit, level detector or switch. It can also
be used to convert a ramp input to a pulse and the pulse to reset the
ramp.

Op Amp Specifications
1. Input Offset Voltage
 The difference in the DC voltages that must be applied to the
input terminals to obtain equal quiescent operating voltage (0
output voltage) at the output terminals
2. Input Offset Current
 The differences in the current at the 2 input terminals
3. Quiescent Operating Voltage
 The DC voltage at either output terminal with respect to the
ground
4. DC Device Dissipation
 The total power drain of the device with no signal applied and no
external load current
5. Common Mode Voltage Gain, Ac
 The ratio of the signal voltage developed at either of the 2 output
terminal to the common signal voltage applied to the 2 input
terminals connected in parallel
6. Differential Voltage Gain Single Ended Input –
 The ratio of the change in output voltage either output terminal
with respect to the ground to difference in the input voltages.
7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
 The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the common mode
voltage gain
8. Single Ended Input Resistance (Rin)
 The ration of the change in input voltage to the change in input
current measured at either terminal with respect to the ground
9. Single Ended Output-Resistance (Ro)
 the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in output
current measured at either output terminal with respect to the
ground
10. Slew Rate
 Device parameter including how fast the output voltage changes
with time
11. Drift
 The term describing the change in output voltage resulting from
change in temperature
12. Roll-Off
 The reducing of op-amp’s gain due to increasing operating
frequency.

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 Lee de Forest invented the Triode Tube 1907

 W.H. Brattain and I. Bardeen invented the transistor 1948

 IC’s (Microelectronics) 1960

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
 A complete electronic circuits in which both the active and passive
components are fabricated on an extremely tiny single chip of silicon
1958
 J.K. Kilby develop the first IC
DISCRETE
 Built by connecting separate components

Advantages of IC’s over Discrete Components

1. extremely small physical size
2. very small weight
3. reduced cost (individual transistor)
4. extremely high reliability
a. absence of soldered components
b. need for fewer interconnection
c. small temperature rise due to low power consumption
5. suitable for small signal operation
6. low power consumption
7. easy replacement

Disadvantages of IC’s over Discrete Components

1. coils or inductors cannot be fabricated
2. IC’s function at fairly low voltages
3. handle only limited amount of power
4. quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat

Scale of Integration
1. SSI – Small Scale Integration
 The number of circuits containing in an IC package is less than 30
2. MSI – Medium Scale Integration
 The number of per package is between 30 – 100
3. LSI – Large Scale Integration
 Circuits density is between 100 – 100, 000
4. VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration
 In excess of 100, 000

Classifications of IC’s by Structure

1. Monolithic Integrated Circuits
a. single stone
b. single solid structure
c. all circuit components (both active and passive) are fabricated
inseparably within a single continuous piece of Silicon crystalline
material
2. Thick and Thin Film IC’s
a. Only passive components are formed through thick and thin film
techniques on the insulating surface as glass or a ceramic
material
b. The active elements are added externally as discrete elements
to complete a functional circuit.

 Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and thickness of THIN FILM IC’s
the film and by using materials of different resistivity
 Capacitor are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film between 2
conducting films

 Printed thin film circuits

 Silk screen are made of fine stainless steel wire mesh and the links are THICK FIM IC’s
pastes (of pulverized glass and aluminum) which have conductive, resistive
or dielectric properties.

13
 3. Hybrid or Multichip IC’s
a. formed either by interconnecting a number of individual chips or
by a combination of film or monolithic IC techniques

Classification of IC’s by Function

1. Linear IC’s – analog IC’s because their inputs and outputs can take on a
continuous range of values and the outputs are generally proportional to
the inputs

Applications
1. Op Amps 5. Small Signal Amplifier
2. Power 6. RF and IF Amplifier
3. Microwave Amps 7. Multiplexer
4. Voltage Comparators 8. Voltage Regulators

2. Digitals IC’s
 switching circuits
 monolithic integration because a computer uses a large number of
identical circuits

Applications
1. logic gates 5. calculator chips
2. flip flops 6. memory chips
3. counter 7. microprocessors
4. clock

 attachment of wires to an IC BONDING

 an extremely small part of a silicon wafer on which IC is fabricated CHIP (DIE)

 Si wafer of 2cm diameter – 1000 IC chips

 To check the proper electrical performance of each IC with the help of CIRCUIT PROBING
probes

 Introduction of controlled small quantities of a material into the crystal

structure for modifying its electrical characteristics. DIFFUSION

DIFFUSION MASK
 A glass plate with circuit pattern drawn on it
ENCAPSULATION
 Putting a cap over the IC and sealing it
EPITAXY
 Physical placement of materials on a given surface
ETCHING
 Removal of surface material form a chip by chemical means

 Providing ohmic contacts and interconnections by evaporating aluminum METALLIZATION

over the chip

 A photo sensitive emulsion which hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light PHOTORESIST

 Incising or cutting with a sharp point SCRIBING

 A thin slice of a semiconductor material either circular or rectangular in WAFER

shape in which a number of IC’s are fabricated simultaneously

How Monolithic IC’s are made?

1. Wafer Preparation
 a P-type SI bar is taken and cut into thin slices called wafers
 this wafers after being lapped and polished to mirror finish serve as
the base or substrate for hundreds of IC’s
2. Epitaxial Growth
 An N-type layer (15μm thick) is now grown on the P-type substrate
by placing the wafer in furnace at 1200°C and introducing a gas
containing phosphorous

14
 3. Oxidation
 A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the N-type layer by exposing the
wafer to an oxygen atmosphere at about 1000°C
4. Photolithographic Process
 Involves selective etching of Sio2 layer with the help of photographic
mask, photoresist and etching solution.
 Helps to select particular areas of the N-layer which are subjected to
an isolation diffusion process.
5. Isolation Diffusion
 The wafer is subject to a P-layer diffusion process by which N-type
layer is isolated into islands on which transistor or some other
components is fabricated.
6. Base and Emitter Diffusion
 The P-type base of transistor is diffused into the N-type layer which
itself acts as collector.
7. Pre-Ohmic Etch
 For good metal ohmic contact with diffused layers, N+ regions are
diffused into the structure.
8. Metallization
 Done for making interconnections and providing bonding pads
around the circumference of the chip for later connection of wires
I. Transistor
II. Resistor
III. Capacitor
9. Circuit Probing
 Each IC on the wafer is checked electrically for proper performance
by placing probes on the bonding pads
 Faulty chips are marked and discarded after the wafer has been
scribed and broken down into individual chips
10. Scribing and Separating into Chips
 Wafer is broken down into individual chips containing the integrated
circuits
 Wafers are first scribed with a diamond tipped tool and then
separated into single chips
11. Mounting and Packing
 The individual chip is very small and brittle
 It is cemented or soldered to a gold plated header through which
leads have already been connected
12. Encapsulation
 A cap is now placed over the circuit and sealing is done in an inert
atmosphere

Digital IC’s

 Receives input of a linear voltage, comparing it to a reference input voltage COMPARATOR CIRCUIT
to determine which is greater

Digital to Analog Converter Circuits

ANALOG SIGNALS
 Vary continuously over some range of values
DIGITAL SIGNALS
 At one of 2 levels representing the binary values of one or zero

 Uses a network of resistor LADDER NETWORK

 Accepts inputs of binary values at typically 0V or Vref and provides an output
voltage proportional to the binary input values

Analog to Digital Conversion

 Used to interconnect different types of signals, both linear and digital INTERFACING CIRCUIT
 May be used to drive a load or to obtain a signal as a receiver circuit

 Used in the generation of pulse signals that are triggered by an input signals TIMER CIRCUIT
 Generation of a clock signal that operates at a frequency set by external
resistor and capacitor

15
 Made of a circuit is usually housed in an 8-pin DIP package with pin numbers 555 TIMER
as specified in the figure

Applications
1. Astable Multivibrator or Clock Circuit
2. Monostable Multivibrator or One Shot Multivibrator

BIOMEDICAL ELECTRONICS

 Electroencephalograph EEG
 Recording of electrical signals from the brain
 A medical instrument that records electric currents generated by the brains
Graph –recording
Electro – electrical signals
Encephalo – brain
CT SCAN or CAT SCAN
 Computed Tomography Imaging

 Computed Axial Tomography CAT

 Combines the use of a digital computer together with a rotating x-ray device
create detailed cross sectional images of “slices” of the different organs and
body parts such as the lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, pelvis, extremities,
brain, spins and blood vessels.

 Automated External Defibrillator AED

 A device that administers an electric shock through the chess wall to the
heart.
 A small, light weight device used to assess a person’s heart rhythm.

 A specific type of imaging that uses a low dose x-ray system for examination MAMMOGRAPHY
of the breast.

 Electrocardiogram
 A non-invasive test that records the electrical activity of the heart ECG or EKG
 Used to measure the rate and regularity of heartbeats as well as the size and
position of the chambers, the presence of any damage to the heart and the
effects of drugs of device used to regulate the heart (pacemaker)

 Ultrasonography
 The use of sound waves to obtain a medical image or picture of various ULTRASOUND
organs and tissues in the body.
 A painless, non-invasive and safe procedure which produces very precise
image of the soft tissue and also reveals internal motions such as heartbeat
and blood flow.

Pacemaker
 A small battery operated device that helps the heart beat in a regular rhythm. NATURAL PACEMAKER

Replace a defective natural pacemaker or blocked pathway

i. permanent (internal)
ii. temporary (external)

 A test in which ultrasound is used to examine the heart ECHOCARDIAGRAM

 Heart in motion image
M – MODE
 Provide single dimension images that allow accurate measurement of the
heart chambers

 Capable of displaying a cross-sectional slices of the beating heart, including

2D ECHO
the chambers, values and major blood vessels that exit from that left and
right ventricle.

 Nerve and muscle test

 A test that assesses the health of the muscle and the nerves controlling the ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
muscle

16
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI
 A method of creating images of the inside of opaque organs in living
organisms as well as detecting the amount of bound water in geological
structures.

 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging NMRI

 Universally dropped due to negative annotations
 Uses large magnets and radio frequency waves to create moving images

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

 Includes all semiconductor devices which inherent on-off behavior, as

THYRISTOR
opposed to allowing gradual change in conduction
 Non-linear
 Regenerative switching devices and they cannot operate in a linear manner

 Gate triggering circuit BREAK OVER DEVICES

 Small thyristors which do not switch the main load current
 Useful in the gate triggering circuit of a larger load power switching thyristors

 A 3-terminal device used to control large currents to a load SCR

 Rectifier (SILICON CONTROLLED
 3 – PN junction RECTIFIER)
 acts like a switch
ON – closed switch
OFF – open switch

Advantages of SCR over rheostat and transformers

1. small and relatively inexpensive
2. needs no maintenance
3. wants very little power

Applications
1. lightning
2. motor speed control
3. electric wilding
4. electric heating

 The no. of degrees of an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned ON. CONDUCTION ANGLE (CA)

 The no. of degrees of an AC cycle that elapses before the SCR is turned ON. FIRING DELAY ANGLE (FDA)

 Amount of gate current needed to fire a particular SCR.

To further delay the firing of the SCR

C values = 0.01 to 1uF
Time constant = 1 to 30 msec.

Disadvantages
1. temperature dependence
2. inconsistent firing behavior between SCR’s of the same type

 break over in only one direction

IGT
Unilateral Breakdown Devices
1. Schochley Device – 4 layer diode
2. SUS – Silicon Unilateral Switch
3. Triac – Triode AC
- can conduct current in either direction when it is turned on
- A 3-terminal device used to control the average current flow to a
load.

17
Advantage of 4 layer diode over SCR
1. relatively independent of temperature
2. break over voltage can be held consistent from one unit to another

Advantages of Triac over Mechanical Switches

1. no contact bounce
2. no arcing across partially opened contacts
3. operates much faster
4. move precise control of element

Other important electrical characteristics of Triac

1. ITrms – the maximum allowable main terminal rms current
 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 and 25 Amps.
2. VDROM – breakdown voltage
 The highest main terminal peal voltage the triac can block in either
direction
 100, 200, 400 and 600 Volts
3. VTM – the ON state voltage across the main terminals
 Ideal VTM = 0
 VTM = 1 to 2 Volts

Bilateral Breakover Devices

1. Diac (Diode AC)
 Bilateral trigger diode
 Symmetrical trigger diode
2. Silicon Bilateral Switch
 Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits
 Has lower breakover voltages than diacs

Advantages of Diacs
1. relatively temperature stable
2. have fairly close tolerance on breakover voltage

Advantages of SBS’s over Diacs

1. more vigorous switching characteristics
2. more temperature stable
3. more symmetrical +VBO and –VBO difference – 0.3 V
4. less batch spread than a diac < 0.1 V
diacs – 4 V

Other PNPN Devices

1. SCS – Silicon Controlled Switch
2. GTO - Gate Turn Off Switch
3. LASCR – Light Activated SCR

Advantages of SCS over SCR

1. reduced turn off time
2. increased control and triggering sensitivity more predictable firing
situation

Disadvantages of SCS
1. limited to low power, current and voltage ratings

Application of SCS
1. counters, registers and timing circuits
2. pulse generators
3. voltage sensors
4. oscillators

Advantages of GTO
1. can be turned ON or OFF by applying the proper pulse to the cathode
gate.
2. improved switching characteristics

18
Applications of GTO
1. counters
2. pulse generators
3. Multivibrator
4. voltage regulators

Applications of LASCR
1. optical light controls
2. relays
3. phase control
4. motor control
5. computer application

 Unijunction Transistor UJT

 A break over type switching devices

Applications of UJT
1. timers
2. oscillators
3. waveform generators
4. gate control circuits for SCR’s and triacs
5. relaxation oscillator

 Programmable Unijunction Transistor PUT

 Has effectively the same operating characteristics with as standard UJT and
is used in similar application.

Analogy between PUT and UJT

Cathode – base 1
Anode – emitter
Gate – base 2

ROBOTICS

 Reprogrammable
 Multi-functional
 Designed to move materials, parts tools or other specialized devices by
means of variable programmed motions and to perform a variety of other
tasks

 Forced labor
 Worker
 Slavery

 Czeck playwriter
 Coined in1920 in R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots)

 Robot Institute of America

 Branch of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME)
 Accepted by the 11th International Symposium of Industrial Robotics in 1981

Robot Assembly
1. Arm
 Provides necessary motion to move the tool or part into proper
position for an operation.
 Manipulator
2. Drive
 Muscle
 “Engine” that drives the links (the sections between the joints their
desired position).
 Powered by air (pneumatic), water pressure (hydraulic), or electricity
3. Controller
 Connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm
working together.
 The “brain” of the robot

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 4. End-Effector
 The tool that performs the actual work
 “Hand” connected to the robot’s arm
 actual work
5. Sensor
 Send information, in the form of electronic signals to the controller
 Gives the robot controller information about its surroundings and lets
it know the exact position of the arm, or the state of the world around
it.
 Sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.
6. Power Supply
 Provides the necessary power for moving the robot arm through its
range of motion.
 The power source for hydraulic or pneumatic arms is generally much
larger than their electrical equivalents.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM
 Axes of motion of robotic arms.
 Available to a fixed-base fully articulated arm. WAIST MOTION or
ARM SWEEP
 Motion of the entire arm about the fixed base.
SHOULDER or
 Movement above the waist VERTICAL MOTION

 Elbow movement ELBOW EXTENSION

Different types of wrist motion

1. pitch – up and down
2. yaw – side to side
3. roll – rotation of the wrist about the axis of the forearm

Classification of Robots
1. movement
2. control used
3. program used

Classification According to Control

1. Fixed and Variable Sequence Robots
 Also known as pick and place robot.
 Can be programmed for a specific sequence of operations
2. Playback Robot
 Memorizes and records the path and sequence of motions and can
repeat them continuously without any further action or guidance form
the operator
3. Numerically Controlled Robots
 Programmed and operated much like a numerically controlled
machine.
 Servo-control by digital data and its sequence can be changed with
relative ease.
4. Intelligent (sensory) Robots
 Robots capable of performing some of the functions and tasks
carried bout by human beings.
 Equipped with a variety of sensors with visual and tactile (touching)
capabilities

Classification According to Movement

1. Rectilinear
 It can move its end effector in only 3 directions: up and down, left
and right along a track and front to back,
 Box shaped work envelop
 Smaller range of motion
 Easiest to program because of rectangular coordinates system they
use.

20
 2. Cylindrical
 Has a greater range of motion than the rectilinear robots because
the arm can swing around its base in a circular or polar motion
 Work envelope is cylindrical with a core at the center that cannot be
reached.
3. Spherical
 Has a polar articulation at eh waist and the shoulder, but uses
rectilinear motion for reach
 Work envelop is roughly spherical, minus a pie-shaped wedge
4. Fully-Articulated
 Uses a polar articulation for all degrees of freedom
 The most flexible scheme of articulation.
 Most difficult to program
 Most popular arm in industry because of its extended ranges of
motion
 Work envelop is usually pie-shaped crescent in the horizontal plane
and an irregular spheroid in the vertical plane

Classification According to Program Used

1. Positive-Stop Program Robots
 Produces only two-position motion about any individual robot axis.
2. Point-to-Point Programs Robots
 Ability to move a robot axis to any position within its range, rather
than only the two limits positions.
 Range movements of 0 – 128 degrees on its shoulder
 Point-to-point program 8-bit resolution
 Position of shoulder at 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 degrees and so on up to
127.5 degrees
3. Continuous-Path Programs
 Like a point-to-point program, but with the destination positions very
close together
 Able to move the tool device to a destination position very quickly
through, and to move it via a virtually invariable path

Robot Drives

1. Electric Drive System - Known for their quiet operation and the
relatively small size of their power supplies.

 Used mainly in small training robots STEPPER MOTOR

 Backbone of industrial electrically powered robots. DC MOTOR

2. Hydraulic Drive Systems – used to handle heavy loads in today’s

industrial applications such robot designs utilized the mechanical
advantage that can be gained with fluid power.
3. Pneumatic Drive Systems – less popular than hydraulic systems but
they may be found is several applications.
- Has degree of compressibility, a certain amount of sag
is expected.
- Less capable of handling heavy weights.
- Used mainly in point-to-point operation with medium
loads

 Needs to be sufficient so that all the parts of the working area can be WORKING VOLUME
reaches.

 Must be large enough so that the task can be accomplished within an SPEED AND ACCELERATE
acceptable time.

 Measure of tolerance within which the end effector can be turned to a pre- REPEATABILITY
recorded point.

 Is the smallest step move that can be made at a given position.

RESOLUTION
 Different from repeatability.
 Accuracy may be improved by additional sensory feedback ACCURACY

21
 Costs and benefit consideration ECONOMICS

 Safety of robot is an important consideration ROBOT’S SAFETY

Actuator Type Advantages Disadvantages

Electric  Lower initial cost a fluid system
 Much lower operating cost than
a hydraulic system
 Clean – no oil leaks to wipe up
 Accurate servo-type positioning
and velocity can be achieved
 Not such great force capability as
a hydraulic system
 Very little holding strength when
stopped – will allow a heavy load
to sag; mechanical breaks are
required.

Hydraulic  Great force capability – can  High initial cost

handle heavy loads  High operating cost
 Great loads  Messy – tends to leak oil
 Great holding strength when
stopped – hydraulic cylinder will
not allow a heavy load to sag.
 Accurate servo-type positioning
and velocity control can be
achieved.
 Intrinsically safe in flammable
environments such as painting.

Pneumatic  Lower initial cost than a  Programming of accurate

hydraulic system. positioning and velocity control
 Lower operating costs than a are impossible; use mechanical
hydraulic system. stops
 Clean – no oil leaks to wipe up  Weak force capability
 Quick response  Not so much holding strength
when stopped as hydraulic
system – allows a heavy load to
sag

COMPUTER
COMPUTER
 An electronic data processing machine capable of performing mathematical
and logical operations accurately and processing large volumes of data at
high speeds.

Characteristics
1. electronic
2. internal
3. stored data
4. program execution modulation

General Capabilities
1. performs operations at extremely fast speeds and almost perfect
reliability and accuracy
2. ability to store and retrieve information
3. ability to perform mathematical and logical operations
4. ability to handle large volumes of repetitive tasks accurately over long
periods of time
5. can communication with its operations and with other machines
6. performs decisions based on a program
7. capable of remote processing
8. capable of processing one job at a time or several job almost
simultaneously.

22
LIMITATIONS
1. functions only when it is provided with input information
2. can detect but cannot correct an in accurate entry
3. subject to occasional breakdown

Classification of Computer
1. According to age and component generators
a. 1st generation computers (1951-1958)
- Vacuum tubes (UNIVAC I)
b. 2nd generation computers (1959-1965)
- transistors
c. 3rd generation computers (1965-1970)
- IC’s
- Improved reliability and faster speed
d. 4th generation computers
- MSI and LSI
- Apple II, TRS-80
e. Current generation computers
- VLSI, optical devices, parallel processing, etc.
- Multi-user, multitasking
2. According to size
a. mainframe
- large scale
- medium scale
- small scale
b. Minicomputers
c. Microcomputers
3. According to application
a. Scientific
- small volumes
- performs complex calculations using sophisticated
formulas
b. business
- large volumes of data
- simple calculations
4. According to Design
a. General purpose
- Performs variety of operations
- Versatile enough to process diversified tasks
b. Special purpose
- Performs specific operations
- Ex. Automatic Tire Alignment

Main Parts of a Computer System

1. Software
- programs that make a computer works
- set of instructions for the computer to follow
2. Hardware
- physical components that make up a computer

 Interface or group of devices where people talk to the computer INPUT UNIT

 Consists of electronic circuits that interpret and execute program instructions CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
as well as communication with the Input/Output and storage devices. (CPU)

2 parts of CPU
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
2. Control Unit

 Devices that give out information coming from the computer OUTPUT DEVICES
 Devices where computer interacts with the user

 Storage where programs are placed inside the computer system MEMORY

2 Types
1. main memory
2. secondary memory

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Input Devices KEYBOARD
 The keys on the computer keyboard are arranged in much the same way as
those on the typewriter
MOUSE
 Device that is moved by hand over a flat surface
 Has a ball on its underside.
BAR CODE READER
 Device that uses a laser beam to read special letters, numbers or symbol

Output Devices MONITOR

 An indispensable output device similar to a television
 VDU (Video Display Unit)
 VRT (Video Display Terminal)
 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
PRINTER
 Produces printed reports as instructed by a computer program.
 Produces information on paper output
LASER PRINTER
 Combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to transfer high
quality characters of image onto a page.
INKJET PRINTER
 Have small nozzle that actually spray fast drying ink onto the page to form
characters of image.
DOT MATIRX PRINTER
 Use print head to strike an inked ribbon against paper like a typewriter
creating characters out of a series of dots.
SCANNER
 Device that uses al light source to read text and images directly to the
computer.
FLATBED SCANNER
 Looks and behaves like a photocopier.
SHEETFED
 Looks and acts like fax machine
 The page or item is fed into the machine scanned, then split out on the other
end.
HAND SCANNER
 Low cost alternative
 Manual device you move over a flat surface just as you do your PC’s mouse

Memory READ ONLY MEMORY

 Type of permanent memory (ROM)
 Non-volatile
 Stores some of the operating system software of the computer.
BASIC INPUT OUTPUT
 The only software built-in into the computer system SYSTEM (BIOS)
 Provides the interface between the computer hardware system and the
operating system
 Provides control to all devices that require interaction or services of the
microprocessor.
COMPLEMENTARY METAL
 Where the various parameters needed by the BIOS to perform its tasks are
OXIDE SEMICONDUTOR
permanently saved in a little piece of CMOS
(CMOS)
 Enable a ser of instructions so the CPU can communicate with other parts of CHIPSET
the motherboard

 Memory where data and programs are stored RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
 Working storage of the computer system (RAM)
 Read/write memory
 Data are written to and read from it temporary of volatile memory

 The main board MOTHERBOARD

 The most input part of the computer
 Manage all transaction of data between CPU and the peripherals
 Houses the CPU and its second level cache, the chipset, the BIOS, main
memory, I/O chips, parts for keyboard, serial I/O, parallel I/O disks and plug
in cards

24
  Plug into an expansion slot in PC. SOUND CARDS
 Has a set of connectors that are exposed on the back of the PC
 Microphone and speakers
 May include a volume control.

 A metal box found at the portion of the system unit case POWER SUPPLY
 Used to convert high voltage AC to a lower DC voltage to power up the
computer’s electronic components.
 +5 volts supplies all electronic circuits on motherboard, adaptor cards, and
peripherals such as disk devices, keyboard, mouse, etc.
 +12 volts used to power motors of disk device systems such as hard disk,
CD-ROM and floppy disk devices.

 Let communicate over standard telephone lines with other computer users.
MODEMS
 Transfer data, exchange electronic files and ever carry typed, conversation
real time.
INTERNAL MODEM
 Hardware founds plug into an expansion slot in PC’s system unit
EXTERNAL MODEM
 Connected to the PC by plugging a cable into a port on the system unit.

Number System
 Said to be of base 10 because it uses 10 digits and the coefficients are DECIMAL SYSTEM
multiplies by power of 10.
BINARY SYSTEM
 Two possible values 0 and 1.

 A number expressed in base r can be converted to its decimal equivalent by NUMBER BASE
multiplying each coefficient with the corresponding power of r and adding. CONVERSION

 Multiplication is by r and the coefficient found form the integers may range in CONVERSION OF A DECIMAL
value from 0 to r-1. FRACTION TO BASE r

 Used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operations and for COMPLEMENTS
logical manipulations.

 Binary digit. BIT

 It is possible to arrange n bits in 2nd distinct ways.
 To represent a group of 2n elements in a binary code requires a minimum of
n bits.

 Binary Coded Decimal BCD

 A straight assignment of the binary equivalent.

Decimal digit BCD Excess 3

0 0000 0011
1 0001 0100
2 0010 1010
3 0011 0110
4 0100 0111
5 0101 1000
6 0110 1011
7 0111 1010
8 1000 1011
9 1001 1100

Error Detection Codes

 An extra bit included with a message to make total no. of 1’s either odd or ERROR DETECTION CODES
even.

 A no. in the reflected code changes by only one bit as it’s provides from one REFLECTED CODE –
no. to the next. GRAY CODE

 Binary code of a group of elements consisting of the 10 decimal digits, the 26

ALPHANUMERIC CODES
letters of the alphabet and a certain no. of special symbols such as dollar
sign.

25
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASCII

 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code EBCDIC

 Circuit whose input and output signals are 2-state, low or high voltages CIRCUIT LOGIC

 Deals with variables that take on 2 discrete values and with operations that BINARY LOGIC
assume logical meaning
 Consists of binary variables and logical operation.

 1 stands for the more + of 2 voltage levels POSITIVE LOGIC

 1 stands for the more – of the 2 voltage levels NEGATIVE LOGIC

GATE
 a logic circuit with one or more input signal but only one output signal

Basic Logical Operations

AND (INTERSECTION) GATE
 Represented by a dot or by the absence of an operator
 A logic circuit where output is high only when all inputs are high

 A table that shows all input and output possibilities for a logic circuit TRUTH TABLE
AND
X Y Z
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Represented by a plus signal OR (UNION) GATE

 A logic circuit with 2 or more inputs and only one output 1 or more high
inputs produce a high output.

OR
X Y Z
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

 Represented by a prime (sometimes by a bar) NOT (INVERSION) GATE

 A gate with 1 input and 1 output (complement)

NOT
X Z
0 1
1 0
LOGIC GATES
 Electronic digital circuits
 Logic circuits
 Block of hardware that produces a logic 1 or logic 0 output signal if input
logic requirements are satisfied digital circuits
 Switching circuits

Other Logic Operations

 Compliment of the OR function and its name is an abbreviation of Not-OR. NOR FUNCTION
 All inputs be low to get a high output.

NOR
F = (X+Y)’
X Y F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

26
 Complement of AND NAND FUNCTION
 Abbreviation of Not-AND

NAND
F = (XY)’
X Y F
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

 Similar to OR but excludes the combination of both X and Y equal to 1. EXCLUSIVE OR

(XOR or EOR)
XOR
F = XY’ + X’Y
F=X+Y
X Y F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

 A function that is 1 when the 2 binary variables are equal EQUIVALENCE or

 i.e., when both are 0 or both are 1. EXCLUSIVE-NOR or
EXCLUSIVE OR-NOT
X-NOR
F = XY + X’Y’
F=X.Y
X Y F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Produces the transfer function but does not produce any particular logic BUFFER
operation since the binary value of the output is equal to the binary value of
the input.

BUFFER
X F
0 0
1 1

 A set of elements, a set of operators and a no. of unproved axioms of BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
postulates. (SYMBOLIC OGIC)

Most Common Postulates in Algebra

1. closure
2. associate law
3. commutative law
4. identity element
5. inverse
6. distributive

History of Boolean algebra

1854
 George Boole introduced a systematic treatment of logic and develops for
this purpose an algebraic system.
1938
 C.E. Shannon introduced a 2-valued Boolean Algebra called Switching
Algebra, in which he demonstrated that the properties of bistable electrical
circuits can be represented by this algebra.

 Every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean Algebra DUALITY PRINCIPLE
remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.

27
 Symbol is of the form mj where j denotes the decimal equivalent of the binary MINTERM OF STANDARD
no. of the mintern designated. PRODUCT

 The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterns equals the CONVERSION BETWEEN
sum of minterns missing from the original function. CANONICAL FORMS

 A Boolean expression containing AND terms called product terms of one or SUM OF PRODUCT (SOP)
more literals each.

 A Boolean expression containing OR terms called sum terms PRODUCT OF SUMS (POS)

 May be regarded as a pictorial form of a truth table of as an extension of the KARNAUGH MAP
Venn Diagram.

 A primary building block from which more complex functions are obtained. BASIC CIRCUIT

 Specifies the no. of standard loads that the output of the gate can drive FAN-OUT
without impairment of its normal operation.
STANDARD LOAD
 The current flowing in the input of a gate in the same IC family.
POWER DISSIPATION
 Power consumed by the gate which must be available from the power
supply.

 The average transition delay time for the signal to propagate form input to PROPAGATION DELAY
output when the signals change in value.

 The limit of a noise voltage which may be present without impairing the MOISE MARGIN
proper operation of the circuit.

 Consists of logic gates whose outputs at any time are determined directly COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
from the present combination of inputs without regard to previous inputs. CIRCUITS

 2 binary inputs and 2 binary outputs HALF ADDER

 A combinational circuit that forms the arithmetic sum of 3 input bits. FULL ADDER
 Consists of 3 inputs and 2 outputs.

 A combination logic circuit that recognizes the presence of a specific binary DECODER
no. or word.

 A digital function that produces a reverse operation from that of a decoder. ENCODER

 An electronic switch that permits any one of a number of inputs to be chosen

and routed to the output. MULTIPLEXER (DATA
 Has 2 or more inputs and a single output. SELECTOR CIRCUIT)

 A combinational logic circuits that receives information on a single line and DEMULTIPLEXER
transmits this information on one of 2n possible output lines.

 Employ memory elements (binary cells) in addition to logic gates. SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
 Their outputs are a function of the inputs and the state of the memory
elements.

 A system whose behavior can be defines from the knowledge of its signals at SYNCHRONOUS
discrete instant of time. SEQUANTIAL CIRCUIT

 A 2 state circuit that can remain in either state indefinitely.

FLIP FLOP
 An external trigger can change the output.
 Also called a Bistable Multivibrator.
D FLIP FLOP (D-LATCH)
 To eliminate the possibility of race condition.
JK FLIP FLOP
 Ideal memory element when it comes to circuits that count.

 Change of the output to the opposite state in a JK Flip Flop. TOGGLE

28
 Changing the output state of a flip flop on the rising and falling edge of a EDGE TRIGGERING
clock pulse.

 The minimum amount of time the input signals must be held constant after HOLD TIME
the clock edge has struck.

 The minimum amount of time the inputs to a flip flop must be present before SET-UP TIME
the clock edge arrives.

 Time it takes for the output of a gate or flip flop to change after the inputs has PROPAGATION DELAY TIME
changed.

 A type or of triggering in which the output of a F/F responds to the level (high
or low) of the clock signals. LEVEL CLOCKING

 The simplest type of F/F, consisting of 2 cross coupled NAND and NOR LATCH
latches.

 Type of triggering using 2 cascaded latches. 7 MASTER SLAVE

TRIGGERING
 An undesirable condition which may exist in a system when 2 of more inputs
RACE CONDITION
change simultaneously.

 A group of memory elements that work together as a unit primary purpose is

REGISTER
to store a word.
BUFFER
 A register that temporarily stores a word during data processing.
SHIFT REGISTER
 A register that can shift the stored bits one position to the left of right.
CONTROLLED SHIFT
 Has control inputs that determine what it does on the next clock pulse. REGISTER

 Means storing a word in the shift register by entering 1 bit per clock pulse. SERIAL LOADING

 Loading all bits of word in parallel during one clock pulse. PARALLEL LOADING
(BROADSIDE LOADING)
 A register capable of counting the member of clock pulses that have arrived
at its clock input. COUNTER

 Counts clock pulses only when commanded to do so. CONTROLLED COUNTER

 A counter in which the clock drives each F/F to eliminate the ripple delay. SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS

 A counter producing words with 1 high bit which shifts one position per clock RING COUNTER
pulse.

 The no of stable states a counter has. MODULUS OF A COUNTER

 Divide by 10 circuits
 Decade counter. MOD 10 COUNTER

 Counts down. DOWN COUNTER

 F/F outputs are connected to steering networks UP DOWN COUNTER

 The counter starts at a number greater than 0 PRESETTABLE COUNTER

3-STATE SWITCH
 A non-inverting buffer that can be closed or opened by a control signal
 A tri-state switch
PRESSENTABLE COUNTER
 A counter that allows you to preset a number from which the count begins. (PROG. COUNTER)
 A group with wires used as a common word path by several registers. BUS
 Where the programs and data stored before calculations begins. MEMORY

 A way of specifying the location of data in memory similar to a house ADDRESS

address.

29
 The time it takes to read the contents of a memory location after it has been ACCESS TIME
addressed.

 A type of memory in which data stored in the memory is lost when the power VOLATILE
is turned off.

 A type of memory in which the stored data is not lost when the power if NON-VOLATILE
turned off

 Programmable ROM PROM

 Allows the user to store the data.
 Programming is permanent.

 Erasable PROM
EPROM
 A device that is ultraviolet-erasable and electrically reprogrammable.

 Electrically Erasable PROM

EEPROM
 Non volatile like EPROM but does not require ultraviolet light to be erased.

 Read Write Memory RAM

 Core Ram
 Non volatile.

 Uses bipolar or MOS F/F’s STATIC RAM

 Data is retained indefinitely as long as power is applied to the F/F’s

 Uses MOSFET’s and capacitors that store data. DYNAMIC RAM

 Highly volatile because not only must the power be kept on, but the
capacitor charge also be refreshed every few msec.

 Must be able to process data. PROCESSOR

 Brain of the computer
 Shingle chip capable of processing data and controlling all the components,
whether input of output.

 Keep all other parts working together in the right time and sequence. CONTROL UNIT

 Contains the microprocessor data processing logic. ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

 Prominent part of microprocessor wherein the data is being stored. REGISTER

 Programs which can assist users of particular type of computer to make the SOFTWARE
best use of their machine.

 A way detailed list of steps which must be followed to accomplish a certain

PROGRAM
task.
FLOWCHART
 A diagrammatic representation of a sequence of events.
LOOP
 A section of program which will repeat over and over again.
STRAIGHT-LINE PROGRAM
 A program in which each step is followed by the next without any alternate
routes or paths.

 Allows us to write one program that can do different things at different times. BRANCHING

 A section of a program which causes different actions to be taken on BRANCH

conditions.

 A portion of the program which is called upon to perform a specific task. SUBROUTINE

 Only language the computer actually understands MACHINE LANGUAGE

 Consists of 1’s and 0’s.

 A low-level language which uses mnemonics in place of binary patterns. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

 Abbreviations for machine language instructions.

MNEMONICS

30
  Uses advanced commands. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

 Formula translation FORTRAN

 Language that handles high level mathematics very well and is designated
for scientists and engineers.

 Common Business Oriented Language COBOL

 Tailored to the needs of business

 Designed to be easy for non-professional programmers to learn and use. BASIC

 Named after the French Mathematician, Blaire Pascal. PASCAL

 Designed to encourage the programmer to adhere to what are considered
correct programming practices.
C AND FORTH
 Between high and low level languages

 When we write in assembly language we use abbreviations called ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

mnemonics for certain operations of functions.

 More like English than machine language. SOURCE CODE

 You must look up the codes yourself. MANUAL ASSEMBLY

 Simple assembler. MONITOR

 A program which gives the programmer access to the microprocessor’s
stack, accumulator, registers and so forth.

 A program which translates assembly language mnemonics into binary ASSEMBLER

patterns (machine language)

 A program which translates binary patterns into assembly language DISASSEMBLER

mnemonics.

 A complex program which converts computer instructions written in a source COMPILER

language into machine code.

 A tool which helps you stay organized as you write programs WORKSHEET
 Simply a form ion which you can write program.

 Simple As Possible SAP

 Stores a program and data before calculations begin SAP 1

 Next step in the evolution toward modern computers because it includes SAP 2
jump instruction.

 8-bit microcomputer that is upward compatible with the 8080 microprocessor. SAP 3

FILTERS
PASSIVE FILTER
 Built using passive components, resistor and capacitor.
ACTIVE FILTER
 Uses amplifier for voltage gain and signal isolation or buffering.

 A filter that provides a constant output form DC up to a cut-off frequency, and LOW PASS FILTER
then passes no signal.

 A filter that passes signals only above a cut-off frequency. HIGH PASS FILTER

 Filter circuit that passes signals above and below the cut-off frequency. BAND PASS FILTER

31
INSTUMENTATION

 Measurements of quantities in Electrical Engineering or Electrical INSTRUMENTATION

Engineering quantities such as voltage, current, etc.

 Device that can give quantitative description on a given parameters. INSTRUMENT

 Electromechanical device with moving pointers, spring and moving coils or

moving vanes. ANALOG METER

 Utilize electronic circuits in place of electromechanical and provide a

DIGITAL METER
numerical readout.
 Auto range
 Minimum power consumption.

 Bearing friction LIMITATION OF ANALOG

 Frequency variations METER, ERROR
 Possible loss of magnetism.

 Parallax error-reading from the sides. LIMITATION OF ANALOG

 Interpolation error-estimating between graduation METER, USER ERROR
 Interpretation error-reading on the wrong side of the scale and falling to
consider the multiplying factor.

 Consists of a movable coil situated within the magnetic field of a permanent D’ARSONVAL METER
magnet.
 Consists of moving coil, spring and permanent magnet.

 Consists of a moving coil, called: armature” that is free to move within a ELECTRODYNAMETER
magnetic field set-up by two stationary field coils.

 2 soft iron vanes, movable and stationary. IRON VANE MOVEMENTS

 Resistance of the ideal ammeter is zero. IDEAL AMMETER

 Needle deflection is directly proportional to current.

 Arises form the fact that meter face is not accurately marked. CALIBRATION ERROR

 Error caused by the internal resistance of the ammeter. AMMETER LOADING EFFECT

DC AMMETER SHUNT
 Resistor connected in parallel with meter to increase the measuring
RESISTANCE, Rsh
capability of the ammeter.
COMPARING CIRCUIT
 R(ab) dictates the circuit what must be obtained in measuring circuit.

 R,L,C (DC), and Z (AC)

MEASURING CIRCUIT
 Variable control use to losing the bridge to a balanced equation is connected
to branches.

 Galvanometers for DC and Oscilloscope for AC DETECTION CIRCUIT

 Basic meter movement consisting of a fixed coil divided into two equal halves ELECTRODYNAMOMETER
and a moving coil between the field coils. MOVEMENT

 Consists of a fixed coil of many turns and tow iron-vanes placed in the fixed ERON-VANE METER
coil. MOVEMENT

 Variable capacitor ELECTROSTATIC METER

 Used to measure high voltage but little current. MOVEMENT

 Used to measure RF AC signal. THERMOCOUPLE METER

 Consists of a heater and a d’Arsonval meter movement.
D’ARSONVAL METER
 Consists of a permanent magnet and a moving coil. MOVEMENT

 To measure alternating current with the d’Arsonval meter, first rectify the AC D’ARSONVAL METER,
by use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow. HALFWAVE RECTIFICATION

32
  To improve the sensitivity of a rectifier type of voltmeter, full-wave D’ARSONVAL METER, FULL
rectification is used. WAVE RECTIFICATION

 Making a comparison measurements are widely used to measure resistance, DC BRIDGE

inductances, capacitances and impedance.

 Consists of two parallel resistance branches containing two series elements, WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
usually resistors.

 Modified version of the Wheatstone bridge containing additional set of radio KELVIN BRIDGE
arms to compensate for lead and contact resistors of 1 ohm or loss.

 Known and simplest of loop tests used principally to locate ground faults in MURRAY LOOP
short sections of communications and power cables.

 Ground faults and short circuits in high resistance loops such as long VARLEY LOP
communications lines.

 Used to measure inductance and capacitance accurately. AC BRIDGE

AC WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 Used to measure the impedance of a capacitive circuit.
 Also called as Capacitance Comparison Bridge or the series RC bridge.
SMILAR ANGLE BRIDGE
 Also called as parallel capacitance comparison.
OPPOSITE-ANGLE BRIDGE
 Used to determine an unknown inductance with capacitance standards.

 Measure either the equivalent-series components or the equivalent parallel MAXWELL BRIDGE
components of impedance.

 Measure insulating properties, for phase angles of nearly 90 degrees. WEIN BRIDGE

 Used on laboratories to measure the impedance of both capacitive and SCHERING BRIDGE
inductive circuits at higher frequencies.

BASIC ELECTRICITY

 An invisible force that can produce heat, light motion and many other ELECTRICITY
physical effects that can be seen in battery, static charge, lightning,
electronics.

 Negatively charges particle ELECTRONS

 Positively charge particle PROTONS

NEUTRONS
 Have no electric charge
CHARGE
 Static electricity at rest, without any potion.
COULOMB
 Mks unit of quantity
CURRENT
 Charge in motion, a continuous flow of free electrons.
AMPERE
 The base unit of current
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
 Source of electrons, the force that causes the motion of electrons

 A potential energy difference that exist across two points which tend to cause VOLTAGE
a flow of electrons

 Unit of emf and voltage, specifies the energy available when a given charge VOLT
is transported from the low to high potential.

 A property of electric circuit, material and substance that converts electrical RESISTANCE
energy to heat energy.

 The base unit or resistance OHMS

33
 The opposite or reciprocal of resistance, it measures how fast electrons CONDUCTANCE
could easily pass through a material

 The unit of conductance SIEMENS

 The resistance of a conducting material is directly proportional to its length RESISTANCE LAW
( R α L ) and inversely proportional to its cross sectional area (R α L/A ).

 A convenient use of area used with circular wires because the use of CIRCULAR MIL
square inches or square feet results in complicated calculations and
inconveniently small numbers for ordinary size of wires.

 Effect of temperature on resistance

 To increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly
regular for normal ranges of temperature.
 To increase the resistance of alloys though in their case, the increase is
relatively small and irregular.
 To decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper
rubber, glass, mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon.

 Change in resistance per degree change in temperature.

TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENTS OF
RESISTANCE
 The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor OHMS LAW
to the current ( I ) flowing between them is constant provide the
temperature of the conductor does not change.

 Device having known specific values of resistance and used for the control RESISTORS
of current or the production of heat.

 The resistor in an incandescent lamp. FINE TUNGSTEN WIRE

 Used as heating elements in toasters, flat irons and other heating NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOY
resistance heating elements.

 They are very accurate and its ohmic and wattage (above 2 W) is painted WIRE WOUND
on its covering.

 1/8 W to 2W in rating, and its ohmic rating can be determine by its color CARBON COMPOSITION
code.

 Use a thin film of metal or a metal particle mixture to achieve various METAL FILM
resistances.

 Made by depositing a carbon film on a small ceramic cylinder. CARBON FILM

 Connected n a circuit to vary the current RHEOSTAT

 Connected in a circuit to vary the voltage. POTENTIOMETER

 A potentiometer equipped with plastic thumbwheel or a slot for a TRIMMER

screwdriver for occasional adjustment.

 A temperature sensitive resistors THERMISTOR

 A voltage sensitive resistors. VARISTORS

 A light sensitive resistors. PHOTORESISTORS

 Materials through which electron can freely travel silver (Ag 47) , copper
(Cu 29) gold (Au 79). CONDUCTORS

CORD
 Consist of a group of wires twisted to form a metallic string.
INSULATORS
 The term given to an insulated wire.

34
 Serves as physical shield against heat or moisture, and they are rated from CONDUCTOR INSULATOR
250 to 15,000 volts.

 The current in amperes, a conductor can carry continuously under the AMPACITY
condition of use without exceeding its temperature rating.

 Materials whose electrical characteristics fall between that of conductors SEMICONDUCTORS

and insulators silicon ( Si 14 ) germanium ( Ge 32) metallic compounds
cadmium sulfide ( CdS) and cadmium selenide ( CdSe).

 Rate of producing work or consuming energy. POWER

 The S.I. unit of electric power. WATTS

 Power rating of electric motor HORSEPOWER

 The accomplishment of motion against the action of a force which tends to

oppose the motion WORK

JOULE
 The S.I. unit of electric energy and work.

 Ratio of useful energy to total input energy which is always a decimal or a

EFFICIENCY
number less than 1.

 A natural phenomenon in which some material (ferromagnetic) can be MAGNETISM

attached by a magnet but not other material ( non-magnetic)

 A substance that attracts pieces of iron (and its compound) steel, nickel, MAGNET
cobalt.

 A field force like electricity and earths gravitational force which acts without MAGNETIC FORCE
physical contacts.

 A region in which magnetic materials is acted upon by a magnetic force. MAGNETIC FIELD

 Represents the line which seems to emanate from north and terminates to MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
South Pole.

 The areas where the effect of magnetic field is concentrated. POLES

 Characteristics of magnetic lines of force.

 They possess a positive direction
 They always form a complete loop
 They tend to become as short as possible
 They repel one another
 Like poles repel one another
 They arrange to set up their maximum number

 The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field. MAGNETIC FLUX
 The S.I. unit is the Weber (Wb)

 Establishment the magnetic flux in magnetic circuit the counterpart of EMF

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE
an electric circuit.
RELUCTANCE
 The limiter of the magnetic circuit to the establishment of a magnetic flux

 A measure of the ability of a magnetic circuit to permit the setting up of flux PERMEANCE
 A figure indicating the ability of a material to permit the setting up of flux. PERMEABILITY
 Ratio of absolute permeability of a material to permeability of vacuum. RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

 The flux per cross sectional area. FLUX DENSITY

 Magneto motive force per unit length. MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

 Magnetic materials whereby a change in a magnetization LAGS the HYSTERESES

application of a magnetizing force.

35
 The ability of material once magnetized to maintain a magnetized state RETENTIVITY
without the presence of a magnetizing force.

 Such as aluminum, chromium, manganese, and air where intense PARAMAGNETIC

magnetic fields have only a very mild barely detectable attractive effect.

 Such as bismuth, antimony, copper, silver and a few others where intense DIAMAGNETIC
magnetic fields have a scarcely perceptible repellant effect.

 Do allow magnetism to pass through them, but they never become NON MAGNETIC
magnetized to any noticeable degree.

DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

CIRCUIT
 A closed conducting path through which an electric current flows or is
intended to flow.

 The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance and

PARAMETERS
capacitance which may be lumped or distributed.

 Is one whose parameters are constant, i.e., they do not change with LINEAR CIRCUIT
voltage or current

 Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current NON-LINEAR CIRCUIT

 Is one whose properties or a characteristic is the same is either direction. BILATERAL CIRCUIT

 Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction UNILATERAL CIRCUIT
of its operation.

 Connection of various electric elements in any manner. ELECTRIC NETWORK

 With no source of emf. PASSIVE NETWORK

 Contains one or more than one sources of emf. ACTIVE NETWORK

 A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or branches NODE
are connected together.

 Part of a network which lies between two junctions. BRANCH

 A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more LOOP

than once.

 A loop that contains no other loop within it. MESH

 For simple circuit where the networks is left in its original form while DIRECT METHOD
determining its different voltages and currents.

 For simple as well as complicated networks, where the original network is NETWORK REDUCTION
converted into a much simpler equivalent circuit for rapid calculation of METHOD
different quantities.

 More comprehensive than ohms law and is used in solving electrical KIRCHOFFS LAW
networks which may not readily solved by the latter.

 In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at a

KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW
point (or junction) is zero.

 The algebraic sum of the products of the currents and the resistances in
each of the conductors in any closed loop path in a network PLUS the
KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW
algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.

 A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.

MESH ANALYSIS
 An assumed current, which are preferably flow in a clockwise around the MESH CURRENTS
meshes.

36
 A systematic application of KCL at a node and after simplifying the NODAL ANALYSIS
resulting KCL equation, the node voltage ca be calculated.

 A node with three or more circuit elements joined together. PRINCIPAL NODE

 The node from which unknown voltages are measured. REFERENCE NODE

 The current through or voltage across an element in a linear bilateral SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
network is equal to the algebraic sum of the current or voltages produced
independently in each source.

 Any resistance R in a branch of network in which current I flowing can be

replaced, for the purpose of calculations by a voltage equal to IR, or COMPENSATION THEOREM
 If the resistance of any branch of the network of a network is changed from
R to (R + ∆R) where the current flowing originally is 1, the change of
current at any other place in the network may be calculated by assuming
than assuming than an emf of -1 (∆R) has been injected into the modified
branch while other sources have their emfs suppressed and are
represented by their internal resistance only.

 In any linear-bilateral network if a source of emf, E in any branch produces RECIPROCITY THEOREM
a current I in any branch., then the same emf, E acting in the second
branch would produce the same current I in the first branch.
SOURCE CONVERSION
 A voltage source and series resistance combination is equivalent to a
THEOREM
current source and parallel resistance combination if their respective open
circuit voltages and currents are equal,

 Any 2 terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of fixed resistances and

THEVENINS THEOREM
voltages sources may be replaced by a single voltage source and a series
internal resistance

 Any 2 terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistances NORTONS THEOREM
when viewed from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant-current
source and a parallel internal resistance

 A special case of the application of Thevenin’s theorem or Norton’s MILLSMAN THEOREM

theorem used for finding the Common Voltage across any network which
may contains a number of parallel voltages sources.

 For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum power will MAXIMUM POWER
be delivered to the load when the resistance equal to the internal TRANSFER
resistance of the source.

 Produced an emf when two dissimilar metals are immersed in an acid or CELL
salt solution, known as electrolyte.

 Can not be used again after it has discharged all its electrical energy. PRIMARY CELL

 Almost obsolete; used in larger bell, indicator circuits, and for railway DRY CELL
signaling.

 It can be recharge after “supplying” it with the electrical energy SECONDARY CELL

 Consist of positive and negative lead electrodes and an electrolyte of dilute LEAD ACID CELL
sulphuric acid all placed in an acid resistant container.

 Measures the capacity of cell. AMPERE HOUR

 Used to measure the specific gravity of a cell. HYDROMETER

 The maximum of force available in a cell to produce current flow EMF OF CELLS

 Some resistance to current flows through the cell (less than 1 ohms in a INTERMNAL RESISTANCE
good cell)

 The voltage measured in the terminal of a cell and is less than the cell emf. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

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 Provide high PD by connecting the positive terminal of one cell to the CELLS IN SERIES
negative terminal of the other.

 Heavier currents can drawn

CELLS IN PARALLEL

ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

 A complete set of positive and negative alternation of sinusoidal waveform CYCLE

FREQUENCY
 Number of cycles completed in one second.
PERIOD
 The amount of time required for one cycle to be completed.
SINE WAVE
 The value at any point in time on a sine wave, at different points. INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
 The value of voltage or current at the positive or negative maximum with PEAK OR MAXIMUM VALUE
respect to zero time axis.

 The voltage or current from the positive peak to the negative peak or vice PEAK TO PEAK VALUE
versa.

 For sinusoidal half period AVERAGE VALUE

 The equivalent of DC as far as heating at resistance is concerned. EFFECTIVE OR ROOT MEAN

SQUARE VALUE
 The ratio of the effective value to the average value. FORM FACTOR

 The ratio of maximum value to the effective value. CREST FACTOR

 An angular measurement that specifies the position of a sine wave relative PHASE
to a relative to a reference.

 A rotating arrow used to represent the time varying quantities in terms of PHASOR
their magnitude and angular measurements.

 Total circuit limiter to flow of AC, in ohms. IMPEDANCE

 The product of rms value voltage and current APPARENT POWER

 The power actually consumed by an AC circuit. AVERAGE POWER

 The power taken by a reactance ( inductive or capacitive) REACTIVE

 The cosine of angle between voltage and current in AC circuit. POWER FACTOR

 Current remain in phase with the voltage UNITY PF

LEADING PF
 Current leads voltage by an angle α electrical degree.
LAGGING PF
 Current lags voltage by an angle α electrical degree.

 There is a phase difference of 90 electrical degrees between current and

ZERO PF
voltage, so no useful work done.

 Maybe two, three, four six. Nine-phase but the most common for power POLYPHASE CIRCUIT
and lighting applications is the three phase.

 Resistance offered by inductor or capacitor to alternating current in AC REACTANCE

circuit.

 Resistance of inductive device to AC. INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

 Resistance of capacitive device to AC. CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

 The reciprocal of impedance, in Siemens ADMITTANCE

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  Is the ability of the inductance and capacitance to pass AC, in Siemens SUSCEPTANCE

 The ability of the inductor to permit current to flow. INDUCTIVE SUSCEPTANCE

 The ability of the capacitor to permit current to flow. CAPACITIVE SUSCEPTANCE\

RESONANCE AND FILTERS

 Is the condition existing in a circuit, containing R, L, and C, where the RESONANCE

applied voltage V is in phase with the resulting current I;

 Is the ability of a circuit to respond more readily to signals of a particular SELECTIVITY

frequency to which it is tuned than to signals of other frequencies.

 Is a range of frequencies between two points on its selective curve? The BANDWIDTH FREQUENCY
bandwidth is taken between the points where the current, voltage, or
impedance is 70.7% of maximum, depending on whether it is a series or
parallel-tuned circuits.

 A figure of merit for RLC circuit: that is refers to the “goodness” of a QUALITY FACTOR
reactive component.
 The higher the Q-factor, the narrower the BW and more selective is the
circuit.
 Q-factor in the order of 100-300 are useful in communication engineering
 The disadvantage of high Q-factor in series circuit, it can lead to dangerous
high voltage across the insulation and may result in electrical breakdown.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

 A rotating machine used for continuous conversion of mechanical energy DC MACHINE

to electrical energy and vice versa.

 Provides mechanical energy to generators. PRIMEMOVER

 A rotor device whose blades rotate its wheel by the water-jet pressure or
superheated steam. TURBINES

 Continuously converts mechanical energy into direct current electrical

DC GENERATORS
energy
INDUCTION
 There are no physical connections between the magnets and the
conductors. Output depends on, magnetic field strength, speed at which it
is driven and number of conductors.

 The extended forefinger, thumb and the center-finger of the left hand,
LEFT HAND RULE FOR
which are mutually perpendicular with each other, will point in the direction
GENERATOR ACTION
of cutting motion of the conductor ad in the direction of the induced current,
respectively.
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
 Made up of poles, armature core, air gap, and the field yoke.
POLES
 Provides the flux that will pass through the air gap and the armature core.

 Have greater cross section than the pole core. POLE SHOES

 Acts as a return path for the flux and mechanical support for the frame. FIELD YOKE

 The space between the pole faces and the armature surface. AIR GAP

 Are located on the armature surfaces to receive the insulated copper TEETH AND SLOTS
armature winding.

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 The most important part of the dynamo. ARMATURE WINDING

 Converts AC to DC or DC to AC. It is where the armature coil ends are COMMUTATOR

soldered.

 These are spools of conductors carrying DC that provide flux needed for FIELD COILS
dynamo excitation.

 Consists of a set of brush holders that are bolted to a yoke and carbon BRUSH ASSEMBLY
brushes.

 Made of carbon or graphite, and are fitted in brush holders and a shift CARBON BRUSHES
spring presses it against the commutator face.

 Its shunt field is connected to an outside source ( a battery or another DC SEPARATELY EXCITED
generators).

 Its initial excitation is achieved by utilizing the residual magnetism of the SELF EXCITED
field poles, and then generated emf is red to the field poles for excitation.

 Effect of magnetic field set up by the armature current (or the induced
ARMATURE REACTION
current) on the main field flux of a generator.

 Connected in series with the armature to neutralize armature reaction.

COMPENSATING WINDING
 Connected in series with the armature to neutralize armature reaction. INTERPOLE WINDING
 Parallel with the series field, it can be brought up the no load voltage up to DIVERTER RESISTANCE
almost any desired values to meet individual demands.

 A measure of how steady the output voltage is when the load changes. %PERCENT VOLTAGE
REGULATION
 Continuously converts electrical energy into direct mechanical energy. DC MOTORS

 Is a measure of the twisting capability of a motor and is proportional to the TORQUE

magnetic field strength and the armature current.

 Assuming the developed torque is sufficient to cause rotation, a counter – COUNTER-EMF

emf (or back emf) will be generated in the armature speed and the air gap
flux.

 Maintain its speed constant for any load. CONSTANT SPEED MOTOR

 Allows speed variation through wide limits. ADJUSTABLE SPEED

MOTOR
 Reduces its speed as required turning force increases. VARIABLE SPEED MOTOR

 Speed characteristics; variable

 Torque characteristics: high starting SERIES MOTOR
 Applications: cranes, elevators, hoists, electric railway, cars, trucks and
locomotives.

 Speed characteristics; essentially constant and adjustable. SHUNT MOTOR

 Torque characteristics: good starting
 Applications: fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, conveyors, wood working
and metal-working machine, elevators.

 Speed characteristics; maybe constant and adjustable or variable speed

COMPOUND MOTOR
 Torque characteristics: medium starting
 Applications: plunger, pumps, punch presses, power shears milling
machine.

 An electrical machine that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to TRANSFORMERS
another.
LAMINATED CORE
 Carries the magnetic lines and usually, made up of steel or silicon steel.

 Where the voltage source is connected. PRIMARY WINDINGS

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 Where the load is connected and may be composed of several windings SECONDARY WINDINGS
where several loads of different voltages can be connected.

 Have a single continuous winding: part of which is common to both AUTOTRANSFORMER

primary and secondary winding.

 An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical AC GENERATOR OR

energy. In the form of alternating current and when as motor it run is ALTERNATOR
called a synchronous motor.

 Two main parts of alternator. STATOR, ROTOR

 One in which the magnetic field in the rotor is induced by current flowing INDUCTION MOTORS
in the stator windings.

 The rotor winding is practically self-contained an it’s connected either SQUIRREL-CAGE

mechanically or electrically with the outside power supply or control
circuit.

 This is a three phase motor that has another three phase winding instead WOUND ROTOR TYPE
of a squirrel cage rotor, the terminals of which are connected to three slip
rings.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
 An AC motor that can run only on a definite speed called “synchronous
speed” regardless of the load applied to it.
FIELD (ROTOR)
 Carries DC excited winding.
STRUCTURE
 Often a three phase winding connected to an AC loads and its field over ARMATURE (STATOR)
excited. STRUCTURE
 It has stator windings, the main and the auxiliary windings. SPLIT PHASE MOTORS
 It includes machines whose stator coils are energized by electronically SPECIAL MACHINES
switched currents.

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