Saffron

Crocus sativus
Fam: Iridaceae

Coming from the dried stigmas of the saffron

crocus, it takes 75,000 blossoms or 225,000 hand-
picked stigmas to make a single pound which
explains why it is the world’s most expensive spice.

More saffron trivia

According to Greek myth, handsome mortal Crocos fell in love with
the beautiful nymph Smilax. But his favours were rebuffed by
Smilax, and he was turned into a beautiful purple crocus flower. A
native of the Mediterranean, saffron is now imported primarily from
Spain, where Moslems had introduced it in the 8th century along
with rice and sugar. Valencia coup (coupé meaning “to cut” off the
yellow parts from the stigmas) saffron is generally considered the
best, though Kashmir now rivals this reputation. Saffron is also
cultivated in India, Turkey, China and Iran. The name is from the
Arabic word zafaran which means ‘yellow’. The French culinary
term safrané means ‘coloured using saffron’. Its colouring properties
have been as prized as its unique flavour. In India its colour is
considered the epitome of beauty and is the official colour of
Buddhist robes. Saffron was used to scent the baths and public halls
of Imperial Rome. Pliny wrote that saffron was the most frequently
falsified commodity, which has been true throughout history. Low
grade saffron has even been treated with urine to give it colour,
though it has most often been falsified with dried calendula or
marigold. The Romans initially brought saffron to England, though it
was lost to them in the Dark Ages. It is claimed that in the 14th
century a pilgrim to the Holy Land, smuggled back one crocus bulb in a hollow staff from which all English saffron
supposedly descends. It is grown in great quantities in Essex, especially in a town called Saffron Essex, whose coat of
arms includes three saffron crocuses. Francis Bacon wrote “it maketh the English sprightly”.

Spice Description
Saffron is the three stigmas of the saffron crocus. They are delicate and thread-like, each measuring 2.5 - 4 cm (1 -1.5
in). Its colour is a bright orange-red, and in high quality saffron this is uniform. Saffron bearing white streaks or light
patches is inferior and when light specks appear in its powdered form it suggests adulteration.
Bouquet: Strongly perfumed, with an aroma of honey
Flavour: A pungent bitter-honey taste
Hotness Scale: 0

Where to Buy Saffron

Most specialty food shops carry saffron, though if it has sat on the shelves for too long it
may have lost flavor, so look for bright color. There are a number of places to purchase
online, though we recommend purchasing through one of the reputable dealers associated
with Amazon and their trusted and secure online ordering. Click here to shop for saffron .

Preparation and Storage

Because of its expense, intense flavour, and strong dying properties, very little saffron is
required for culinary purposes and the key is to distribute it evenly throughout the dish being
prepared. It can be crushed to a fine powder in a mortar and pestle. It is easier however, to
steep the saffron in hot water— a pinch to a cup will create the desired flavour and colour.
Good saffron should expand on contact with the water and a cup should be sufficient for 0.5 kg (1 lb) of rice. Powdered
saffron is added directly to the required ingredients of a dish, though we recommend against buying saffron powdered,
as it is so frequently adulterated. Store in a cool dry place, out of the light.

Culinary Uses
Saffron appears in Moorish, Mediterranean and Asian cuisines. Its most common function is to colour rice yellow, as in
festive Indian pilaus and risotto Milanese, where its delicate flavour make it the most famous of Italian rice dishes. It
combines well with fish and seafood, infamous as a key ingredient of Spanish paella as well as bouillabaisse. In
England, saffron is probably best known for its use in Cornish saffron buns where it is paired with dried fruit in a yeast
cake.

Attributed Medicinal Properties

Large dosages can be fatal. It has been recognized of value as an antispasmodic, diaphoretic, carminative,
emmenagogic and sedative.
Plant Description and Cultivation
A fall-flowering ornamental crocus that does well in warm climates. It grows to 15 cm (6 in) with long thin leaves. The
blue-violet flowers contain the precious protruding orange stigmas

Saffron (Crocus sativus)

How well established is this crop?

This is a very new crop to the Otago region. The plants should grow but information on markets, commercial
returns, current growers, and any form of regional research may be difficult to find.

Background

The use of Saffron as a spice is though to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean nearly 4000 years
ago. Since that time it has maintained its position as the world’s most expensive spice worth more than its
weight in gold.

Saffron comes from the flowers of the autumn crocus. This small corm flowers in the autumn, has foliage in
the winter that dies off in the spring and the corm goes through summer dormant.

The actual spice itself is the three bright red stigmas that are the male parts of the flower. These are
removed, dried and used to add subtle flavour and colour to dishes. The flowers coming from the crocus are
actually sterile meaning the only way to reproduce the corms is to use vegetative means. They readily bulk
up and small new corms are easy to divide from the parent.

Climate

As Saffron originates in the Mediterranean it prefers a warm dry climate. However if the soil conditions are
correct it can be grown successfully in other areas.

Winter Chilling and Frosts

Saffron has been grown successfully in a range of locations throughout Central Otago. It does not seem
susceptible to frosts during the winter and flowers successfully every year.

Rainfall and Irrigation

Water is essential during the establishment phase of a Saffron block. It is also necessary when the crop is
developing its flower heads in the period leading up to harvest in the autumn.

Wind

Even though Saffron is a low growing plant, shelter from the wind is advisable. It will reduce the amount of
damage to the plants and subsequent disease problems. Be careful with design to allow the plants to get the
maximum amount of sunshine during the growing season.

A good rule of thumb when designing shelter is to multiply the final height of the shelter by 5. Use that
measurement as the distance you position your shelters apart. For example, when using shelter trees that
are 10m high you will need shelters 10m x 5 = every 50m.
Soil

The key physical requirement of the soil for Saffron growing is a free draining root zone. This will ensure the
roots and corm is not wet which can lead to fungal diseases. To further reduce the chances of this, raised
beds are often used.

Fertility

Saffron corms do not need high levels of fertility to grow well. The only part of the plant being taken away at
harvest is a small flower so nutrient turnover is not high. Small annual applications of fertiliser will boost the
crop. Slow release products applied in the spring are the best.

Weed Control

Weed control is essential to successfully grow this crop. Hand weeding is time consuming and expensive.
As the corms are dormant during the summer, herbicide may be able to be used. This will make sure the
crop goes into the autumn flowering period relatively clean.

Varieties

There is only one variety of autumn flowering Saffron corm. The flowers are easily recognisable due to the
large size of the stigmas (up to 3cm long).

Pests and Diseases

Saffron suffer a few fungal diseases but if the plants are grown on raised beds or in free draining soil the
effect of these will be reduced. The other main pest is rabbits, they dig up corms and feed on foliage.
Nettings around the blocks is recommended.

Layout

Saffron beds tend to be planted about 1m wide with up to 50 corms per metre. Spacing beds 30-50cm apart
will allow for foot access between them. Planting densities higher than 50 corms/m2, will mean the beds
have to be dug up, divided and replanted earlier. At 50 corms/m2 this will only need to happen after 4
growing and harvesting seasons.

General Management

Corms tend to be planted out in there dormant period in summer. Small corms less than 1.5cm diameter
should be placed aside and planted in a nursery bed to increase in size. In general the larger the corm the
greater the number of flowers it will produce. Corms should be placed about 5-10cm deep in the soil and
watered in well. Some growers use a mulch of sawdust to cut down on the requirements for hand weeding
or the use of herbicides. Mulch is also a useful way of maintaining soil moisture and would be beneficial to
growers in Central Otago.

Weed control is the main activity outside the harvest period. After about 4 seasons it is common for the beds
start to get to crowded and the production drops. This is the time to lift the corms and divide to plant more
area.

Harvest

Harvesting Saffron is an incredibly time consuming activity. Flower must be plucked from the corms before
they open. This is generally done in the morning or evening when there is no moisture on the flowers. The
flowers are then taken for processing where they are opened by hand and the stigmas removed for drying. If
this is not done immediately after harvest in the field the flowers should be chilled.

A small domestic dehydrator set to 30°C for 24 hours usually will suffice for drying batches of stigmas. Any
larger batches are unlikely due to the workload required even for this amount. Once dried the Saffron must
be carefully handled so it does not break. It is usually packaged in an airtight storage container for sale.

Equipment

After preparing the ground and planting most work on a Saffron block is done by hand. This means
requirements for a spray pack and some kneepads. At harvest a dehydrator is needed to dry the crop.

Returns

Saffron is being grown successfully in a number of locations, from Central Otago through to the Taieri Plains.
Yields vary depending on location and grower experience. Research done at Redbank near Clyde in the 90s
showed yields varying between 3-5gm of dried saffron per m2 of bed.

Although some small sales have been completed returning $20/gram to the grower, bulk sales to
commercial entities in the overseas markets are likely to be $6-8/gram. Saffron grown in Kashmir is
available for as little as $2/gram. Quality lines will always attract higher prices.

Contacts

A Saffron growers Association has been set up. The contact people for this group are Megan Huffadine and
Maurice Watson, Cromwell.

Saffron is a rare herb that produces approximately 8 to 10 successive years. The harvest time falls
modestly in the first and the last year out.

Since Saffron is so special, its cultivation and handling process is seriously demanded and carefully
implemented, from choosing soil, controlling distance, to managing time of irrigation, drying methods, and
packing, all steps are under precautious monitoring.
Soil: The best soil for planting Saffron is loam which must deeply be ploughed over. Per thousand square
meter of soil, 20 to 30 tons fertilizers should be added, and soil needs to be tilled once again after mixing
manure with oil.

Timing: Proper time is from the beginning of May to September. Within the duration, weather is absolutely
warm enough and soil humidity is low enough for planting.

The tubers must be kept in cool, dry and dark place until planting, in order to prevent budding and taking
root out; they must be surely antiseptic before planting in soil by fungicide poisons.
All of the tubers are planted into 20 cm depth to avoid cold winter and hot summer. Place 3, 5 or more
tubers in each hole, and distant each hole in around 15 to 25 centimeters, certainly it is depended on
amount of cultivated tubers.

Saffron, There are lots of discussions about Saffron history: On one hand, some people believe that the
first source was from India or Kashmir; on other hand, there are numerous of references testify that Saffron
should have first appeared in Iran—Mede or Zagros plains, especially in the Alvand region. With the fact
that the crocus had been cultivated in ancient Europe, afterwards, the Mongols took Saffron from Persia to
India, and it is proved that Saffron comes from Western Asia and most likely Persia.

According to documentaries of Saffron History in Iran, Saffron was from Iridacean family. American
scientist, Barteld Loufter wrote in his research in 1917, “Saffron is a self-growing Iranian plant, it is
cultivation exists since ancient years. The cultivation, process and consumption were spread widely from
Iran to all over the world.” It further proves that Saffron should be originally from Persian.

Tracking back to Saffron history in Iran, It was only cultivated in central Iran in ancient time, and it was
already used for medical, food and dye purposes.

In conformity with Saffron history in Achaemenian Dynasty, first historical document over consumption of
Saffron was left by the Persian King. From his gunmetal epigraph, it recorded down the exchange activities
of Saffron in Persian palace, the situation on how Iranian used Saffron and how it influenced their daily life
were clearly written, for instance, people used it for garnishment of bread and cookies, for producing
amazing fragrances, cosmetic oil, as well as making sorts of color ink.

Saffron is a grass-like tuber plant; its tuber is hard, round, fleshy and covered with thin and brown
membranes that have 3 to 5 mm diameters. Each tuber grows 6 to 9 thin grasses, like leaves; and there are
1 or 2 purple flowers out in beginning of autumn. Each flower grows in a regular form, and contains long
pipe ending with three petals and three sepals in violet, rose or purple color. In bloom center there is pistil
and ovary in which thin and long light yellow style rising from. Ended part of style concludes to red and light
stigma that has three branches with 2 to 3 cm long. These three stigmas are the main part for producing
Saffron after drying.

Saffron, contains minerals, mucilage, fat, wax and aromatic Terpenic Essential oil with a few cineol, such
as picroretine, picrocrocine and crocine. There are 10 to 16 percent water, 5 to 7 percent minerals, a few
Gloside, 5 to 8 percent fat and wax, 12 to 13 percent protein with a few essential oil that make Saffron
more delightful and produces a stronger smell.

Color of saffron

Main color substance of Saffron is a compound called crocine, with the chemical formula C44 H64 O24.
Crocine is a rare and natural water-soluble carotenoide, it dissolves easily in water. Owing to this solubility,
Saffron, comparing with other carotenoids, is gradually used in food and in the medicine as coloring
materials.

Besides crocine, Saffron contains free aglycone crocine and a few anthocyanin pigment, as well as oil
soluble pigments in terms of lycopene, alpha carotene, beta carotene and zeaxanthin. Saffron coloring
power is one of the main determining parameters in deciding quality of Saffron and is evaluated by the
quantity of its colorant components with a spectrophotometer at the wave length of 443 nanometers.
The taste of saffron

Taste of Saffron is formed by a major component--bitter taste glucose, by means of crystallization under the
title of picrocrocin with C16 H26 O7 chemical formula, acid hydrolysis produces glucose and aldehyde that
namely Safranal.

Safranal is the main aromatic substance and makes up about 60 percent of volatile components of Saffron.
It is free as nonvolatile picrocrocin in fresh Saffron, but due to heat and time, it will be volatile aldehyde of
Safranal.

Safranal is a volatile, oily liquid with light yellow spot. This oily liquid dissolves easily in ethanol, methanol,
ether and oil. By means of distillation under releasing CO2 gas, ether oil is separated and evaporated finally,
the remained oil is yellow liquid that has strong aroma of Saffron. As this substance is part of terepenes, it
is very sensitive against oxidation, therefore, must be kept in special condition.

Saffron, Meadow
POISON!
Botanical: Colchicum autumnale (LINN.)
Family: N.O. Liliaceae
 Description
 Cultivation
 Medicinal Action and Uses
 Preparations

---Synonym---Naked Ladies.
---Parts Used---Root, seeds.
---Habitat---Grows wild in meadows, especially on limestone.

---Description---It has lanceolate leaves, dark green, glabrous, often a foot long. Flowers
light purple or white, like crocus but for their six stamens; the ovaries remain
underground until the spring after flowering, when they are borne up by the elongating
peduncles and ripen. It flowers in September and October. The leaves and fruit are
poisonous to cattle.

The root is called a corm, from which in autumn the light-purplish mottled flowers arise.

---Cultivation---Requires light, sandy loam, enriched with decayed manure or leafmould.

Plant the bulbs 3 inches deep and 3 inches apart in July or August, in moist beds or
rockeries, shrubbery, borders or lawns near shade of trees. The foliage dies down in June
and July, and does not reappear until after the plant has flowered. It may also be
propagated by seeds sown 1/8 inch deep in a bed of fine soil outdoors in August or
September, or in pans or boxes of similar soil in cold frame at the same time,
transplanting seedlings 3 inches apart when two years old; or by division of bulbs in
August. Seedling bulbs do not flower till four or five years old.

[Top]

---Medicinal Action and Uses---The Colchicum is valued for its medicinal properties.
The parts used are the root and seeds, these being anti-rheumatic, cathartic, and emetic.
Its reputation rests largely upon its value in acute gouty and rheumatic complaints. It is
mostly used in connexion with some alkaline diuretic; also in pill form. Overdoses cause
violent purging, etc.

The active principle is said to be an alkaline substance of a very poisonous nature called
Colchinine. It is acrid, sedative, and acts upon all the secreting organs, particularly the
bowels and kidneys. It is apt to cause undue depression, and in large doses acts as an
irritant poison. Dr. Lindley relates the case of a woman who was poisoned by the sprouts
of Colchicum, which had been thrown away in Covent Garden Market and which she
mistook for onions.

The Hermodactyls of the Arabians, formerly celebrated for soothing pains in the joints,
are said to be this plant.

The corm or root is usually sold in transverse slices, notched on one side and somewhat
reniform in outline, white and starchy internally, about 1/8 inch thick, and varying from
3/4 to 1 inch in diameter. Taste sweetish, then bitter and acrid. Odour radish-like in fresh
root, but lost in drying.

---Preparations---Powdered root, 2 to 5 grains. Extract, B.P., 1/4 to 1 grain. Fluid extract

(root), 1 to 10 drops. Fluid extract (seed), U.S.P., 1 to 10 drops. Tincture, B.P., 5 to 15
drops. Wine, B.P., 10 to 30 drops. Acetic solid extract, 1/4 to 1 grain.

Saffron, the world’s most expensive spice, is derived from the stigmas of the
saffron crocus
(Crocus sativus L.). It is a prized culinary condiment, widely used in the
cuisine of many
European and Asian countries. Saffron grows well in areas that have cold
winters and warm
dry summers.
Crop & Food Research [BROAD sheet] Number 20 August 2003

Growing saffron - the world’s

most expensive spice
The stigmas in the delicately scented saffron flowers
are dried and used in cooking to colour, flavour and add a
unique aroma to the meal. Crop & Food Research
scientists have investigated the conditions required to
produce high yields of saffron and the opportunity for
growing this valuable crop in New Zealand.
Introduction
Crocus sativus, unknown as a wild plant, is
considered to be a mutant that has derived from C.
cartwrightianus. The cultivated clone was probably
selected for its triploid vigour and extra long stigmas and
has been maintained in cultivation for over 3000 years.
The saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) is sterile and
does not set viable seed. Therefore, the crop must be
propagated by corm multiplication. The saffron crocus
flowers in autumn shortly after planting, before, together
with or after leaf appearance. The remainder of its growing
season consists of initiation, filling up, and maturation of
the daughter corms at the beginning of summer. Each
corm only lasts a single season and is replaced by 1 to
10 cormlets, depending on the original size of the mother
corm.
New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research Ltd
A Crown Research Institute
Corms are globular and depressed, up to 4.5 cm in
diameter and covered with a tunic of parallel fibres.
Corms are dormant during the summer and produce 5 to
11 erect, narrow, grass-like green leaves, up to 40 cm
long, that emerge in autumn. Flowers are fragrant, up to
8 cm long, and usually pale lilac or mauve with darker
coloured veins. The outstanding feature of the flower is
its style, which divides into three brilliant red stigmas 25-
30 mm long.
Environment
Saffron is native to the Mediterranean environment,
characterised by cool to cold winters, with autumn-winterspring
rainfall, and warm dry summers with very little
rainfall. It can withstand substantial frosts (-10oC), and
can tolerate occasional snow in the winter. In New
Zealand, saffron will grow well where there is winter
chilling and warm dry summers. These are areas south
of the Waikato in the North Island and on the east of the
South Island. Saffron produced poorly in the Waikato but
very well in Central Otago.
Saffron crocus flowers in autumn either before,
together with (as above), or after leaf production.
In Greece, saffron growing areas have more than
500 mm annual rainfall while in Spain saffron is grown in
dry temperate conditions with an annual rainfall of around
400 mm per annum, but the crop is usually irrigated.
Saffron is grown successfully under non-irrigated
conditions (1000-1500 mm per annum) in Kashmir, India.
Spring rain is considered favourable for corm production,
while rain immediately before flowering encourages high
flower yield. However, rain or cold weather during
flowering spoils the saffron and persistent wetness and
high temperatures encourage disease. Climatic
conditions for world and New Zealand saffron producing
sites are compared in Table 1.
Saffron likes light, friable soils that have a high nutrient
content. It grows in a wide range of soils, but thrives best
in deep, well drained clay-calcareous soils with a loose
texture that permits easy root penetration.
In New Zealand, the best soils for saffron production
are those with a sandy or loamy texture, but the most
important requirement is well drained soil. Under nonirrigated
conditions, high levels of organic matter improve
soil texture and water holding capacity, encouraging high
yields. At Clyde in Central Otago, New Zealand, saffron
beds were irrigated during the spring and early autumn,
with approximately 300-400 mm of water applied.
Cultivation
Flower yield is highly dependent on corm density and
corm size. Traditionally, saffron is grown on raised beds
to allow good drainage and easy access for picking.
Corms are planted out during their dormant period in
summer. In Italy, where annual planting is practised, the
best yields for flower and corm production are obtained
by leaving a space of 2-3 cm between each corm in the
furrow, with a planting depth of 8-10 cm. Optimal corm
quantity per hectare is 13-15 tons, which is about 600-
700 thousand corms with an average weight of 20-22 g
each (45-48 corms/kg). In Morocco they use 2 x 2 m
raised beds with rows 20 cm apart. Bunches of two or
three corms are planted 10-15 cm apart within rows.
There the planting depth is about 15 cm and about 3 tons
of corms are used per hectare. In Greece, corms are
planted in furrows formed with a plough, with corms placed
about 12 cm apart along the row and about 15 cm deep.
The distance between the rows is about 25 cm. This is
about 230 000–250 000 corms per hectare. In India,
corms are planted 7.5-10 cm apart, in rows
15-20 cm apart. Double rows are often used in Spain
with a spacing of 3.0 cm between rows and 6.0 cm between
corms in a row.
Recommended planting depths for corms vary from
7.5-10 cm to 15-22 cm. In Italy, a planting depth of 15 cm
gave better yields than shallower or deeper planting.
Planting depth affects corm production; more buds sprout
from shallow planted corms than from deep planted ones,
resulting in more daughter corms.
Corm size has a significant effect on the production of
daughter corms and on the production of flowers and the
yield of saffron. The larger the mother corm, the more
daughter corms will be produced in the annual cycle,
which increases the potential for higher yields in
subsequent years. Our research shows each original
mother corm, above 30 g, produced an average of six
new corms (in the second year), while the mother itself
decayed. In the third year, the total mean corm number
had risen to 22 new corms from each original mother
corm, while in the fourth year that total had risen to 65.
The weight of corms produced is also affected by the
weight of the original mother corm. When the original
mother corm is above 30 g, the total weight of replacement
corms doubles in the second season, is 10 times heavier
than the original in year three, and in year four is about 16
times heavier.
New saffron corms also grow above the old ones each
season, so they creep towards the soil surface by 1-2 cm
each year. Therefore, the crop needs to be lifted and
replanted periodically. This occurs about every 4 years in
Spain, but fields may last up to 12 years or more under
non-irrigated conditions in Kashmir. Replanting is
normally done when yields begin to fall due to
overcrowding or damage to corms that are too close to
the soil surface.
At Clyde, large corms were planted at least 10 cm
deep, while smaller corms were planted at 7-8 cm. We
grew our saffron in beds with four or five rows, each 20
cm apart. Corms were planted 10 cm apart in the row.
This gives a final density of 50 corms/m2. To guard against
possible fungal or bacterial diseases before planting,
the corms were dipped for 5 minutes in a solution of 20 g
Benlate® and 10 g Captan® mixed in 10 litres of water.
Table 1: Mean annual temperature (oC), mean winter earth
temperature (oC), GDD (growing degree days - base
10oC), rainfall (mm) and soil pH for 16 world sites and 3
New Zealand sites.
Winter
Temp. 10 cm earth GDD Rainfall
Site (mean °C) (mean °C) (base 10°C) (mm) pH
World
(16 sites) 10.4 - - 770 6.9
Clyde 10.1 1.9 1003 3801 5.2
Mosgiel 10.2 3.5 664 691 5.6
Hamilton 13.3 8.3 1410 1201 5.6
1 Extra 300-400 mm irrigation was applied per annum.

2 GDD base 10°C is accumulated growing degree days calculated

by adding the daily degrees above 10°C for each day that the
mean daily temperature exceeds 10°C during the growing season.
Fertiliser
In traditional saffron culture, large amounts of farm
yard manure were applied to the saffron fields before
planting, and typically 20-30 tons per hectare are
incorporated during cultivation. This material supplies
nutrients, but its other major role is to improve soil
moisture holding capacity and structure under nonirrigated
conditions. Under traditional growing systems
no further fertiliser was applied after corm planting.
However, recent data suggest that at least some annual
fertiliser applications are beneficial and a base dressing
of 80 kg P/ha and 30 kg K/ha followed by a split application
of 20 kg N/ha in autumn and again immediately after
flowering is recommended.
At Clyde, we have incorporated meat and bone meal
into the soil before planting (at 0.2 kg/m2), and each year
we applied a compound fertiliser such as Nitrophoska®
(N:P:K:S –12:5:14:4) in the spring (at 30 g/m2).
Weed control
At Clyde, we did not use herbicides on the crop while
it was actively growing. Sawdust mulch helped reduce
weed problems. During the dormant phase, when the
tops died off, we used the herbicides Roundup® or
Buster® to clean up the beds prior to the new season’s
flowering and growth. The choice of chemical depended
on the weeds present. The old top growth, which dies in
the summer, needs to be raked off the beds prior to the
autumn flowering.
Pests and diseases
Rabbits, rats and birds can cause problems in saffron
fields by eating or lifting the corms.
Many pests (e.g. nematodes) and diseases (e.g. corm
rots, leaf rusts) attack saffron, and the incidence is greatly
affected by the growing environment. Few problems were
experienced at Clyde.
At Navelli (Italy), moist/warm/humid conditions in
spring and summer create ideal conditions for the rapid
spread of fungi. Under these climatic conditions, they
treat the beds with anti-fungal agents to save the daughter
corms.
Flowering
Saffron flowers in the autumn, about 40 days after
planting, and continues for 30-40 days, depending on the
weather. The flowering period of each plant may last up
to 15 days. Rain 10-15 days before flower picking results
in excellent flowering and high production, whereas under
drought conditions, small flowers with small stigmas can
be expected. A cold period or a late planting can retard
flowering.
Our experience at Clyde shows that corms produce
leaves approximately one month before flowering starts.
Corm size has a large effect on the production of flowers
per corm. Large corms (>45 g) can produce up to 12
flowers per corm, while more average sized corms (20-
30 g) produce six flowers per corm.
Harvesting
Flowers are usually picked daily in the morning after
the dew has evaporated but before flowers wither. The
flower is cut at the base of the flower stem with a slight
twisting movement or by cutting with the finger nail. Care
is taken not to damage the leaves. In Greece, flowers are
harvested all day, as demanded by flowering. In Italy,
flowers are picked early in the morning while the flower is
still closed. It is considered that the flower is quicker to
pick in this state, and that it is quicker to remove the
stigma.
Drying
Following the separation of the stigmas from the
flowers, it is essential to dry the flower heads immediately.
Drying experiments show that drying at temperatures up
to 110oC can be used. The critical issue is the length of
drying time (e.g. at 110oC for 2 minutes). Recent Spanish
research shows drying in a hot air flow at 70oC for 6
minutes will give quality saffron. Brightness of colour is
aided by quick high temperature drying. Slow drying gives
a poor quality product. Another method is to use a
dehydrator at 48oC for 3 hours. Irrespective of the drying
method, it is important not to over dry. A final dry matter
close to 10% moisture is adequate for long-term storage.
Yields
In New Zealand, saffron yield at Clyde (24 kg/ha) was
much higher than at Mosgiel or Hamilton. A wide range of
yields has been reported from various countries under
different growing conditions. Yields are strongly
influenced by environment and cultural methods, e.g.
irrigation. In Morocco, the average yield varies from 2 to
2.5 kg/ha, where 1 kg of intact flowers yields 72 g of fresh
stigmas or 12 g of dried stigmas. In Italy, the average
yield is 10-16 kg/ha of saffron; in Spain 6-29 kg/ha; in
Greece 4-7 kg/ha; in India 2-7 kg/ha. The average weight
of fresh stigmas is 0.03 g per flower and dry weight is
0.007 g per flower. About 150 flowers are needed to obtain
1 g of dry stigmas.
The size of individual stigmas and the amount of style
collected influence the total yield and quality of saffron.
Between 70 000 and 200 000 flowers (0.3-1 g each) are
needed to produce 1 kg of saffron. At Clyde our flowers
weighed between 0.3 and 1 g, with fresh stigma per flower
weighing 0.01-0.1 g and dry stigma <0.01 g.
In Greece, 3 kg/ha of saffron was expected in the first
year, 10 kg/ha in year 2, 15 kg/ha for years 3 and 4, and
10 kg/ha for years 5 and 6. (One gram of saffron/m2 will
yield 10 kg/ha of saffron.)

Contacts
www.crop.cri.nz
Quality
The quality of saffron is dependent on its colouring
power (crocin concentration), odour (safranal) and taste
(picrocrocin). The best quality saffron has a high safranal
content. Saffron is dry, glossy and greasy to the touch
when freshly dried, turning dull and brittle with age. It is
easily bleached if not stored in the dark, and also stores
better under conditions of low temperature and low relative
humidity.
An International Standard for saffron is available (ISO
3632-1:1993). Saffron in filaments is classified into four
categories based on the content of floral waste and
extraneous matter, with category 1 (extra) having a
maximum of 0.5% floral waste and 0.1% extraneous
matter. Category 1 has the highest bitterness (as
expressed in the absorbance test for picrocrocine), and
the highest colouring test (as expressed in the
absorbance test for crocine). Safranal levels, also based
on an absorbance test, have a range for all grade
categories.
The chemistry of saffron has been investigated in
detail. The major pigment, a water-soluble carotenoid
giving saffron its value as a dye, is crocin, a yellow-red
pigment found at levels of up to 2%. Picrocrocin (<4%) is
a bitter-tasting principle that hydrolyses to glucose and
safranal (<4%), on drying.
A cluster of new daughter corms.
(50 cent coin = 32 mm)
Saffron is used sparingly, but it is also important to
note it is toxic and fatalities have been recorded from
consuming as little as 1.5 g of pure saffron.
Market
The New York spot market price for saffron was
$US365/lb in March 2003. This equates to about
NZ$1450/kg, i.e. $1.45/g. In Greece they get $US600/kg.
There 150 000 flowers gives 1 kg of saffron and the fastest
picker plucks about 30 000 flowers in one day. Mean
hourly productivity per person is estimated at between 8
and 16 kg (2000-4000) flowers. At Clyde it took 45-55
minutes to pick 1000 flowers and 100-130 minutes to
remove the stigma for drying; which is about 400 hours to
produce 1 kg of dried spice. In Italy, the price of dried
stigma reached $NZ9/g, but the favoured way to sell was
to package it in small, artistic ceramic vases and sell at
$NZ22/g.
Further reading
Negbie, M. 1999: Saffron: Crocus sativus L. Medicinal
and aromatic plants – industrial profiles. Amsterdam,
Harwood Academic Publishers.
McGimpsey, J.A.; Douglas, M.H.; Wallace, A.R. 1997:
Evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) production in
New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Crop &
Horticultural. Science 25: 159-168.
Humphries, J. 1996: The essential saffron companion.
London, Grub Street. 160 p.
The ‘grass like’ leaves of the saffron
crocus during the autumn to spring
vegetative stage.
Invermay - Crop agronomy
Malcolm Douglas
Crop & Food Research
Private Bag 50 034, Mosgiel
Tel. 03 489 0673
Fax 03 489 0674
E-mail douglasm@crop.cri.nz
University of Otago - Saffron analysis
Dr Nigel Perry
Crop & Food Research
Plant Extracts Research Unit
Dept of Chemistry, University of Otago
Box 56, Dunedin
Tel. 03 479 8354
E-mail perryn@crop.cri.nz

TO DO:
1. Investor Conference – Anjuman-e-Tajraan, Lahore.
2. Saffron Pre-Feasibility.
Returns

Saffron is being grown successfully in a number of locations, from Central Otago through to the Taieri Plains.
Yields vary depending on location and grower experience. Research done at Redbank near Clyde in the 90s
showed yields varying between 3-5gm of dried saffron per m2 of bed.

Although some small sales have been completed returning $20/gram to the grower, bulk sales to
commercial entities in the overseas markets are likely to be $6-8/gram. Saffron grown in Kashmir is
available for as little as $2/gram. Quality lines will always attract higher prices.

272 sq ft = 1 marla
 x 20 = 5,440 sq ft = 1 Kanal
1 sq ft = 0.0929 sq m
505.376 sq m = 1 Kanal
4,043.008 sq m = 1 acre = 4,046.9 sq m
505 sq m/ kanal = 1,515 gm/ kanal or 1.5 Kg/ kanal @ 3 gm/ m sq
@ 5 gm/ sq m = 2,525 gm or 2.5 kg/ kanal
$ 11,000.00/ Kg
= $16,500.00 @ 3 gm/ m sq
= Rs.12,54,000.00/ Kanal ($1.00/Rs.76.00)
= $27,500.00 @ 5 gm/ m sq
= Rs.20,90,000.00/ Kanal ($1.00/Rs.76.00)
Take 1 Kg per kanal @ $8,000.00 = Rs.6,40,000/ Kanal
@$2,000.00=Rs.1,60,000/ Kanal
3. Horticulture Pre-Feasibility.
4. AJKRSP Web Site.
5. ADB Proposal.
6. Tourism Site.