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Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the medium and the technology associated with the
transmission of information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber. A fiber optic cable
can contain a varying number of these glass fibers -- from a few up to a couple hundred. Surrounding
the glass fiber core is another glass layer called cladding. A layer known as a buffer tube protects the
cladding, and a jacket layer acts as the final protective layer for the individual strand.
Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that pulse through a fiber
optic cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive index that bends
incoming light at a certain angle. When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they
reflect off the core and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a process called total
internal reflection. The light signals do not travel at the speed of light because of the denser glass
layers, instead traveling about 30% slower than the speed of light. To renew, or boost, the signal
throughout its journey, fiber optics transmission sometimes requires repeaters at distant intervals to
regenerate the optical signal by converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical signal
and retransmitting the optical signal.
Multimode fiber and single-mode fiber are the two primary types of fiber optic cable. Single-mode
fiber is used for longer distances due to the smaller diameter of the glass fiber core, which lessens
the possibility for attenuation -- the reduction in signal strength. The smaller opening isolates the
light into a single beam, which offers a more direct route and allows the signal to travel a longer
distance. Single-mode fiber also has a considerably higher bandwidth than multimode fiber. The light
source used for single-mode fiber is typically a laser. Single-mode fiber is usually more expensive
because it requires precise calculations to produce the laser light in a smaller opening.
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Gain best practices for optical network design – including access, metro and core network issues
affecting fiber deployment – as well as 3-part overview of DWDM optical network transport.
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Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that pulse through a fiber
optic cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive index that bends
incoming light at a certain angle. When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they
reflect off the core and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a process called total
internal reflection. The light signals do not travel at the speed of light because of the denser glass
layers, instead traveling about 30% slower than the speed of light. To renew, or boost, the signal
throughout its journey, fiber optics transmission sometimes requires repeaters at distant intervals to
regenerate the optical signal by converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical signal
and retransmitting the optical signal.
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Multimode fiber is used for shorter distances because the larger core opening allows light signals to
bounce and reflect more along the way. The larger diameter permits multiple light pulses to be sent
through the cable at one time, which results in more data transmission. This also means that there is
more possibility for signal loss, reduction or interference, however. Multimode fiber optics typically
use an LED to create the light pulse.
While copper wire cables were the traditional choice for telecommunication, networking and cable
connections for years, fiber optics has become a common alternative. Most telephone company
long-distance lines are now made of fiber optic cables. Optical fiber carries more information than
conventional copper wire, due to its higher bandwidth and faster speeds. Because glass does not
conduct electricity, fiber optics is not subject to electromagnetic interference and signal losses are
minimized.
In addition, fiber optic cables can be submerged in water and are used in more at-risk environments
like undersea cable. Fiber optic cables are also stronger, thinner and lighter than copper wire cables
and do not need to be maintained or replaced as frequently. Copper wire is often cheaper than fiber
optics, however, and is already installed in many areas where fiber optic cable hasn't been deployed.
Glass fiber also requires more protection within an outer cable than copper, and installing new
cabling is labor-intensive, as it typically is with any cable installation.
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Knowledge of fiber optic splicing methods is vital to any company or fiber optic technician involved
in Telecommunications or LAN and networking projects.
Simply put, fiber optic splicing involves joining two fiber optic cables together. The other, more
common, method of joining fibers is called termination or connectorization. Fiber splicing typically
results in lower light loss and back reflection than termination making it the preferred method when
the cable runs are too long for a single length of fiber or when joining two different types of cable
together, such as a 48-fiber cable to four 12-fiber cables. Splicing is also used to restore fiber optic
cables when a buried cable is accidentally severed.
There are two methods of fiber optic splicing, fusion splicing & mechanical splicing. If you are just
beginning to splice fiber, you might want to look at your long-term goals in this field in order to
choose which technique best fits your economic and performance objectives.
Mechanical Splicing: Mechanical splices are simply alignment devices, designed to hold the two fiber
ends in a precisely aligned position thus enabling light to pass from one fiber into the other. (Typical
loss: 0.3 dB)
Fusion Splicing:
In fusion splicing a machine is used to precisely align the two fiber ends then the glass ends are
"fused" or "welded" together using some type of heat or electric arc. This produces a continuous
connection between the fibers enabling very low loss light transmission. (Typical loss: 0.1 dB)
The typical reason for choosing one method over the other is economics. Mechanical splicing has a
low initial investment ($1,000 - $2,000) but costs more per splice ($12-$40 each). While the cost per
splice for fusion splicing is lower ($0.50 - $1.50 each), the initial investment is much higher ($15,000 -
$50,000 depending on the accuracy and features of the fusion splicing machine being purchased).
The more precise you need the alignment (better alignment results in lower loss) the more you pay
for the machine.
As for the performance of each splicing method, the decision is often based on what industry you
are working in. Fusion splicing produces lower loss and less back reflection than mechanical splicing
because the resulting fusion splice points are almost seamless. Fusion splices are used primarily with
single mode fiber whereas Mechanical splices work with both single and multi-mode fiber.
Many Telecommunications and CATV companies invest in fusion splicing for their long haul
singlemode networks, but will still use mechanical splicing for shorter, local cable runs. Since analog
video signals require minimal reflection for optimal performance, fusion splicing is preferred for this
application as well. The LAN industry has the choice of either method, as signal loss and reflection
are minor concerns for most LAN applications.
As mentioned previously, fusion splicing is a junction of two or more optical fibers that have been
permanently affixed by welding them together by an electronic arc.
Step 2: Cleave the fiber - Using a good fiber cleaver here is essential to a successful fusion splice. The
cleaved end must be mirror-smooth and perpendicular to the fiber axis to obtain a proper splice.
NOTE: The cleaver does not cut the fiber! It merely nicks the fiber and then pulls or flexes it to cause
a clean break. The goal is to produce a cleaved end that is as perfectly perpendicular as possible.
That is why a good cleaver for fusion splicing can often cost $1,000 to $3,000. These cleavers can
consistently produce a cleave angle of 0.5 degree or less.
Step 3: Fuse the fiber - There are two steps within this step, alignment and heating. Alignment can
be manual or automatic depending on what equipment you have. The higher priced equipment you
use, the more accurate the alignment becomes. Once properly aligned the fusion splicer unit then
uses an electrical arc to melt the fibers, permanently welding the two fiber ends together.
Step 4: Protect the fiber - Protecting the fiber from bending and tensile forces will ensure the splice
not break during normal handling. A typical fusion splice has a tensile strength between 0.5 and 1.5
lbs and will not break during normal handling but it still requires protection from excessive bending
and pulling forces. Using heat shrink tubing, silicone gel and/or mechanical crimp protectors will
keep the splice protected from outside elements and breakage.
Fibrlok Mechanical Splicing KitMechanical splicing is an optical junction where the fibers are
precisely aligned and held in place by a self-contained assembly, not a permanent bond. This method
aligns the two fiber ends to a common centerline, aligning their cores so the light can pass from one
fiber to another.
Fibrlok Mechanical SpliceStep 1: Preparing the fiber - Strip the protective coatings, jackets, tubes,
strength members, etc. leaving only the bare fiber showing. The main concern here is cleanliness.
Step 2: Cleave the fiber - The process is identical to the cleaving for fusion splicing but the cleave
precision is not as critical.
Fibrlok Mechanical Splicing KitStep 3: Mechanically join the fibers - There is no heat used in this
method. Simply position the fiber ends together inside the mechanical splice unit. The index
matching gel inside the mechanical splice apparatus will help couple the light from one fiber end to
the other. Older apparatus will have an epoxy rather than the index matching gel holding the cores
together.
Step 4: Protect the fiber - the completed mechanical splice provides its own protection for the splice.
1. Thoroughly and frequently clean your splicing tools. When working with fiber, keep in mind that
particles not visible to the naked eye could cause tremendous problems when working with fiber
optics. "Excessive" cleaning of your fiber and tools will save you time and money down the road.
Clauss Fiber Cleaver2. Properly maintain and operate your cleaver. The cleaver is your most valuable
tool in fiber splicing. Within mechanical splicing you need the proper angle to insure proper end
faces or too much light escaping into the air gaps between the two fibers will occur. The index
matching gel will eliminate most of the light escape but cannot overcome a low quality cleave. You
should expect to spend around $200 to $1,000 for a good quality cleaver suitable for mechanical
splicing.
For Fusion splicing, you need an even more precise cleaver to achieve the exceptional low loss (0.05
dB and less). If you have a poor cleave the fiber ends might not melt together properly causing light
loss and high reflection problems. Expect to pay $1,000 to $4,000 for a good cleaver to handle the
precision required for fusion splicing. Maintaining your cleaver by following manufacturer
instructions for cleaning as well as using the tool properly will provide you with a long lasting piece
of equipment and ensuring the job is done right the first time.
3. Fusion parameters must be adjusted minimally and methodically (fusion splicing only). If you start
changing the fusion parameters on the splicer as soon as there is a hint of a problem you might lose
your desired setting. Dirty equipment should be your first check and them continue with the
parameters. Fusion time and fusion current are the two key factors for splicing. Different variables of
these two factors can produce the same splice results. High time and low current result in the same
outcome as high current and low time. Make sure to change one variable at a time and keep
checking until you have found the right fusion parameters for your fiber type.
2. Never exceed the maximum pulling load rating. On long runs, use proper
lubricants and make sure they are compatible with the cable jacket. On really
long runs, pull from the middle out to both ends. If possible, use an automated
puller with tension control or at least a breakaway pulling eye. Know and
observe the maximum recommended load rating of the cable.
3. Never exceed the cable bend radius. Fiber is stronger than steel when you pull
it straight, but it breaks easily when bent too tightly. These will harm the fibers,
maybe immediately, maybe not for a few years, but you will harm them and the
5. Make sure your fiber cable is long enough for the run. Fiber splicing make
things complicated and expensive. And it needs special protection. Try to make
it in one pull.
6. Indoor cables can be installed directly, but you might consider putting them
inside innerduct. Innerduct provides a good way to identify fiber optic cable and
protect it from damage, generally a result of someone cutting it by mistake! You
can get the innerduct with pulling tape already installed.
7. Plan the Installation. Create a detailed, written plan of installation. You can
eliminate 95% of the problems installers can encounter by simply creating this
plan. The plan should include equipment and supplies, fiber cable specification,
location of equipment, testing requirements, data forms for testing, personnel
experience level and assignment, installation methods, identification of potential
13. Train installation personnel. Properly train and instruct the people who will do
the installation. Proper training reduces expense through reduction of breakage
and excess attenuation.
14. Use the figure 8 technique. Divide long pulls into several shorter pulls, using the
figure 8 technique for storing cable at the intermediate locations. The cable is
placed on the ground in a figure 8 pattern. This pattern is large, at least 10-20
feet from top to bottom of the pattern. When all the cable is placed in this
pattern, the pattern is lifted and flipped over, so that the loose end is on top.
This loose end is pulling into the next section of conduit or duct. This technique
64. Use a generous amount of cable pulling lubricant on the entire run, especially
on the leader (pulling eye & mesh). The person may stop the cable pull from
time to time to prepare and apply more lubricant. Use only lubricant that is
expressly designed for cable pulling. When working in freezing temperatures,
use a lubricant that is designed not to freeze.
65. It is important to use a rope size that give minimal stretching during the pull.
Stretching of the rope is undesirable for several reasons including that it makes
for a very unstable pull, and takes away control from those doing the pulling.
66. Use extreme caution when removing the pull eye. Do not use a blade to slit the
mesh. Instead, use a pair of electricians scissors or diagonal cutters. Work your
way from the back of the cable toward the pull eye, while lifting the mesh
upward, away from the cable.
67. It is extremely important to take an accurate measurement when planning an
order for a custom pre-terminated fiber optic cable assembly. These custom
assemblies cannot be returned unless out of box defective.
68. Optional pulling eyes are highly recommended. The pulling eye (and associated
cable netting) will protect the pre-terminated ends during the pull.
69. Underground conduits, if newly installed, should be a minimum size of between
1.5″ to 2″. If the run is long, or if you anticipate the possibility of additional future
pulls; Then you may want to install a conduit of up to 4″ (or greater).
70. Try to design the conduit run with a few bends as possible. If there are too
many bends in the run then you may consider installing junction boxes in lieu of
bends.
71. Cable may be placed in a Figure 8 pattern if it needs to be removed from the
reel. This pattern minimizes the accumulation of cable twist. Care should be
taken to prevent cable damage while the cable is in this configuration.
72. The cable should not be installed in environments exceeding its specified
maximum and minimum installation temperature. For loose tube and ribbon
cable this is typically specified for an installation temperature of -30C to +75C.
73. Riser cables are generally required for vertical applications and plenum cables
are required where there is a positive air pressure space.
74. The cable weight in an unsupported vertical rise shall be less than the specified
long term operating load. Your manufacturer’s specification sheet should be
consulted for specifics. Intermediate cable attachment points however are
recommended for optimum performance.
75. Bonding and Grounding: Follow your company and local/national bonding and
ground procedures when using fiber cable with metallic components.
76. When pulling the cable off the reel onto messenger mounted cable blocks,
special care should be given to size and location of the 1st and last pulley. The
reel should be placed as far as practical from the 1st pulley to minimize the
angle of the 1st bend. A cable shoot/pulley larger than the specified bend radius
is recommended to minimize the cable bend at the first and last pulley locations
or at any location with a change in direction.
77. On runs from 40m to 100m, use proper lubricants and make sure they are
compatible with the cable jacket.
78. On runs over 100m, use proper lubricants and pull from the middle out to both
ends.
79. If possible, use an automated puller with tension control or at least a
breakaway-pulling eye.
80. Avoid placing fiber optic cables in raceways and conduits with copper cables to
pressure.
82. Use a wet wipe to loosen particles on the end of the cable connector using a
circular or straight wiping motion while using care to avoid wiping over area of
pad that has already been used. Do not use a back and forth scrubbing action.
83. Cleaning fiber optic transceivers. Choose an optical grade lint free swab that fits
easily into the transceiver barrel. The swab should be gently placed into the
barrel of the connector and rotate no more than one turn. DO NOT rotate back-
and-forth or round-and-round because this could grind debris into the
transceiver. The swabs should only be used ONCE.
84. Cable Blowing or Jetting in Duct Applications. A crash test should be performed
to determine the maximum push force. Excessive pushing will cause the cable
to cork screw in the duct or fold over which will damage the fiber.
85. Cable blowing. Consider the route to determine the maximum blowing distance.
Follow the blowing equipment suppliers blowing distance recommendations;
3000 to 6000 feet is a typical blowing length. A set up with multiple blowing
machines may be required.
86. Cable blowing. Maintain proper air flow to “blow” the cable verses “pushing” the
cable. Use an air compressor with a minimum of 375 cfm. The minimum air
pressure in the duct should be 100 psi with 125 psi recommended.
87. Cable blowing air cooler. Air compressor cooler should be used as
recommended by the blower equipment manufacturer. Typically this is when the
ambient air temperature exceeds 80˚F.
88. Cable blowing. Use only cable/duct lubricants recommended by its blowing
equipment manufacturer for optical fiber cable.
89. Do not store cable within the closure or pedestal unless there is enough room to
accommodate the minimum specified cable bend radius.
90. Grounding: Cable with metallic components shall follow the bonding and
grounding requirements of the customer and local or national codes.
91. Midspan access of fibers in buffer tubes: To minimize fiber damage, use a
Midspan Access Tool to open the buffer tube such as a Corning OFT-000. Care
should be taken to use the correct insert size.
92. Conduit Installations General Information: Try to design the conduit run with a
few bends as possible. If there are too many bends in the run then you may
consider installing junction boxes in lieu of bends.
93. Use plastic bushings on conduit ends to avoid damage to the cable during the
pull.
94. For cables using aramid yarn alone as the strength member, the jacket can be
removed to expose the yarn. The yarn should be tied in a knot with the pull
rope, so that the jacket will not be inadvertently used for strength. Optionally,
the jacket can be tied into a tight knot before pulling. After pulling, the knot
96. Buried cable installations. Identify cable locations with surface markers.
Anticipate obstructions.
97. Test jumpers must be of the same fiber core size, performance and connector
type as the cable system (e.g. 50/125 μm FX2000 jumpers for a 50/125 μm
FX2000 optical fiber system) and shall be one to five meters long.
98. Number of 90 degree turns. The number of 90 degree turns on a pull shall not
exceed 6 for aerial cables and 4 for underground cable-in-conduit.
99. Pulling underground fiber optic cable. Special fiber optic blocks should be used
101. If cables are present in ducts through which the fiber cable is to be pulled, the
existing cable types should be identified and the owner of the cable called to
inform him of the action, and to identify any safety concerns.