Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.

in

MAHALAKHMI
ENGINEERINGCOLLEGE
TIRUCHIRAPALLI - 621213.

QUESTION WITH ANSWERS

in
DEPARTMENT: CIVIL –IV SEMESTER:VII
SUB.CODE/ NAME: CE 2033 / Ground Improvement Techniques

ot.
UNIT IV EARTH REINFORCEMENT

PART - A (2 marks)

sp
Unit IV - EARTH REINFORCEMENT
Concept of reinforcement - Types of reinforcement material - Applications of reinforced
earth – use of Geotextiles for filtration, drainage and separation in road and other works.
log
Part – A
1. Define geosynthetics. (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)

Geosynthetics are artificial fibres used in conjunction with soil or rock as an integral
part of a man made project
They are mainly grouped into two categories
s.b

a. Geotextiles – permeable
b. Geomembrane – impermeable
2. What are the various types of geosynthetics?
Geonets
ata

Geomats
 Geosynthetic clay liners
 Geofoam
 Geocells
 Geocomposites
d

 Geotextiles
 Geogrids
vil

 Geomembranes

3. How does the use of a geosynthetic as a filter differ from that of

Drainage? (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)
Ci

o Filtration applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage,

landfill leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible forms
for bags, tubes and container
o Drainage applications for these different geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport
fields, dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

4. Write a brief note on geosynthetics as reinforcement.

Containment involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, or some geocomposites
which function as liquid or gas barriers
Landfill liners and covers make critical use of these geosynthetics
All hydraulic applications (tunnels, dams, canals, reservoir liners, and floating covers) use
these geosynthetics as well

5. Define soil nailing.

Soil nails are more or less rigid bars driven into soil or pushed into boreholes which are filled
with grout.Together with the insitu soil, they are intended to form a coherent structural entity

in
supporting on excavation or arresting the movement of on unstable slope.

6. Define Geotextiles.
• Continuous sheets of woven, nonwoven, knitted or stitch bonded fibres or yarns

ot.
• Flexible and permeable
• Appearance of a fabric
• Usually PET or PP

sp
7. Define Geogrids.
• Open grid like appearance
• Principally for reinforcement of soil • PP, PET, or PE
8. Define Geonets
log
• Open grid like material formed by two (or three) sets of coarse, parallel, extruded
polymeric strands intersecting at an constant acute angle
• HDPE
9.Define Geopipes
s.b

• Perforated or solid wall pipes

• May be wrapped with a geotextile

ata

• HDPE

10.Define Geomembranes

• Continuous flexible sheets from one or more synthetic materials

d

• Relatively impermeable
• 1.5mm to 3mm thick, HDPE, LLDPE
vil

11.What is Geosynthetic Clay Liners

• Bentonite clay layer between two or more geotextiles, in some cases with a
Ci

geomembrane
• Relatively impermeable

12.What is mean by Geocells

• Three dimensional honeycomb like structure formed by strips of joined polymeric sheets,
usually HDPE or LDPE

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

13. Define Geofoam

• Lightweight blocks or slabs formed by expanded polystyrene (EPS)

• Used for thermal insulation, as lightweight fill or compressible vertical layer
against rigid walls

14. Define Geocomposites

• Combination of two of more geosynthetic types

in
• Geotextile – geogrid • Geopipe - geotextile • Geotextile – geonet
• Geonet – geomembrane

ot.
• Non-woven geotextile – woven geotextile

15. Define ground stabilization

Increase bearing capacity over weak subgrades • Reduce fill thickness

sp
• More favourable stress distribution • Reduce lateral fill movement
• Increase lifetime

• Pavements and railways

log
• Working platforms / Crane pads

• Strength in multiple directions, most biaxial

16. What is mean by reinforced soil? (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)

s.b

• Theoretically any soil can be used as a fill material

• Conventionally well graded cohesionless soils are used as fill material but are costly
• Cohesive soils are cheap and easily available but have long term durability problems
• A convenient compromise is a fill material that has both cohesiveand
ata

Frictional properties.

17. list of functions geotextiles of filters (AUC NOV /DEC 2012)

Geosynthetics can allow water to pass across the plane while prevent or
d

retain the soil particles Act similar to sand filter

vil

• Allow water to move through soil while retaining upstream soil particles
• Prevent migration through drainage aggregate and pipes
Ci

Part –B
1. With neat sketches explain in detail the various applications of reinforced earth for
ground improvement. Theory of Reinforcement

Reinforced earth has been in use by man since ancient times with the fundamentals
of the techniques being mentioned in the Bible
The earliest remaining examples of soil reinforcement are the Agar-Quf Ziggurat and
the Great wall of China
The Romans, Gauls, Dutch and British have been documented using reinforced
Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

soil for various applications

The modern concept of earth reinforcement was proposed by Casagrande

He idealized the problems in the form of weak soil reinforced by high strength
membranes laid horizontally in layers

The modern form of earth reinforcement was introduced by Henry Vidal in the 1960s
Vidals concept was for a composite material formed from flat reinforcing strips laid
horizontally in a frictional soil
The interaction between the soil and the reinforcing members was solely by

in
friction generated by gravity

This he described as “Reinforced Earth”, a term now generally being used to refer to
all reinforced works

ot.
Principle of Reinforced Earth

sp
It is analogous to reinforced concrete but direct comparison is not completely valid
The mode of action of reinforcement in soil is to carry tensile loads or anisotropic
reduction of normal strain rate
Introduction of reinforcement into soil results in interaction between the two
log
The interaction between the soil and reinforcement can be in the form of
either adhesion or friction

Failure can occur only if the adhesion or frictiona force is overcome or the
reinforcement itself ruptures
s.b

The reinforcement disrupts the uniform pattern of strain that would have
developed if it did not exist
d ata

Components of Reinforced Earth

vil

A reinforced earth structure consists of

Soil fill or matrix
Reinforcement or anchor system
Ci

Facing (if necessary)

Soil Fill
Theoretically any soil can be used as a fill material
Conventionally well graded cohesionless soils are used as fill material but are costly
Cohesive soils are cheap and easily available but have long term durability problems
A convenient compromise is a fill material that has both cohesiveand
Frictional properties.

o Sometimes waste materials as fill materials for reinforced soil structures is an

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

attractive option from the point of view of environment as well as economy.

Reinforcement
 They can be of a variety of materials and in various shapes
 The principal requirements of reinforcing materials are
 Strength
 Stability
 Durability
 Ease of handling
 High coefficient of friction
 Adherence with the soil

in
 Low cost
 Ready availability

ot.
Facing
For vertical structures a facing is required

sp
The function of facing is to stop erosion of the fill and to provide a suitable
architectural treatment to the structure
Various materials can be adopted to form the facing and will have its own
merits and demerits depending upon scale of structure, shape and material.
log
Some materials used for facing are aluminum, brick or masonry, precast
concrete slabs, pressed concrete slabs, geotextiles, plastics, GRC, GRP,
Steel, timber etc.

2. Explain with the help of a flow chart the various classifications of geosynthetics in detail.
(AUC NOV /DEC 2010)
s.b
d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
Woven Geotextiles

sp
 Load carrying filaments, fibres and yarns in woven geotextiles are aligned in
specific directions
 This is usually along the longitudinal direction or warp direction and
transverse direction or weft direction
log
 They provide separation as well as filtration functions
Non –Woven Geotextiles
 The filaments are entangles and bonded together
 There is no specific direction to the fibres and hence they elongate longer
when
s.b

 compared to woven geotextiles

 They are mostly used as separators
Knitted Geotextiles
 Knitted geotextiles are similar to non-wovens but bundles of load carrying
 Filaments can be made to be aligned in a given direction and this type of
ata

product is called

 as directionally structured fabric or DSF

 They provide an alternative to woven geotextiles

Geotextiles:
d
vil

One of the two largest groups in geosynthetics

They are textiles in the traditional sense, but they consist of synthetic fibers
rather than natural ones such as cotton, wool, or silk
These synthetic fibers are made into flexible, porous fabrics by standard
Weaving machinery or are matted together in a random nonwoven
Ci

manner or knitted

The major point is that geotextiles are porous to liquid flow across
their

manufactured plane and also within their thickness, but to a widely

varying degree

The fabric always performs at least one of four discrete functions:

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

separation,
reinforcement, filtration, and/or drainage.

Geogrids

They represent a rapidly growing segment in geosynthetics

Geogrids are polymers formed into a very open, gridlike configuration,
i.e., they have large apertures between individual ribs in the
transverse and longitudinal directions
They are made by either

in
Stretching in one or two directions
On weaving or knitting machinery
 By bonding straps or rods
 There are many specific application areas, however, they function almost

ot.
exclusively as reinforcement materials

sp
Geomembranes (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)

 They represent the other largest group in geosynthetics

 They are relatively thin, impervious sheets of polymeric material used
log
primarily for linings and covers of liquids or solid-storage facilities
 This includes all types of landfills, reservoirs, canals, and other containment
facilities
 Thus the primary function is always containment as a liquid or vapor barrier
or both
s.b

Geonets

 Geonets, also called geospacers, constitute another specialized segment

within the

ata

geosynthetics area
 They are formed by a continuous extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric ribs
at acute angles to one another
 When the ribs are opened, relatively large apertures are formed into a netlike
 configuration
d

 Two types are most common, either biplanar or triplanar

 Their design function is completely within the drainage area where they are
vil

used to convey liquids of all types

Geomats
Ci

A three-dimensional water permeable mat made from extruded and bi-oriented

polyethylene grids

The underside of the mat is made flat to provide even contact with the
prepared soil surface
The upper surface is made cuspated to provide excellent soil
retention

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

Geomats are applied to create stable vegetation along river, pond

banks and slopes to prevent erosion processes of surfaces
Geomats are used in combination with geotextiles to reinforce
foundations and increase bearing resistance
Geosynthetic Clay Liners

They are rolls of factory fabricated thin layers of bentonite clay sandwiched
between two geotextiles or bonded to a geomembrane
Structural integrity of the subsequent
composite is obtained by needle-punching, stitching or physical bonding

in
GCLs are used as a composite component beneath a geomembrane or
by themselves in geoenvironmental and containment applications.

ot.
Geofoams

Geofoam is a product created by a polymeric expansion process

sp
resulting in a
“foam” consisting of many closed, but gas-filled, cells

The resulting product is generally in the form of large, but extremely light,
log
blocks which are stacked side-by-side providing lightweight fill in
numerous applications
The primary function is dictated by the application; however separation is always a
consideration

Geocells
s.b

Geocells ( also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-

Dimensional honeycombed

Cellular structures that form a confinement system when in-filled with compacted soil
ata

The cellular confinement reduces the lateral movement of soil particles, thereby
maintaining

Compaction and forms a stiffened mattress that distributes loads over a wider area
d
vil

Traditionally used in slope protection and earth retention applications,

geocells made from
Advanced polymers are being increasingly adopted for long-term road
and rail load support
Much larger geocells are also made from stiff geotextiles sewn into
Ci

similar, but larger, unit cells that are used for protection bunkers and
walls
Geocomposites

A geocomposite consists of a combination of geotextiles, geogrids, geonets

and/or geomembranes in a factory fabricated unit

Also, any one of these four materials can be combined with another synthetic material

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

A geonet with geotextiles on both surfaces and a GCL consisting of a

geotextile/bentonite/geotextile sandwich are both geocomposites

The major functions encompass the entire range of functions listed for geosynthetics

Discussed previously: separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage and containment

Geomats:

Applications of Geosynthetics

in
The main functions of geosynthetics are
Separation

ot.
Filtration
Reinforcement
Drainage
Containment / Barrier

sp
log
3. with the help of neat sketches, explain in detail the application of geosynthetics as
separation. (AUC NOV /DEC 2010)

Geosynthetic can separate two layers of soil and thereby prevent intermixing.
s.b

Separate two layers of soils with different particle size distributions

• Prevent road base materials from penetrating soft underlying soils

• Prevent pumping of fines from subgrade
ata

• Encourage lateral drainage

• Usually nonwoven geotextiles
Separation
The geosynthetic acts to separate two layers of soil that have different particle size
distributions. For example, geotextiles are used to prevent road base materials from
d

penetrating into soft underlying soft subgrade soils, thus maintaining design thickness
and roadway integrity. Separators also help to prevent fine-grained subgrade soils from
being pumped into permeable granular road bases.
vil

 Separation is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a porous geotextile,

between dissimilar materials so that the integrity and functioning of both materials can
remain intact or even be improved
 Paved roads, unpaved roads, and railroad bases are common applications
Ci

Also, the use of thick nonwoven geotextiles for cushioning and protection of geomembranes
is a separation technique
 Nonwoven geo-textiles prevent aggregate and ballast from punching into the
subgrade and
intermixing, reducing maintenance costs and ensuring long-term durability and
drainability.

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
Geosynthetic placed between ballasts and sub-grade soil
in a rail road

sp
log
s.b
d ata

Geosynthetic placed between aggregate and foundation soil in a

vil

paved road
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
sp
log
s.b

4. Geosynthetics can be used as soil reinforcement – Justify in detail with

ata

supporting sketches.

. REINFORCED EMBANKMENTS ON SOFT FOUNDATIONS

d

Concept
The design and construction of embankments on soft foundation soils is a very
challenging geotechnical problem. As noted by Leroueil and Rowe (2001), successful
vil

projects require a thorough subsurface investigation, properties determination, and

settlement and stability analyses. If the settlements are too large or instability is likely,
then some type of foundation soil improvement is warranted. Traditiona l soil
improvement methods include preloading/surcharging with drains; lightweight fill;
Ci

excavation and replacement; deep soil mixing, embankment piles, etc., as discussed by
Holtz (1989) and Holtz et al. (2001a). Today, geosynthetic reinforcement must also be
considered as a feasible treatment alternative. In some situations, the most economical
final design may be some combination of a traditional foundation treatment alternative
together with geosynthetic reinforcement. Figure 2a shows the basic concept for using
geosynthetic reinforcement. Note that the reinforcement will not reduce the magnitude of
long-term consolidation or secondary settlement of the embankment.

Design Considerations
Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

As with ordinary embankments on soft soils, the basic design approach for
reinforced embankments is to design against failure. The ways in which embankments
constructed on soft foundations can fail have been described by Terzaghi et al. (1996),

in
ot.
sp
log
s.b
d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
sp
log
s.b
d ata
vil

Fig. 2. Reinforced embankments: a) concept; b) bearing failure; c) rotational failure; and d)

lateral spreading.

among others. Figure 2 b-d shows unsatisfactory behavior that can occur in reinforced
Ci

embankments. The three possible modes of failure indicate the types of stability analyses
that are required for design. Overall bearing capacity of the embankment must be
adequate, and the reinforcement should be strong enough to prevent rotational failures at
the edge of the embankment. Lateral spreading failures can be prevented by the
development of adequate shearing resistance between the base of the embankment and the
reinforcement. In addition, an analysis to limit geosynthetic deformations must be
performed. Finally, the geosynthetic strength requirements in the longitudinal direction,
typically the transverse seam strength, must be determined.
Discussion of these design concepts as well as detailed design procedures are given
Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

by Christopher and Holtz (1985), Bonaparte et al. (1987), Holtz (1989 and 1990),
Humphrey and Rowe (1991), Holtz et al. (1997), and Leroueil and Rowe (2001).
The calculations required for stability and settlement utilize conventional
geotechnical design procedures modified only for the presence of the reinforcement.
Because the most critical cond ition for embankment stability is at the end of construction,
the total stress method of analysis is usually performed, which is conservative since the
analysis generally assumes that no strength gain occurs in the foundation soil. It is always
possible of course to calculate stability in terms of effective stresses provided that effective
stress shear strength parameters are available and an accurate estimate of the field pore

in
pressures can be made during the project design phase. Because the prediction of in situ
pore pressures in advance of construction is not easy, it is essential that the foundation be

ot.
instrumented with high quality piezometers during construction to control the rate of
embankment filling. Preloading and staged embankment construction are discussed in
detail by Ladd (1991) and summarized by Leroueil and Rowe (2001).

sp
Material Pro perties
Based on the stability calculations, the minimum geosynthetic strengths required
log
for stability at an appropriate factor of safety can be determined. In addition to its tensile
and frictional properties, drainage requirements, construction conditions, and
environmental factors must also be considered. Geosynthetic properties required for
reinforcement applications are given in Table 1.
s.b
d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

Table 1. Geosynthetic properties required for reinforcement applications.

CRITERIA AND PROPERTY

PARAMETER
Design requirements:
a.Mechanical
Tensile strength and Wide width
strength and

in
modulus
modulus
Seam strength Wide width
strength

ot.
Tension creep Tension creep
Soil- geosynthetic Soil-
friction geosynthetic
friction angle

sp
b. Hydraulic
Piping resistance Apparent
opening size
log
Permeability Permeability
Constructability
requirements:
Tensile strength Grab strength
s.b

Puncture resistance Puncture

resistance
Tear resistance Trapezoidal tear
strength
ata

Durability:
UV stability (if exposed) UV resistance
Chemical and biological Chemical and
(if required) biological
d

resistance

When properly designed and selected, high-strength geotextiles or geogrids can provide
vil

adequate embankment reinforcement. Both materials can be used equally well, provided
they have the requisite design properties. There are some differences in how they are
installed, especially with respect to seaming and field workability. Also, at some very soft
sites, especially where there is no root mat or vegetative layer, geogrids may require a
Ci

lightweight geotextile separator to provide filtration and prevent contamination of the

embankment fill. However, a geotextile separator is not required if the fill can adequately
filter the foundation soil.
A detailed discussion of geosynthetic properties and specifications is given by
Holtz et al. (1997) and Koerner and Hsuan (2001), so only a few additional comments are
given below.
The selection of appropriate fill materials is also an important aspect of the design.
When possible, granular fill is preferred, especially for the first few lifts above the
geosynthetic.
Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

Environmental Considerations
For most embankment reinforcement situations, geosynthetics have a high resistance to
chemical and biological attack; therefore, chemical and biological compatibility is usually
not a concern. However, in unusual situations such as very low (i.e., < 3) or very high (i.e.,
> 9) pH soils, or other unusual che mical environments (for example, in industrial areas or
near mine or other waste dumps), chemical compatibility with the polymer(s) in the
geosynthetic should be checked. It is important to assure it will retain the design strength
at least until the underlying subsoil is strong enough to support the structure without
reinforcement.

in
Constructability (Survivability) Requirements
In addition to the design strength requirements, the geotextile or geogrid must also

ot.
have sufficient strength to survive construction. If the geosynthetic is ripped, punctured,
torn or otherwise damaged during construction, its strength will be reduced and failure
could result. Constructability property requirements are listed in Table 1. (These are also
called survivability requirements.)

sp
See Christopher and Holtz (1985) and Holtz et al. (1997) for specific property
requirements for reinforced embankment construction with varying subgrade conditions,
construction equipment, and lift thicknesses. For all critical applications, high to very high
survivability geotextiles and geogrids are recommended.
log
Stiffness and Workability
For extremely soft soil conditions, geosynthetic stiffness or workability may be an
important consideration. The workability of a geosynthetic is its ability to support
workpersons during initial placement and seaming operations and to support construction
s.b

equipment during the first lift placement. Workability is generally related to geosynthetic
stiffness; however, stiffness evaluation techniques and correlations with field workability
are very poor (Tan, 1990). See Holtz et al. (1997) for recommendations on stiffness.

Construction
ata

The importance of proper construction procedures for geosynthetic reinforced

embankments cannot be ove remphasized. A specific construction sequence is usually
required in order to avoid failures during construction. Appropriate site preparation, low
ground pressure equipment, small initial lift thicknesses, and partially loaded hauling
vehicles may be required. Clean granular fill is recommended especially for the first few
d

construction lifts, and proper fill placement, spreading, and compaction procedures are
very important. A detailed discussion of construction procedures for reinforced
vil

embankments on very soft foundations is given by Christopher and Holtz (1985) and Holtz
et al. (1997).
It should be noted that all geosynthetic seams must be positively joined. For
geotextiles, this means sewing; for geogrids, some type of positive clamping arrangement
Ci

must be used. Careful inspection is essential, as the seams are the “weak link” in the
system, and seam failures are common in improperly constructed embankments. Finally,
soft ground construction projects usually require geotechnical instrumentation for proper
control of construction and fill placement; see Holtz (1989) and Holtz et al. (2001a) for
recommendations.

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

REINFORCED STEEP SLOPES

Concept
The first use of geosynthetics for the stabilization of steep slopes was for the
reinstatement of failed slopes. Cost savings resulted because the slide debris could be
reused in the repaired slope (together with geosynthetic reinforcement), rather than
importing select materials to reconstruct the slope. Even if foundation conditions are
satisfactory, costs of fill and right-of-way plus other considerations may require a steeper
slope than is stable in compacted embankment soils without reinforcement. As shown in
Fig.3, multiple layers of geogrids or geotextiles may be placed in a fill slope during

in
construction or reconstruction to reinforce the soil and provide increased slope stability.
Most steep slope reinforcement projects are for the construction of new embankments,
alternatives to retaining walls, widening of existing embankments, and repair of failed

ot.
slopes.
Another use of geosynthetics in slopes is for compaction aids (Fig. 3). In this
application, narrow geosynthetic strips, 1 to 2 m wide, are placed at the edge of the fill
slope to provide increased lateral confinement at the slope face, and therefore increased

sp
compacted density over that normally achieved. Even modest amounts of reinforcement in
compacted slopes have been found to prevent sloughing and reduce slope erosion. In some
cases, thick nonwoven geotextiles with in-plane drainage capabilities allow for rapid pore
pressure dissipation in compacted cohesive fill soils.
log
s.b
d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

Fig. 3. Examples of multilayer geosynthetic slope reinforcement.

Design Considerations
The overall design requirements for reinforced slopes are similar to those for
unreinforced slopes--the factor of safety must be adequate for both the short- and long-
term conditions and for all possible modes of failure. These include: (1) internal--where
the failure plane passes through the reinforcing elements; (2) external--where the failure
surface passes behind and underneath the reinforced mass; and (3) compound--where the
failure surface passes behind and through the reinforced soil mass.

in
Reinforced slopes are analyzed using modified versions of classical limit
equilibrium slope stability methods (e.g., Terzaghi et al., 1996). Potential circular or
wedge-type failure surfaces are assumed, and the relationship between driving and

ot.
resisting forces or moments determines the factor of safety. Based on their tensile capacity
and orientation, reinforcement layers intersecting the potential failure surface increase the
resisting moment or force. The tensile capacity of a reinforcement layer is the minimum of
its allowable pullout resistance behind, or in front of, the potential failure surface and/or its

sp
long-term design tensile strength, whichever is smaller. A variety of potential failure
surfaces must be considered, including deep-seated surfaces through or behind the
reinforced zone, and the critical surface requiring the maximum amount reinforcement
determines the slope factor of safety.
log
The reinforcement layout and spacing may be varied to achieve an optimum design.
Computer programs are available for reinforced slope design which include searching
routines to help locate critical surfaces and appropriate consideration of reinforcement
strength and pullout capacity.
Additional information on reinforced slope design is available in Christopher et al.
s.b

(1990), Christopher and Leshchinsky (1991), Berg (1993), Holtz et al.(1997), and Bathurst
and Jones (2001).

For slide repair applications, it is very important that the cause of original failure is
ata

addressed in order to insure that the new reinforced soil slope will not have the same
problems. Particular attention must be paid to drainage. In natural soil slopes, it is also
necessary to identify any weak seams that could affect stability.
d

Material Properties
Geosynthetic properties required for reinforced slopes are similar to those listed in
vil

Table 1, Section 8.3. Properties are required for design (stability), constructability, and
durability. Allowable tensile strength and soil-geosynthetic friction are most important for
stability design. Because of uncertainties in creep strength, chemical and bio logical
degradation effects, installation damage, and joints and connections, a partial factor or
reduction factor concept is recommended. The ultimate wide width strength is reduced for
Ci

these various factors, and the reduction depends on how much informa tion is available
about the geosynthetics at the time of design and selection. Berg (1993), Holtz et al.
(1997), and Koerner and Hsuan (2001) give details about the determination of the
allowable geosynthetic tensile strength. They also describe how soil- geosynthetic friction
is measured or estimated.
An inherent advantage of geosynthetic reinforcement is their longevity, especially
in normal soil environments. Recent studies have indicated that the anticipated half-life of
reinforfcement geosynthetics in between 500 and 5000 years, although strength

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

characteristics may have to be adjusted to account for potential degradation in the specific
environmental cond itions.
Any soil suitable for embankment construction can be used in a reinforced slope
system. From a reinforcement point of view alone, even lower-quality soil than
conventionally used in unreinforced slope construction may be used. However, higher-
quality materials offer less durability concerns, are easier to place and compact, which
tends to speed up construction, and they have fewer problems with drainage. See Berg
(1993) and Holtz et al. (1997) for discussion of soil gradation, compaction, unit weight,
shear strength, and chemical composition.

in
Construction
Similarly to reinforced embankments, proper construction is very important to
insure adequate performance of a reinforced slope. Considerations of site preparation,

ot.
reinforcement and fill placement, compaction control, face construction, and field
inspection are given by Berg (1993) and Holtz et al. (1997).

REINFORCED RETAINING WALLS AND ABUTMENTS

sp
Concept
Retaining walls are required where a soil slope is uneconomical or not technically
feasible. When compared with conventional retaining structures, walls with reinfo rced
log
backfills offer significant advantages. They are very cost effective, especially for higher
walls. Furthermore, these systems are more flexible than conventional earth retaining
walls such as reinforced concrete cantilever or gravity walls. Therefore, they are very
suitable for sites with poor foundations and for seismically active areas.
Modern reinforced soil technology was developed in France by H. Vidal in the mid
s.b

1960s. His system is called Reinforced Earth and is shown in Fig. 4. Steel strips are used
to reduce the earth pressure against the wall face. The design and construction of Vidal-
type reinforced earth walls are now well established, and many thousands have been
Fig. 4. Component parts of a Reinforced Earth wall.
d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

successfully built throughout the world in the last 25 years. Other similar proprietary
reinforcing systems have also been deve loped using steel bar mats, grids, and gabions.
The use of geotextiles as reinforcing elements started in the early 1970’s because of
concern over possible corrosion of metallic reinforcement. Systems using sheets of
geosynthetics rather than steel strips are shown in Fig 5.

in
.

ot.
sp
Fig. 5. Reinforced retaining wall systems using geosynthetics: (a) with wrap-around
geosynthetic facing, (b) with segmental or modular concrete block,
and (c) with full-height (propped) precast panels.
The maximum heights of geosynthetic reinforced walls constructed to date are less than 20
log
m, whereas steel reinforced walls over 40 m high have been built. A significant benefit
of using geosynthetics is the wide variety of wall facings available, resulting in greater
aesthetic and economic options. Metallic reinforcement is typically used with
articulated precast concrete panels or gabion-type facing systems.
s.b

Design Considerations
Reinforced wall design is very similar to conventional retaining wall design, but
with the added consideration of internal stability of the reinforced section. External
stability is calculated in the conventional way--the bearing capacity must be adequate, the
reinforced section may not slide or overturn, and overall slope stability must be adequate.
ata

Surcharges (live and dead loads; distributed and point loads) are considered in the
conventional manner. Settlement of the reinforced section also should be checked if the
foundation is compressible.
A number of different approaches to internal design of geotextile reinforced
retaining walls have been proposed (Christopher et al., 1990; Allen and Holtz; 1991; Holtz,
d

1995), but the oldest and most common--and most conservative--method is the tieback
wedge analysis. It utilizes classical earth pressure theory combined with tensile resisting
vil

“tiebacks” that extend back of the assumed failure plane (Fig. 6). The KA (or Ko) is
assumed, depending on the stiffness of the fa cing and the amount of yielding likely to
occur during construction, and the earth pressure at each vertical section of the wall is
calculated. This earth pressure must be resisted by the geosynthetic reinforcement at that
Ci

sectio n.

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
Fig 6. Actual geosynthetic-reinforced wall compared to its
analytical model.

sp
To design against failure of the reinforcement, there are two possible limiting or
failure cond itions: rupture of the geosynthetic and pullout of the geosynthetic. The
corresponding reinforcement properties are the tensile strength of the geosynthetic and its
pullout resistance. In the latter case, the geosynthetic reinforcement must extend some
log
distance behind the assumed failure wedge so that it will not pull out of the backfill.
Typically, sliding of the entire reinforced mass controls the length of the reinforcing
elements. For a detailed description of the tieback wedge method, see Christopher and
Holtz (1985), Bonaparte et al. (1987), Allen and Holtz (1991), and Holtz et al. (1997).
Recent research (e.g., Lee et al., 1999; Lee, 2000; Bathurst et al.,2000) has indicated that
s.b

the tieback wedge approach is overly conservative and uneconomical, and modifications
and deformation-based designs are rapidly being deve loped.
Other important design considerations include drainage and potential seismic
loading.
ata

Material Properties
Geosynthetic properties required for reinforced walls are similar to those listed in
Table 1, Section 8.3 and discussed in Section 9.3 for reinforced slopes. Properties are
required for design (stability), constructability, and durability. Allowable tensile strength
and soil- geosynthetic friction are required for stability design, and similar to reinforced
d

slopes, a partial factor or reduction factor approach is common. The ultimate wide width
strength is reduced to account for uncertainties in creep strength, chemical and biological
vil

degradation effects, installation damage, and joints and connections. Berg (1993), Holtz et
al.(1997), and Koerner and Hsuan (2001) give details about the determination of the
allowable geosynthetic tensile strength. They also describe how soil- geosynthetic friction
is measured or estimated.
Ci

The discussion on durability and longevity of geosynthetic reinforcement given in

Section 9.3 is pertinent here.
Backfill for geosynthetic reinforced walls should be free draining if at all possible.
If not, then adequate drainage of infiltrating surface or groundwater must be provided.
This is important for stability considerations because drainage outward through the wall
face may not be adequate. Soil properties required include gradation, percent fines,
chemical composition, compaction, unit weight, and shear strength. To insure stability,
appropriate consideration of the foundation and overall slope stability at the site is also
important (Holtz et al., 2001b).
Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

Wall Facing Considerations

A significant advantage of geosynthetic reinforced walls over conventional
retaining structures is the variety of facings that can be used and the resulting aesthetic
options that can be provided. Aesthetic requirements often determine the type of facing
systems. Anticipated deflection of the wall face, both laterally and downward, may place
further limitations on the type of facing system selected. Tight construction specifications
and quality inspection are necessary to insure that the wall face is constructed properly;
otherwise an unattractive wall face, or a wall face failure, could result.

in
Facing systems can be installed (1) as the wall is constructed or (2) after the wall is
built. Facings installed as the wall is constructed include segmental and full height precast
concrete panels, interlocking precast concrete blocks, welded wire panels, gabion baskets,
treated timber facings, and geosynthetic face wraps. In these cases, the geosynthetic

ot.
reinforcement is attached directly to the facing element. Systems installed after
construction include shotcrete, cast-in-place concrete facia, and precast concrete or timber
panels; the panels are attached to brackets placed between the layers of the geosynthetic
wrapped wall face at the end of wall construction or after wall movements are complete.

sp
Facings constructed as the wall is constructed must either allow the geosynthetic to deform
freely during construction without any buildup of stress on the face, or the facing
connection must be designed to take the stress. Although most wall design methods
assume that the stress at the face is equal to the maximum horizontal stress in the
log
reinforced backfill, measurements show that considerable stress reduction occurs near the
face, depending on the flexibility of the face. See Allen and Holtz (1991) and Holtz et al.
(1997) for a detailed discussion of wall facing systems.

Constuction
s.b

Construction procedures for geosynthetic reinforced walls and abutments are given
by Christopher and Holtz (1985) and Holtz et al. (1997). Procedures are relatively simple
and straightforward, but failures are surprisingly common, especially with proprietary

precast segmental concrete block-faced wall systems. It appears that most of these failures
ata

are due to (1) inadequate design, particularly of the foundation and back slope of the wall,
and/or (2) problems in construction. The latter include poor inspection and quality control,
poor compaction, use of inappropriate backfill materials, lack of attention to facing
connections, and lack of clear lines of responsibility between designers, material suppliers,
d

and contractors.
vil

5. How do geosynthetics function as a filter? How does it differ in its function for drainage?
Explain in detail with sketches

Geosynthetics can allow water to pass across the plane while prevent or retain the soil particles
Ci

Act similar to sand filter

• Allow water to move through soil while retaining upstream soil particles

• Prevent migration through drainage aggregate and pipes

• Prevent soil erosion below rip rap and armour materials

The geosynthetic acts similar to a sand filter by allowing water to move through the soil while retaining
all upstream soil particles. For example, geotextiles are used to prevent soils from migrating into
Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
drainage aggregate or pipes while maintaining flow through the system. Geotextiles are also used
below rip rap and other armour materials in coastal and river bank protection systems to prevent soil
erosion. Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Filtration and Drainage
 Filtration is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for adequate liquid flow
without soil loss, across the plane of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration
 Filtration applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage, landfill
leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible forms for bags, tubes
and container
 Drainage is the equilibrium soil-to- geosynthetic system that allows for
 adequate liquid flow without soil loss, within the plane of the geosynthetic over a service
lifetime
 Drainage applications for these different geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields,

in
dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks

ot.
sp
log
s.b
d ata

Geosynthetic placed between earth and gabion for filtration

vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

.
6. What is the role of geosynthetics in protecting soil from contamination? Descibe in
detail.

Some geosynthetics can be used as relatively impermeable barrier to prevent liquids or

gases. It can also be used as noise barrier

in
o Containment
o Containment involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, or some geocomposites which

ot.
function as liquid or gas barriers
o Landfill liners and covers make critical use of these geosynthetics
o All hydraulic applications (tunnels, dams, canals, reservoir liners, and floating covers) use these
geosynthetics as well

sp
Applications of Reinforced Earth

o Bridgeworks
log
o Bridge Abutment
o Economical, high speed of erection, may be used in poor subsoils
o Bridge Abutment with Piled Bankseat
o Economical, reduced settlement of deck support
o Sloping Bridge Abutment
s.b

o Strong embankment abutment interaction

d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
sp
Geosynthetics (geomembrane or geosynthetic clay liners) can act as relatively
impermeable barrier to impede flow of fluids or gases in landfills, waste containment,
log
encapsulation of swelling soils, asphalt pavement overlays and reflection cracking.
s.b
d ata
vil

Geosynthetic placed between an existing crack pavement and an asphalt overlay to

minimize the reflection cracking or delay the propagation of cracks
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
7. Describe in detail about soil nailing and when is it adopted?

in
ot.
sp
log
Soil nailing

Soil nails are more or less rigid bars driven into soil or pushed into boreholes which are filled with grout.
s.b

Together with the insitu soil, they are intended to form a coherent structural entity supporting on excavation or arresting the movement of
on unstable slope.

The size of nails varies from then steel bars to light concrete piles.
ata

Most nailed supported structures classed as temporary. This is partly due to corrosion and uncertainties with regard to the design
assumptions.

Analysis of nailed soil:

d

● Geometry of failure surface

vil

● Definition of safety factor

Overturning moment
Shear strength
Friction angle
Ci

Cohesion
Reinforcement properties

● Direction of tensile stabilizing force provided by nails.

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

in
ot.
sp
log
s.b
d ata
vil
Ci

Soil nail Design

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
For external stability of the soil nailed structures the following failure modes are generally considered for reinforced soil mass.
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

● Overturning ●
Sliding
● Bearing
● Overall stability of slope structures

Design method

in
(a) German method (Gassler & Gudehus 1981)

ot.
Assumptions:

● Bilinear failure surface passing the toe of slopes/cuttings. ●

sp
Soil mass divided into two wedges,

1. Soil wedge at slope/cutting face reinforced with soil nails

log
2. Soil wedge at back has no reinforcement and considered as a wedge exerting active earth pressure force on reinforced
soil wedge in front

● Only tensile resistance provided by nail reinforcements embedded in passive zone.

s.b

(b)French method

Circular failure surface passing the toe of slopes

ata

● Failure of nail reinforcements including tensile failure, pullout failure, grout reinforcement failures, bending/shear failure. Is
checked in limit equilibrium analysis
d

Modified Davis method:

vil

● Parabolic failure surface passing through the toe of slopes.

● Only tensile resistance of nail reinforcement embedded in passive zone is considered.
Ci

FHWA design method:

● Bilinear and circular failure surface passing through the toe of slopes. ●
Each nail reinforcement extend beyond critical failure surface.
● Only tensile resistance provided by nail reinforcement is considered.

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in
 Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in

UK design method:

● Bilinear failure surface

Inter wedge friction is neglected

in
●

● Only tensile resistance provided by nail reinforcement is considered.

ot.
sp
log
s.b
d ata
vil
Ci

Visit : Civildatas.blogspot.in