Chapter 3 9217

BFC 32002 Hydrology
Chapter 3. Evaporation, Transpiration &

Infiltration
Zarina Md Ali
Based on BFC 32002 Hydrology Module
Email: zarinaali75@gmail.com
Phone Nu: 074564359 / 0197722315
BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S 1
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, the students should be able to :
• simulate the rate of evaporated and transpired water over
time in modeling conceptual.
• define the infiltration process and estimate the infiltration
rate.
BFC32002_Ch3/ZARINA'S
2
Introduction Evapotranspiration (ET)
is the sum
evaporation and plant
of
transpiration from the

earth's land surface to
atmosphere. (3)
Transpiration is
the process
where plants
absorb water
through the Infiltration is the
roots and then process by which
give off water precipitation or
vapour through water soaks into
pores in their subsurface soils
leaves. (2) and moves into
rocks through
cracks and pore
spaces (4)
Evaporation is the process by which water is 3

transformed from the liquid phase to vapour
phase (transferred from the land and water
masses of the earth to the atmosphere) (1)
Meteorology Factors Affect The
Evaporation
• Sun Radiation - sun light as the heat energy and cloud will
be the barrier of evaporation
• Wind - saturated vapor level in atmosphere will be
changed into dry air by wind blow
• Relative humidity- if the relative humidity is up, so then
the potential of air to absorb water is lower so then the
evaporation is lower as well.
• Temperature- if the temperature of air and soil is high, so
then the process of evaporation is faster.
4
Estimating Evaporation
The methods :
1. the Water Budget
2. the Energy Budget
3. Mass Transfer Techniques
4. the use of Pans
• instrumentation for energy budget and mass transfer
methods is quite expensive and the cost to maintain
observations is substantial.
• the water budget method and use of evaporation pans
are more common.
• the pan method is the least expensive and will frequently
5
provide good estimates of annual evaporation.
1. Water Budget Calculations
Water budget method, approximation with Storage Equation
Approach.
6
Example 3.1
The drainage area of the Sembrong River at Johore Malaysia,
is 11,839 km2. If the mean annual runoff is determined to be
144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall is 1.08m, estimate
the ET losses for the area. How does this compare with the
lake evaporation of 1 m/year measured at Muar River.
Solution:
Assuming that G = 0 and ΔS = 0, ET = P- R
Runoff is converted from m3/s to m/year as follows:

R = [ 144.4 x 86, 400 x 365]/[11,839 x 106] = 0.38 m
Therefore, ET = 1.08 – 0.38 = 0.7 m < 1 m/year

7
* The ET losses over the drainage basin are less than the
measured lake ET losses at Muar River.
2. Energy Budget Method
• This method uses all resources & thermal energy losses, while
evaporation as the only wanted variable.
• The energy budget method illustrate an application of the
continuity equation to compute the evaporation from oceans
and lakes.
• The accuracy of estimates of evaporation depends on the
reliability and preciseness of measurement data.
• The energy budget equation:
8
• Based on the concept of the turbulent transfer of water
vapor to atmosphere.
• Three techniques applied :-
• Dalton’s equation
• Meyer’s equation
9
• Dunne equation
10
11
Example 3.2
Using the Meyer and Dunne equations, find the daily
evaporation rate for a lake given that the mean value for air
temperature was 87oF, the mean value for water
temperature was 63oF, the average wind speed was 10 mph,
and the relative humidity was 20%. Refer to Table 3.1 for
vapor pressure values.
Solution:
12
RH 0.26 in.Hg x 25.4mm/in. x 1
mb/0.75 mmHg = 8.8 milibar
Solution:
13
4. Use of evaporation pan
Evaporation Pan is made to simulate evaporation condition of
free water surface. The pan can be applied as follows:
1. On the land surface, there are two pans
are promoted:
• US Weather Bureau Class A Pan (figure 3.4).
• GGI – 3000 Pan from Soviet Union.
2. In the land surface, Colorado Sunken
Pan is the only type can be proposed.
3. Floating on the water, this kind pan is
floated on the water, some installations
are needed to prevent water sprinkling
enter the pan. It is to simulate the real
condition; however the reading has
different value with the evaporation of 14
big water body like lake and reservoir.
15
16
Estimating Transpiration
17
Example 3.3
Determine the monthly consumptive use of an alfalfa crop
grown in southern California for the month of July if the
average monthly temperature is 72oF, the average value of
daytime hours in percentage of the year is 9.88, and the
mean montly consumptive use coefficient for alfalfa is 0.85.
Solution:
Using equation:
ktp
u
100
= 0.85 x 72 x 9.88/100
= 6.05 in of water.
18
19
Example 3.4
Determine the seasonal consumptive use of a tomato crop grown
in New Jersey if the mean monthly temperature for May, June, July
and August are 61.6, 70.3, 75.1 and 73.4 o F, respectively and the
percent daylight hours for the given months are 10.02, 10.8,10.22
and 9.54 as percent of the year, respectively.
Solution:
Consumptive use coefficient is 0.65 to 0.70 ( tomatoes & 4
months). Since New Jersey is a humid area Ks = 0.65.
20
Evapotranspiration (ET)
Two concept:
1. Potential Evapotranspiration , Etp measure of the ability of
the atmosphere to remove water from the surface through
the processes of evaporation and transpiration assuming
no control on water supply
2. Actual Evapotranspiration, ETa is the quantity of water that
is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of
evaporation and transpiration.
Basically, there are three major approaches :

a. Theoretical, based on physics of the process.
b. Analytical (logical), based on energy or
21
water budgets.
c. Empirical (observation)
Estimating Evapotranspiration
(a) The Thornhwaite Method
• defines potential evaporation as “the water loss which will occur if
at no time there is a deficiency of water in the soil for use of
vegetation.” — assuming soil storage is not depleted.
• The Thornthwaite – Holzman equation is a good example of a mass
transfer equation that has often been employed for this purpose.
• An equation for estimating evapotranspiration potential:
22
Estimating Evapotranspiration
(a) The Penman Method
• a method to combine the mass transport and energy budget
theories, & one of the more reliable approaches to estimating
ET rates using climatic data.
• this equation gives good result for evaporation rate of free
surface water, E0 if at that place there is no observation by pan
evaporation or water balance study.
23
24
25
Figure 3.7 : Relation between temperature
and saturated vapor pressure
Figure 3.8 : Temperature vrsus ∆ relation
for use with the Penman equation
26
Example 3.5
Using the Penman method, estimate ET, given the following data :
temperature at water surface = 22oC, temperature of air = 33oC,
relative humidity = 45%, wind velocity = 1.5 mph (36 mi/day). The
month is June at latitude 33o north, r is given as 0.07 and n/D is to
be found 0.70.
Solution:
20.02 -
27
28
Example 3.6
Estimate the monthly potential evapotranspiration for June. The
mean monthly temperatures are shown in the Table below. The
average relative humidity is 50%. The wind speed is 130 mi/day.
Assume that n/D = 70%, γ = 0.27, and r = 25% at 50O latitude.
29
Solution:
30
Solution:
31
Infiltration
• the flow of water into the ground through
the soil surface and the process can be
easily understood through a simple
analogy.
• infiltration rate influence the timing of
overland flow inputs to the channel
systems.
• this analogy can be simplified in two important aspects,

which is:
• maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water is
called as the infiltration rate.
• volume of water that ground can hold is known as the
field capacity. 32
Infiltration Capacity
f0 = initial infiltration capacity,
cm/hr or mm/hr
fc = final constant infiltration
capacity, cm/h or mm/h
33
Factors Affecting Infiltration
Three main factors:
(a) Characterictics of Soil
• texture, structure, permeability, under drainage and type of
soil.
• a soil with a good underneath drainage would obviously
have a higher infiltration capacity. dry soil can absorb more
water than one whose has full pore.
• land use has a significant influence on fc , for instance, a
forest soil which is rich with organic matter will have much
higher value of constant infiltration rate that the similar
types of soil in an urban area where is subjected to
compaction.
34
Three main factors:
(b) Soil Surface
• At the soil surface, the impact of raindrops causes the fines
in the soils to be displaced and these in turn can clog the
pore spaces in the upper layers. This is an important factor
affecting the infiltration capacity.
• Thus a surface covered by grass and other vegetation
which can reduce this process has a pronounced influence
on the value of fc.
• Viessman and Lewis (2003) stated that infiltration rate for
bare-soil is 2.5 mm/h - 25 mm/h.
• However, soil with grass cover tends to increase the values
by a factor between 3 and 7.5. 35
Three main factors:
(c) Fluid Characteristics
• Water infiltrating into the soil will have many impurities,
both in solution and suspension.
• The turbidity of water, especially the clay and colloid
content is an important factor as suspended particles
block the fines pores in the soil and reduce its infiltration
capacity.
• The temperature of the water is also a factor in the sense
that it affects the viscosity of the water which in turn
affects the infiltration rate.
• Besides that, contamination of the water by dissolved
salts also affects the soil structure and then the 36
infiltration rate.
Infiltration Measurement
• Infiltration characteristics of soil can be obtained by
conducting controlled experiment on small areas.
• The experiment set-up is called an infiltrometer, which
are flooding type infiltrometer and rainfall simulator.
37
(a) Flooding Type Infiltrometer
• consist a metal cylinder and open at both
ends (30 cm dia & 60 cm long), planted
into the ground to a depth of 50 cm.
• water is poured to a depth of 5 cm and pointer is set to mark the
water level.
• add water to keep the water level at the tip of the pointer as
infiltration proceeds, and may take 2 to 3 hours till reach uniform
rate.
• experiments are continued is obtained, surface of the soils is
usually protected by a perforated disk to prevent formation of
turbidity and its settling on the soil surface.
• Disadvantage of simple ring: infiltered water spreads at the
38
outlet from the tube, and can’t be figured as area in which
infiltration takes place.
(a) Flooding Type Infiltrometer
• double ring is used to overcome problem of
area.
• the rings are inserted in to the ground and
water is maintained on the soil surface to a
common fixed level.
• the outer ring provides a water jacket to the infiltering water of
the inner ring and hence, prevents the spreading out of the water
from the inner tube.
• the measurement of water volume is done in the inner ring only.
• main disadvantages of flooding type infiltrometer are:
1. The raindrop effect is not simulated.
2. The driving of the tube or rings disturbs the soil structure.
3. The results of the infiltrometer depend to some extent on
their size with the larger meters give less rates than the 39
smaller ones and this is due to the border effect.
(b) Rainfall Simulator
• this instrument give low values than
flooding type infiltrometers, due to the
rainfall effect and turbidity of the surface
soil
• consist a small plot of land (about 2 m x 4 m size), series of nozzles
and measures apparatus.
• the nozzles produce raindrops fall a height of 2 m and capable in
producing various intensities of rainfall.
• Using the water budget equation involves volume of rainfall,
infiltration and runoff, infiltration rate and its variation with time
can be calculated.
• If the rainfall intensities is higher than the infiltration rate,
infiltration capacity values are obtained.
40
Infiltration Methods
(a) Horton Model
The temporal variation
in infiltration rate is
applicable when the
water is continuously
ponded above the soil 41
column.
(a) Horton Model
In cases where water is not continuously ponded above the

soil column, the potential infiltration fp can be expressed in
terms of the cumulative infiltration, F by implicit relationship
42
Example 3.7
A catchment soil has Horton infiltration parameters: fo = 100
mm/h, fc = 20 mm/h and k = 2 min-1. What rainfall rate would
result in ponding from beginning of the storm? Is this rainfall rate
is maintained for 40 minutes, describe the infiltration as a
function of time during the storm.
Solution:
The potential infiltration rate varies between a maximum of 100
mm/h (fo) and minimum of 20 mm/h (fc). Any storm in which the
rainfall rate exceeds 100 mm/hr during the entire storm will cause
ponding from the beginning of the storm. Under these
circumstance, the infiltration rate, f as a function of time is given
as equation as
43
Example 3.8
An initial infiltration was recorded as 5.5 cm/hr during 10 hours of
rainfall. Given that fc and k is 0.4 cm/hr and 0.32 respectively,
determine;
a) Infiltration at 5 hours.
b) Total infiltration within first 8 hours.
c) Total infiltration between 5 and 10 hours from rainfall begin.
Solution:
fo = 5.5 cm/hr, fc = 0.4 cm/hr dan k = 0.32 h-1
a) Infiltration at 5 hours.
f  fc ( fo  fc )e(  kt )
f5  0.4 ( 5.5  0.4 )e 0.32( 5 )  1.43cm / hr

44
Solution:
b) Total infiltration within the first 8 hours.
c) Total infiltration between 5 and 10 hours from rainfall begin.
F  (f t )dt
( f  fc )
F  [ fc t  o ( 1  e( kt ) )] 10 5
K
5 .1 5 .1

F  ( 0.4 )( 10 ) 
 
( 1  e 0.32 x10 )  0.4( 5 )  1  e 0.32 x 5 
 0.32   0.32 
F  4.56cm
45
(b) Green-Ampt Model
The Green – Ampt model sometimes called the delta function

model is today one of the most realistic models of infiltration
available to the engineer in designing a storm water
management systems.
46
Infiltration Index
• it is convenient to use a constant value of infiltration rate
for the duration of the storm
• average infiltration rate is called infiltration index (Φ)
• this index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall
volume is equal to runoff volume.
• the Index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the
edge of the resulting runoff volume.
• The initial loss is also considered as infiltration.
• The Φ value is found by treating it as a constant
infiltration capacity.
• If the rainfall intensity is less than Φ, then the infiltration
rate is equal to the rainfall intensity.
47
• if the rainfall intensity is larger
than Φ the difference between
rainfall and infiltration in an
interval of time represents the
runoff volume as shown as in
figure.
• the amount of rainfall in excess of the index is called rainfall
excess.
• the Φ Index thus accounts for the total abstraction and
enables runoff magnitudes to be estimated for a given
rainfall hyetograph
48
Example 3.9
A storm with 10 cm rainfall produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm. Table
below show the time distribution of the storm, estimate the Φ index.
Time (hour) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rainfall (cm/h) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5
Solution:
Total rainfall, P = 0.4 (1) + 0.9 (1) + 1.5 (1) + 2.3 (1) + 1.8 (1) + 1.6 (1)
+ 1(1) + 0.5 (1) = 10 cm
Total runoff, R = 5.8 cm
Assume te is 8 hours,
P - R 10  5.8
Index     0.525cm/h
te 8
But this value of Φ makes the rainfall of the first hour and eight
49
hour ineffective as their magnitude is less than 0.525 cm/h. The
value of te is need to modified.
Then, assume te is 6 hours.
Total rainfall, P = 10 - 0.4 – 0.5 = 9.1 cm
Then,
P - R 9.1  5.8
Index     0.55cm/h
te 6
This value of Φ is satisfactory and by calculating the rainfall excess
Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(hour)
Rainfall
0 0.35 0.95 1.75 1.25 1.05 0.45 0
excess (cm)
Total rainfall excess = 5.8 cm = total runoff
50
Example 3.10
The rainfall intensity in the 50 hectar of catchment area is given
table below. If volume of surface runoff is 30000 m3, estimate Φ
index for the catchment area and sketch the circumstances in
form of hyetograph.
Time Rainfall intensity
(hour) (mm/hour)
Solution: 1 5
2 10
Runoff, R = (3x104)/(0.5x1000x1000) = 60 mm 3 38
4 25
Total rainfall = (5+10+38+25+13+5)(1) = 96 mm 5 13
6 5
7 0
Then,
P - R 96  60
Index     6mm/h
te 6
But this value of Φ makes the rainfall of the first hour and six hour 51
ineffective as their magnitude is less than 6 mm/h.
Then, te = 4 hours
P - R 96  (5  5)  60
Index     6.5mm/h
te 4
Sketch in form of hyetograph
Rainfall Intensity versus Time
Rainfall Intensity (mm/h)
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10 ø = 6.5 mm/hj
8
6 ø = 6 mm/h
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours (h) 52

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BFC 32002 Hydrology

Chapter 3. Evaporation, Transpiration &

transpiration from the

Evaporation is the process by which water is 3

Runoff is converted from m3/s to m/year as follows:

Therefore, ET = 1.08 – 0.38 = 0.7 m < 1 m/year

Basically, there are three major approaches :

• this analogy can be simplified in two important aspects,

• water is poured to a depth of 5 cm and pointer is set to mark the

In cases where water is not continuously ponded above the

f5  0.4 ( 5.5  0.4 )e 0.32( 5 )  1.43cm / hr

The Green – Ampt model sometimes called the delta function

Total rainfall excess = 5.8 cm = total runoff

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