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Problems, Control, and Treatment of Fat, Oil, and Grease (FOG): A Review

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 Journal of Oleo Science
Copyright ©2014 by Japan Oil Chemists’ Society
doi : 10.5650/jos.ess13182
J. Oleo Sci. 63, (8) 747-752 (2014)

Problems, Control, and Treatment of Fat, Oil, and

Grease (FOG): A Review
Iman A. F. Husain1, Ma’an Fahmi Alkhatib1＊ , Mohamed Saedi Jammi1,
Mohamed E. S. Mirghani1, 2, Zaki Bin Zainudin1 and Asif Hoda1
1
‌Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Centre (BERC), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, International
Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Gombak, Kuala Lumpur, 50728, Malaysia
2
‌International Institute for Halal Research and Training (INHART), Faculty of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),
Gombak, Kuala Lumpur, 50728, Malaysia

Abstract: Presence of fat, oil, and grease (FOG) in wastewater is an ever-growing concern to municipalities
and solid-waste facility operators. FOG enters the sewer system from restaurants, residences, and industrial
food facilities. Its release into the sewer system results in a continuous build-up that causes eventual
blockage of sewer pipes. Several researchers have investigated FOG deposition based on the local conditions
of sewers and lifestyle. This paper attempts to review the physical and chemical characteristics of FOG,
sources of FOG, and potential chemical and biological reactions of FOG. The effect of the aforementioned
factors on the FOG-deposition mechanism is also discussed. Moreover, insight into the current control and
treatment methods and potential reuse of FOG is highlighted. It is expected that this review would provide
scientists and the concerned authorities a holistic view of the recent researches on FOG control, treatment,
and reuse.

Key words: FOG, sewage, deposition, FFA, saponification, hydrolysis

1 Introduction
Fat, oil, and grease（FOG）is an ever-growing environ-
mental concern. FOG is usually produced at food service
establishments（FSE）or other food preparation facilities1）.
The by-products and wastes from these FSE include meat,
sauces, gravy, dressings, deep-fried food, baked goods,
cheeses, and butter. All these wastes are considered FOG
and may lead to the FOG build-up in the sewer system
when discharged directly into the facility’ s plumbing
system2）. Other sources of FOG include discharge from in-
dustrial activities; for example, palm oil mill effluent
（POME）and automobile workshop discharge. Recently, the
eating habits of people have changed, with more people
eating outside their homes, and thus the number of food
outlets has continued to increase, resulting in increased
blockage of a city’s sewer system because of FOG deposi-
tion3）.
FOG blockage is a worldwide concern. For example, the
American Environmental Agency（EPA）estimated that at
least 10,350–36,000 sanitary sewer overflows（SSOs）occur
per year in the USA, approximately 47％ of which is related
to FOG4）. Similarly, in the UK over 25,000 flooding inci-
dents per year are due to sewer blockages, of which, 50％
is due to FOG5）. Moreover, up to 70％ of the SSOs that
occur in Malaysia are due to FOG. In 2010 only, the waste-
water municipality in Malaysia, Indah Water Konsortium
（IWK） , received a total of 22,184 blockage enquiries6）.
Continuous build-up of FOG decreases the capacity of
the sewer system as the FOG solidifies and deposits on the
interior walls of the sewer, causing blockage of pipes and
hence restricting the wastewater flow（Fig. 1）. Over time,
sewers blocked by FOG will fail, leading to the overflow of
sewage from manholes; this sewage may eventually make
its way to state water sources as a contaminant. The block-
ages and sewer flooding may result in other environmental
problems, both locally and beyond the premises.
Recently, extensive effort has been expended to investi-
gate the possibility of treating and reusing FOG to reduce
the amount disposed at landfills. However, understanding
the chemical and physical properties of FOG and its depos-
it-formation mechanism is essential for developing more
environmentally and economically efficient methods of
controlling, treating, and reusing FOG.

＊
Correspondence to: M. F. Alkhatib, Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Centre (BERC), Department of Biotechnology
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Gombak, Kuala Lumpur, 50728, Malaysia
E-mail: maan@iium.edu.my
Accepted March 11, 2014 (received for review October 30, 2013)
Journal of Oleo Science ISSN 1345-8957 print / ISSN 1347-3352 online
http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jos/  http://mc.manusriptcentral.com/jjocs

747
 I. A. F. Husain, M. F. Alkhatib, M. S. Jammi et al.

Fig. 1　Sewer Pipe before (a) and after (b) deposition of FOG. Provided by IWK.

Table 1 Most common Free Fatty Acids.

Name Systematic name Short-hand Melting point (℃)
Butyric Butanoic 4:0 −5.3
Caproic Hexnoic 6:0 −3.2
Caprylic Octanoic 8:0 16.2
Capric Decanoic 10:0 31.6
Lauric Dodecanoic 12:0 44.8
Myristic Tetradecanoic 14:0 54.4
Palmatic Hexadecanoic 16:0 62.9
Stearic Octadecanoic 18:0 70.1
Oleic Octadecenoic 18:1 16.2
Vaccenic Octadecenoic 18:1 44.1
Linoleic Octadecadienoic 18:2 −5
Linolenic Octadecatrienoic 18:3 −11
Arachidonic Eicosatetraenoic 20:4 −49
EPA Eicosapentaenoic 20:5
DHA dodosahexaenoic 22:6

2 Definition of FOG
Fats, oils, and grease（ FOG）are the by-products of
cooking（also called brown grease） . Typically, FOG includes
matter such as food scraps, meat fats, lard, tallow, cooking
oil, butter, margarine, sauces, gravy, dressings, deep-fried
food, baked goods, cheeses, and butter. FOG can be solid
or a viscous liquid depending on the saturation of the
carbon chain7）. Oils and fats are a subsection of lipids that
are composed of fatty acids, triacylglycerols, and lipid-sol-
uble hydrocarbons that are minor but important compo-
nents of FOG8）.
3 Chemical Composition of FOG
（FFAs）
3.1 Free fatty acids
FFAs are carboxylic acids with long-chain hydrocarbon
side groups. FFAs usually occur in the esterified form as
the major components of lipids. There are over 1000 identi-
748
J. Oleo Sci. 63, (8) 747-752 (2014)
fied natural fatty acids; however, only around 20 of these
are common in food sciences. Most common FFAs have a
straight chain of 8–22 carbon atoms and frequently have
one or more unsaturated centers（double bonds）. Table 1
shows the most common fatty acids 8, 9）.
FFAs are very important constituents of FOG because of
their chemical reactivity. Moreover, the FFA content of res-
taurant effluents can reach over 15％, which reduces the
pH and serves as an indicator of the chemical activity of
FOG10）.
3.2 Triacylglycerols
Fatty acids occur mainly as glycerol esters known as tria-
cylglycerols（TAGs） （also called triglycerides）. TAGs are
nonpolar, water-insoluble substances, and are considered a
class of abundant lipids. Glycerol contains three carbon
atoms, each of which carries a hydroxyl group（HOCH2CH
（OH）CH 2OH）. Depending on the number of hydroxyl
groups that are acylated, the glycerol esters are named
 FOG problems, control and treatment
monoacylglycerols（MAG）, diacylglycerols（DAG）, and tria-
cylglycerols（TAG）. Fats and oils are complex mixtures of
triacylglycerols, whose fatty acid composition varies on the
basis of the organism of origin. Plant oils are generally
richer in unsaturated fatty acid residues than animal fats,
as indicated by the lower melting points of the oils. Thus,
oils are typically liquids whereas animal fat is solid at room
temperature11）.
3.3 Ester waxes
Wax comprises several types of medium- and long-chain
compounds, including hydrocarbons（ TCH 3）, alcohols
（RCH2OH） （RCHO）
, aldehydes （RCOOH）
, acids , and esters
（RCOOR′ ） （e.g., carnauba and
. Waxes are of both vegetable
jojoba） （e.g., beewax and woolwax）
and animal origin 12）
. that deposit on the surface of the pipe, thus obstructing
3.4 Phospholipids
The amphiphilic nature of phospholipids imparts unique
properties to them that make them important in foods,
cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Although phospholipids
are removed during oil refining, they are present in small
quantities in vegetable oils and thus will appear in the FOG
mixture13）.
3.5 Sterols and sterol esters
Although sterols（e.g., cholesterol）are not lipids, they
occur in many oils and fats and exhibit certain similar
physical properties. Sterols can be esterified to long chain
fatty acids via oxidation reactions.
Most crude oils contain 0.1–2.2％ of phytosterol, partly
as free sterols and partly as sterols esterified with FFAs.
The ratio of esterified to free sterols varies, where the free
sterols（40–80％） are generally predominant14）.
4 Physical properties of FOG
FOG may occur as liquid or solid and is characterized by
a greasy texture. In its pure state, FOG is colorless, odor-
less, and tasteless. Moreover, FOG is insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents such as hexane, ether, and chlo-
roform15）.
FOG has a density less than water （specific gravity ＜1）
and thus, it floats on the water surface. However, FOG will
form emulsions with aqueous media in the presence of
soap or other emulsifying agents12−14）. Generally, FOG has
high viscosity that varies based on the fatty acid composi-
tion and presence of double bonds. The more double bonds
present in the carbon chain, the lower the viscosity of FOG
because of the more loosely packed structure16）.
The presence of a large amount of FFAs in FOG, which
are generally formed by the hydrolysis and oxidation reac-
tions of oils during deep frying of food, results in a charac-
teristically low pH of FOG17−20）.
J. Oleo Sci. 63, (8) 747-752 (2014)
5 Sources of FOG in the Sewer System
FOG is usually produced at food service establishments,
residences, and slaughterhouses. FOG components are in-
troduced into the sewer system either by direct dumping
into the sewer or by escape from grease traps（GTs）that
（interceptors）
are usually installed in restaurants. The GTs
are designed to trap most of the FOG in the restaurant ef-
fluent and separate it from the sewage before reaching the
sewer pipe21）. However, the efficiency of the GT depends
strongly on the frequency of its maintenance22）. Moreover,
if a dish washer or high-temperature water is used for dish
washing, FOG may melt and emulsify within the wastewa-
ter phase and thus escape the GT. Upon subsequent flow
into the sewer pipe, FOG may solidify and form particles
the wastewater flow23−25）.
Stoll and Gupta26） found that the concentration of FOG
in wastewater from Asian restaurants in Thailand ranged
from 730 to 1100 mg/L. This high quantity of FOG arises
from fast-food restaurant effluent. The menu of these res-
taurants consists mainly of fried chicken, seafood, French
fries, and salad dressing that contain a large amount of
FOG.
6 Chemical and Biological Reactions Related to FOG
FFAs are chemically active and readily undergo saponifi-
cation in the presence of sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide, which act as strong agents for generating metal-
lic soap27）.
To understand the mechanism by which FFAs form
during frying, it is very important to understand the role of
sodium and potassium in the reactions. Sodium and potas-
sium are naturally present in raw food; during deep frying,
some sodium ions may be extracted by the FFA present in
the frying oil to form sodium oleate（i.e., sodium soaps）.
Sodium oleate decreases the interfacial tension between
the frying oil and the thin layer of water on the surface of
the fried food, causing migration of the polar lipids from
the frying oil to the fried food. Moreover, sodium soaps
stimulate the foaming of frying oil and thus accelerate its
oxidation 24）. The oxidation reaction, which is promoted by
heat, light, and heavy metals, is a radical chain reaction
that occurs rapidly under the frying conditions. First, the
peroxy-, alkoxy-, and alkyl- free radicals of the oil react
with oxygen or RH （Equation 1） . The reaction is then initi-
ated by attack on the alkyl group of the oil, followed by a
chain reaction, resulting in a hydroperoxide group（-OOH）
in the chain（Equation 2）. The resulting hydroperoxides
react further by the combination of two radicals to form al-
dehydes, ketones, and fatty acids（Equation 3）28）. These
reactions during frying generate the FFA found in used oils
and thus in the FOG-containing wastewater.
749
 I. A. F. Husain, M. F. Alkhatib, M. S. Jammi et al.
R・＋O＝O→R-OO
R−OO＋R−H→R−OOH・＋R・
R−O＋R−H→R−OH・＋R・ （Eq. 1）
R−OOH→R−O・＋・OH
2R−OOH→R−O・＋R−OO・＋H2O （Eq. 2）
R・＋R・
R・＋R-O・
R・＋R-OO・
R-O・＋R-OO・
R-OO・＋R-OO・
R-O・＋R-O・ （Eq. 3）
The FFA reacts further with alkali（e.g., NaOH）to form
（Equation 4）
metallic soap . to clear the deposition to allay public concerns. Moreover,
R−COOH＋NaOH→R−COONa＋H2O （Eq. 4）
On the other hand, small amounts of triacylglycerols
（TAG） in FOG are also saponified, i.e., hydrolyzed, to form
metallic soap（Equation 5） .
C3H（COOR）
3＋3NaOH→C3H（OH）
3＋3NaOOCR（Eq. 5）
5 5
Sodium contributes to the saponification of FOG to
produce hard soap. Thus, the deposited FOG occurs as
layers of whitish and hard material with a soft surface that
is similar to the soap curds that form after a saponification
reaction. The crude soap curds may also contain salt, alkali,
and glycerol as impurities29）.
Sodium in the wastewater arises from the salt and other
food ingredients that are usually used at restaurants.
Moreover, the commonly used detergents and sanitizers
contain a high amount of sodium hydroxide（NaOH）that
acts as a strong hydrolysis agent for FOG, and thus, results
in the saponification of FOG. NaOH is a common alkaline
catalyst for the saponification reaction30, 31）.
Researchers have found that the hardness of the water
affects the physical properties of FOG. It is reported that
an increase in the water hardness is associated with higher
Ca levels in FOG samples 5）. Another study reported
calcium leaching from concrete pipes to be the main source
of increased concentrations of Ca in the FOG deposit
samples23）. However, based on the evaluations of vitrified
clay pipes（VCP） , which are used in some countries such as
Malaysia, it was found that FOG deposition is not due pri-
marily to the presence of calcium, but can be related to
other minerals such as sodium and potassium. Moreover,
the presence of high amounts of calcium and sodium in
FOG deposits indicates that the deposit not only consist of
FOG but also of metallic soaps formed during the hydroly-
sis reaction5, 23, 24）. The aforementioned studies focused on
the effect of calcium（CaCO3）on the formation of FOG de-
posits in sewer pipelines. The researchers concluded that
calcium was leached from the concrete sewer pipes under
750
J. Oleo Sci. 63, (8) 747-752 (2014)
the low-pH conditions of wastewater. However, further re-
search is required to understand the formation of FOG
particles and its deposition on sewer pipes made of various
materials.
7 Effects of FOG Deposition
FOG tends to stick to the surface of drain and sewer
pipes causing clogging that restricts the flow of sewage and
may lead to sanitary sewer overflows（SSOs）. SSOs cause
unpleasant odors and insect and rat infestation, and the
sewage may make its way into water sources causing
ground and surface water pollution32）. They are very un-
pleasant and require quick action from the municipalities
FOG deposition can cause corrosion of sewer lines under
anaerobic conditions, thus reducing the lifetime of the pipe
and demanding earlier repair and replacement of the pipe.
On the other hand, the biological treatment of wastewa-
ter with a high concentration of FOG suspended on the
surface may be hindered by sticking of FOG to the pipes
and clogging of the strainer and filters, thus affecting the
treatment unit operations. At the last stage of the waste-
water-treatment process, FOG is deposited in the sludge
making it viscous and waxy, and thus reducing the sludge-
dewatering efficiency33）.
8 Methods to Control FOG Deposition
Currently, there is only one method to control FOG at
the source of generation. This method involves installing a
grease interceptor（GI）that separates the FOG from the
restaurants’sullage reducing, its concentration in the ef-
fluent21）. Recent efforts have been made to enforce good
management practices at restaurants and food service es-
tablishments to ensure the right disposal of residual
FOG26）. Moreover, certain companies have agreements with
restaurants to collect used cooking oil and use it to
produce biodiesel. As a solution to blockage of sewer pipes,
wastewater municipalities utilize high-pressure water jets
to clear FOG deposits from sewer pipes, whereas FOG in
manholes is collected manually using a shovel and armed
net. The collected FOG deposits are disposed as solid
waste at landfills32, 33）. This raises additional environmental
concerns because the hydroconductivity of soil is highly
reduced by FOG. Moreover, biological oxidation of high
concentrations of FOG undesirably releases carbon dioxide
and methane into the atmosphere32）.
Revision of the sewer piping design is another alternative
for the prevention of FOG deposition by adjusting the pipe
gradient, diameter, roughness, replacing old and defected
pipes, and improving the manhole design. These improve-
 FOG problems, control and treatment
ments must be carefully performed to control the velocity
of the sewage flow and ensure sufficient self-flushing capa-
bility to prevent FOG deposition34）.
9 Treatment of FOG
Lemus and Lau reported a series of preliminary experi-
ments for evaluating the biodegradability of organic wastes
loaded with FOG by composting35）. The lipid content was
reduced by 70％ over a processing period of 10 days.
Moreover, the volatile solid content was reduced by 20％.
The biological treatment of FOG-rich wastewater has also
been investigated using a mixed bacterial culture isolated
from a GT. Application of the mixed culture to the activat-
ed sludge resulted in ＞90％ removal efficiency 36）. In
another study, lipase-producing microorganisms were iso-
lated from the bakery and palm-oil-industry wastewater.
The biodegradation of FOG in the isolates was tested, and
up to 87.7％ FOG removal was achieved37）.
10 Reuse of FOG
Hasuntree and others38−40） suggested the possibility of
using FOG from the GI of restaurants as a biodiesel feed-
stock. However, there are two major challenges in the use
of the restaurant trap: first, the methods of FOG collection
from restaurants must be developed, and second, the issue
of soap formation in the presence of alkaline catalysts
because of the high content of FFA（＞15％）in the FOG
from restaurants, which hinders the conversion of FOG by
transesterification, must be addressed. Hasuntree proposed
a one-step acid-catalyzed esterification process using
H 2SO4 as a catalyst. The use of H 2SO4 reduced the acid
value of the FFA by up to 80％, whereas the highest methyl
ester content obtained was 83.59％±1.51％. Zhu41） evalu-
ated the feasibility of using FOG waste from the GT as a
cosubstrate to improve biomethane production in the an-
aerobic digestion of municipal waste sludge from wastewa-
ter-treatment plants. Because of the high organic content
（138 g/L）and methane potential（145 Lmethane/LFOG）of FOG
from the GT, the process efficiency of the anaerobic diges-
tion of municipal wastewater sludge could be significantly
improved to up to 65％ at FOG-loading rates of less than
4％（VFOG/VDigester）. The EPA suggested the recycling of FOG
from GTs and the use of recycled FOG in rendering indus-
tries that produce animal food, cosmetics, soaps, and other
products42）. A successful case has been reported in one
California wastewater-treatment plant where FOG was
treated in an anaerobic digester unit to produce biogas that
powers 80％ of the wastewater-treatment plant43）.
J. Oleo Sci. 63, (8) 747-752 (2014)
Conclusion
Few attempts have been made to understand the effects
of the physical and chemical characteristics of FOG on the
formation of FOG deposits. Thus, the exact mechanism by
which FOG particles stick and deposit on the pipe surface
is still ambiguous. Further studies are required in this field
in order to deepen the understanding of the FOG-deposi-
tion mechanism and chemical reactions that occur,
whether at the restaurants, in the GT, or along the sewer
pipes. Moreover, evaluation of the deposition kinetics, and
thus, the prediction of pipe blockage, is another field to
explore. FOG is a nuisance not only to wastewater munici-
palities but also to operators of solid-waste facilities.
Methods of treatment and economical use of FOG as a re-
source for other industries is a worthwhile pursuit, particu-
larly in countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia that are
known for their massive palm oil production and the conse-
quent generation of high-FOG-containing effluents.
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