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Critical Literacy
What is critical literacy?
Why is critical literacy important?
What are the features of a critical literacy approach?
What kinds of critical questions can we ask of texts?
What does critical literacy look like in the classroom?
Where can I find more ideas to use with students?
How does critical literacy link with literacy?
How do critical literacies inform the Essential Learnings Frameworks?
How do critical literacies inform the new English Senior Secondary syllabuses?
Where can I find out more about critical literacy?

What is critical literacy?

Although there are several versions of critical literacy, each underpinned by different
theoretical perspectives, all of them involve an active, challenging approach to reading and
textual practices. Critical literacy involves the analysis and critique of the relationships among
texts, language, power, social groups and social practices. It shows us ways of looking at
written, visual, spoken, multimedia and performance texts to question and challenge the
attitudes, values and beliefs that lie beneath the surface.

Critical literacy includes:

• examining meaning within texts
• considering the purpose for the text and the composer’s motives
• understanding that texts are not neutral, that they represent particular views, silence
other points of view and influence people’s ideas
• questioning and challenging the ways in which texts have been constructed
• analysing the power of language in contemporary society
• emphasising multiple readings of texts. (Because people interpret texts in the light of
their own beliefs and values, texts will have different meanings to different people.)
• having students take a stance on issues.
• providing students with opportunities to consider and clarify their own attitudes and
values.
• providing students with opportunities to take social action.
Why is critical literacy important?

Our lifestyles are changing rapidly in a hi-tech, globalised world. Changing societal structures,
increasing social and cultural diversity and the marketing of ideas and products through
multimedia mean that we need to think about literacy for lifelong learning in new ways.
Information is reaching us in ways that hadn't been invented fifteen years ago. We are
swamped by masses of information from sources across the globe. We need to be able to make
meaning from the array of multimedia, complex visual imagery, music and sound, even virtual
worlds that confront us each day in addition to written and spoken words.
Changes in society are occurring so rapidly that we need to take time to think about whether
they will have positive or negative effects upon our ways of living. Asking questions such as:
“In whose interest?”, “For what purpose?”, “Who benefits?” make changes problematic and
encourage us to reflect upon them. Allan Luke (1993) says

Literacy ... is as much about ideologies, identities and values as it is about codes and skills.

Critical literacy provides us with ways of thinking that uncover social inequalities and injustices.
It enables us to address disadvantage and to become agents of social change. Critical literacy
according to Wendy Morgan (1996) attempts to develop three kinds of understanding:
• the way texts and their discourses work to represent reality and define what is
necessary for us
• a sympathetic understanding of the people who are affected (shaped) by those
discourses
• ways we can engage with those texts and their debates

What are the features of a critical literacy approach?

• We deconstruct the structures and features of texts. We ask questions of the text. We
consider the structure and style of the text and ask: For what purpose has the text been
constructed in this way?
• We no longer consider texts to be timeless, universal or unbiased. Texts are social
constructs that reflect some of the ideas and beliefs held by some groups of people at
the time of their creation. As we examine the underlying values and consider the ways
in which we, as readers and viewers, are positioned to view the world, we are able to
develop opposing interpretations.
• We explore alternative readings. We consider what has been included and what has
been left out. Which aspects of life does the author value? If we were to view the text
from different perspectives, would we value those aspects, too? Does the text present
unequal positions of power?
• We focus on the beliefs and values of the composer. We consider the time and culture in
which the text was created. In what ways might the views represented in the text be
similar to or different from the views that we hold today? Are there psychological, social,
cultural and/or political reasons for the differences?
• We work for social equity and change. As we begin to analyse the powerful ways in
which visual, spoken, written, multimedia and performance texts work and we discover
the ways in which our feelings, attitudes and values are manipulated by language, we
begin to operate powerfully within our world. We are able to become agents of social
change working towards the removal of inequalities and injustices.

What kinds of critical questions can we ask of texts?

These questions can be asked of most spoken, written, visual, multimedia and performance
texts. They encourage students to question beliefs that are often taken for granted.
Critical Literacy Questions

Textual purpose(s)
What is this text about? How do we know?
Who would be most likely to read and/or view this text and why?
Why are we reading and/or viewing this text?
What does the composer of the text want us to know?

Textual structures and features

What are the structures and features of the text?
What sort of genre does the text belong to?
What do the images suggest?
What do the words suggest?
What kind of language is used in the text?

Construction of characters
How are children, teenagers or young adults constructed in this text?
How are adults constructed in this text?
Why has the composer of the text represented the characters in a particular way?

Gaps and silences

Are there ‘gaps’ and ‘silences’ in the text?
Who is missing from the text?
What has been left out of the text?
What questions about itself does the text not raise?

Power and interest

In whose interest is the text?
Who benefits from the text?
Is the text fair?
What knowledge does the reader/viewer need to bring to this text in order to understand it?
Which positions, voices and interests are at play in the text?
How is the reader or viewer positioned in relation to the composer of the text?
How does the text depict age, gender and/or cultural groups?
Whose views are excluded or privileged in the text?
Who is allowed to speak? Who is quoted?
Why is the text written the way it is?

Whose view: whose reality?

What view of the world is the text presenting?
What kinds of social realities does the text portray?
How does the text construct a version of reality?
What is real in the text?
How would the text be different if it were told in another time, place or culture?

Interrogating the composer

What kind of person, and with what interests and values, composed the text?
What view of the world and values does the composer of the text assume that the
reader/viewer holds? How do we know?

Multiple meanings
What different interpretations of the text are possible?
How do contextual factors influence how the text is interpreted?
How does the text mean?
How else could the text have been written?
How does the text rely on inter-textuality to create its meaning?
What does critical literacy look like in the classroom?

Critical literacy approaches have been developed in many Tasmanian schools. These have
captured students' interest and teachers have reported improved learning outcomes. A critical
literacy approach has been recognised as a significant strategy in improving boys'
performances in English.

Units based upon the deconstruction of every day, media or multimedia texts have also
provided successful introductions to critical literacy for both teachers and students. The
immediacy and diversity of the texts appeal to students across a wide range of ages and
classes.

This plan shows one way that teachers might approach a critical literacy unit:

Summary of learning activities:

• Immersion
• Prediction
• Deconstruction
• Reconstruction
• Taking social action

A brief outline, adapted from Texts: the heart of the English curriculum Series 2, (1998) might
look like this:

Sports telecasts: Skills and Thrills

This work was developed for students in grades 4/5, but could be used, with minor changes,
for students up to grade 8.

Focus: To introduce students to critical literacy using

the analysis of sports telecasts as the context for
learning.
Learning intentions: The students will investigate the
attitudes, values and assumptions in sports telecasts Share learning intentions with the
identify and discuss the features of sports telecasts students.
discuss the portrayal of people, stereotypes and
gender bias in sports telecasts.
1. Immersion

Have students watch sports telecasts of a variety of This might best be completed as a
men's and women's sports to become familiar with the homework activity.
genres.
2. Prediction

Have students brainstorm in pairs or small groups.
The words they would use to describe the games of
netball and football, the attributes, characteristics and
skills required to play each sport well.
Have students reach consensus about skills that the
games have in common.
It might be interesting to use single
sex groups for this activity.
View student worksheet
Make a class chart of the common
skills. A Venn diagram might be a
useful organiser for this task.
3. Deconstruction

Have students watch 10 minutes of a netball match An AFL match has more status and
followed by 10 minutes of an AFL match. The students provides a stronger contrast than
make notes of the camera techniques while they some of the other matches that
watch, then discuss the differences between the might be used.
representation of the sports on the videos. Ask:
What kind of game do the camera shots suggest that View student worksheet
it is?
Which aspects of each game are ignored or focused Revisit the class chart of common
on? skills. Did the telecasts focus on
Which telecast is more exciting to watch? Why? these aspects of the games?
Look at your predictions. Did the camera work show
those skills?
Share group reports and discuss the reasons for
reaching particular conclusions.
4. Reconstruction
Ask students to respond to one of these questions:
What if the broadcasters wanted to show football as Students might work in pairs to
slow and boring. What kinds of camera shots could be create storyboards which show a
used to give this impression? sequence of the action.
What if they wanted to make netball seem to be a
violent game played by super heroes. Which kinds of
camera shots would be used?
5. Taking social action

If students feel strongly about the issues of the Compare issues such as:
portrayal of football and netball on television, they the time of broadcasting
could take actions such as: the length of the program
writing to the television stations the intended audience
contacting their local teams
turning off the television during sports telecasts.

Where can I find more ideas to use with students?

Many excellent resources have been written in Australia in recent years to support a critical
literacy perspective in schools. Many encourage students to deconstruct a wide range of
written, visual and some spoken texts. Some suggest activities in which students reconstruct
texts to clarify their own attitudes, values and beliefs. Only a few provide opportunities for
students to take social action. Yet, it is in this area that students begin to realise that they are
able to influence the world in which we live.

Stephens, J & Watson, K (eds) (1994) From Picture Book to Literary Theory. St Clair Press.
While aimed at secondary students and their teachers, this book has a much wider appeal. It
demonstrates literary theories using contemporary picture books. Pages of activities for
students are matched with pages of theory for teachers to explore some of the newer literary
theories, including critical literacy. Teachers of all sectors will find the book interesting and
informative.

Chalkface Press has produced a series of books which introduces students to text analysis
and aspects of critical literacy. Texts have been carefully chosen to appeal to students from
grades 7 to 12. Teachers of grades 5 and 6 will also find them useful. Ideas within each book
and the books themselves present a sequential program, but there is sufficient flexibility for
teachers to select isolated pieces for use with students. The wide range of individual, pair and
group activities in response to specific questions includes the construction of charts and tables.

Mellor, B. & Raleigh, M. Making Stories. (for students in grades 8-9)

Mellor, B. Hemming, J. & Leggett, J. Changing Stories. (for students in grades 8-9)
Mellor, B. & Patterson, A. (1996) Investigating Texts. (for students in grades 7-8)
Mellor, B. O'Neill, M. & Patterson, A. (1987) Reading Stories. (for students in grades 10-12)
Mellor, B. Patterson, A. & O'Neill, M. (1991) Reading Fictions. (for students in grades 9-11)
Moon, B. (1990) Studying Literature. (for students in grades 10-12)
Mellor, B. (1989) Reading Hamlet. (for students in grades 10-12)
Martino, W. & Mellor, B. (1995) Gendered Fictions. (for students in grades 10-12)

These books are highly recommended for teachers who are beginning to incorporate a critical
literacy approach into their teaching and for those who prefer an ordered and systematic
approach but haven't the time to develop a sequence of work for themselves.

Robins, E and Robins, P (1999) Making Connections in English: Towards Critical Literacy
- Books 1, 2, 3 and 4. Oxford University Press
These four course books introduce, develop and expand the skills of critical literacy. Each book
provides ample instruction in different uses of language, and challenges students to respond
thoughtfully using a wide variety of genres and styles.

Quin, R. & Cody, W. (1997) Senior English Now Book 1. Longman

This very informative text deconstructs narratives, television drama, letters, magazines, forms
and advertising. It emphasises the ability to collect, organise and present information and the
ability to communicate effectively. The authors have recognised the need to make learning
activities meaningful for students, to build upon students' interests, to encourage student
choice and control over their learning. They have also endeavoured to provide students with
models of the types of tasks they are asked to undertake. Teachers of years 9 to 12 will find
this book a most valuable classroom resource.

Alloway, N. & Gilbert, P. (eds) (1997) Boys and Literacy. Curriculum Corporation.
Australian teachers developed these units for students from kindergarten to year 12. They
focus on the use of critical literacy approaches and popular texts as ways of addressing some of
the issues of boys and literacy. Texts include cartoons and comics, video games, electronic
media, picture books and fairy tales. A group of Tasmanian teachers who trialled the units
reported positively about students' engagement and outcomes.

Adams, P. & Campagna-Wildash, H. (compilers) (1995) Texts: the heart of the English
curriculum Series 1. DECS
Millard, C. & Adams, P. (compilers) (1997) Texts: the heart of the English curriculum
Series 2. DETE

This collection of thirty five broadsheets was prepared by teachers from South Australia. They
provide suggestions for critical investigations of a very broad range of texts including novels,
picture books, television advertisements, sports telecasts, travel brochures, catalogues, cereal
boxes, magazines, biographies and soap operas. Many of the texts and teaching approaches
could be used with students across a wide range of grades.

The series contains practical ideas to stimulate interest, develop critical responses and broaden
the range of texts presented to students from kindergarten to year 11.

Robertson, A. (ed) (2001) Great Ideas For English in the Senior Years. Kensington
Gardens, SAETA.
This practical collection was written by practising senior secondary English teachers in South
Australia to support the introduction of new English syllabuses in 2002. A critical literacy
perspective underpins many of the units developed by teachers.
How does critical literacy link with literacy?

Definitions of literacy continue to broaden, particularly in response to new technologies,

globalisation and rapid societal change. The term ‘multiliterate’ has been developed to describe
the characteristics of a literate person in these new times. Multiliteracies include not only
traditional print literacies, but also the many modes of representation that have been made
available through multimedia and technological change.

Two recent frameworks for teaching literacy are the:

• Four Literacy Resources Model, developed by Allan Luke and Peter Freebody (1990)
• Three Literacy Dimensions Model, developed by Bill Green (1988)

Both literacy frameworks suggest that there are several dimensions or aspects of learning,
including a critical/analytical dimension. The authors of both frameworks emphasise that
none of the dimensions of literacy has any priority over the others. All dimensions need to be
addressed simultaneously in an integrated view of literate practice and literacy pedagogy.

Literacy Frameworks
Code Breaker Operational
Text participant Cultural
Text User
Text analyst Critical
Luke and Freebody’s Four Resources Model Bill Green’s Three Dimensions of Literacy Model

Despite their congruence, it is important to note that the two frameworks do not exactly map
onto each other. But the central point remains: critical literacy practices are central to both
conceptualisations of what it means to be a literate person in the 21st century.

Literacy practices include the skills of decoding and encoding, skills for comprehending and
creating texts and skills related to the use of language to communicate in a variety of modes
for a range of social purposes and to different audiences. From the earliest years, effective
literacy learning also includes critical literacy practices. All of these practices are
interdependent and teachers need to ensure that all of them are explicitly taught.

The Department of Education’s Literacy Policy (1997) states that:

Literacy...includes the cultural knowledge which enables a speaker, writer or reader to

recognise and use language appropriate to different social situations. (Students) learn about
the power of language to convey explicit and implicit meanings and layers of meaning, and
they develop the capacity to discuss and analyse texts and language.

Students need to challenge the ways in which texts are constructed to convey particular ideas
and to influence people's attitudes and values. They need to develop the capacity to critically
analyse and transform texts.

Luke and Freebody in Literate Futures (2000) define literacy as:

The flexible and sustainable mastery of a repertoire of practices with texts of traditional and
new communications technologies via spoken language, print and multimedia.

Luke and Freebody argue that to become successful communicators students need to see
themselves as text analysts from early childhood. Critical literacy should not be seen as a
special curriculum in the later years or as a media studies unit. Students need to be provided
with opportunities to become socially critical in all sectors of schooling.
How do critical literacies inform the Essential Learnings Frameworks?

Critical literacy perspectives clearly inform the five Essential Learnings Thinking,
Communicating, Personal Futures, Social Responsibility and World Futures.
In the Communicating Essential:

Symbolic representation is never neutral. It can be constructed in certain ways for particular
effects. In contemporary education it is vital to provide learners with the skills to interpret
critically the images and messages that are part of their lives.
Learners need to be able to use language to compose creatively and comprehend critically.
They need to recognise its impact on them and make judgements about what is being said and
shown to them.

The Being Literate Key Element Outcome requires students to understand, use and critically
evaluate the non-verbal, spoken, visual and print communication practices of the world in
which they live. The Being Literate Outcomes and Standards sequence draws significantly upon
Luke and Freebody’s Four Resources Model.

Luke and Freebody believe that critical literacy - in all its forms - enables teachers, students
and communities to explore alternative ways of structuring practice around texts for address
new social, economic, technological and cultural contexts. (Luke and Freebody, 1999)
Being Literate requires students to critically analyse and transform texts, understanding and
acting on the knowledge that texts are not neutral. It requires students to analyse and
construct texts to achieve particular effects, and develop aesthetic sensitivity and the criteria to
appreciate, enjoy and learn from experience with texts.

How do critical literacies inform the new English Senior Secondary syllabuses?

The new English Senior Secondary syllabuses reflect the fact that the world continues to
change - socially, technologically and economically. The study of a wide range of spoken,
written, visual, multimedia and performance texts remains central to the syllabuses. Students
will continue to learn about themselves, the world and what it is to be human through the
study of texts and language. The syllabuses will enable students to understand the structures
and features of texts, the role of context in creating and interpreting texts and how texts can
shape values and ideologies.

The syllabuses are underpinned by a number of contemporary literary theories, including

critical literacy practices. They reflect the view that texts are constructs created through careful
selection and choice and may be interpreted differently by different responders in different
contexts. They are also based on the view that meanings of texts are actively constructed by
the interaction between the text, contextual factors and the reader’s experience and prior
knowledge.

For example, in the texts and contexts strand of the English Communications 5C syllabus
teachers focus on three key concepts:

• The positioning of audience i.e. investigating how texts are constructed to encourage
dominant readings with particular sets of values and assumptions
• Genre i.e. investigating the structures and features of a genre, including its boundaries
or constraints
• Investigating representation and its effect on the creation of culture, including how texts
represent or exclude particular groups and individuals and the implications of these
choices for society
Where can I find out more about critical literacy?

Morgan, W. (1997) Critical Literacy: Readings and Resources. Norwood, A.A.T.E.

This is an excellent package of materials for the professional development of teachers. It

includes a video, workshop frameworks and readings from Pam Gilbert, Colin Lankshear, Susan
Werba, Wendy Morgan and Lindsay Williams.

The book includes units of work and readings about critical literacy which might be suitable for
students from years 9 to 12. The section called ‘The World's Your Oyster: Holidays that don't
cost the Earth’ encourages students to view the world differently from the pictures presented in
the glossy travel brochures and to consider Australian tourism in Asia from a quite different
perspective. This and other readings provide teachers with practical insights into ways of
learning about critical literacy themselves and teaching it to others.

Pitt, J. (1995) Not Just After Lunch on Wednesdays: Critical Literacy: A Personal View.
DECS

This resource has been used extensively in schools to introduce the deconstruction of gender.
It contains video workshops and a professional development course for teachers supported by
practical classroom materials. Transcripts of classroom lessons are also included.
Critical literacy activities for many of the picture books and novels used in Australian schools
ensure that this resource will be well used by teachers from grades 3 to 8.

Muspratt, S. Luke, A. & Freebody, P. (eds) (1997) Constructing Critical Literacies:

Teaching and Learning Textual Practice. Allen & Unwin
A series of essays about the nature of literacy in the midst of current social, economic, political
and cultural changes, the book is constructed as a series of 'paired' essays with responses
which critique the previous writer.

Worth, G. and Guy, R. (eds) (1998) Teachers Rethinking English: Critical Theory and
Reflective Practice. VATE

This publication from the Victorian Association for the Teaching of English is a blend of theory
and practice. In the book, English teachers show how recent developments in literary theory,
including crtical literacy have informed their classroom practice. The book also includes Ray
Misson’s popular text An Introduction to Literary Theory. This is a particularly useful reference
for year 11 and 12 teachers.

Knobel, M. & Healy, A. (eds). (1998) Critical Literacies in the Primary Classroom.
Newtown, PETA

Using song lyrics, popular culture texts, vignettes and case studies, eight experienced teachers
suggest effective and creative strategies for teaching students how to be critically literate.
Morgan, W. (1998) ‘Critical Literacy’ in Re-Viewing English (eds) Sawyer, W. Watson, K. &
Gold, E. Sydney, St Clair Press

A short but valuable chapter on critical literacy from this excellent resource for all English
teachers.

Fehring, H. & Green, P. (eds) (2001) Critical Literacies: a collection of articles from the
Australian Literacy Educators’ Association. IRA

This collection has been compiled by the International Reading Association and offers a range
of perspectives on critical literacy. The articles explain the principles of critical literacy from a
theoretical perspective, illustrate the differences between the theories of literary development,
detail the practical classroom implementation of critical literacy principles, and highlight the
changing role of the teacher in the process of students coming to understand the multiple
meanings of texts and the power of language.

Robinson, E. and Robinson, S. (2003) What Does It Mean - Discourse, Text, Culture: An
Introduction. Sydney, McGraw-Hill

This text introduces key theoretical concepts such as text and context, discourse,
deconstruction, ideology and intertextuality by exploring a range of popular culture and
traditional texts, ranging from contemporary advertising, films, song lyrics, poems and
newspaper articles to canonical texts such as Macbeth and To Kill A Mockingbird.

Online Articles:
Critical Reading and Critical Literacy
This article from the International Reading Association compares the differences between the
traditions, perspectives and goals of critical reading and critical literacy.
Critical Literacy and Reading
In this paper Barbara Comber examines some of the connections between critical literacy and
learning to read.
What is Critical Literacy?
An introduction to critical literacy by Ira Shor.