BFC 21303 FINAL EXAM ANSWER SSCHEME 9SEM 1 SESION 1617)

Q1 (a) Explain the internal layers of the earth based on physical properties. (4 marks)

Lithosphere
(rock sphere)
 The top of the asthenosphere is about 100 km below the surface.
 Above the asthenosphere, the material is solid, strong and rigid. This layer is called lithosphere.
 Contains the continental crust of the uppermost part of the mantle.

Asthenosphere
(weak sphere)
 A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and pressure are just the right balance
so that part of the material melts.
 The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft plastic and easily deformed.
 The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the Earth.
 The thickness is about 200 km.

Mesosphere
 The rock below the asthenosphere is stronger and more rigid than the asthenosphere because the
high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of high temperature.
 The region between the asthenosphere and the core-mantle boundary is called the mesosphere.

Core
 The core of the Earth marks a change in both physical properties and composition.
 It is composed mostly of iron and is therefore distinctly different from the silicate (rocky)
material above.
 On the basis of physical properties, the core has two distinct parts - a solid inner core and liquid
outer core.
 Heat loss from the core and the rotation of the Earth probably causes the liquid outer core to
circulate and generate the Earth's magnetic field.

Q1 (b) Explain the term geology, engineering geology and rock mechanics. (6 marks)

Geology:-
 Geology is the study of this planet Earth, its origin, history, composition, structure and
dynamics of how it changes.
 The word geology is derived from Greek word (geo - earth; logos - discourse).
 Geology is an event formed during geological time which involves interpretation and also
observation of the event that occurred and is still occurring at present in our earth;
 Geological processes that takes place during the very large span of geological time, left their
record in the rocks.

Engineering geology:-
 Engineering geology is the application of the geological principal in civil engineering (and as a
subdivision of the mining engineering).
 Engineering geology in practice are responsible in civil engineering projects that involve the
earth or earth materials which include (1) The identification and evaluation of the physical 1
environment of the site and (2) The analysis of the impact of the geologic processes on the
proposed project.
 As a result, it is important to the civil engineers to understand about history, nature and the
variety behavior of the soil and rock.
BFC 21303, JKIG_FKAAS, UTHM | Hazreek & Aziman Sem 1 Session 1617
 BFC 21303

 The knowledge of the application engineering is also important for the geologist who works
together with the engineer.

Rock mechanics:-
 Rock Mechanics is a field of applied science and has been recognized as a discipline in
engineering since the last four decades.
 It is a study on the mechanical properties and behaviors of rock under loading (mechanics), sets
of established principles expressing rock mass response to load, and a logical methodology for
applying these notions and techniques to real physical problems.
 Rock mechanics is a branch in geotechnical engineering.

Q1 (c) Illustrate and explain the structure and classification of silicates in mineral. (5 marks)

 In all silicate structures investigated so far the silicon atoms are in fourfold coordination with
oxygen.
 This arrangement appears to be universal in these compounds, and the bonds between silicon
and oxygen are so strong that the four oxygen are always found at the corners of a tetrahedron
of nearly constant dimensions and regular shape, whatever the rest of the structure may be like.
 Hence the existence of a silicon tetrahedron will make a mineral as a silicate mineral and its
absence will make it as a non-silicate mineral.

 Silicate classification is based on the following types of linkages:

1. Single chains – pyroxene
2. Double chains – amphiboles
3. Two dimensional sheets minerals - micas, chlorites, and clay minerals
4. Three dimensional frameworks - feldspar and quartz

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Q1 (d) Classify and explain the igneous rock classification based on rock texture. (10 marks)

(i) Phaneritic texture

 Individual grains are large enough and visible to naked eye.
 Grains approximately equal in size, form interlocking mosaic and very coarse.
 Developed from magmas that cool slowly and common in intrusive bodies.

(ii) Aphanetic texture

 Individual crystals are so small and cannot be seen unaided.
 Rocks are massive and experienced rapid cooling that there was no sufficient time for
the growth of large crystals.
 Characteristic of volcanic rock and some intrusive rocks which lost its heat to the
surrounding country rock.

(iii) Glassy texture

 Similar to ordinary glass.
 Crystals cannot be discerned in a glassy texture, even when the specimen is viewed
under high magnification e.g. obsidian.

(iv) Porphyritic texture

 Larger earlier formed crystals are enclosed by a ground mass of smaller crystals.
 Cooling history of magma may begin slowly initially which developed coarse crystals
and then while partly crystallized the magma may move to another environment in
which the cooling is more rapid which precipitate fine crystals around the earlier coarse
crystals.

(v) Vesicular Texture

 This term refers to vesicles (holes, pores, or cavities) within the igneous rock.
 Vesicles are the result of gas expansion (bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic
eruptions.
 Pumice and scoria are common types of vesicular rocks.

Q2 (a) Draw the whole process of sedimentary rock formation. (4 Marks)

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Q2 (b) Explain classification of sedimentary rock with particular reference to:

(i) Clastic sedimentary rock (5 marks)

 Clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks are made up of mineral grains, fragments of other
rocks (called lithic fragments), shells and other inorganic (hard) of formerly living
organisms.
 The clastic particles or grains in a sedimentary rock are cemented together by mineral
precipitates that form during the process of diagenesis (Diagenesis - The increases in
temperature and pressure that cause chemical reactions to occur between the mineral
grains of the sediment and the fluids that are trapped between the grains thus decrease
the amount of interstitial volume between the grains of the rock and finally cementing
the grains together).
 Also known as fragmental sedimentary rocks that are derived from weathering process
of parent rocks.
 The texture of clastic sediments consists of a fragment which varies in shapes and sizes
e.g. range of various sandstones with different grain sizes. The strengths of clastic
sediments are closely perforated to their state of consolidation.
 Clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks formed from mineral grains and rock fragments.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to their texture (grain size).
 Rocks with gravel size detrital grains (Grain size greater than 2 mm) are called
conglomerates (if the grains have rounded outlines) or they are called breccias (if the
grains are angular in shape).
 Rocks made up of sand size grains (Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm) are called sandstones. For
sandstone, if it was dominated by quartz grains it will be quartz sandstone (also called
quartz arenite), if it was dominated by feldspar grains it will be arkose and if dominated
by sand - sized rock fragment grains it will be lithic sandstone (also called litharenite or
graywacke).
 Silt is called siltstone (Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty). Clay with grain size less
than 1/256 mm (smooth) are called shale (if fissile) or claystone (if massive). Mud is
technically a mixture of silt and clay. It forms a rock called mudstone (or mud shale if
fissile).
 They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture consisting of:
1. Clasts (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel)
2. Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts)
3. Cement (the glue that holds it all together), such as: calcite, iron oxide and silica
 Clastic sediments are classified based on the grain size, diversity and identities of the
detrital materials they are made up of the grain size classification.

(ii) Chemical sedimentary rock (5 marks)

 Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated from a solution as a result of changing
physical conditions or due to the actions of living organisms.
 The chemical weathering of rocks also lead to the formation of sediments as dissolved
matter in solutions.
 Such sediments are usually identified by their chemical composition.
 Common dissolved sediments include the bicarbonates of Ca, Mg, Na, and K with
calcium and magnesium being the most abundant in terms of volume produced.
 Other sediments include dissolved silica in the form of Si(OH)4, sulphates and chlorides
of Na, Mg, Ca, and K.
 These sedimentary ultimately form sedimentary deposits and sedimentary rocks by two
distinct processes known as Organic Sedimentary Rocks and Inorganic Chemical
Sedimentary Rocks.

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Q2 (c) Describe the texture of metamorphic rock with particular reference to:

(i) Slaty foliation

 Slaty foliation is a foliation in which microscopic platy minerals have a parallel
alignment.
 This parallel alignment causes the rock to tend to break along parallel planes forming
sheet-like pieces and called rock cleavage.
 Slaty metamorphic rocks are also finely crystalline (Fine texture, rocks characteristically
split into thin slabs) and tend to appear dull.
 Rocks with a salty foliation are formed at low pressures and temperatures and are
considered low grade metamorphic rocks.
 Slate can be converted to phyllite which is coarser grained than shale if the
metamorphism grade is increased.

(ii) Phyllitic foliation

 Phyllitic foliation is similar to slaty foliation except that the crystals are slightly larger
while still fine.
 Rocks with a phyllitic foliation tend to be shiny and have good, sometimes wrinkled or
folded rock cleavage.
 These rocks are formed under slightly higher pressures and temperatures than slaty
metamorphic rocks and are of low to medium grade.

(iii) Schistose foliation

 Schistose foliation is a foliated texture in which the rock is dominated by visible platy
minerals such as micas which are in a parallel to sub-parallel orientation.
 Schistose metamorphic rocks often have a poor rock cleavage.
 The mineral grains are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye (medium to coarse
grained and coarsely banded metamorphic rock).
 The foliation consists of alternate bands of light and dark colored minerals.
 Light colored minerals are mainly composed of quartz and feldspar whereas the dark
layers contain biotite, hornblende, augite and other minerals.
 Rocks having a schistose foliation form under conditions of high pressures and medium
temperatures (from silicic igneous rocks as well as various types of sedimentary rocks)
and are considered medium grade metamorphic rocks.

(iv) Gneissic foliation

 Gneissic foliation is a coarsely foliated texture in which there are alternating layers
which are dominated by different minerals.
 Rocks with a gneissic foliation are produced by exposure to high pressures and
temperatures and are considered high grade metamorphic rocks.

(4 marks)

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Q2 (d) Explain and illustrate types of metamorphism with particular reference to:

(i) Contact metamorphism

 Occurs when country rocks are surrounded by igneous intrusion and altered by intruding
magma.
 Physical changes such as recrystallisation occur due to contact metamorphism when
original minerals in country rock are permeated by magmatic fluid.
 For example, limestone (country rock/preexisting rock) intruded by hot magma may be
altered from distance of few inch to several miles from line of contact between the two
rocks.
 Heat is the most significant influence in contact metamorphism. Metamorphic rock
formed in a baked-zone of the altered country rock.

(ii) Regional metamorphism

 The zones of rock alteration are much more extensive (large scale) than rocks altered
under contact metamorphism.
 Regional metamorphism occurs due to the effects of both pressure and temperature.
 The rock layers undergo structural deformation (folded, crushed or fractured) due to
great pressures exerted on it and therefore results in the obliteration of any indication of
fossils or stratification and realignment of mineral grains.
 Regional metamorphism must occur deep within the crust, at least at depths of 10 km or
more and is known to be responsible for the forming of mountain ranges.
 Specific group of minerals present in rock can be used to infer a certain metamorphic
grade.
 Rocks subjected to high temperatures and pressures are of high grade. Under various
metamorphic grades, different minerals can be produced from the same original rock.
 For example, kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite have the same chemical composition
but different internal structures.

(iii) Dynamic metamorphism

 Dynamic metamorphism is produced by variable strain, variable pressure, variable
temperature and high fluid pressure and normally occurs in active fault zones.
 Dynamic metamorphism is metamorphism of rock masses caused primarily by stresses
that yield relatively high strain (deformation) rates. More simply, it is metamorphism
resulting from deformation.
 Temperatures during dynamic metamorphism are typically elevated and may be caused
by the deformation process. Fluids commonly contribute to the metamorphic process,
both by altering chemistry and by aiding recrystallization.
 Dynamic metamorphism occurs in fault zones when country rock is ground up and
partially recrystallized. Rocks formed by dynamic metamorphism display a sugary
texture, moderate foliated texture, and small round rock fragments within the foliation.
 Rocks types of Dynamic Metamorphism such as breccias and mylonite.

(7 marks)
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 BFC 21303

Q3 (a) Classify, sketch and explain all physical forces that contribute to mechanical weathering.
(5 marks)
(i) Frost Action
 Frost action works best in jointed rock or rocks with fractures in mountainous area with
cool climates.
 Water that freezes in cracks and pores of rocks at temperature which drops below 0°C
will result in an increment of 9% in volume that will create pressure (compressive
forces) against the wall of the fracture eventually widened the cracks.

(ii) Unloading
 This is a process of reduction of pressure on underlying rocks by erosion that takes place
on the overburden.
 The rocks expand as pressure is released and this process is known as unloading. The
response to unloading may cause large joints (sheeting) to develop.
 The joints tend to be oriented parallel to the slope of the terrain. Natural erosion of
overlying rocks has already induced unloading stresses in any exposed rocks.
 Further removal of material by man can create rapid strain.

(iii)Saline Crystal Growth

 Combination of moisture and salts (halite, gypsum, etc.) has been found to cause scaling
or decay of building stones.
 Stresses due to growth of salt can cause the rock to break apart physically.
 This process is particularly effective in porous rocks subjected to alternate wetting and
drying. Further disintegration of rock may occur due to expansion of salt crystals which
have grown in former voids.

(iv) Alternate Heating and Cooling

 Happens in mountainous regions and deserts where rocks are subjected to drastic change
of temperature.
 The rock will expand as they are heated during daytime and contract due to freezing
temperature at night. This will lead to cracks and crevices

(v) Organic Activities

 The activities of plants and animals also promote rock disintegration. Burrowing animals
such as worms, ants and rodents mechanically mix the soil and loose rock particle.
Pressure from growing roots widens cracks and contributes to the rock breakdown.

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 BFC 21303

Q3 (b) List all categories of fault. (2 marks)

(i) Normal fault
(ii) Reverse fault
(iii) Lateral fault
(iv) Oblique

Q3 (c) Discuss the gravity method related to its concepts, applications, advantages and
disadvantages. (6 marks)

Concept
 Gravity measurements detect changes in the earth's gravitational field caused by local changes
in the density of the soil and rock or engineered structures.
Uses:
 Standard gravity measurements are primarily applied to characterizing geologic structure using
widely spaced stations (100's to 1,000's of feet apart).
 Microgravity measurements can be used to characterize detailed localized geologic conditions
(such as bedrock channels, caves, and abandoned tunnels and mines) usually within the upper
few 100 feet.
 Microgravity uses closely spaced stations (a few feet to about 50 feet) and a micro gravimeter
(capable of reading to a few microgals).
Advantages:
 Provides a means to characterize conditions in geologic and cultural environments, where other
geophysical methods may fail;
 Does not require intrusive ground contact;
 Data can be interpreted to provide estimates of depth size and the nature of the anomaly;
 Can be used inside buildings and structures.
Disadvantages:
 Station measurements only;
 Instruments carried by hand only;
 Requires base station for drift corrections;
 Requires accurate elevation measurements;
 The process of making microgravity measurements is a relatively slow and tedious in the field
and requires extensive processing and corrections;
 Susceptible to cultural and natural vibrations.

Q3 (d) The standard length of the rock core was 1.5 m for each sequence of the rock drilling work.
Calculate the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), Total Core Recovery (TCR) and Solid Core
Recovery (SCR) for the rock sample below. (6 marks)

RQD 60.53333 %

TCR 64.46667 %

SCR 52.06667 %

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 BFC 21303

Q3 (e) Explain the rock testing with particular reference to:

(i) Ultrasonic velocity test

 Ultrasonic velocity tester / PUNDIT (Portable Ultrasonic Non-destructive Indicator
Tester) test is a method for estimating the degree of denseness of rock.
 Primary (P) wave travels faster in denser material.
 Typical P-wave velocity (Vp) for materials like top soils and clays is less than 2000m/s
compared to hard rock that may exceed 3000m/s.
 Rock of low porosity also exhibits a higher P-wave velocity.
 P-wave velocity can be used to differentiate between soil and rock material and also as a
guide for rock classification.
 If velocity of secondary (S) wave (Vs) is also measured in PUNDIT test, a number of
DYNAMIC material properties (e.g. dynamic elastic modulus, E and v) of rock sample
can be approximated using, e.g. E:
E = [(VS2 * γ)/g][(3 * (Vp/ Vs)2 - 4)/((Vp/ Vs)2 - 1)]
Where γ is unit weight of sample (kN/m3) and g is gravitational pull.

(ii) Slake’s durability test

 Slake's durability test is for measuring the 'resistance index' of a rock when subjected to
weathering.
 Test is conducted under simulated rapid weathering condition (soaking of aggregate
sample in water).
 Softer and highly weathered rock slakes easily and slake durability index (Is) is less than
80%. For harder or unweathered rock the value of Is is above 90%.

(iii) Triaxial compression test

 This test is to evaluate the strength of rock under confined conditions, representing rock
occurring at depth (σ = pgh).
 These include rock material in high slope and material at tunnel walls. Under confined
condition, rock is stronger and at relatively higher confined stress may exhibit ductile
(strain-hardening) behavior.
 Besides compression machine, the test requires a Hoek's Cell (Figure 8.8) to generate
confinement stress.
 Testing procedures are similar to UCT. Each test is conducted at specific confining
stress to simulate stress at depth.
 For triaxial compression test on rock discontinuities, triaxial test is used to obtain the
shear strength parameters of the discontinuities (τ and Ø).
 Triaxial compression test is important to evaluate the strength of rock in construction of
underground excavations located very deep below ground surface (cavern for power
house) and underground cavity for radioactive disposals.
 The test is also essential for evaluating strength of bed rock for foundation of heavy
structures.

(6 marks)

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 BFC 21303

Q4 A road cutting 50 m deep is driven through a sequence of metamorphic foliated rock. The
rock slope face cutting in the direction of 0760 and dip angle 600. The geologist has mapped
the cutting area and produced an equal area stereonet plot showing the pole plot
concentrations presented in FIGURE Q4(a). TABLE Q4(a) shows the data of slope
geometry and rock parameters.

(a) Obtain the dip direction and dip angle of discontinuities set 1, 2 and 3 of contouring
pole plot in FIGURE Q4(a).

348/27, 86/35, 222/53

(6 marks)

(b) Analyze the entire rock slope failure modes with its criterion.

Circular None
Planar J2: 86/35
Wedge J1/J3 and J2/J3
Toppling None

(4 marks)

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(c) Calculate the factor of safety for wedge failure mode of intersection joint set 1 and 3
using the formula in FIGURE Q4(c) when the tension crack is completely filled with
water.

γw = 9.81 kN/m2

θ θ(deg) θ(rad)
1,nb 73 1.274
sin  13
2,na 53 0.925 Y 
na,nb 46 0.803 sin  35 kos  1 nb
2,4 161 2.810
4,5 38 0.663 kos a  kos b kos na nb
A
1,3 76 1.326 sin  5 sin 2  na nb
3,5 52 0.908
Φa 10 0.175
kos b  kos a kos na nb
Φb 10 0.175 B
Ψa 27 0.471 sin  5 sin 2  na nb
Ψb 35 0.611
Ψ5 25 0.436
Ψ4E 60 1.047
ΨE 10 0.175
Ψ3E 0 0.000
For upper slope

X Y A B
0.878692 4.21149 1.47233 0.91550
5 8 5 9

Data
H 50 Ht 50
Ca 100
Cb 100
γw 9.81
γ 25

FOS 1.467

(8 marks)

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 BFC 21303

(d) Calculate the factor of safety for planar failure mode using the formula in FIGURE
Q4(d) when the tension crack at 3 meter depth is completely filled with water.

Data yang diperolehi di lapangan

β= sudut satah kegagalan
Φ= sudut geseran β 35 º 0.610865
c = jelekitan Φ 10 º 0.174533
H = Ketiggian kP
cerun c 100 a
Z = Rekahan tegangan H 50 m
α= sudut cerun Z 3 m
A = luas satah kegagalan Zw 3 m
kN
/m
2
U= tekanan air menegak γw 9.81
kN
/m
2
W = berat blok kegagalan γ 25
V= tekanan air mendatar α 60 º 1.047198
Sudut planar + sudut anchor penstabilan 55 0.959931

A  ( H  Z ) xCo sec 
A 81.942

U  1  w Z w ( H  Z )Co sec 
2
U 1205.777

  Z  
2

W  1
2
H 2 

1   
Cot  Cot 

 H   
W 26426.763

V 44.145

cA  WCos  U  VSin  Tan

FoS 
WSin  VCos
FoS 0.776

(4 marks)
(e) Calculate the tensional anchor force that requires to increase the factor of safety due to
planar failure mode to 1.5. The inclined anchor is 200.
Find T
Required FOS 1.5
Driving 22790.9
Resistant 11794.2
10996.7
1.0
T 10944
(3 marks)

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