Cell Biology

CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

SUBTOPIC : 2.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
LEARNING OUTCOMES: a) State the three principles of cell theory.
b) Explain the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
c) Illustrate and compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (plant
and animal cells).
.
COURSE
EXPLANATION / ELABORATION NOTES
FRAMEWORK
 All living things are composed of cells (All organisms are
composed of one or more cells).
Three principles  Cells are the structural and functional unit of life.
of cell theory  All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
 Pro : before, early, primitive, first
 Karyon : nucleus
Prokaryotic cells  Prokaryotic cell : Cell that has genetic material that is not
enclosed by nuclear membrane.
 e.g. of prokaryotic cell: bacteria

 Eu : true
 Karyon : nucleus
Eukaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic cell : Cell that has genetic material that is enclosed by
nuclear membrane.
 E.g. of eukaryotic cell : animal cell, plant cell
 Have membrane-bounded nucleus
 Nuclear envelope / membrane enclose the nucleus (separating its
Explanation about contents from the cytoplasm)
structures of  Genetic material is linear DNA that is associated with histone
eukaryotic cells protein
 Has membrane-bounded organelles
 There are two classes of organelles :

1) Endomembrane system : organelles that communicate with one

another via small vesicles or membrane channels
2) Energy related organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts

Comparison ***Refer to similarities and differences Similarities :

between - Both cells are surrounded by plasma membrane
prokaryotic and - Both cells have DNA as genetic material
eukaryotic cells - Both cells have cytoplasm, ribosome, smooth and rough ER,
mitochondria, nucleus,
Nucleolus
Reference
1. Cell and Molecular Biology 8th Edition , Gerald Karp
2. Becker’s The World of Cell 8th edition
3. Biology MC GrawHill 11th edition
4. Biology The Dynamic Science 4th edition Russell
5. Biological Science, 6th Edition , Freeman S., Quillin K., Allison
6. Brooker - Biology 4th Edition
7. Understanding Biology (Majors Biology), 2nd Edition
 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells :

Features / Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

characteristics
Cell division Binary fission with no spindle By mitosis or meiosis or both with spindle
formation fiber formation

Cell walls Composed of peptidoglycan Animal cell has no cell wall, plant cell has
cellulose cell wall and cell wall of fungi
composed of chitin
Membrane-bounded Absent in prokaryotic cells Present in eukaryotic cells
organelles

Ribosome Has small size (70S) ribosome
Genetic materials Circular DNA lies freely in cytoplasm.
DNA not associate with histone protein.
Flagella Simple flagella lack of '9+2'
microtubule arrangement
Plasmid Present in some bacteria
Cellular respiration Site of cellular respiration is mesosome
Has large size (80S) ribosome; Small size
(70S) ribosome present in organelles
Linear DNA located in double membrane-
bounded nucleus.
DNA associate with histone protein.
Complex flagella with '9+2' microtubule
arrangement
Absent in eukaryotic cell
Site of cellular respiration is mitochondrion

b) Explain the Organelle :

structures and  Are structures that suspended within cytosol and perform specific functions
functions of organelles inside cell.
 Can be divided into membranous organelles and non- membranous
organelles
Membranous Non-membranous
organelles organelles
Nucleus Ribosome
Chloroplast Centriole
Mitochondria
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome

Organelles Structures Functions

 Nucleus  Spherical or oval in shape
 Double membrane nuclear
envelope enclose the nucleus
and separate it from cytoplasm.  Control production of RNA and
b) Explain  Has outer membrane that is
the continuous with endoplasmic
structures reticulum and also has inner
and membrane
functions  Inner part of nucleus is
of nucleoplasm which is semifluid
medium containing chromatin,
organelles
nucleotides, mineral ions,
enzymes and nucleolus
 Surface of nuclear membrane
has nuclear pore that regulate the
entry and exit of molecules e.g.
protein, RNA from nucleus.
 Nucleolus is small dense
spherical body within nucleus
that consist of RNA and
protein
Rough  Consist of network of
endoplasmic membranous flattened sacs
reticulum called cisternae
(ER)  Membrane of ER separate the
ER lumen @ cavity / cisternae
space from the cytosol
 Membrane of rough ER is
continuous with the outer
membrane of nucleus
 There are ribosomes on outer
surface of the rough ER
membrane
Smooth ER  Consist of network of
membranous tubules called
cisternae
 Membrane of ER separate the
ER lumen @ cavity / cisternae
space from the cytosol
 Lack of ribosomes on outer
surface of the smooth ER
membrane
 Store genetic information / gene of a
cell : contain chromatins / chromosomes
in nucleoplasm
protein in cell
 Control all activities of cell by
regulating synthesis of protein and
enzymes
 Synthesis secretory proteins (e.g.
hormone)
- polypeptides synthesized by
ribosomes are transported to ER
lumen
- inside ER lumen, the polypeptides
are modified by enzymes (add
carbohydrate chain to the protein
forming glycoprotein)
 Involve in
intracellular transport of
proteins (the glycoprotein is packaged
inside transport vesicle and
the vesicle is carried to Golgi body)
 Site of lipid synthesis
 Breakdown of stored glycogen to
glucose in liver
 Store calcium ions in sarcoplasmic
reticulum of skeletal muscle
 Detoxify drugs and poison in liver
Golgi  Consist of a group of
apparatus flattened membranous sacs
/ body called cisternae
 Each cisterna has lumen
 Has two sides : cis face and
trans face
 Cis face is usually located near
the ER and receive transport
vesicles from ER
 Trans face bud off transport
vesicles containing specific
products to be carried to other
locations inside cell or to
plasma membrane for secretion
Lysosome  Spherical in shape
 Single-membrane bounded
organelle
 Produced by Golgi apparatus
 Contains hydrolytic enzymes
 Modify, pack sorting of pro
- Cis face receive vesicles
from ER
- Products of E modified during
their transit from to trans
face of Golgi
- Trans face pa modified
products in trans vesicles and
sort the vesicle transported out
of Golgi body
 Form lysosome
 Form polysaccharide
e.g. pectin in G of plant cells
w incorporated w into cell walls
 Involve in intracellular food digestion
(phagocytosis)
 Involve in autophagy (digestion of old
@ worn out organelles)
 Involve in autolysis (digestion of old
@ damaged cells result in apoptosis

Ribosome  Not bounded by  Site of protein synthesis

membrane - most of the protein made by free
 Are complexes made of ribosomes function within cytosol
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and - bound ribosomes make proteins that
protein are inserted into membranes, for
 Consist of two subunits : packaging within organelle e.g.
large subunit and small lysosome or secretory proteins
subunit
 Can be found as free ribosomes
(suspended in cytosol) and
bound ribosomes (attach to
rough ER)
Mitochondria  Rod-shaped  Site of cellular respiration / energy
 Double membrane- bounded @ ATP production
organelle :
- smooth outer membrane
- highly folded inner
membrane forming cristae
 Cristae is highly folded to
increase the surface area of inner
membrane thus increasing the
efficiency of energy / ATP
production
 Intermembrane space is the
narrow region between outer and
inner membranes
 Mitochondrial matrix containing
enzymes, DNA and ribosomes is
enclosed by the inner membrane
Chloroplast  Double membrane-bounded  Site of photosynthesis
organelle
 Outer and inner membrane is
separated by very narrow
intermembrane space
 Inside chloroplast is another
membranous system in the form
of flattened, interconnected sacs
called thylakoids
 Stack of thylakoids are called
granum
 Thylakoid membrane contain
photosynthetic pigments e.g.
chlorophyll
 Fluid outside thylakoid is
stroma which contain enzymes,
DNA and ribosomes
Centriole  In animal cells,  May help to form
microtubules grow out from spindle fibre mitosis and meiosis
centrosome (region that is in animal cells
located near the nucleus)
 Within the centrosome of animal
cells, is a pair of centrioles
 Each centriole is composed of
nine sets of triplet microtubules
arrange in a ring
Extra:
What are the functions of the cell structures and organelles that are (1) found in animal cells but not plant cells and (2) found in plant cells
but not animal cells?

To answer this question, we need to consider the distinction between a cell’s genome and its proteome. Recall that the genome constitutes
all types of genetic material, namely DNA, that contains many different genes. Most genes encode the production of polypeptides, which
assemble into functional proteins. The proteome is defined as the complete protein composition of a cell or organism. The set of proteins
that is made by a given cell type is largely responsible for determining the characteristics of that cell. The set of proteins made in one cell
type is not the same as that made in a different cell type.

For examples; However, their protein compositions are quite

different for the following reasons:
1. Certain proteins found in skin cells may not be produced in neurons, and vice versa. As described in Chapter 13, genes can
be regulated so they are turned on only in certain cell types.
2. Skin cells and neurons may produce the same protein but in different amounts. This is also due to gene regulation and to
the rates at which a protein is synthesized and degraded.
3. The amino acid sequences of particular proteins can vary in skin cells and neurons. As discussed in Chapter 13, the mRNA from a single
gene can produce two or more polypeptides with different amino acid sequences via a process called alternative splicing.
4. Skin cells and neurons may alter their proteins in different ways. After a protein is made, its structure may be changed
in a variety of ways. These include the covalent attachment of molecules, such as phosphate and carbohydrates, and the
cleavage of a protein to a smaller size, which are discussed in Chapter 21.
General structure of a plant cell. Plant cells lack lysosomes and centrioles. Unlike animal cells, plant cells have an outer
cell wall; a large central vacuole that functions in storage and the regulation of cell volume; and chloroplasts, which
carry out photosynthesis.

Cytoskeleton
2.2 Membrane Plasma
Plasma Membrane
Membrane Structure MEMBRANE LIPIDS-Phospholipids have a polar (electrically charged) end containing
a phosphate group linked to one of several alcohols or amino acids, and a nonpolar
(uncharged) end containing two nonpolar fatty-acid tails.
MEMBRANE PROTEINS Membrane proteins also have hydrophilic and hydrophobic
regions. The hydrophobic regions of membrane proteins are formed by segments of
the amino acid chain with hydrophobic side groups. These segments are often wound
into a helices, which span the membrane bilayer, and are connected by loops of
hydrophilic amino acids that extend into the polar regions at the membrane
surfaces.
Transport proteins form channels that allow selected polar molecules and ions to
pass across a membrane.
• Cell–cell recognition proteins in the plasma membrane identify a cell as part of the
same individual or as foreign, facilitate cell–cell linking, bind cells to the
extracellular matrix (ECM), and link the ECM to the cytoskeleton.
• Receptor proteins recognize and bind molecules from other cells that act as
chemical signals for altering cell activity, such as the peptide hormone insulin in
animals.
• Proteins in cell–cell junctions bind cells tightly together, as exemplified in gap
junctions and tight junctions
• Enzymatic proteins confer specific properties on the
membranes with them.
Components of Cell membranes are assembled from four components:
Membrane Cell Phospholipid bilayer - The other components of the membrane are embedded within
the bilayer, which provides a flexible matrix and, at the same time, imposes a
barrier to permeability.
Transmembrane proteins- A major component of every membrane is a collection of
proteins that float in the lipid bilayer. These proteins have a variety of functions
Interior protein network - Membranes are structurally supported by intracellular
proteins that reinforce the membrane’s shape.
Cell-surface markers - The ER adds chains of sugar molecules to membrane
proteins and lipids, converting them into glycoproteins and glycolipids. Different
 cell types exhibit different varieties of these glycoproteins and glycolipids on their
surfaces, which act as cell identity markers.
Functions 1. Membrane compartmentalization allows specialized activities to proceed
without external interference and enables cellular activities to be regulated
independently of one another.
2. Scaffold for biochemical activities - For reactants floating around in solution,
their interactions are dependent on random collisions. In contrast, components
that are embedded in a membrane are no longer floating free and can be ordered
for effective interaction.
3. Providing a selectively permeable barrier. Membranes prevent the unrestricted
exchange of molecules from one side to the other.
4. Transporting solutes. The plasma membrane contains the machinery for
physically transporting substances from one side of the membrane to another,
5. Responding to external stimuli. a process known as signal transduction .
Membranes possess receptors that combine with specific molecules ( ligands )
or respond to other types of stimuli such as light or mechanical tension.
6. Intercellular interaction. The plasma membrane allows cells to recognize and
signal one another, to adhere when appropriate, and to exchange materials and
information. Proteins within the plasma membrane may also facilitate the
interaction between extracellular materials and the intracellular cytoskeleton.
7. Energy transduction - Membranes are also involved in the transfer of chemical
energy from carbohydrates and fats to ATP. In eukaryotes, the machinery for
these energy conversions is contained within membranes of chloroplasts and
mitochondria.
2.3 Cell Division

Introduction -

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

What is Cell  An ordered sequence of events in eukaryotes that involves

Cycle cell growth and nuclear division.

 Stages in cell cycle are interphase and mitotic phase

 Interphase are divided into G1, synthesis (S) and G2
phase
Stage of Cell  In G1 phase the biosynthetic activity increase and
Cycle synthesis of amino acid occur
 In synthesis (S) phase, replication of DNA occur / amount
of DNA is doubled
 In G2 phase biosynthesis and production of microtubules
occur.
  Mitotic (M) phase are divided into mitosis and
cytokinesis
 Mitosis is the division of nucleus
 It consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase
 At the end of mitosis, 2 daughter nuclei will be formed
 Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm
 At the end of cytokinesis, 2 daughter cell will be formed

Interphase

 G1/ firs growth/ gap phase

Interphase And  Volume of cytoplasm increase
Mitotic Phase  Protein synthesis
 Increase number of organelles
 An important cell cycle control mechanism activated
to ensure that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION
/KEY POINT

 S phase
 The cell’s DNA replicates/ synthesis

 G2/ second growth/ gap phase

 Cell continues to grow
 Formation/ synthesis of microtubules// Protein
synthesis increase
 Energy stores are increased
 Centrosome/ centriole replicates

Mitotic Phase
 Prophase
 Chromosomes shorten, thicken, coiled and become
visible
 They appear as sister chromatids joint at centromere

 Metaphase
 The chromosome/sister chromatids align at the
metaphase plate/equator
 They attach to spindle fiber at their centromere

 Anaphase
 The sister chromatids separate and move to opposite
poles
 The movement of daughter chromosome is led by
centromere

 Telophase
 Chromosome arrived at each pole
 They lengthen, become thin, uncoiled and invisible
MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

 Division of cell nucleus resulting in TWO daughter nuclei,

What is Mitosis
each with the same number of chromosome as the parent
nucleus.

 Prophase
 Chromatin condenses become shorten & thicken
 Visible chromosomes.
Phases of  2 Sister Chromatids.
Mitosis  Centrioles move to opposite poles of cell.
 Nucleolus disappears.
 Nuclear membrane breaks down.

 Metaphase
 Chromosomes align along metaphase plate.
 Centromeres of all the chromosomes are lined
up.
 Spindle fibers pull the chromosomes until they are all
aligned.
 Microtubules attached to all chromosomes.

 Anaphase
 Centromeres divide.
 Sister chromatids separate & move to opposite poles.
 Once separate , each sister chromatids is considered a
daughter chromosome.
 Anaphase is over when the chromosomes have
reached the two poles of the cell.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
  Telophase
 Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles.
 Daughter nuclei appear
 Chromatin fibers of chromosome uncoils.
 Mitotic spindle disappears.
 Nuclear envelope forming.
 Cytokinesis begin.

 InAnimal Cell

 Occur by a cleavage process

 It forms the cleavage furrow (which is the shallow
groove in the cell surface) at the old metaphase plate
 by the help of contractile ring (of actin and myosin)
 The contraction of the ring deepens the cleavage
furrow until the parent cell pinched into two new cells
Cytokinesis  In Plant Cell
process in
animal and plant
 Occur by the formation of cell plate
cell
 vesicles contains the cell wall materials derived from
Golgi apparatus
 move along microtubules to the middle of the cell
 There they fuse to form cell plate
 The cell plate enlarge until its membrane fuses with the
plasma membrane of the parent cell
 New cell wall is formed that separate 2 new daughter cell.

Animal cell Plant cell

 Presence of centriole
 Aster form
Comparison the  No cell plate forms
cell division in
 Furrowing cytoplasm at
animal & plant
cytokinesis
 occurs in tissues
throughout the body
 Absence of centriole
 No aster form
 Cell plate forms
 No furrowing
cytoplasm at
cytokinesis of
 occurs mainly at
meristem tissues
MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

 Meio- To reduce
 A type of nuclear division that given rise to four productive
What is Meiosis
cells (gametes) each with half the chromosome number of
parent cell.

 Chromatid
 Either of the two strands formed when a chromosome
duplicates itself as part of the early stages of cell
division
 The chromatids are joined together by a single
centromere

 homologous chromosome
 The TWO chromosomes that make up a matched pair
in a diploid cell.
 Same length.
 Same centromere position
Definition of  Possess genes for the same characteristics at loci.
term
 Synapsis
 Pairing of homologous chromosomes that occurs before
first meiotic division.

 Bivalent
 Pair of TWO homologous chromosomes formed by
synapsis.

 tetrad
 The FOUR chromatids in each cluster during synapsis

 Chiasma
 Regions of crossing over at which two non-sister
chromatids are joined

 crossing over
 The exchange of chromatids segments between
homologous chromosomes.

 Centromere
 In a duplicated chromosome, the region on each sister
chromatid where it is most closely attached to its sister
chromatid by proteins that bind to the centromic DNA
 Meiosis I
 Prophase I
 Chromosomes become condense (thicken & visible)
 Chromosomes consists of two sister chromatids.
 Centrosomes begin to move towards opposite poles
Behaviour of
 Homologous chromosomes pair up during synapsis
the
 Each pair is called a bivalent. Crossing over occurs.
chromosome at
 Chiasmata hold homologous chromosomes together.
each stage
 Microtubules begin to form.
(Refer
Campbell 11th  Metaphase I
edition)  Homologous chromosomes (bivalent) line up at the
metaphase plate. One chromosome facing each pole.

 Anaphase I
 Pair of homologous chromosomes separate
Chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the
spindle apparatus
 Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere.

 Telophase I
 The separated homologous arrived at opposite poles
 The nuclear envelope re forms around each daughter cell
nucleus.
 Cytokinesis occur, resulting two cells have half of
number of chromosomes.

Meiosis II
 Prophase II
 Chromosomes condense again.
 A new spindle apparatus forms in each cell.
 Nuclei & Nuclear envelope breakdown.
 Centrioles move to opposite poles.

 Metaphase II
 Chromosomes consisting of sister chromatids joined at
the centromere align along the metaphase plate in each
cell.

 Anaphase II
 Centromeres divide.
 Spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids.
 Sister chromatids separate & chromosomes move to
opposite poles.

 Telophase II
 Chromosomes arrived at opposite poles.
 Chromosomes uncoiled & lengthen.
 Spindle fibers disappear.
 Nucleolus & nuclear envelope reappear.
 Cytokinesis occur – 4 haploid daughter cells
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• Nucleosome:
- The‘ beads ’found on unwinded chromatin
- Nucleosome is a complex of DNA coiled around
a core of 8 histone proteins

• The nucleosomes are then wrapped into spirals

• called solenoid
• Histones ’function :to guide the coiling of DNA ,
• in order to form a nucleosome

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Transcription is the synthesis of

mRNA within the cell nucleus based
on the DNA

Translation is the synthesis of proteins based on

the information coded within the mRNA .Here ,ribosomes
and several other proteins help with the process

:
• ( )
,

• ,

Replication /synthesis
happens in the cell cycle
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Centrosome :main center to organize

microtubules /spindle fibers during cell division
A pair of centrioles are found within each
centrosome.Centrioles are only found
within animal cells ;plant cells and most
other eukaryotic organisms usually lack
centrioles

Asters :short microtubules that extend from the

centrioles to the cell membrane

I. Leptotene :chromosomes begin to condense Spindle fibers /spindle apparatus /

II. Zygotene microtubules :these pull and separate
- Chromosomes continue to chromosomes during cell division.
condense Microtubules that attach to kinetochores are called
- Synapsis happens :this is a process kinetochore microtubules /fiber
where homologous chromosomes
Kinetochore :these proteins attach to the
pair together
centromere of a chromosomes ,and is the place
- Formation of bivalent /tetrad :a
where microtubules/ spindle fibers attach
bivalent /tetrad is a pair of
homologous chromosomes( that is
formed after synapsis)
III. Pachytene: cross over may happen
- Crossover is the exchange of genetic
material between non-sister chromatids
- The resulting chromatids are no longer
identical
- During crossover chromatids may also break
and may be reattached to a different
homologous chromosome
IV. Diplotene
- All four chromatids of a tetrad are
fully visible
- Homologous chromosomes begin to
repel each other ,but are still held
together at the chiasma
- With this repelling‘,loops ’are formed ,
and chiasma are visible
V. Diakinesis
- Maximum condensation of
homologous chromosomes
- Homologous chromosomes are totally
separated from each other except at
chiasma
- Nucleolus disappears and
nuclear envelope breaks down
- Centrosomes migrate to opposite poles
- Spindle fibers are assembled
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