Advance Numerical Mechanical Simulation

Advanced Numerical
Simulations in Mechanical
Engineering
Ashwani Kumar
Government of Uttar Pradesh, India
Pravin P. Patil
Graphic Era University, India
Yogesh Kr. Prajapati

National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand, India
A volume in the Advances in

Mechatronics and Mechanical
Engineering (AMME) Book Series
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kumar, Ashwani, 1989- author. | Patil, Pravin P., 1976- author. |
Prajapati, Yogesh Kr., 1983- author.
Title: Advanced numerical simulations in mechanical engineering / editors,
Ashwani Kumar, Pravin P. Patil, and Yogesh Kr. Prajapati.
Description: Hershey, PA : Engineering Science Reference, [2018] | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017020859| ISBN 9781522537229 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522537236 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mechanical engineering--Mathematics. |
Machinery--Mathematical models. | Numerical analysis.
Classification: LCC TJ170 .K7984 2018 | DDC 620.001/5118--dc23 LC record available at https://
lccn.loc.gov/2017020859
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Engineering (AMME) (ISSN: 2328-8205; eISSN: 2328-823X)
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Titles in this Series
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Numerical and Analytical Solutions for Solving Nonlinear Equations in Heat Transfer
Davood Domiri Ganji (Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Iran) and Roghayeh
Abbasi Talarposhti (University of Mazandaran, Iran)
Engineering Science Reference • ©2018 • 275pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522527138) • US $195.00
Nanofluid Technologies and Thermal Convection Techniques

Ramesh Chand (Government Arya Degree College Nurpur (HP), India)
Mathematical Concepts and Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics

Mangey Ram (Graphic Era University, India) and J. Paulo Davim (University of Aveiro,
Portugal)
Handbook of Research on Advances and Applications in Refrigeration Systems and

Technologies
Pedro Dinis Gaspar (University of Beira Interior, Portugal) and Pedro Dinho da Silva
(University of Beira Interior, Portugal)
Engineering Creative Design in Robotics and Mechatronics

Maki K. Habib (The American University in Cairo, Egypt) and J. Paulo Davim (University
of Aveiro, Portugal)
Computational Methods for Optimizing Manufacturing Technology Models and Techniques

J. Paulo Davim (University of Aveiro, Portugal)
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Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................. xii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................. xv
Chapter 1
Low to High Speed Transient Structural and Thermal Temperature
Measurement of Oil-Lubricated Multi-Speed Heavy Vehicle Transmission
Gearbox System Based on FEA..............................................................................1
Ashwani Kumar, Government of Uttar Pradesh, India
Chapter 2
Active Vibration Attenuation of Smart Shell Structure Instrumented With
Piezoelectric Layers..............................................................................................22
Anshul Sharma, National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand, India
Chapter 3
Design and Simulation of Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS):
Evaluation of Resonant Frequency Using Different Configuration of
Resonating Tube...................................................................................................50
Pravin P. Patil, Graphic Era University, India
Chapter 4
Advanced Numerical and Experimental Methods Used in Material Science
for Evaluating Mechanical and Damping Nature of Composite Materials...........63
Subhash Singh, Lovely Professional University, India
Kaushik Pal, IIT Roorkee, India
Chapter 5
Comparative Study of Conjugate Heat Transfer in Uniform and Diverging
Cross-Section Microchannels...............................................................................76
Yogesh K. Prajapati, National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand,
India

Chapter 6
A Study of Flexible Manufacturing System With Multiple Failures....................96
Monika Manglik, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Mangey Ram, Graphic Era University, India
Divya Ahluwalia, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Chapter 7
FEA-Based Numerical Simulation and Theoretical Modeling for Predicting
Thermal Contact Conductance...........................................................................118
Sachin Rana, ABES Institute of Technology Ghaziabad, India
Chapter 8
Mathematical Modeling of Five-Link Inverted Cart and Pendulum System......140
Ashwani Kharola, Graphic Era University, India
Chapter 9
Design and Thermal Analysis of MgZrO3 Ceramic Coated I.C. Engine Piston
Based on Finite Element Analysis (FEA)...........................................................156
Shailendra Kumar, College of Engineering Science and Technology
Lucknow, India
Related References............................................................................................ 177
Compilation of References............................................................................... 220
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 238
Index................................................................................................................... 241
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................. xii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................. xv
Chapter 1
Low to High Speed Transient Structural and Thermal Temperature
Measurement of Oil-Lubricated Multi-Speed Heavy Vehicle Transmission
Gearbox System Based on FEA..............................................................................1
Ashwani Kumar, Government of Uttar Pradesh, India
The main objective of this chapter is dynamic structural and thermal analysis
of multi speed transmission gearbox (medium duty truck) using Finite Element
Analysis (FEA). To evaluate the dynamic strength of transmission gearbox assembly
transient structural analysis was performed. Dynamic varying loads at different
rotational speed were applied to perform the transient analysis. In gear meshing
operation at high rotational speed and loading condition, frictional heat is generated
inside gearbox assembly. To reduce the effect of frictional heat, gear oil is used. In
this research study gear oil SAE 85W140 was used for cooling and performance
enhancement. Steady state thermal analysis was performed to evaluate the thermal
effect of frictional heat, rotational speed of shafts (pinion, gear) and load with
gear oil lubrication. In thermal effect gearbox surface temperature was measured
at different points. FEA simulation results have been validated using experimental
results available in literature.
Chapter 2
Active Vibration Attenuation of Smart Shell Structure Instrumented With
Piezoelectric Layers..............................................................................................22
Anshul Sharma, National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand, India
The active control of vibration of piezoelectric flexible smart structure is an important

issue in engineering. Reducing vibration may improve the user’s comfort and safety.
This chapter presents a fuzzy logic approach for active control of vibration of a

smart composite laminated spherical shell. The spherical shell is in the form of a
layered composite shell having collocated piezoelectric sensor/actuator pair. The
vibratory response of the shell is modeled using finite element method. There are
five mechanical degrees of freedom per node and the potential difference across
the piezoelectric layer is introduced as an additional electrical degree of freedom
on an element level. The mode superposition method has been used to transform
the coupled finite element equations of motion in the physical coordinates into a set
of reduced uncoupled equations in the modal coordinates. The simulation results
illustrate that the superiority of designed nonconventional fuzzy logic controller
over conventional controllers.
Chapter 3
Design and Simulation of Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS):
Evaluation of Resonant Frequency Using Different Configuration of
Resonating Tube...................................................................................................50
Pravin P. Patil, Graphic Era University, India
The main objective of this chapter is FEA simulation of resonating tube with different
size and material configuration for evaluation of resonant frequency. Resonating tube
is an important component of Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS) used
for measuring direct mass flow. Omega and U-shaped resonating tube type EMMFS
have been investigated for 200mm, 300 mm and 400mm height with three different
materials Copper, Aluminium and Mild Steel. EMMFS analysis is highly nonlinear
study having fluid structure interaction. To simplify the solution large deformations
in resonating tube countered to be absent. Sensing points are located symmetrically
at limbs of resonating tube to sense the phase shift for measuring mass flow rate.
FEA simulation of EMMFS has been done using Ansys. Solid Edge and Pro-E has
been used for modeling of omega and U-shaped resonating tube.
Chapter 4
for Evaluating Mechanical and Damping Nature of Composite Materials...........63
Subhash Singh, Lovely Professional University, India
Kaushik Pal, IIT Roorkee, India
In this chapter, the authors provide the simultaneous applications of numerical and
mathematical methods for engineers. The best way to ignite the fire of curiosity in
the student is the validation of their ideas and learning. Specially, the engineering
students learn best when they are prompted by problems. This can be achieved
through the validation of their analytical results with experimental. Therefore, the
scope of the present work is to synchronize of the above-mentioned two domains
(numerical, experimental). Furthermore, we have approached numerical methods
from an experimental perspective. Mathematical methods are techniques by which

mathematical problems are developed so that these can be solved with arithmetic
operations. Although, there are many forms of numerical methods, they possess one
common characteristic: they invariably call for large numbers of tedious arithmetic
calculations. This work intends to relate the theoretical understanding with the real
world problems.
Chapter 5
Comparative Study of Conjugate Heat Transfer in Uniform and Diverging
Cross-Section Microchannels...............................................................................76
Yogesh K. Prajapati, National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand,
India
This chapter covers single-phase heat transfer analysis in microchannel heat sink
relevant to electronic cooling application. In order to estimate the correct heat transfer
performance, it is required to consider both, conduction and convection. Hence,
conjugate analysis of heat transfer has been considered where both conduction
and convection heat transfer are calculated as a part of solution. Two different
configurations of microchannels namely, uniform and diverging cross-section have
been considered individually on different copper substrate. A copper substrate of
dimension 25×0.9×4 mm has been used to generate microchannel. Inlet cross-
section (0.4×0.75 mm) of both channels has been kept equal however; cross-section
of diverging channel keeps on increasing as width is continuously increasing along
the flow direction. A constant heat flux of 250 kW/m2 has been provided from the
bottom. Comparative study has been done to analyse the heat transfer performance
of both the configurations of microchannels.
Chapter 6
A Study of Flexible Manufacturing System With Multiple Failures....................96
Monika Manglik, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Mangey Ram, Graphic Era University, India
Divya Ahluwalia, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Flexibility refers to the capability of a manufacturing system to respond cost effectively

and arbitrarily to adapting production needs and necessities. This ability is becoming
increasingly important for the design and operation of manufacturing systems, as
these systems do function in highly variable and unpredictable environments. In
this chapter, the reliability of the flexible manufacturing system has been calculated
based on the mathematical framework. The model of the system consists of the
system structure and the distribution of its components. The components are assumed
to be repairable after various types of failures. In this work, the reliability and
availability have been analyzed by using Markov process, Laplace transformations
and supplementary variable techniques. Furthermore, the impacts of various failures
on reliability, and availability of the system have also been analyzed.

Chapter 7
FEA-Based Numerical Simulation and Theoretical Modeling for Predicting
Thermal Contact Conductance...........................................................................118
Sachin Rana, ABES Institute of Technology Ghaziabad, India
The chapter states the problem of thermal contact conductance between surfaces.
Rough surface generation and thermal contact conductance has been simulated using
Finite Element Method (FEM) based Ansys. The resulting geometry is meshed
by different meshing method to convert the solid model into FEM model. The
main aim of meshing is to create fine and coarse mesh at the contact to reduce the
computational time. To create a fine mesh at contact free meshing with refinement
and mapped mesh has been used. The analysis has been performed on the FEM
model with varying loading condition of different surface roughness and different
materials to get the real contact area and thus thermal contact conductance. The
variation of thermal contact conductance and real contact area with pressure of
different surface roughness and with surface roughness of different loading condition
of the specimen made of aluminum and mild steel has been plotted and compared.
Chapter 8
Mathematical Modeling of Five-Link Inverted Cart and Pendulum System......140
Ashwani Kharola, Graphic Era University, India
This chapter describes a mathematical model and design structure of five-link

inverted pendulum on cart. The system comprises of five rigid pendulums or links
mounted on a mutable cart. The objective is to control all the five links at vertical
upright position when cart is stationary at particular location. The study considered
free-body-diagram (FBD) analysis of proposed system and applied Newton’s second
law of motion for deriving a mathematical model of proposed system. The derived
governing equations of motion can be further used by researchers for developing
a Matlab-Simulink model of five-link inverted pendulum system. The developed
model can be further used for deriving equations of motions for n-link cart and
pendulum system. Researchers can further apply various control techniques for
control of proposed system.
Chapter 9
Based on Finite Element Analysis (FEA)...........................................................156
Shailendra Kumar, College of Engineering Science and Technology
Lucknow, India
Piston is considered to be one of the most important part of internal combustion

engine. Piston is used to deliver thrust via connecting rod to the main shaft of the
engine. Normally it is made of cast iron which bears high gas pressure and has damping

property. The main objective of this chapter is to perform structural and thermal
analysis of MgZrO3 top surface ceramic coated piston. Piston made up of gray cast
iron coated with ceramic material (MgZrO3) which is bonded by special material
(NiCrAl) is designed by machine design approach to determine the dimensions of
the piston and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was performed using ANSYS 17.1.
The pressure of the 5 N/mm2 was applied at top land of piston. An equivalent Von
misses stress in ceramic coated piston was found less in comparison to uncoated
piston. Thermal analysis of both coated and non-coated piston was performed.
Related References............................................................................................ 177
Compilation of References............................................................................... 220
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 238
Index................................................................................................................... 241
xii
Preface
The editors are delighted to present the high-quality research content of book
series Advances in Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering in first edition
book Advanced Numerical Simulations in Mechanical Engineering. Book title was
chosen as it converges upcoming technologies in mechatronics and mechanical
engineering discipline for the next decade. This book is a compilation of research in
advanced modelling and simulation method adopted in mechanical and mechatronics
engineering. In present time, ‘‘Simulation’’ is the buzzword for any discipline and
many scholars are working in these areas. This book provides a reference for all post
graduate or senior undergraduate students working in mechatronics and mechanical
discipline.
The word Simulation signifies imitation of real world system. Model development
having same behaviors, functions and characteristics as real-world system is first
step of simulation. This model represents real system itself and simulation work
shows operation of the system over time. In present time simulation is used in various
contexts as like insight function study of human systems, performance optimization,
testing of dynamic system, training, health care, education and study of designed
but not built system. Simulation results are directly governed by assumptions
and approximations made during study. All engineering discipline like robotics,
production, biomechanics, automobiles, electronics, telecommunication, economics,
satellite navigation, process simulation in chemical engineering, ergonomic study,
aesthetic study of product and disaster management used simulation method for
valid result acquisition.
The chapters included in the book highlight important research in the numerical
simulation field. Chapter 1, “Low to High Speed Transient Structural and Thermal
Temperature Measurement of Oil-Lubricated Multi-Speed Heavy Vehicle
Transmission Gearbox System Based on FEA,” covers advanced application of
simulation technique in field of heavy vehicle dynamics and addresses the application
of the Finite Element Analysis (FEA), an advance numerical simulation technique,
to assess the dynamic strength of transmission gearbox assembly of a medium duty
truck. Chapter 2, “Active Vibration Attenuation of Smart Shell Structure Instrumented
Preface
With Piezoelectric Layers,” addresses the topic of active control of vibrations,

which has a wide range of applications in engineering, from motorcar, spacecraft
to nuclear industries. The approach taken to the analysis of the vibration control of
mart shell structure was the use of fuzzy logic, moreover, the Finite Element Method
(FEM) was employed to simulate the piezo-laminated composite shell structure
and to predict the static and dynamic response of structure. The chapter develops
the mathematical formulae from first principles and relatively easy to follow if the
potential reader has a good mathematical background. In a similar vein, the authors
present some recommendations for future research on the subject to increase the
reliability and safety of such devices.
Sensors have wide application in various fields. Chapter 3, “Design and Simulation
of Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS): Evaluation of Resonant
Frequency Using Different Configuration of Resonating Tube,” provides a study of
Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS). It highlights result associated with
the resonating tube, which is an important component of EMMFS used for measuring
direct mass flow. EMMFS works on the principle of Coriolis Effect. EMMFS analysis
is highly nonlinear study having fluid structure interaction. To simplify the solution
large deformations in resonating tube countered to be absent. The simulation was
conducted under different resonating tube configurations; e.g., shape (‘omega’ and
‘U’), size (200mm, 300 mm and 400mm height), material (Copper, Aluminium
and Mild Steel). The simulation results will be used for excitation in experimental
work. In recent years, due to development of integrated electronic devices and high
speed processors, power densities of electronic components have been significantly
increased resulting drastic increase in heat generation in these devices.
In continuation to EMMFS application, Chapter 4, “Advanced Numerical and
Experimental Methods Used in Material Science for Evaluating Mechanical and
Damping Nature of Composite Materials,” covers an interesting subject that associated
with composite materials. Given the wide applicability of these, for example, in the
internal combustion engines, rotary components, Nano and micro-electromechanical
systems, among other; the subject could effectively be of great interest to researchers
and students in the field of mechanical engineering. Chapter 5, “Comparative Study
of Conjugate Heat Transfer in Uniform and Diverging Cross-Section Microchannels,”
presents the simulation results of a single-phase heat transfer analysis for the case
of a microchannel heat sink which is relevant to electronics cooling application.
The authors address the topic associated with reliability at the ‘macro’ level the
case of a pulp flexible manufacturing system presented in Chapter 6, “A Study of
Flexible Manufacturing System With Multiple Failures.” The authors addressed
their analysis by applying the Markov process. The mathematical formulae are
derived from first principles. Chapter 7, “FEA-Based Numerical Simulation and
Theoretical Modeling for Predicting Thermal Contact Conductance,” investigates
xiii
Preface
the topic associated with heat transfer phenomena occurring between surfaces.
They presented the results associated with the contact area and the terminal contact
conductance between different surface roughness and materials. They have employed
Finite Element Method (FEM) simulation method to conduct their analysis. The
Chapter 8, “Mathematical Modeling of Five-Link Inverted Cart and Pendulum
System,” presents a mathematical modelling of a dynamical system i.e. a “five-link
inverted cart and pendulum system”. Effectively, the system under study has a wide
range of applications, such as the behavior of missile/rocket guidance system, ship
yaw motion control, aircraft control, for example, during turbulence, etc. The authors
decomposed the system under consideration into several sub-systems for developing
the governing mathematical formulae of motion through the Free-Body-Diagram
(FBD) representation. Also, the authors employed the Newton’s second law of
motion for deriving the equations of motion for the proposed sub-systems. Chapter
9, “Design and Thermal Analysis of MgZrO3 Ceramic Coated I.C. Engine Piston
Based on Finite Element Analysis (FEA),” is focused on one of the key components
of an internal combustion engine i.e. the Piston. Given the fact that the Piston’s
function is to deliver thrust, it bears a considerable amount of high gas pressure. The
authors concentrate their efforts to performing a structural and thermal analysis of
the “Zirconium based ceramic coating” (MgZrO3) top surface ceramic coated piston.
The variety of models presented in the book is up-to-date and potentiality valuable
to researchers in all engineering disciplines and covers a wide range of industries
automotive, aviation, electronics, nuclear etc. The provided “Future research” section
is very important because it may stimulate debate and research for those involved in
the fields of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics. We are sure that researchers
will be benefited with this approach.
Ashwani Kumar
Pravin P. Patil
Yogesh K. Prajapati
xiv
xv
Acknowledgment
We express our heartfelt gratitude to IGI Global and the editorial team for their
inspiring guidance and support during preparation of this book. We are sincerely
grateful to reviewers for their suggestions and illuminating views on research content
presented in book Advanced Numerical Simulations in Mechanical Engineering.
We are thankful to Dr. Anshul Sharma, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Uttarkhand for sharing his views on book and
contributing book chapter in field of vibration and control. Our gratitude to Prof.
Mangey Ram, Assistant Dean and Head Department of Mathematics, Graphic Era
University, Dehradun for encouragement and support throughout working on this
book. Our sincere thanks to Mr. Sachin Rana, Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, ABES Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad for providing
constant ideas of innovation for book chapters. Special thanks to Dr. Subhash Singh,
Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, India for
sharing his research experience and views on final draft of this book project.
Ashwani Kumar
Pravin P. Patil
Yogesh K. Prajapati
1
Chapter 1
Low to High Speed Transient
Structural and Thermal
Temperature Measurement of
Oil-Lubricated Multi-Speed
Heavy Vehicle Transmission
Gearbox System Based on FEA
Ashwani Kumar
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this chapter is dynamic structural and thermal analysis of
multi speed transmission gearbox (medium duty truck) using Finite Element Analysis
(FEA). To evaluate the dynamic strength of transmission gearbox assembly transient
structural analysis was performed. Dynamic varying loads at different rotational
speed were applied to perform the transient analysis. In gear meshing operation
at high rotational speed and loading condition, frictional heat is generated inside
gearbox assembly. To reduce the effect of frictional heat, gear oil is used. In this
research study gear oil SAE 85W140 was used for cooling and performance
enhancement. Steady state thermal analysis was performed to evaluate the thermal
effect of frictional heat, rotational speed of shafts (pinion, gear) and load with
gear oil lubrication. In thermal effect gearbox surface temperature was measured
at different points. FEA simulation results have been validated using experimental
results available in literature.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch001
Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Temperature Measurement of Vehicle Transmission Gearbox System Based on FEA
INTRODUCTION
Multi speed transmission gearbox is assembly of gears. The gearbox assembly is

used for varying torque and gearing condition. Shifting from lower to higher gearing
reduces torque value but increases rotational speed. In this chapter the object is
multi speed transmission gearbox. This transmission gearbox consists of 4 set of
gears excluding reverse gear. This transmission assembly is used in heavy vehicle
medium duty trucks. Gear oil is used as lubricant for moving parts, dissipates
frictional heat from gearbox assembly, prevent overheating of gears and it also
works as vehicle performance enhancer. The operating temperature of gear oil varies
(-18 to 110)0C. In past two decades various research studies has been performed in
field of transmission gearbox concern with gear oil physical properties, material
mechanical properties variation for gearbox housing, looseness study of gearbox,
dynamic vibration, power-flow in transmission etc.
Kumar (2015) have studied the heavy duty truck transmission casing for different
material application. The main objective of this study was selecting best suited
material for transmission housing based on vibration suitability. A series of four
materials has been selected Al alloys, Mg alloys, Structural Steel and Grey cast iron
FG 260. The best suited material is grey cast iron FG 260. Zimparov (2002) have
studied the design problem of the heat exchangers for cooling purpose. Entropy
generation and irreversible friction flow problem was considered here. The objective
was to design a heat exchanger with minimum system losses. Bozca (2010) have
optimized the vehicle gearbox geometry. The authors have studied the rattle noise
problem in transmission assembly. It is caused by torsional vibration transmitted
from engine to the shaft of transmission. Rattle noise were calculated by varying
various parameters. The authors have performed the numerical, analytical and
experimental work.
Salah (2007) have investigated the vehicle fuel economy problem. Fuel economy
of vehicle is governed by gear oil and proper functioning of transmission assembly.
The aim of study was to find a relation between transmission cooling and vehicle
fuel economy. The results were in favor and show that proper and efficient gear
oil cooling reduces the fuel consumption by 1.0-1.4%. Kumar (2014) have studied
the looseness study of truck transmission system. The loose frequency varies from
(1311-3110) Hz. Looseness condition of transmission reduces the frequency range
and increases the chances of resonance. The simulation results were obtained for
different looseness condition of transmission casing. Zero displacement constraint
based boundary condition was applied by constraining all 37 bolt holes.
2
Karamavruc (2011) have studied the thermal properties of gear oil. Density,
specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and viscosity are the thermo-physical
properties that highly depend on temperature. Viscosity changes in exponential
manner but other thermo-physical properties changes in linear manner. Pennestri
(2012) have studied the power flow mechanism in transmission gearbox assembly
using graph theory method. They have also calculated the efficiency of epicyclic
gearbox used in hybrid vehicles.
Quaiyum (2012) has studied the Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF). He
designed a Minichannel Heat Exchanger (MICHX) for cooling application. The wind
tunnel based experimental setup was used for the micro channel analysis. ATF flow
on a mini channel heat exchanger was studied for varying heat transfer coefficient
and Reynold’s no. Researchers have also studied vehicle transmission lubrication,
transient analysis of gear interaction, dynamic vibration analysis, thermal balance,
gear interaction and gear oil lubrication of transmission Kouroussis (2015). Long,
(2003) have studied the different parameters on single pair of meshing gear tooth.
The varying parameters were load, rotational speed and convection heat transfer
coefficient. The rotational speed varies (2000-10000) rpm. For combined loading
condition the temperature variation of gear tooth is (70-135)0C. In study average
heat transfer coefficient varies (100-350) w/m2k depends on radious of gear. The
FEA results were compared with experimental results. Altinbalik (2015) has studied
the gear profile for load optimization using theoretical and experimental approach.
They have found the lowest load value for forming process of gear using lateral
extrusion and forward extrusion.
Gear tooth analysis plays an important role in performance evaluation of
transmission gearbox for high speed and heavy duty application. Gear tooth wear
and tear is governed by rotational speed, load and gear oil lubrication. Effective
lubrication reduces wear-tear action and increases the performance and life span
of gearbox. The operating parameters that are load, rotational speed and effective
cooling action. Suitable load (torque) and speed combination is managed by vehicle
operator and effective cooling is done using gear oil. Gear oil dissipates the frictional
heat from gearbox assembly to surroundings. Average convection heat transfer
coefficient is used to indicate the gear oil cooling. Frictional heat removal takes
place by convection process. The present chapter concern with transient structural
and steady state thermal analysis of multi speed transmission gearbox assembly. FEA
simulation was used to evaluate the results. The FEA based numerical simulation
results are in agreement with experimental literature results.
3
CAD MODELLING AND EVALUATION OF

TRANSMISSION GEARBOX
Multi speed transmission gearbox is used with heavy vehicle medium duty trucks.
Figure 1 show the complete assembly of gearbox transmission used in vehicle. To
provide the gear oil tight sealing and moist free environment the gearbox assembly
is fitted inside housing. Gearbox transmission housing is manufactured of damping
material (grey cast iron) to absorb shock and vibration. Housing prevents direct
damage of gears. Gearbox housing is mounted on vehicle chassis frame. It is
constraint to move in any direction. In this study 37 connecting bolts were used to
mount the housing on chassis frame. Figure 2 shows the meshing action of gears.4
gears are mounted on main shaft and mating pinion on lay shaft. Solid edge (2006)
and Pro-E (2013) were used for solid modeling of gearbox assembly. Deigning
parameters were obtained from workshops and manufacturer of heavy vehicle in
India. FEA based Ansys 14.5 (2013) has been used for the numerical simulation. It
is an approximation technique used for analysis of objects. Transient structural and
steady state simulation were done using FEA. Figure 3 shows meshed geometry
of gearbox (5, 75, 383 nodes and 3, 39,898 elements) having computing time 27
hours. Gearbox replacement is costly and time taking process. This study provides
a reference work in design stage of transmission gearbox.
ASSIGNMENT OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES

AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Individual materials have been assigned to transmission gearbox components. Grey

cast iron HT200 (Young’s modulus 1.1 e11, Poisson’s ratio 0.28, density 7200 kg/
m3) was assigned to transmission casing. SiMn alloys were used for output shaft
(Young’s modulus 2.05 e11, Poisson’s ratio 0.29, density 7790 kg/m3). Gears were
manufactured from Cr alloys (Young’s modulus 2.02 e11, Poisson’s ratio 0.29, density
7800 kg/m3). Synchronizer material is CrMnTi alloy (Young’s modulus 2.01 e11,
Poisson’s ratio 0.29, density 7912 kg/m3). Bearing material is CrMo alloys (Young’s
modulus 2.04 e11, Poisson’s ratio 0.28, density 7860 kg/m3) (Qin-man, 2011).
In transmission gearbox assembly main, counter shafts are supported on bearings.
Synchronizer is used for shifting of gears, from lower to higher or higher to lower
gears. In 4 speed transmission gear first and second gear is known as lower gearing.
Third and fourth gear is known as higher gearing. From lower gearing 2nd gear and
3rd gear from higher gearing were selected for study. Table 1 shows the combined
4
Figure 1. Model of transmission gearbox assembly with housing
5
Figure 2. Transmission gearbox assembly
loading conditions. When vehicle is in running condition the operating parameters

are rotational speed and load (torque). Three cases (Case A, Case B, and Case C) of
loading were assigned to mating (2nd, 3rd) gears. At 2000 rpm the load applied was
230.48 Nm on 2nd gear and 147.78 Nm on 3rd gear. Peak load was applied in Case
C when vehicle was running at 6000 rpm on 2nd gear. The time period of loading
was selected as 9 seconds.
In present research study a broad range of rotational speed (2000-6000) rpm
and load (147.78-375.56) Nm was applied for simulation. This combined load case
(torque & rotational speed) covers all possible combination of combined loading for
heavy vehicle medium duty trucks (Gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) (4536-
8845) kg). The earlier research study on transmission only consider the single pair
6
Figure 3. FEA meshing of 4-speed transmission gearbox
Table 1. FEA simulation combined load case
Case B (4000 Case C (6000

Case A (2000 rpm)
rpm) rpm)
Load (Nm)
230.48 347.08 375.56
(Torque of 2nd Driving Gear)
Load (Nm)
147.78 220.99 239.97
(Torque of 3rd Driving Gear)
of meshing gear but in this chapter the whole assembly of gearbox were considered
for analysis. The effect of load, rotational speed and gear oil lubrication (average
convection heat transfer coefficient) on gearbox assembly.
DYNAMIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Dynamic analysis was performed for the strength evaluation of gears. The combined
load case of torque and rotational speed was applied. The main objective of transient
structural analysis was to evaluate the dynamic failure condition in combined loading
condition. In transient structural analysis total deformation, equivalent von-misses
stress, max. principal stress, shear stress and equivalent elastic strain values were
evaluated.
7
Table 2 shows the dynamic transient structural analysis for lower gearing. In
combined loading condition rotational speed varies (2000-6000) rpm and load (torque)
varies (230.48-375.56) Nm. In ideal condition of vehicle operation at lower gearing
speed should be less and at higher gearing speed requirement is high. When vehicle
runs at high speed in lower gearing the level of deformation and stress generation
will be high (Table 2). When vehicle is running at 2000 rpm, 230.48 Nm load is
applied on gears the total deformation is 0.239 mm as load and speed increases
the total deformation of gears also increases. At 6000 rpm, 375.56Nm load, total
deformation increases 50-60% (Figure 5) in comparison to 2000 rpm. Von-misses
stresses vary (3.11-5.01) GPa. Max. principal stress variation is uniform (1.03-1.66)
GPa. Stresses and elastic strain are within permissible limits. The distrubutation of
stresses (Figure 4) on gearbox is uniform without any crack, localization of thermal
stresses which results in safe designing condition of gearbox for dynamic loading.
Figure 4 shows maximum principal stresses generation on gearbox surface at
2000 rpm and the load value applied on second gear was 230.48 Nm. Green hues
show variation of maximum principal stress on gearbox surface. The variation of
stresses is uniform on gearbox surface. The stress variation is within permissible
limit, showing no stress concentration at any point on gearbox surface. Figure 5
shows total deformation variation at high rotational speed (6000) rpm on second
gear, load 375.56 Nm. In dynamic loading condition blue hues show minimum level
of deformation on gearbox surface. The green hues show regions where deformation
level is average but there is no chance of failure. The red hues shows the maximum
deformation level signify chances of failure is high. Red hues region can be seen
on first and second gear.
Table 3 shows higher gearing dynamic transient structural analysis. When
vehicle is running on higher gearing the operation is smooth and speed is also
high. The combined load case shows rotational speed varies (2000-6000) rpm and
load (147.78-239.97) Nm. When vehicle is running at 2000 rpm the deformation is
0.153 mm, (35-36) % less in comparison to same speed operation on 2nd gear (0.239
Table 2. Transient structural analysis of multi speed transmission gearbox lower

gearing
Equivalent Equivalent
Torque Total Max. Shear
Von-Misses Elastic
Gear Rpm Applied Deformation Principal Stress
Stress Strain
(Nm) (mm) Stress (Pa) (Pa)
(Pa) (m/m)
2000 230.48 0.239 3.11e9 1.03e9 3.95e8 0.015
Second 4000 347.08 0.357 4.66e9 1.55e9 5.86e8 0.023
6000 375.56 0.382 5.01e9 1.66e9 6.25e8 0.024
8
Figure 4. Max. principal stress variation 2nd gear 2000 rpm
mm). The total deformation is low at all speed in comparison to lower gearing (2nd
gear). Von misses stresses on gear surface at 2000, 6000 rpm running is less than
(36- 39)% in comparison to same speed operation on 2nd gear. Maximum principal
stress, shear stress and elastic strain are within permissible limit. FEA results show
that high speed (4000, 6000) vehicle running is suitable for higher gearing (3rd,
4th). If vehicle runs at high speed with low gears (1st, 2nd) the level of deformation
and stress, strain generation is very high (Table 2). It leads to high frictional heat
generation inside gearbox housing which slow down the performance of vehicle.
At the same time the wear and tear is also very high. So it can be concluded that
for high performance and fuel economy low gearing-low speed, high gearing-high
speed should be followed.
9
Figure 5. Total deformations on second gear at 6000 rpm
Table 3. Transient structural analysis of 4 speed transmission gearbox higher gearing
Equivalent Equivalent
Torque Total Max. Shear
Von-Misses Elastic
Gear Rpm Applied Deformation Principal Stress
Stress Strain
(Nm) (mm) Stress (Pa) (Pa)
(Pa) (m/m)
2000 147.78 0.153 1.98e9 6.60e8 2.52e8 0.009
Third 4000 220.99 0.220 2.91e9 9.69e8 3.64e8 0.014
6000 239.97 0.224 3.05e9 1.02e9 3.76e8 0.015
10
Figure 6 shows total deformation for higher gearing at 6000 rpm, load applied
is 239.97 Nm. In dynamic FEA analysis, blue hues show minimum level of
deformation. The green hues show regions on gearbox surface where deformation
is average but chances of failure is minimum here. The region of red hues is more
at 6000 rpm. The deformation is elastic deformation which happens in gears during
meshing action. The region of yellow hues is also similar to red hues. It also shows
high deformation region. The deformation is uniform without high concentration
of thermal stress regions.
Steady State Thermal Analysis: FEA Results and Discussion
Surface temperature study of transmission gearbox is highly nonlinear problem

due to gear oil thermo-physical properties variation. Gear oil viscosity changes
in exponential manner and other physical properties shows linear relation with
temperature. In this chapter steady state thermal analysis was performed to study
the surface temperature of gearbox. All material properties and boundary conditions
are same as in dynamic transient structural analysis. Gear oil lubrication is added
for steady state thermal analysis. In steady state thermal analysis the main focus
of study is to find the gearbox surface temperature under the influence of load,
rotational speed and gear oil lubrication.
The main function of gear oil is to dissipate the frictional heat outside the gearbox
housing. SAE 85W140 gear oil is used for lubrication purpose. The thermo-physical
Figure 6. Total deformations on third gear at 6000 rpm
11
properties of SAE 85W140 are- 30.3cSt (1000C), viscosity 411cSt (400C), Density
901 kg/m3 (15.60C), Viscosity Index 103, Average convection heat transfer coefficient
400 W/m2k. A non-uniform heat flux profile is generated on gearbox surface due to
combined effect of load, rotational speed and frictional heat. Non-uniform heat flux
causes change in temperature at different points on gearbox surface. The temperature
is measured at 10 different points on gearbox surface for lower and higher gearing
with varying vehicle speed.
Table 4 shows the variation of temperature on gearbox surface with varying
combined load conditions. For lower gearing the range of temperature is broad.
It varies (342.94-372.13) k. The reason of higher temperature on gearbox surface
for lower gearing is generation of frictional heat. When vehicle runs at high speed
in low gearing the deformation and stresses were high causes high frictional heat
generation (Table 2). Maximum amount of frictional heat dissipates through gear
tooth and transmission housing.
Figure 7 shows the gearbox surface temperature distributions for lower gearing.
At 2000 rpm the load applied was 230.48 Nm and average convection heat transfer
coefficient is 400w/m2k. Figure 7 (a) shows the variation of surface temperature of
gearbox. The surface temperature varies (342.94-350.01)k. Temperature distribution
at gearbox surface is uniform. It varies gradually at different points. Gradual
variation of temperature is in favor because it reduces the chances of thermal stresses
concentration at gear tip and prevents failure of gears. As the load (347.08 Nm) and
rotational speed (4000 rpm) increases the heat flux concentration also increases.
Figure 7(b) shows gradual changes in gearbox surface temperature. At 6000 the
thermal stresses are very high shown as red hues in figure 7 (c). High level of stress
concentration on gear surface causes failure of gears that’s why lower gearing with
high rpm is prevented. The temperature varies (342.66-372.13) k.
Figure 8 shows the graphical representation of gearbox surface temperature for
lower gearing. The temperature variation at 2000 rpm and 4000 rpm is gradual and
causes no harm to gears. At 6000 rpm operating speed the temperature rises very
Table 4. Steady state thermal analysis of transmission gearbox for lower gearing
with varying rpm
Min Max
Lower
RPM Temperature Temperature Variation at Different Points (k) Temperature
Gearing
(k) (k)
2nd 2000 342.94 343.72 344.51 345.29 346.08 346.87 347.65 348.44 349.22 350.01
2 nd
4000 342.93 343.94 344.95 345.97 346.98 347.99 349 350.01 351.02 352.03
2nd 6000 342.66 345.94 349.21 352.48 355.76 359.03 362.31 365.58 368.86 372.13
12
Figure 7. Gearbox surface temperature distributions for lower gearing
sharply. It causes thermal failure of gears. So it can be concluded that without gear
failure lower gearing is suitable up to 4000 rpm operating speed of vehicle.
Table 5 shows the variation of temperature profile at different points on gearbox
surface under dynamic loading and gear oil lubrication conditions. At 2000 rpm
(147.78 Nm) for higher gearing the temperature varies (342.88-351.59) k. The
temperature variation is gradual preventing stress concentration on gearbox surface.
Figure 9(a) at 2000 rpm the gearbox surface temperature is uniformly varying (blue
hues). At right end of counter shaft supported on bearing shows stresses (red hues).
At 4000 rpm (220.99 Nm) the thermal stress concentration is seen on 3rd gear (red
hues). Other region of gearbox also shows thermal stress deformation shown by
yellow hues (Figure 9 (b)). At high rotational speed and high loading (6000 rpm,
239.97 Nm), the gearbox surface temperature increases up to 353.76 k. Figure 9
13
Figure 8. Temperature variations at different points of gearbox surface for lower

gearing with varying rpm
Table 5. Steady state thermal analysis of transmission gearbox for higher gearing
with varying rpm
Min Max
Higher
RPM Temperature Temperature Variation at Different Points (k) Temperature
Gearing
(k) (k)
3rd 2000 342.88 343.85 344.82 345.78 346.75 347.72 348.69 349.66 350.62 351.59
3rd
4000 342.89 343.98 345.07 346.16 347.25 348.34 349.44 350.53 351.62 352.71
3rd 6000 349.86 350.3 350.73 351.16 351.59 352.03 352.46 352.89 353.33 353.76
(c) shows uniform temperature variation without thermal stresses. At high rpm
(6000) and high gearing (3rd) the performance of heavy vehicle medium duty truck
is maximum showing no thermal stresses and failure conditions.
Figure 10 shows variation of gearbox surface temperature for higher gearing. The
temperature variation at low speed is gradual. At high speed 6000 rpm the heat flux
on gearbox surface is uniform showing no thermal stress deformation. So it can be
concluded that higher gearing at higher speed increases the performance of vehicle.
FEA SIMULATION STEADY STATE

THERMAL RESULT VALIDATION
FEA numerical simulation results were validated with experimental results available
in literature. At particular rotational speed the simulation result of lower and higher
gearing were plotted against experimental results. Experimental results were measured
14
Figure 9. Gearbox surface temperature distributions for higher gearing
at 13 different points and simulation results were taken at 10 different points on

gearbox surface. At 2000, 4000 and 6000 rpm the validation graph were plotted and
difference between simulation and experimental results were evaluated. H. long et
al. (2003) have performed the numerical and experimental analysis of gear tooth.
The rotational speed was varied (2000-10000) rpm with varying combined loading
conditions. At each loading condition the surface temperature of gear tooth was
measured. The load varies (80-650) Nm and average heat transfer coefficient varies
(100-500) w/m2k. The numerical results are in full agreement with experimental
results.
15
Figure 10. Temperature variations at different points of gearbox surface for higher
gearing with varying rpm
Figure 11 shows the validation of results at 2000 rpm. When vehicle was running
at 2000 rpm the simulation result of gearbox surface varies- for lower gearing
(342.94-350.01)k and higher gearing (342.88-351.59)k. The experimental results
varied (348.14-360.42)k. Simulation results lie within the range of experimental
results. The difference in minimum temperature is less than 2% and for maximum
temperature difference is (2-3) %. Overall difference between simulation and
experimental result is less than 3% showing good validation of results.
Figure 12 shows variation of simulation and experimental results at 4000 rpm. At
4000 rpm the gearbox surface temperature varies- for lower gearing (342.93-352.03)
k and higher gearing (342.89-352.71)k. The experimental results varied (348.2-
363.2)k. The difference in minimum temperatures at gearbox surface is 5.27k which
shows less than 1.6% difference in FEA and experimental results. For maximum
temperature at gearbox surface the difference is 11.17 k, shows 3% difference in
results. So the deviation in FEA simulation and experimental results is 3%.
Figure 13 shows variation of gearbox surface temperature at 6000 rpm. At high
speed and high loading the gearbox surface temperature varies- lower gearing
(342.66-372.13)k, higher gearing (349.86-353.76)k. The literature experimental
results vary (347.59-408.88) k. The difference in FEA and experimental results,
minimum temperature is less than 2% and difference in maximum temperature is
36.75 k less than 9%.
16
Figure 11. Gearbox surface temperature variations at 2000 rpm and comparison
with experimental results
Figure 12. Gearbox surface temperature variations at 4000 rpm and comparison
17
Figure 13 Gearbox surface temperature variations at 6000 rpm and comparison

FUTURE SCOPE
In future this research work can be extended to:
1. Experimental study of temperature measurement for high speed vehicle

operation.
2. In future this research work can be extended for higher speed (6000-10000)
rpm range with high loading conditions.
CONCLUSION
The chapter provides a reference at the initial stage of designing of transmission

gearbox. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has been used to evaluate the transient
structural and steady state results for 4-speed transmission gearbox. Numerical
simulation based dynamic structural and steady state thermal analysis concludes
following points:
18
1. The presented model of transmission gearbox used for heavy vehicle medium
duty truck is suitable to sustain the dynamic loading condition with minimum
level of deformation, stresses and strains (Table 2 & Table 3).
2. Transient structural analysis concludes that low speed with lower gearing and
higher speed with higher gearing reduces the chances of failure by eliminating
the thermal stresses and increase the vehicle performance, service life by
reducing wear-tear.
3. Steady state thermal analysis measured gearbox surface temperature at different
points (Table 4 & Table 5). The FEA simulation results are in good agreement
with experimental literature results.
The deviation in FEA results and experiment results is less than 9%. It may be
caused due to steady state assumption of gear oil lubrication or operating conditions.
The FEA simulation evaluates the stresses, deformation, strains and gearbox surface
temperature. This research work has theoretical and practical importance at the
preliminary design stage to find the dynamic behaviour of transmission gearbox.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Department of Science and Technology (DST) New
Delhi and research cell of Graphic Era University (GEU), Dehradun for necessary
funding of advanced modelling and simulation lab. This research work has been
carried out at advanced modelling and simulation lab, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, GEU, Dehradun.
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21
22
Chapter 2
Active Vibration Attenuation
of Smart Shell Structure
Instrumented With
Piezoelectric Layers
Anshul Sharma
ABSTRACT
The active control of vibration of piezoelectric flexible smart structure is an important
issue in engineering. Reducing vibration may improve the user’s comfort and safety.
This chapter presents a fuzzy logic approach for active control of vibration of a
smart composite laminated spherical shell. The spherical shell is in the form of a
layered composite shell having collocated piezoelectric sensor/actuator pair. The
vibratory response of the shell is modeled using finite element method. There are
five mechanical degrees of freedom per node and the potential difference across
the piezoelectric layer is introduced as an additional electrical degree of freedom
on an element level. The mode superposition method has been used to transform
the coupled finite element equations of motion in the physical coordinates into a set
of reduced uncoupled equations in the modal coordinates. The simulation results
illustrate that the superiority of designed nonconventional fuzzy logic controller
over conventional controllers.
INTRODUCTION
Numerous aerospace structures are fabricated as shell type structures because of its
different advantages including lighter weight, high strength, large size etc. These
shell structures are used mostly as thin structures in many industries like aerospace,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch002
Active Vibration Attenuation of Smart Shell Structure Instrumented With Piezoelectric Layers
automobile, communication. These thin shell structures have low structural damping
resulting in undesired structural vibrations of long decay time. The prolonged
vibrations in the structures may lead to fatigue and catastrophic failure. Hence, the
prolonged undesired structural make these flexible structures unsuitable for long
period of time during its operation. Moreover, the surface precision requirements of
these structures, in some cases, are very stringent. In many practical applications,
these structures are also exposed to harsh environmental conditions and even small
variation in temperature may set vibrations in these structures due to thermal loadings.
The conventional means of providing passive vibration suppression is infeasible in
demanding aerospace applications and space environments. Due to the practical
importance, the active vibration control is considered as the effective vibration
attenuation strategy in demanding environment and applications. The AVC method
attenuates the vibrations of structure/system through amendment in the dynamics
of the system and its structural response, instead counter the vibrations directly. It
involves a set of sensors (e.g. strain, acceleration, velocity, force etc.), a set of actuators
(e.g. force, inertial, strain) and a control algorithm (feedback or feedforward). For
AVC, the sensors and actuators are treated as integral part of flexible structure and
are operated by control algorithm and such structures are known as smart structure
Narayanan and Balamurugan (2001), Preumont (2011), Sharma et al. (2015).
Piezoelectric materials have been widely used as sensors/actuators for active
vibration control successfully Narayanan and Balamurugan (2003), Sharma et al.
(2007), Preumont (2011), Sharma et al. (2014), Sharma et al. (2015), Sharma et al.
(2016). In this chapter, the active vibration control of shell structure is carried out
numerically using nonlinear fuzzy logic controller instrumented with piezoelectric
materials. The finite element method (FEM) is employed to model the piezo-laminated
composite shell structure and to predict the static and dynamic response of structure.
The FEM formulation is based on first order shear deformation theory and linear
piezoelectric theory. Fuzzy logic based controller designed as double input-single
output (DISO) system using 49 If-Then rules and implemented numerically to
perform active vibration control.
FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION
Finite element method is most commonly used tool to analyze the piezo-laminated
composite structures Bathe (2006). Different research groups have used finite element
formulation for analyzing static and dynamic response of piezo-laminated structures
Wankhade (2013), Sharma et al. (2015), Sharma et al. (2016). In this section, finite
element formulation is presented which is used to predict the static and dynamic
response of piezo-laminated composite shell structure.
23
Figure 1. Four noded isoparametric degenerated shell element
The first order shear deformation theory (FSDT) and four noded isoparametric
degenerated shell element (illustrated in Figure 1) is used to model the piezo-
laminated structure. It is assumed that piezo-ceramic layers are perfectly bonded
above and below the structure and the effect of bonding material on the properties
of structure is neglected.
Piezoelectric Constitutive Equations
The linear piezoelectric constitutive equations demonstrate direct and converse

piezoelectric effect as Sharma et al. (2016).
{D } k
= d  {ε} + b  {E }
k k k k
(1)
Τ
{σ} k
= Q  {ε} − d  {E }
k k k k
(2)
where {D}, {ε}, {E}and {σ} are electrical displacement, strain vector, electric field
and stress vector respectively. [d], [b] and [Q] are piezoelectric coefficient, dielectric
constant and elastic stiffness coefficient matrix respectively. Pyroelectric effect and
thermal stress effects are ignored in the present analysis.
24
Geometry and Displacement Field
The coordinates of arbitrary point within the shell may be represented in context of
thickness and nodal coordinates as Sharma et al. (2016).
x  x   l 

  nnel  i   3i 
y  =  
  1  
  ∑ N i yi  + thi m 3i  (3)
  i =1   2  
z  z i   n 3i 
     
where xi, yi, zi are global coordinates of midsurface node i, t is thickness of shell
element, hi is the thickness of node i, Ni is the shape function, l3i, m3i, n3i are normal
unit vectors at node i and nnel is no. of nodes per element.
Taking into account the shell assumptions of degeneration process, the
displacement field is described using five mechanical degrees of freedom, i.e. three
displacements (ui, vi, wi) and two rotations (αi, βi). The displacement of any point
within the element can be given as
u  u 0  l −l2i   

  nnel  i  1  1i α 
v  =  0  m −m2i   i 
  ∑ i  v i  + thi
N  1i (4)
  i =1  0  2   β 
w  w i   n1i −n2i   i 
     
where l1i, m1i, n1i are the direction cosines of a tangent unit vector V1i and l2i, m2i,
n2i are the direction cosines of a tangent unit vector V2i. The rotations about V1i, V2i
are αi and βi.
Strain Displacement Relationship
The strain vector {ε} is defined by the first partial derivative of the displacement
Τ
vector u v w  by using a differential operator matrix as
 
25
 ∂u 
 
 ∂x 
 ∂v 
 εx   
   ∂y 
 εy   ∂w 
   
εz   ∂z
{ε} = γ  =  ∂u ∂v 
 (5)
 xy   + 
γ   ∂y ∂x 
 yz   ∂v ∂w 
γzx   + 
   ∂z ∂y 

 ∂w ∂u 
 + 
 ∂x ∂z 
4  
∂u ∂N i
= ∑ u o i − αil2i g xi + βil1i g xi  (6)
∂x i =1 
 ∂x 
4  
∂v ∂N i
= ∑ v o i − αi m2i gyi + βi m1i gyi  (7)
∂y i =1 
 ∂y 
4  
∂w ∂N i
= ∑ w o i − αi n2i g zi + βi n1i g zi  (8)
∂z i =1 
 ∂z 
4   4  
∂u ∂v ∂N i ∂N i
+ = ∑ u o i − αil2i gyi + βil1i gyi  + ∑ v o i − αi m2i g xi + βi m1i g xi 
∂y ∂x i =1 
 ∂y  i =1  ∂x 
(9)
26
4   4  
∂v ∂w ∂N i ∂N i
+ = ∑ v o i − αi m2i g zi + βi m1i gzi  + ∑ w o i − αi n2i gyi + βi n1i gyi 
∂z ∂y i =1 
 ∂z  i =1  ∂y 
(10)
4   4  
∂w ∂u ∂N i ∂N i
+ = ∑ w o i − αi n2i g xi + βi n1i g xi  + ∑ u o i − αil2i g zi + βil1i g zi 
∂x ∂z i =1 
 ∂x  i =1  ∂z 
(11)
Substituting equations (6 - 11) in equation (5)
{ε} = B  {q ′}

e e
(12)
Electric Field
In the present study, it is assumed that the electric field acts in the thickness direction
of piezoelectric layer and also the electric effect is constant within a layer of the
element. Within an element, electric field inside kth layer can be given mathematically
as Sharma et al. (2016).
{E }k = −{Bφ }e φpk (13)
 l 
 3
1  
{ }
Bφ =
e
m 
t pk  3 
(14)
 n 3 
 
where ϕpk, and tpk are electric potential and thickness of the kth piezoelectric layer
respectively.
27
Strain Energy
The strain energy stored in the shell can be represented as
1 nl Τ
V = ∑ ∫
2 k =1 V
{ε} {σ } dV
k
(15)
On substituting the strain and stress equations, we will finally get
1 Τ  Τ 
V = {q }e kuu e {q }e + {q }e kuφ e {φ}e  (16)
2  
where
nl
Τ Τ
k  = ∑ T  B  Q  B  T  dV
 uu e k =1
∫  θ e  e   k  e  θ e (17)
V
k  =
 uφ e
 
 T  Τ B  Τ e  Τ {B } dV T  B  e  {B } dV
Τ Τ Τ
T  B  e  {B } dV 
Τ Τ Τ
 ∫  θ e  e   p1 φ e ∫  θ e  e   p2 φ e ... ∫  θ e  e   pnpl φ e 
 V V V 
(18)
 φ 
 p1 
 φ 
{φ} =  2 
p
(19)
e  
 
φpnpl 
 
[Tθ] is the rotational transformation matrix for the four nodes element, [Q] is
material matrix, [B] is strain-displacement matrix.
28
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy stored in an element is obtained by summing the energy stored

for each piezoelectric layer as Sharma et al. (2016).
1 npl Τ
We = ∑
2 k =1 ∫
{E }e
{D }pk dV (20)
V
On substituting the electric field {E} and electric displacement {D}, we will get
1 Τ 1 Τ
We = −
2
{φ} kφu  {q } + {φ} kφφ  {φ}
e  e e 2 e  e e
(21)
Τ
where kφu  = kuφ 
 e  e
 
 ∫ {Bφ } b  p {Bφ } dV
Τ

V e 1 e 
 
 
∫ {B } b  {B } dV
Τ
 φ e   p2 φ e 
 

V
k  =  
 φφ e  
 
 
 
 

∫ {B } {Bφ }e dV 
Τ
b 
 φ e   pnpl
 V 
(22)
Kinetic Energy
Element kinetic energy can be written as Sharma et al. (2016).
1 nl Τ
Te = ∑ ∫ ρk {u } {u } dV (23)
2 k =1 V
where, ρk = Density of kth layer.
29
1 Τ
Te =
2
{q } muu  {q }
e e e
(24)
where the element mass matrix muu  is given as

e
nl
Τ Τ
m  = ∑ ρ T  N  N  T  dV
 uu e
k =1
∫ k  θ e  u e  u e  θ e (25)
V
Work Done by the External Forces and Electrical Charge
External forces cause deformation in the structure, and hence work is done by
external forces. Similarly, the applied electric charge in the presence of electric
field in the piezoelectric layer does work. Therefore, total work externally done on
the element is given by
∫ {u } {f } ds + {u } {f } − ∫ {E } {f } ds
Τ Τ Τ
Ws = s e p q e
(26)
e e e
s1 s2
where s1 = the surface area on which external force is acting
s2 = surface area of piezoelectric layer
{f } = surface force intensity

s e
{f } = point load
p e
{f } = surface electrical charge density

q e
T  N  {f } ds + {q } T  N  { f } + {φ} {B } { f } ds
Τ Τ Τ Τ Τ Τ Τ Τ
Ws = ∫ {q } e  θ e  u e s e e  θ  e  u  e p e ∫ e φe qe
s1 s2
(27)
30
Equation can be rewritten in condensed form as
{F }
Τ Τ
W s = {q } {F }m e
+ {φ} q e
(28)
e e
where, {Fm } and {Fq } are known as applied mechanical force and applied electrical
e e
charge vectors for an element.
N  {f } ds + T  Τ N  Τ { f }
Τ Τ
{F }
m e
= ∫ T θ e  u e s e  θ e  u  p e
(29)
s1
∫ {B } {f } ds
Τ
{F }
q e
= φ e q e
(30)
s2
Coupled Equations of Motion
The global governing coupled equation of motion derived using Hamilton’s principle
for an element can be represented as Sharma et al. (2016).
[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + [K uu ] {q } + [K uφ ] {φ} = {Fm } (31)
[K φu ] {q } − [K φφ ] {φ} = {Fq } (32)
where [Muu] is the global mass matrix, [Cuu] is the global damping stiffness matrix,
[Kuu] is the global elastic stiffness matrix, [Kuϕ] is the global elastic-electric coupling
stiffness matrix and [Kϕϕ] is the global electric stiffness matrix. {Fm} and {Fq} are
applied mechanical force and applied electrical charge respectively. {q} is a global
nodal displacement vector and {ϕ} is global voltage vector.
As we are considering the smart structure, the top layer of structure is acting as
a sensor while the bottom layer of structure is acting as an actuator. Equations (31)
and (32) can be rewritten in terms of sensor voltage and actuator voltage as
[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + [K uφ ] {φs } = {Fm } − [K uφ ] {φa } (33)

s a
31
[K φ u ] {q } − [K φ φ ] {φs } = Fq
s s { }
s
(34)
From equation (34), we can calculate sensor voltage, where the external applied
charge is zero, as
{φs } = [K s φ φ
]−1[K φ u ] {q }
s
(35)
Using {φs } in equation (33)
[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + ([K uu ] + [K uφ ][K φ φ ]−1[K φ u ]) {q } = {Fm } − [K uφ ] {φa }

s s s a
(36)
Equation (36) can be written in condensed form as
[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + [K ] {q } = {Fm } − {FA } (37)
[K ] = [K uu ] + [K uφ ][K φ φ ]−1[K φ u ] (38)

s s s
{F } = K  {φ }
A uφa a
(39)
where {FA} is an active force generated by piezoelectric actuators.
Controller Design
In engineering applications, fuzzy logic controller may be implemented to control

complex loops effectively because it simulates human decisions during the whole
process. Moreover, no mathematical model is essential for the process. This section
designs nonconventional fuzzy logic controller to attenuate the structural vibrations
instrumented with piezoelectric actuators. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of a
smart shell structure in a close loop with a nonconventional controller. In general,
fuzzification, fuzzy rule base, fuzzy interference engine and defuzzification are four
basic elements used in fuzzy logic controller.
32
Figure 2. Block diagram of a piezolaminated space antenna reflector in a close

loop with fuzzy logic controller
The fuzzification step performs the interpretation interface of input and output
variables. In the present study, voltage signal obtained from a piezoelectric sensor
patch and its rate changes are considered as input variables while the output variable
is actuator voltage. The present fuzzy logic controller uses seven membership
functions for fuzzy input and output variables. Input and output variables have been
classified into seven groups: Negative large (N++), Negative medium (N+), Negative
small (N), Zero (ZE), Positive small (P), Positive medium (P+), positive large (P++).
For fuzzification process, the combination of trapezoidal and triangular functions
have been used to fuzzify input and output variables Kioua & Mirza (2000).
The fuzzy relation between input and output variables is presented by fuzzy
rules. Fuzzy control rules are an important factor which influences the fuzzy control
effect. The fuzzy rules of fuzzy logic controller are generally in the If-Then form
which link the input and output variables. One of the fuzzy If-Then rules is defined
as: If φs is P++ and φs is N, then φa is Nwhere φs represents sensor voltage (input
variable), φ is the rate change of the sensor voltage (input variable), φ indicates
s a
actuator voltage (output variable) of fuzzy logic system respectively. In order to
implement the present controller, 49 rules have been designed and listed in Table
1.
During defuzzification step, the result of fuzzy interference is transformed into
a crisp value corresponding to the designed rules. The aggregate of a fuzzy set
involves a range of output values and need to be defuzzified to determine a single
33
Table 1. Fuzzy if-then rules
φs
N++ N+ N Z P P+ P++
φs
N++ P++ P++ P++ P++ P+ N N
N+ P++ P++ P+ P++ P Z N
N P ++
P+
P+
P+
Z N +
N+
Z P++ P+ Z Z Z N+ N++
P P +
P+
Z N +
N +
N +
N++
P+ N Z N N++ N N++ N++
P++
N N N +
N ++
N +
N ++
N++
output value. In present study, centroid method has been used for the defuzzification
stage. The algebraic expression for centroid method can be represented as
∑w y i i
φa (t ) = i =1
m
(40)
∑w i
i =1
where φa (t) is the output of the fuzzy logic system, k is the time step, yi ∈ R is any
point at which μ( φa i) achieves its maximum value i.e. μ( φa i) = 1; wi =min(μ( φs ),
μ( φ )), μ is the membership value (fuzzy value) associated with input and output
s
variables and m is the number of fuzzy rules of every inference. The details of the
designed fuzzy logic controller can be followed in reference Sharma et al. (2015).
VALIDATION AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION
In this section, the finite element formulation presented in previous sections and the
computer program developed to implement the formulation has been validated by
comparing the results of present formulation with the results reported in literature.
The finite element procedure is implemented in MATLAB platform, to predict
the static and dynamic characteristics of the structures. After verifying the results
of present computer code with benchmark problems, the new results have been
confronted in this section.
34
Validation of Static Analysis
The cantilever composite plate bonded with distributed piezoelectric ceramics of

different sizes is used as test case to verify the static deflection under the application
of electric voltage to the piezoelectric patches. The piezoelectric patches are bonded
in collocated manner. The plate is constructed using graphite/epoxy having length (L)
of 292 mm, width (b) of 152 mm and thickness of 0.83 mm. The plate is laminated
with piezoelectric patches having thickness of 0.25 mm in a sequence of [0/±45]
s
. The material properties of graphite epoxy and piezoelectric ceramic are used as
reported by Balamurugan and Narayanan (2003) and the geometric properties of
piezolaminated plate are illustrated in Figure 3. A constant voltage of 157.6 V with
opposite polarity has been applied to the actuators bonded on both sides of plate.
The comparison of present formulation, with that of Crawley and Lazarus (1987),
Ha et al. (1992) and Balamurugan and Narayanan (2003) is depicted in Figure 4 in
context of longitudinal bending.
Validation of Dynamic Analysis
The non-dimensional natural frequencies obtained from the present formulation

for laminated spherical shell structure are compared with the results reported by
Reddy (1984). The normalized non-dimensional natural frequencies for spherical
structure and comparison with reference results are listed in Table 2. For the spherical
Figure 3. Cantilever composite plate with distributed piezoelectric patches
35
Figure 4: Longitudinal bending of composite graphite/epoxy plate [0/±45]s with

distributed piezoelectric actuators
ωa 2 ρ
Table 2. Nondimensionalized fundamental frequency (in Hz), ω = of
spherical shell t E2
[0/90/90/0] [0/90/0]
a/t=10 a/t=100 a/t=10 a/t=100
Reddy Reddy Reddy Reddy

R/a Present Present Present Present
[14] [14] [14] [14]
1 16.17 15.95 126.33 128.12 16.11 15.99 125.99 127.41
3 12.79 12.98 47.41 48.02 12.73 13.16 47.26 48.02
5 12.43 12.62 31.07 31.78 12.37 12.63 30.99 31.25
10 12.28 12.44 20.38 20.53 12.21 12.33 20.34 20.89
structure, the footprint is circle of radius a. The material and geometric properties
are kept same as reported in reference. The symbols R and t represents the mean
radius and thickness of the shell. The results are obtained for both the symmetric
[0/90/90/0] and antisymmetric [0/90/0] stacking sequence. The results are compared
for different radius to side length (R / a) of spherical shell structure.
36
Validation of Piezo-Laminated Structures
A shallow spherical shell of graphite epoxy composite sandwiched between

piezoelectric layers of PZT G1195 is considered as test case subjected to constant
voltage of 100 V across the thickness of piezoelectric layers. The shell is having a
stacking sequence of [0/90/0]s. The static central deflection is studied by varying the
radius of curvatures and compared the results of present formulation with the results
of Kioua and Mirza (2000). The geometric and material properties are kept same
as reported by Kioua and Mirza (2000). The spherical shell of arc length (a) 0.254
m, total thickness (t) 0.138 mm and variable radius of curvature is considered. The
thickness of each piezoelectric layer is 0.245 mm. The present FEM results show
very good agreement for central deflection of simply supported composite spherical
shell with the results reported by Kioua and Mirza (2000) as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Center deflection of a simply supported composite spherical shell with

varying radius of curvature
37
NUMERICAL APPLICATION
Spherical shells are used as structural components in various industries and are
fabricated in the form of doubly curved structures. In the aerospace and automobile
industries, curved lightweight shells are the major components of the body structure
due to its high load carrying capacity. Some of the important applications of spherical
shell structures are in artillery rocket nose cone, fuselages, thermal shielding of
space vehicles, heat exchanger tubes, reactor vessels, heat-engine components etc.
A doubly curved shell panel of composite material laminated with piezoelectric
sensor/actuator layers in a closed loop is shown in Figure 6. The top piezoelectric
layer behaves as piezoelectric sensor whereas the bottom piezoelectric layer behaves
as piezoelectric actuator. The composite spherical shell panel is used as host structure
which is sandwiched between two piezoelectric layers. The host structure consists
of three laminates of composite material having stacking sequence as [ps/0/90/0/
pa]. The ps and pa represents the piezoelectric sensor and actuator layer respectively.
Each laminate of host structure is of composite material graphite/epoxy whereas
the piezoelectric sensor and actuator layer are of PZT-5H.
The material properties of both host structure and piezoelectric material are listed
in Table 3. Both length (a) and width (b) of the spherical panel are 0.4 m, the radius
of curvatures, Rx and Ry are 4a i.e. 1.6 m and the length-to-width ratio (a/b) is unity.
The thickness of each laminate (tl) is considered as 0.5 mm and the thickness of
each piezoelectric layer (tp) is 0.5 mm. The total thickness (t) of the piezolaminated
Figure 6. Composite spherical shell panel with surface bonded piezoelectric sensor/
actuator pair in a closed loop
38
Table 3. Material properties of piezoelectric material (PZT-5H) and composite host

structure (Graphite/Epoxy)
Properties Piezoelectric Material Host Structure
Elastic Moduli (GPa)
E1 63.0 150.0
E2 63.0 9.0
Shear Moduli (GPa)
G12 24.2 7.1
G23 24.2 2.5
G13 24.2 7.1
υ 0.3 0.3
Piezoelectric Charge Constant (10-12 m/V)
d31 254.0 -----
d32 254.0 -----
Density (kg/m3)
ρ 7600 1600
Dielectric Constant (10-9 f/m)
b11 15.3 -----
b22 15.3 -----
b33 15.0 -----
Thermal Expansion (10 m/m C)

-6 o
α1 0.9 1.1
α2 0.9 25.2
Reference Temperature ( C)
o
20.0 20.0
Source: Sharma et al. (2015)
composite spherical shell structure is 2.5 mm. The composite spherical shell is
modeled with degenerated shell element using 8 × 8 elements along length and
width direction respectively. To investigate the vibration control of spherical shells,
collocated sensors and actuators are assumed to be coupled into sensor/actuator (s/a)
pairs through closed control loops. First of all, static analysis is performed to get the
displacement at each node of the structure subjected to different loads. Then, nodal
displacements (obtain by static analysis at all the free nodes) are used as input to
perform dynamic analysis.
The piezolaminated composite spherical shell panel is subjected to uniformly
distributed load (UDL) applied on the upper surface of the host structure in transverse
direction. The simply supported boundary conditions are generated numerically.
The boundary conditions at the edges of overall shell considered for performing the
numerical simulation are Nanda (2010)
Simply supported edge (SS):
39
u = w = θx = 0, v = θy ≠ 0 at x = 0 and x = a
v = w = θy = 0, u = θx ≠ 0 at y = 0 and y = b
The static deflection of the centerline of simply supported piezo-laminated

composite spherical shell panel along the length subjected to uniformly distributed
load of 2000 N/m2 on the top surface of the structure in transverse direction is shown
in Figure 7. After performing the static analysis, the dynamic analysis is carried
out numerically. The frequencies and mode shapes are predicted using the finite
element formulation. Figure 8 illustrates the first four mode shapes of the simply
supported piezo-laminated composite spherical shell panel. Then, the effect of the
ratio of radius of curvature (Rx) to arc length (a) on fundamental natural frequencies
of piezo-laminated composite spherical shell panel is investigated. The first five
natural frequencies of simply supported spherical shell panel sandwiched between
piezoelectric sensor and actuator layer are tabularized in Table 4. The variation of
frequencies of spherical shell structure with the ratio of radius of curvature to arc
length (Rx/a) is presented in Figure 9. The decrease in the natural frequencies is
Figure 7. Static deflection of the centerline of simply supported piezo-laminated

composite spherical shell panel subjected to uniformly distributed load
40
Figure 8. Mode shapes of the simply supported piezolaminated composite spherical

shell structure; (a) first mode, (b) second mode, (c) third mode and (d) fourth mode
Table 4. Effect of curvature on frequencies (in Hz) of piezo-laminated composite

spherical shell panel with simply supported boundary conditions
Rx
ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5
a
1 2044.8 2300.6 2403.8 3008.9 3039.3
3 851.5 1292.4 1358.1 1874.6 2227.6
5 660.6 1147.1 1242.3 1762.6 2133.6
10 555.9 1073.9 1184.6 1673.1 2086.6
20 523.5 1051.3 1166.5 1651.8 2071.2
50 512.1 1042.6 1159.3 1643.3 2064.7
100 509.7 1040.6 1157.5 1641.1 2063
41
Figure 9. Variation of frequency of spherical shell structure with the ratio of radius
of curvature to length (Rx/a)
observed with the increase in structures curvature as it is tending toward the flat
structure resulting in reduction in stiffness. It is observed that the variation of the
frequencies of the cylindrical shell panel is significant up to the value of Rx/a = 15.
The nodal displacements predicted by static analysis are used as the initial
condition to carry out dynamic analysis. The dynamic response of the piezolaminated
composite spherical shell structure is being presented for open loop and close loop
under the application of UDL. The open loop response corresponds to structural
damping only which is assumed to be 0.5% whereas, the close loop response includes
the control force applied by piezoelectric actuator in addition to structural damping.
The fuzzy logic based controller has been implemented to provide the control force.
Only first vibration mode and first four cumulative vibration modes are targeted
for active vibration control of simply supported spherical shell structure. The load
is applied for 6.8 × 10-5 sec for first vibration mode while 2.5 × 10-5 sec for first
four vibration modes and suddenly released to set free vibrations in the structure.
In order to compute the performance of the fuzzy logic controller for controlling
the free vibrations of the simply supported piezolaminated composite spherical shell
panel, a performance index is defined as follows:
42
a b h  a b h 
w  , , , 0 − w  , , , 0.005
 2 2 2  2 2 2 
PI = × 100 (41)
a b h 

w  , , , 0
 2 2 2 
In Equation (41), PI measures the percentage reduction of the vibration amplitude

a b h 
at point  , ,  of the controlled spherical shell structure after 0.005 s from the
 2 2 2 
initial time which is disturbed by the external load.
Figures 10 and 13 present the open loop and close loop transient response of
simply supported piezo-laminated composite spherical shell panel for first vibration
Figure 10. Uncontrolled and controlled response of simply supported spherical

shell structure for first vibration mode using fuzzy logic controller subjected to
uniformly distributed load
43
Figure 11. Phase plot corresponding to first mode controlled actively using nonlinear
fuzzy logic controller
Figure 12. Control voltage provided by nonlinear fuzzy logic controller to piezoelectric
actuator to suppress first vibration mode subjected to UDL
44
Figure 13. Open loop and close loop transient response of simply supported spherical
shell structure comprising first four vibration modes using nonlinear fuzzy logic
controller disturbed by uniformly distributed load
mode and first four vibration modes respectively under the application of 2000 N/
m2 UDL.
The performance index (PI) for first vibration mode and first four vibration
modes is 92.18% and 98.3% respectively. Figures 11 and 14 depict the phase plot
of the composite spherical shell structure after applying nonlinear fuzzy logic
controller for first vibration mode and first four vibration modes respectively. The
control voltage required by piezoelectric actuator layer from fuzzy logic controller
to damp the corresponding structural vibrations for first vibration mode and first
four vibration modes is shown in Figures 12 and 15 respectively. For first vibration
mode, the peak voltage applied to actuator is 46.84 V while for first four vibration
modes, the peak voltage provide is 45.14 V.
45
Figure 14. Phase plot conforming first four modes controlled using nonlinear fuzzy
logic controller
Figure 15. Time history response of the control voltage provided by nonlinear fuzzy
logic controller to piezoelectric actuator
46
FUTURE SCOPE
The objective of the present chapter is to control the vibration of shell structures
using fuzzy logic controller. However, the present work may be extended in multi
directions. Some recommendations for future work are listed below:
• Response of the smart shell structures is extremely sensitive to material

properties of the host structure and piezoelectric layers. Therefore, in addition
to the effect of temperature on piezoelectric properties, the temperature
dependent material properties should be considered.
• The shell structures of general shape having variable curvature and thickness
having different boundary conditions should be investigated.
• The optimum vibration control should be performed experimentally by
bonding the piezoelectric patches at optimized location.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, the vibration control of smart shell structure is presented using non-
conventional fuzzy logic controller. The finite element method (FEM) is employed
to model the piezo-laminated composite shell structure and to predict the static and
dynamic response of structure. The FEM formulation is based on first order shear
deformation theory and linear piezoelectric theory. Fuzzy logic based controller
designed as double input-single output (DISO) system using 49 If-Then rules and
implemented numerically to perform active vibration control. The results are presented
in context of vibration attenuation in time domain, stability of the controller and the
actuator voltage provided to the piezoelectric actuator.
REFERENCES
Balamurugan, V., & Narayanan, S. (2001). Shell finite element for smart piezoelectric
composite plate/shell structures and its application to the study of active vibration
control. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 37(9), 713–738. doi:10.1016/
S0168-874X(00)00070-6
Bathe, K. J. (2006). Finite element procedures. Pearson.
Crawley, E. F., & De Luis, J. (1987). Use of piezoelectric actuators as elements of
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47
Ha, S. K., Keilers, C., & Chang, F. K. (1992). Finite element analysis of composite
structures containing distributed piezoceramic sensors and actuators. AIAA Journal,
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Kioua, H., & Mirza, S. (2000). Piezoelectric induced bending and twisting of
laminated composite shallow shells. Smart Materials and Structures, 9(4), 476–484.
doi:10.1088/0964-1726/9/4/310
Nanda, N. (2010). Non-linear free and forced vibrations of piezoelectric laminated
shells in thermal environments. The IES Journal Part A: Civil & Structural
Engineering, 3, 147–160.
Narayanan, S., & Balamurugan, V. (2003). Finite element modelling of piezo-
laminated smart structures for active vibration control with distributed sensors and
actuators. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 262(3), 529–562. doi:10.1016/S0022-
460X(03)00110-X
Preumont, A. (2011). Vibration control of active structures: An Introduction. Springer
Science & Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2033-6
Reddy, J. N. (1984). Exact solutions of moderately thick laminated shells.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 110(5), 794–809. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-
9399(1984)110:5(794)
Sharma, A., Kumar, A., Susheel, C. K., & Kumar, R. (2016). Smart damping of
functionally graded nanotube reinforced composite rectangular plates. Composite
Structures, 155, 29–44. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2016.07.079
Sharma, A., Kumar, R., Vaish, R., & Chauhan, V. S. (2014). Lead-free piezoelectric
materials performance in structural active vibration control. Journal of Intelligent
Material Systems and Structures, 25(13), 1596–1604. doi:10.1177/1045389X13510222
Sharma, A., Kumar, R., Vaish, R., & Chauhan, V. S. (2015). Active vibration control
of space antenna reflector over wide temperature range. Composite Structures, 128,
291–304. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.03.062
291–304. doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.03.062
Sharma, A., Kumar, R., Vaish, R., & Chauhan, V. S. (2016). Experimental and
numerical investigation of active vibration control over wide range of operating
temperature. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 27(13),
1846–1860. doi:10.1177/1045389X15615968
48
Sharma, M., Singh, S. P., & Sachdeva, B. L. (2007). Modal control of a plate
using a fuzzy logic controller. Smart Materials and Structures, 16(4), 1331–1341.
doi:10.1088/0964-1726/16/4/047
Wankhade, R. L., & Bajoria, K. M. (2013). Free vibration and stability analysis
of piezo-laminated plates using the finite element method. Smart Materials and
Structures, 22(12), 125040. doi:10.1088/0964-1726/22/12/125040
49
50
Chapter 3
Design and Simulation of
Electro-Mechanical Mass
Flow Sensor (EMMFS):
Evaluation of Resonant Frequency
Using Different Configuration
of Resonating Tube
Pravin P. Patil
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this chapter is FEA simulation of resonating tube with different
size and material configuration for evaluation of resonant frequency. Resonating
tube is an important component of Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS)
used for measuring direct mass flow. Omega and U-shaped resonating tube type
EMMFS have been investigated for 200mm, 300 mm and 400mm height with three
different materials Copper, Aluminium and Mild Steel. EMMFS analysis is highly
nonlinear study having fluid structure interaction. To simplify the solution large
deformations in resonating tube countered to be absent. Sensing points are located
symmetrically at limbs of resonating tube to sense the phase shift for measuring
mass flow rate. FEA simulation of EMMFS has been done using Ansys. Solid Edge
and Pro-E has been used for modeling of omega and U-shaped resonating tube.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch003
Design and Simulation of Electro-Mechanical Mass Flow Sensor (EMMFS)
INTRODUCTION
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is advanced numerical simulation technique applied

in all engineering fields. Now days it has vast application subjected to highly
nonlinear analysis in different engineering problems (Sharma 2010, Patil 2012). In
this chapter, fluid carrying tube with omega shape has been analysed. Tube vibrates
at its fundamental frequency. Flowing fluid inside tube apply forces on tube walls
due to this mode shape changes (Cheesewright, 2003). Advanced coriolis mass
flow sensors are independent of viscosity and density of flowing fluids. During
flow inside tube generated velocity profile and obtained Reynolds number of the
flow does not affect the flow meter as compared to others conventional flow meters
based on volume measurements (Anklin, 2006). Coriolis flow meter is also used
for measuring fluid density by measuring change in natural frequency (Bobovnik,
2005). Many Authors have numerically investigated working method of Coriolis
flow meters. In coriolis flow meters there are no moving parts only fluid carrying
flow tube vibrates with small amplitude (Mole 2008, Wang 2014, Saravanan 2015
and Rongmo 2013).
Mass flow study is highly nonlinear problem. To simplify the solution, it is
assumed that large deformations in fluid tube are absent. Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) is an advanced technique used for complex geometry analysis. Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) based model was developed for copper type CMFS (Patil
2014). The developed model has been found in agreement with experimental setup
model. Modelling of CMFS using Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
has been studied (Patil 2014) to check the influence of material. The input parameters
are tube material, drive frequency, sensor location and height of tube. Using various
parameters performance of mass flow sensor has been predicted. Material influence
is an important criterion to check the structural rigidity and performance. Material
based free vibration analysis was performed for transmission system using FEA
(Kumar, 2015). Author has used Fuzzy interference system tools for comparison
of texture and CMFS study. Coriolis effect and new straight coriolis flow meter has
been investigated by researcher (Ying, 2008) for further development.
RESONATING TUBE CONFIGURATIONS
In general omega and U shaped resonating tubes are used in EMMFS. It is observed
from previous studies that Omega tube produces more accurate and reliable results
in comparison to U shaped tube. Geometric properties of resonating tube are its
tube height, internal diameter and external diameter. Solid Edge, Pro-E was used
for modelling of omega and U shaped tube. The tube material is taken as Copper,
51
Aluminium and Mild Steel. Figure 1 shows photographic view of experimental test
rig. In this test rig resonating tube is detachable. It can be changed as per experiment
needs. Different components of experimental setup is (1) Hydraulic bench, (2)
Electromagnetic flow meter, (3) Vibration Control unit, (4) Vibration driver, (5)
Resonating tube, (6) Test Bench, (7) Laser sensors, (8) Sensor holding stand, (9)
Foundation, (10) Data Acquisition box, (11) Inlet pipe, (12) Outlet pipe and (13)
Sensor location.
Lab fabricated different shape and size resonating tubes are shown in Figure 2.
These tubes were used for experimental study. Table 1 and 2 shows the notations
for omega and u shaped resonating tube configurations.
DESIGN PARAMETERS AND RANGE
Simulation and experimental investigation of EMMFS is required for direct mass flow
measurement. FEA simulation is first step in EMMFS study. Using modal analysis,
resonant frequency was calculated. This resonant frequency was applied on tube for
excitation. Second step belongs to experimental study of different parameters using
resonant frequency. Table 3 shows different parameters used in modal analysis and
experimental study.
Figure 1. Photographic view of the experimental test rig
52
Figure 2. Lab fabricated omega and U shaped resonating tube of all materials
Table 1. Notations for omega resonating tube configurations
Omega tubes Tube Materials

Height (L) mm Width (D) mm Copper Aluminium Mild Steel
300 OC-23 OA-23 OM-23
200 400 OC-24 OA-24 OM-24
500 OC-25 OA-25 OM-25
300 OC-33 OA-33 OM-33
300 400 OC-34 OA-34 OM-34
500 OC-35 OA-35 OM-35
300 OC-43 OA-43 OM-43
400 400 OC-44 OA-44 OM-44
500 OC-45 OA-45 OM-45
Table 2. Notations for U shaped resonating tube configurations
U tubes Tube Materials

300 UC-23 UA-23 UM-23
200 400 UC-24 UA-24 UM-24
500 UC-25 UA-25 UM-25
300 UC-33 UA-33 UM-33
300 400 UC-34 UA-34 UM-34
500 UC-35 UA-35 UM-35
300 UC-43 UA-43 UM-43
400 400 UC-44 UA-44 UM-44
500 UC-45 UA-45 UM-45
53
Table 3. Selected design parameters and their range
Design Parameters Range Unit

Independent Parameters
Shape of Tube Omega type, U type
Cu (E =110 GPa, ρ = 8950 kg/m3
µ =0.34)
Al (E = 70 GPa,, ρ = 2700 kg/m3
Tube Material
µ =0.33)
MS (E = 210 GPa, ρ = 7850 kg/m3
µ =0.3)
Height of tube L = 200,300,400 mm
Width of tube D = 300,400,500 mm
Inclination angle α= 40-80 0
Deg.
Mass Flow rate 0.1 – 0.3 Kg/s
Sensor Location (SL) 60-120 mm
Drive Frequency (DF) 10-100 Hz
Constant Parameter
Surrounding Temperature of tube Room Temperature (300) Deg.
Pressure inside tube < 100 bar
Pressure drop across tube <1 bar
Outer diameter of tube D0 = 12 mm
Inner diameter of tube Di = 10.9 mm
Number of Samples 25000
Fluid Water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3)
Dependent Parameter
Phase shift
----- Deg.
(Coriolis effect)
MODELLING AND FEA BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Omega type EMMFS is shown in Figure 3. Omega tube was modeled using hollow
pipe bend at specific angle. FEA meshed model of omega Copper tube consists of
6497 nodes and 1080 elements. FEA analysis and meshing was performed using
Ansys.
The operating simulation conditions are finalized and implemented on various
tube configurations with different materials. Figure 4 shows the geometry and mesh
model of U shaped resonating tube. Geometry of U tube is prepared using hollow
tubes with specific dimensions.
54
Figure 3. Developed omega type EMMFS model for modal analysis: a) omega tube
for modal analysis; b) green hues shows working fluid inside tube; c) solid part of
tube configuration; d) mesh model for modal analysis.
FEA SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A modal analysis shows the vibration response of Omega and U shaped tube. In
this research article Modal analysis serve as starting point for detailed dynamic
analysis of EMMFS. Table 4&5 shows the frequency variation for omega and U tube
electromechanical mass flow sensor. First natural frequency is known as fundamental
frequency. A tube resonates when it is subjected to excitation at resonance frequency.
The first six-mode shape of vibration under excitation condition is shown in Figure
5 and 6.
55
Figure 4. Developed U type EMMFS Model for modal analysis: a) model of U

shaped resonating tube; b) Solid part of Tube; c) Mesh model for modal analysis ;
d) Green color shows working fluid inside tube
In Coriolis metering the tube is to be vibrated in its first mode of vibration.

Using mode shape, it provides estimation for the experimentation phase to expect
Coriolis action generation around the evaluated frequency. Phase shift between two
arms of omega tube is measured using displacement sensors and this phase shift is
proportional to mass flow rate.
56
Table 4. Natural frequencies for omega tube configurations
Omega tubes Tube Materials

300 57.671 69.17 84.395
200 400 38.539 46.213 56.555
500 28.423 34.08 41.743
300 33.835 40.574 49.436
300 400 24.283 29.115 35.587
500 18.744 22.473 27.507
300 22.245 26.672 32.471
400 400 16.756 20.094 24.527
500 13.358 16.019 19.581
Table 5. Natural frequencies for u tube configurations
U tubes Tube Materials

300 106.57 127.78 154.9
200 400 86.945 104.24 126.46
500 70.459 84.465 102.57
300 52.689 63.165 76.564
300 400 46.101 55.267 66.987
500 40.659 48.737 59.103
300 31.343 37.574 45.539
400 400 28.137 33.73 40.884
500 25.538 30.611 37.112
57
Figure 5. Various mode shapes of omega type EMMFS modal analysis: a) first
mode shapte; b) second mode shape; c) third mode shape; d) fourth mode shape
58
Figure 6. Various mode shapes of U type EMMFS modal analysis: a) first mode
shapte; b) second mode shape; c) third mode shape; d) fourth mode shape
FUTURE SCOPE
In future present work can be extended for:
1. Variation of Phase Shift with mass flow rate.

2. Variation of Sensor locations.
CONCLUSION
FEA simulation of EMMFS was performed for different configuration of resonating

tube for evaluation of resonant frequency. The main objective of this research
work has been achieved by calculating resonant frequency in all cases. Obtained
fundamental frequency will be used for excitation in experimental study. Resonant
59
frequencies for omega tube are 57.671 Hz (Copper), 69.17 Hz (Al) and 84.395 Hz
(mild Steel) when height of tube is 200mm and 300 mm width. At same boundary
conditions the resonant frequency for 400 mm height and 500 mm width U shaped
tube are 25.53 Hz (copper), 30.61 Hz (Al), and 37.11 Hz (Mild Steel). In future,
this research work can be extended for experimental analysis of different parameters
related to EMMFS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are thankful to Department of Science and Technology (DST, New Delhi)
for necessary funding of this project.
REFERENCES
Anklin, M., Drahm, W., & Rieder, A. (2006). Coriolis mass flow meters: Overview of
the current state of the art and latest research. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation,
17(6), 317–323. doi:10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2006.07.004
Ansys R 14.5. (2015). Structural Analysis guide 2015. Academic Press.
Avci, E. (2008). Comparison of wavelet families for texture classification by using
wavelet packet entropy adaptive network based fuzzy inference system. Applied Soft
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Bobovnik, G., Mole, N., Kutina, J., Stok, B., & Bajsic, I. (2005). Coupled finite-
volume/finite-element modelling of the straight-tube Coriolis flowmeter. Journal
of Fluids and Structures, 20(6), 785–800. doi:10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2005.04.008
Cascetta, F., Valle, S. D., Guido, A. R., Pagano, S., & Vigo, P. (1991). A new
straight-pipe Coriolis mass flow meter: The mathematical model. Measurement,
9(3), 115–123. doi:10.1016/0263-2241(91)90031-K
Cheesewright, R., Belhadj, A., & Clark, C. (2003). Effect of mechanical vibrations
on Coriolis mass flow meters. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and
Control, 125(1), 103–113. doi:10.1115/1.1539098
Jang, J. S. R. (1993). ANFIS: Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference
System. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 23(3), 665–685.
doi:10.1109/21.256541
60
Kumar, Dwivedi, Jaiswal, & Patil. (2015). Material based Vibration Characteristic
Analysis of Heavy Vehicle Transmission Gearbox Casing using Finite Element
Analysis. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 308, 527–533.
Doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2012-1_56
Mole, N., Bobovnik, G., Kutina, J., Stok, B., & Bajsic, I. (2008). An improved
three-dimensional coupled fluid–structure model for Coriolis flowmeters. Journal
Patil, P. P., Sharma, S. C., & Jain, S. C. (2012). Response surface modelling of
vibrating omega tube (Copper) Electromechanical Coriolis mass flow sensor. Expert
Systems with Applications, 39(4), 4418–4426. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2011.09.149
Patil, P. P., Sharma, S. C., & Jain, S. C. (2012). Performance evaluation of a Copper
omega type Coriolis Mass Flow Sensor with an aid of ANFIS tool. Expert Systems
with Applications, 39(5), 5019–5024. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2011.10.010
Patil, P. P., Sharma, S. C., Jaiswal, H., & Kumar, A. (2014). Modeling Influence
of Tube material on vibration Based EMMFS using ANFIS. Procedia Material
Science, 6, 1097–1103. doi:10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.181
Patil, P. P., Sharma, S. C., Paliwal, V., & Kumar, A. (2014). ANN Modelling of Cu
Type Omega Vibration Based Mass Flow Sensor. Procedia Technology, 14, 260–265.
doi:10.1016/j.protcy.2014.08.034
Pro-E 5.0. (2013). Designing manual. Academic Press.
Raszillier, H., & Durst, F. (1991). Coriolis effect in mass flow metering. Archive of
Applied Mechanics, 61, 192–214.
Rongmo, L., & Jian, W. (2013). Fluid-structure coupling analysis and simulation
of viscosity effect on Coriolis mass flowmeter. APCOM & ISCM Singapore.
Saravanan, R. M., Raj, C. W., & Shanmugavalli, M. (2015), Design and Simulation of
Coriolis Flow Tube in Meso and Micro Level to Determine Its Resonant Frequency.
Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 23, 239-242. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.
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Sharma, S. C., Patil, P. P., Vasudev, M. A., & Jain, S. C. (2010). Performance
Evaluation of an Indigenously Designed Copper (U) tube Coriolis Mass flow
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61
Wang, T., & Baker, R. (2014). Coriolis flowmwters: A review of developments

over the past 20 years and an assessment of the state of the art and likely future
directions. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, 40, 99–123. doi:10.1016/j.
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62
63
Chapter 4
Advanced Numerical and
Experimental Methods Used in
Material Science for Evaluating
Mechanical and Damping
Nature of Composite Materials
Subhash Singh
Lovely Professional University, India
Kaushik Pal
IIT Roorkee, India
ABSTRACT
In this chapter, the authors provide the simultaneous applications of numerical and
mathematical methods for engineers. The best way to ignite the fire of curiosity in
the student is the validation of their ideas and learning. Specially, the engineering
students learn best when they are prompted by problems. This can be achieved
through the validation of their analytical results with experimental. Therefore, the
scope of the present work is to synchronize of the above-mentioned two domains
(numerical, experimental). Furthermore, we have approached numerical methods
from an experimental perspective. Mathematical methods are techniques by which
mathematical problems are developed so that these can be solved with arithmetic
operations. Although, there are many forms of numerical methods, they possess one
common characteristic: they invariably call for large numbers of tedious arithmetic
calculations. This work intends to relate the theoretical understanding with the real
world problems.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch004
INTRODUCTION
The composite materials have aroused considerable interest because they exhibit
fascinating properties. The mechanical and physical properties of multi-functional
composites were intensively investigated during the past decade. Among the reported
functionalities, those in optics, quantum computing, photonics, nano and micro-
electromechanical systems (NEMS, MEMS), sensors, electronics are most promising.
Some of these architectures are potentially suitable for technological applications such
as solar cells, optical modulators or switches, high temperature energy conversion
systems, heat engine, gas turbines, sensors and waveguide material in refractometric
or fluorescence detection. Similarly, on macro scale the composites are extensively
used in aerospace structures, aircraft industry, automobile sector, defense equipment,
various components of IC engine, springs in mechanical engineering field, rotary
components (as parts of motors and turbines), electronic packaging, towers for power
transmission and multiple recreational products (Miracle, 2005), (Luo, 2006), (Arsha,
2015) and (Singh, 2017). Generally, superior physical, mechanical and damping
properties are essential requisite of composite materials which are principally used
in mechanically loaded regions to stabilize and stimulate the integrity of fractures,
stiffness, strength, wear resistance, fatigue behavior, corrosion resistance and creep
resistance (Ruiz-Navas, 2009).
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composites are most often used as structural elements in numerous industries and
operated under unstable temperature conditions, consequences in the advent of some
effects of structural and dimensional instability. Finally, degradation of mechanical
as well as damping (internal friction) properties of the composites may take place.
That why, it is essential to study the damping properties of the composite materials.
Composites having excellent damping and mechanical properties are highly desirable
and widely used in many applications.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of various composites were examined by performing

ultimate tensile strength (UTS) as discussed below.
64
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
The mechanical characteristic (axial tensile strength) of composite is defined as the

quotient of its maximum load at failure to average cross-sectional area and likely
dependent upon transferring of externally applied load from matrix to reinforcement.
Fundamentally there are four major strengthening mechanisms functioning in
strength enhancement: Orowan strengthening, fine grain size according to Hall-
Petch rule, work hardening (because of strain misfit between the particulates and
the matrix) and strengthening due to difference in coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE) (Lloyd, 1994). The overall strength of the composites may be stated as the
following equation:
τ C = τ M + ∆τ Hall − Petch + ∆τ Load + ∆τ Orowan (1)
where τ C and τ M are the strength of the composite and matrix respectively. Whereas
∆τ Hall − Petch , ∆τ Load and ∆τ Orowan are the increment due to refinement of grain
size, effect of load transfer and effect of Orowan strengthening, correspondingly.
Furthermore, the equation for individual strengthening mechanism could be expressed
as:
 1 1 
∆τ Hall − Petch = k  −  (2)
 d d 
 o 
V pτ M ( l + t ) A
∆τ Load = (3)
4l
∆τ Orowan = MGb ln
(π dt | 4b ) (4)
( 2πγ 1−ϑ )
where k, d and do represents Hall-Petch coefficient of aluminium matrix, average
grain size of fabricated composite and average grain size of pure aluminium,
respectively. The A = ( l / t ) , t and l are aspect ratio, thickness and size in parallel
65
of load direction of the incorporated particles. While G, M, ϑ, dt and γ symbolize

as shear modulus, Taylor factor, Possion’s ratio, uniform diameter of the particle
and inter-particle spacing, respectively. Figure 1 shows the yield strength (offset
0.2%) and UTS for pristine aluminium and other as-cast composites like bare SiC/
Al, TiO2 coated SiC/Al and nanocrystalline lithium titanate (LTO) coated SiC/Al,
respectively. At first scan, enhancement of strength for individual as-cast composites
is due to significant grain size reduction according to Hall–Petch relation. As shown
in eq. (ii), grain size directly affects the strength of the Al metal matrix composite.
Though, formation of intermetallic compound (Al4C3, reaction product between
pristine SiC and Al), poor wettability of SiC in Al matrix and agglomeration of SiC
particles are mainly responsible for reduced modulus elasticity and strength of SiC/
Al.
We tried to overcome from these problems by encapsulating SiC particles with
TiO2 layer and LTO layer, respectively. Therefore, TiO2 encapsulated SiC/Al and
LTO encapsulated SiC/Al composites have higher tensile strength as compare pure
Al and SiC/Al composite. In this research, it is revealed that the yield strength and
ultimate tensile strength of the as-cast pure Al was obtained as 38 ( ±5 ) and 70
( ±5) , respectively. Whereas, the UTS for as-cast aluminium matrix composites
incorporated with bare SiC, TiO2 encapsulated SiC and LTO encapsulated SiC were
obtained as 220 ( ±9 ) , 251 ( ±6 ) and 268 ( ±6 ) MPa, respectively. Previously, it
was reported that the tensile strength of lithium zirconate (nanocrystalline spinel)
Figure 1. Yield strength (offset 0.2%) and Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) for pristine
aluminium and other as-cast composites
66
ceramic coating on SiC particles reinforced composite (SiC@LZO/Al) was increased

with a factor of 3.8 as compared to the pure aluminium (Singh, 2015). The UTS of
SiC/LTO/Al composite significantly higher than the UTS of SiC/TiO2/Al composite
might be due to improvement in incorporated particles distribution in the matrix
and enhanced interface bonding between matrix and reinforcement. Role of Orowan
strengthening and deference in coefficient of thermal expansion in strength
enhancement are largely depend upon volume fraction of reinforcements.
Microhardness
Figure 2 demonstrates the results of microhardness value obtained for the as-cast
pristine Al, SiC/Al, TiO2 grafted SiC/Al and LTO grafted SiC/Al composites. We
found the hardness value for as-cast base aluminium as 28(±4). For pristine SiC
incorporated Al matrix composite, hardness value was measured almost doubled
[61(±6)] as compare to pure Al. At first glance, it seems that coating of dispersoids
help in improving the hardness values considerably. Again, the resultant hardness
value of the aluminium matrix incorporated with TiO2 grafted SiC was increased to
71(±9) while 84(±7) was observed for the aluminium matrix incorporated with LTO
Figure 2. Results of microhardness value for the as-cast pristine Al, SiC/Al, TiO2
grafted SiC/Al and LTO grafted SiC/Al composites
67
encapsulated SiC dispersoids. De-agglomeration, improved wettability, enhanced

dispersibility of the encapsulated SiC dispersoids in the Al matrix was transformed
to an improved value of hardness.
Damping Properties
Damping is one of the prominent model parameter for designing and analysis of
various vibrating structural elements. The damping property of the fabricated
composites was studied by using storage modulus ( E ' ) , loss modulus ( E '' ) and
internal friction, tan δ (= E ’/ E ’’ ) obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis
(DMA) with 3 point bending clamp, able to work in the frequency of 1Hz with the
specimens (size 40mm × 10mm × 1mm ) over an exceptionally wide range of
temperature (ambient N2 atmosphere) and with different heating and cooling rates.
Further, obtained experimental data from the DMA analysis is sufficient for explaining
the damping behaviour of the composites.
Figure 3 illustrates the storage modulus and the internal friction upon heating
and cooling as a function of temperature for as-cast Al, bare SiC incorporated Al,
TiO2 grafted SiC incorporated Al and LTO spinel grafted SiC incorporated Al
matrix composites, respectively. In this study significant improvement in damping
flexural characteristics of the as-cast pristine aluminium as well as other composites
incorporated with unmodified and modified SiC particles was observed. Initially,
Blanter et al. proposed a technique called mechanical spectroscopy that consists
of applying a sinusoidal stress to a material and measuring the strain response
(Blanter, 2007).
The response of induced strain by applying sinusoidal stress was measured via
mechanical spectroscopy technique which explores the mechanism. Internal friction
is related to the time-dependent elasticity of a material. Metals and alloys reply to an
applied load by time-independent elastic strain as well as by time-dependent strain
that lags behind the applied load. In other words, internal friction of the materials
and alloys are associated to the time-dependent elasticity. The following equations
can be stated for stress (σ) and strain (ε) because of lag induced by the relaxation:
σ = σ o exp ( iωt ) (5)
ε = ε o exp ( iωt − δ ) (6)
68
Figure 3. Graphs between storage modulus and Damping factor (Tan delta) as a
function of temperature for pristine Al, bare SiC incorporated Al and TiO2 coated
SiC/Al and LTO encapsulated SiC/Al: (a, c, e and g) for heating curve and (b, d, f
and h) for cooling curve
69
The term σ o , ε o δ and ω represent stress, strain amplitudes loss angle and
angular vibration frequency, respectively. By dividing the terms on each side of
above equations, resulting complex modulus ( E ) is expressed as follows:
σO
E= (cos δ + i sin δ ) = E '+ iE '' (7)
εO
Storage modulus ( E ' ) characterises as stiffness and loss modulus ( E '' ) is

defined as quantity of oscillation energy converted into heat. Damping capacity of
the material is the ratio of ( E '' ) to ( E ' ) and usually denoted as tan δ :
E ''
tan δ = (8)
E'
Initially, maximum and minimum value of the storage modulus for as-cast Al
is reported as 44 GPa at -100 ºC and 32 GPa at 400 ºC, respectively as revealed
in Figure 3 (a). On addition of pristine SiC dispersoids in Al matrix, the value of
storage modulus increased. Further, the value of storage modulus was increased for
samples containing TiO2 grafted SiC and LTO grafted SiC dispersoids in Al matrix.
On comparing the storage modulus results for LTO grafted SiC/Al composites with
pristine Al, we obtained nearly ~67% higher storage modulus, as revealed in Figure
3 (g). The value of storage modulus shows retarding tendency on increasing the
temperature for all the composites due to relaxation phenomena.
As shown in Figure 3 (b), storage modulus further increases during cooling after
reaching highest temperature of 400 °C for the pure aluminium. However, damping
and strengthening microscopic mechanisms are not independent for most of the
metals. So it would be of great interest to search for new materials simultaneously
exhibiting good mechanical as well as and high damping properties. For industrial
purpose, materials that simultaneously exhibit excellent damping capacity and better
mechanical properties are of great interest. This task could be achieved via one way
only, when the hardening mechanisms are independent of microscopic mechanism
responsible for dissipation of the vibration energy that is internal friction. However,
another way to accomplish this task by developing two-phase or three phase materials
where each phase plays a definite role (Schaller, 2003). The damping behaviour of
the composites is intensively depends upon lattice defects (point defects, dislocations,
grain boundaries and interfaces between reinforcements and matrix) or in other words
lattice defects such as dislocations, point defects, interfaces between reinforcements
70
and matrix and grain boundaries are primarily responsible for defining the damping
characteristics (Liu, 1999 and Liu, 2014). At low temperature, the dislocations are
much more extensive up to room temperature at which displacements are typically
fractions of an atomic diameter whereas, at high temperatures, sliding can be much
more extensive and lead to viscoelastic strain.
Primarily, Zhang et al. was explained the conceivable governing mechanism
of damping for MMCs (Zhang, 1994). Basically, difference in the coefficient of
thermal mismatch (CTE) between dispersoids and matrix at low temperature is the
principal cause of dislocation damping whereas interface sliding and grain boundary
play critical role for damping at high temperatures, (Arsenault, 1983). Dislocation
damping of the matrix and intrinsic damping of the reinforcement play a leading role
at relatively low temperatures. The difference in the coefficient of thermal mismatch
(CTE) between the reinforcements and metal matrix is the root cause of dislocation.
At higher temperatures, the sliding of interface and grain boundary is responsible
for a large portion of the observed damping. In relation to Granato–Lucke (G-L)
dislocation theory given by Granato et al., dislocation motion between dispersoids
and the matrix can be expressed as follows (Granato, 1956):
C1 C 
tan δ = exp  2  (9)
ε  ε 
ρ FB L3N
C1 = (10)
6bEL2C
FB
C2 = (11)
bELC
Here, E represents to elastic modulus; ε is strain amplitude; ρ is the dislocation

density; C1 and C2 are material constants; LC and LN are average dislocation distance
between weak and strong pinning points; b and FB are the Burger’s vector and binding
force between dislocations and weak pinning points. Both storage modulus and tan
delta display a hysteresis between cooling and heating curve, which interpreted as
being due to stresses that are present at reinforcements and matrix. The interface
71
thermal stresses can be relaxed either by dislocation motion in ductile matrix or

interface cracking in hard matrix. Thus, dislocation motion is responsible for an
extra contribution to damping because of materials property. Also, the thermal
cycling in DMA analysis directly affects the damping capacity and strain produced
in different composites at constant frequency.
CONCLUSION
This chapter provides valuable information for investigations and mechanical as well
as damping properties evaluated for the metal matrix composites. Here, we studied
that the morphology of SiC particles of submicron size was changed by encapsulating
these particles with TiO2 and nanocrystalline Li4Ti5O12 spinel, correspondingly
for further enhancement of mechanical as well damping properties. Furthermore,
aluminium metal matrix composites were fabricated by incorporating pristine and
tailored SiC dispersoids through stir casting (facilitated with vacuum casting). The
major conclusions are as follows:
• Among all these composites, the highest value for storage modulus and
damping capacity were obtained for LTO encapsulated SiC incorporated Al
matrix composite;
• The results from the tensile analysis displayed improved failure strains for
the composite containing LTO encapsulated SiC reinforced Al as compare to
pristine Al, bare SiC incorporated Al and TiO2 decorated SiC incorporated Al
because of enhanced wettability, de-agglomeration, enhanced dispersibility,
grain refinement and enhanced load transfer capability;
• Microhardness value obtained for the as-cast pristine Al, SiC/Al, TiO2 grafted
SiC/Al and LTO grafted SiC/Al composites are as 28(±4), 61(±6), 71(±9)
and 84(±7), respectively;
• Also, we have been stated various possible strengthening mechanism which
take part in mechanical as well as damping strengthening of metal matrix
composites;
• The improvement in storage modulus, damping capacity, UTS and hardness is
attributed to Orowan strengthening mechanism, strengthening from difference
in CTE between the particulates and matrix, Hall–Petch relationship and
work hardening resulting from the strain misfit between the particulates and
the matrix.
72
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
In present day situation, materials having excellent mechanical properties and good
damping capacity are significantly required to overcome the situation of mechanical
vibrations, produced in almost every sector such as manufacturing industry, automobile
sector, aerospace industry, construction and other industries where structural elements
are exposed to dynamic loads. The Composites materials are a better choice to
fulfill this gape, are becoming better substitutes for the conventional materials and
alloys. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) simultaneously reveal high stiffness, good
mechanical properties, low density and high damping capacity. Furthermore, the
damping and mechanical properties was improved by reinforcing surface modified
dispersoids in aluminium matrix. This chapter is an attempt to understand the
interface relationship between the reinforcement and the matrix. As mentioned in
the previous section that every work has its own limitations. These limitations may
be considered as research opportunity for the future work. The following are some
research directions suggested for future research based on this work:
• Agglomeration, poor stability and dispersibility of the SiC particles in

AMMCs are always a great challenge for the scientists for obtaining the
fascinating properties of AMMCs. Some other advanced coating materials
having better mechanical, chemical and thermal properties may be suggested
to overcome these problems;
• Obtaining uniform coating layer is also a great task for researchers. Developing
new advanced coating techniques can be another direction for future work;
The work could be further extended by performing some other secondary
processes like hot extrusion, hot/cold rolling, heat treatment, etc. followed by stir
casting for further enhancement of mechanical as well as damping properties.
REFERENCES
Arsenault, R. J., & Shi, N. (1986). Dislocation generation due to differences between
the coefficients of thermal expansion. Materials Science and Engineering, 81,
175–187. doi:10.1016/0025-5416(86)90261-2
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Arsha, A. G., Jayakumar, E., Rajan, T. P. D., Antony, V., & Pai, B. C. (2015). Design
and fabrication of functionally graded in-situ aluminium composites for automotive
pistons. Materials & Design, 88, 1201–1209. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.09.099
Blanter, M. S., Golovin, I. S., Neuhauser, H., & Sinning, H. R. (2007). Internal
friction in metallic materials. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Granato, A., & Lucke, K. (1956). Theory of mechanical damping due to dislocations.
Journal of Applied Physics, 27(6), 583–593. doi:10.1063/1.1722436
Liu, G., Tang, S., Ren, W., & Hu, J. (2014). Effect of thermal cycling on the damping
behaviour in alumina borate whisker with and without Bi2O3 coating reinforced
pure aluminium composites. Materials & Design, 60, 244–249. doi:10.1016/j.
matdes.2014.03.034
Liu, Y., Yang, G., Lu, Y., & Yang, L. (1999). Damping behavior and tribological
properties of as-spray-deposited high silicon alloy ZA27. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 87(1-3), 53–58. doi:10.1016/S0924-0136(98)00331-8
Lloyd, D. J. (1994). Particle reinforced aluminium and magnesium matrix composites.
International Materials Reviews, 39(1), 1–23. doi:10.1179/imr.1994.39.1.1
Luo, Z. P. (2006). Crystallography of SiC/MgAl2O4/Al interfaces in a pre-oxidized
SiC reinforced SiC/Al composite. Acta Materialia, 54(1), 47–58. doi:10.1016/j.
actamat.2005.08.022
Miracle, D. B. (2005). Metal matrix composites-From science to technological
significance. Composites Science and Technology, 65(15-16), 2526–2540.
doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.05.027
Ruiz-Navas, E. M., Delgado, M. L., & Trindade, B. (2009). Improvement of the
bonding interface of a sintered Al 2014–(Ti5Si3)p composite by the copper coating
of the reinforcement. Composites. Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing,
40(8), 1283–1290. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.05.022
Schaller, R. (2003). Metal matrix composites, a smart choice for high damping
materials. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 355(1-2), 131–135. doi:10.1016/
S0925-8388(03)00239-1
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Singh, S., & Pal, K. (2015). Effect of surface modification on silicon carbide particles
with nanocrystalline spinel LZO for enhanced damping and mechanical property.
Materials & Design, 82, 223–237. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2015.05.076
Singh, S., & Pal, K. (2017). Influence of surface morphology and UFG on damping
and mechanical properties of composite reinforced with spinel MgAl2O4-SiC core-
shell microcomposites. Materials Characterization, 123, 244–255. doi:10.1016/j.
matchar.2016.11.042
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75
76
Chapter 5
Comparative Study of
Conjugate Heat Transfer in
Uniform and Diverging Cross-
Section Microchannels
Yogesh K. Prajapati
ABSTRACT
This chapter covers single-phase heat transfer analysis in microchannel heat sink
relevant to electronic cooling application. In order to estimate the correct heat
transfer performance, it is required to consider both, conduction and convection.
Hence, conjugate analysis of heat transfer has been considered where both conduction
and convection heat transfer are calculated as a part of solution. Two different
configurations of microchannels namely, uniform and diverging cross-section have
been considered individually on different copper substrate. A copper substrate of
dimension 25×0.9×4 mm has been used to generate microchannel. Inlet cross-
section (0.4×0.75 mm) of both channels has been kept equal however; cross-section
of diverging channel keeps on increasing as width is continuously increasing along
the flow direction. A constant heat flux of 250 kW/m2 has been provided from the
bottom. Comparative study has been done to analyse the heat transfer performance
of both the configurations of microchannels.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch005
Comparative Study of Conjugate Heat Transfer
INTRODUCTION
Narrow flow channels with hydraulic diameters (Dh) in 1–200 µm range are termed
as microchannels. Defining threshold diameter (macro to micro transition) of
microchannels is still a matter of considerable discussion in the research community.
Till date no consensus has been reached for defining the critical diameter below
which a channel is termed as microchannel. Nonetheless, widely accepted bands for
microchannel diameter have been proposed by few researchers. Mehendale (2000)
defined the micro heat exchanger in range of 1–100 µm whereas Kandlikar (2002)
defined this range between 10–200 µm. In addition to geometrical parameters, there
are certain dimensionless numbers which are used to define the threshold limit for
microchannels. Kew and Cornwell (1997) proposed confinement number (Co) as:
1 σ
Co = (1)
Dh g ( ρl − ρ g )
where ρl and ρ g are densities of liquid and gas phases respectively and σ is the
surface tension. Channels with Co > 0.5 are termed as microchannels. Based on
this criterion, channels with hydraulic diameter less than 1000 µm can be treated
as microchannels for flow boiling of water.
Microchannels have been established to dissipate high heat. These channels are
gaining popularity due to fact that significant amount of heat dissipation could be
accomplished using small area and less amount of coolant. Microchannels also have
got important applications in other fields to access fluid flow from confined space.
Channels of different geometry and shapes are essentially required for different
applications in various fields. One of the important applications of microchannel is
as heat sink especially for electronic cooling. Heat sink may be defined as a device
that simultaneously absorb and dissipate undesirable heat form a component using
thermal contact. Heat sink transfers thermal energy from a high temperature source
to a low temperature coolant. In recent years, the development of compact electronic
devices and high-speed processors has significantly increased power densities in
the component. Therefore, heat generation per unit volume in these devices has
increased drastically. To keep the component under working conditions, efforts are
needed to design more efficient and stable heat sink. Miniaturization of electronic
devices requires mini/micro cooling system capable of dissipating heat flux in the
range of 300–500 W/cm2. Of course, the time is not far off when these requirements
will shoot-up to 1000 W/cm2 krishnan (2007).
77
The conventional air cooling technology using fan cannot dissipate heat in these
devices. Moreover, these systems are bulky, noisy, and produce vibrations. Compared
to liquid coolant, thermal conductivity of air is low resulting in poor heat dissipation.
It has been observed that liquid cooling offers four to ten times higher heat flux
over air-cooled system. With the evolution of micro fabrication techniques, massive
research has been carried out to explore the possibility of using microchannels as
heat sink. Silicon and copper are most commonly used materials for fabricating the
microchannel heat sink. Both materials have high thermal conductivity and they are
compatible with the application. Silicon has added benefits over copper material
since in the electronic field it is a widely used material. Microchannels can be
fabricated with the help of sophisticated machines such as micro-milling, wire-cut
EDM and laser-cutting. However, chemical etching and lithography techniques are
fabricating small dimension microchannels. Due to high surface-to-volume ratio
and subsequent augmentation in heat transfer rate has attracted the attention of
research community towards microchannels. Microchannel heat sinks are considered
to be indirect cooling device as there is no direct contact between coolant fluid
and device that generating the heat. Therefore, proper thermal contact is required
between electronic chip and coolant. Other applications of microchannles include
microfluidic devices such as microevaporators, micromicxtures and MEMS. All these
devices may have uniform, diverging or other favourable geometry flow passages.
Converging-diverging channels have been used in micromixtures to reduce mixing
time Lee (2005) compared to T-shaped micromixture. Similar kind of observation
has also been reported by Fu and Pan (2010).
A numerical study of fluid flow in converging-diverging passage has been carried
out by Akbari (2010a). Study estimates flow resistance using analytical technique.
Subsequently, they also performed Akbari (2010b). experiments on slowly varying
cross-section of a tube. Duryodhan (2013) experimentally and numerically study
the liquid flow through diverging channel. Authors discuss the difference in flow
behaviour between uniform and diverging cross-section channels. It is pointed out
that beyond 16º of divergence angle flow reversal takes place in the channel. In
the similar kind of work, Duryodhan (2014) have compared the performance of
converging-diverging channel with diverging channel. Mixing and heat transfer
performance of converging-diverging microchannels have been studies by Yong and
Teo (2014). They have reported significant improvement in the thermal-hydraulic
performance compared to uniform cross-section channel.
Non-uniform cross-section (diverging) channels have also been examined for
heat transfer performance mainly for microchannel heat sink applications. The
idea of enlarging the micro channel cross-section was proposed by Mukherjee and
78
Kandlikar (2005). Since then, Diverging cross-section microchannels have been

significantly studies in the literature Lee (2008), Fu (2012) and Lin (2011) mainly
for two-phase flow of the coolant. Prajapati and Pathak (2016 & 2015), Prajapati,
Pathak and Khan (2016 & 2017) have studies the heat transfer, bubble dynamics and
coolant flow behaviour in diverging channels. It has been identified that diverging
channels performs comparatively better to uniform channel during flow boiling of
the coolant. Since cross-section is increasing along the flow direction, it has enough
space to supress flow boiling instabilities up to some extent. It has been recognised
that unlike uniform cross-section, this configuration of microchannel facilitates
smooth bubble removable from the channel passage. Bubbles in a diverging channel
move easily with flow stream due to divergence in the channel. It has also been
identified that overall pressure drop in diverging channel is also less compared to
its counterpart uniform channel. Divergence angle should be kept small to avoid
flow separation. All these favourable circumstances during two-phase flow supress
flow instability in microchannels.
In order to predict the heat transfer from microchannels various methods have
been adopted in the literature. In order to estimate the more accurate heat transfer
performance it is required to consider both, conduction in the solid wall and forced
convection in the liquid flow. Hence, in the present work conjugate analysis of heat
transfer has been considered where both conduction and convection heat transfer are
calculated as a part of the solution. Conjugate modelling is essentially required to
consider heat transfer in both solid and liquid sections. Iaccarino (2002) numerically
investigated the conjugated heat transfer on ribbed surface. Effect of thermal boundary
condition has been studies during turbulent flow. It has been found that in the
upstream side heat transfer was dominated by convection whereas conduction was
more effective in the downstream side. 3D numerical model considering conjugate
effect to investigate microchannel cooling performance has been done by Fedorov
and Viskanta (2000).
Authors have used the experimental data of Kawano (1998) for the validation
of their model. Constant flow pattern of the coolant was reported along the flow
direction, expect in the inlet region where large temperature gradient was found.
Mudawar (2002) have performed both experimental and numerical investigations
of pressure drop and heat transfer characteristics of single-phase laminar flow in
microchannels. Single flow channel has been considered which is etched on silicon
substrate. Heat input of constant wall heat flux 50 W/cm2 was given to the top
wall of the channel. They have also reported higher Nusselt number (Nu) and heat
transfer coefficient in the developing region of the flow domain. Lee (2005) have
revealed that conjugate approach with careful boundary condition can be employed
with assurance to get the correct heat transfer in microchannel.
79
Axial conduction in microchannels is also a concern that needs to be considered

while designing it. Conjugate heat transfer takes care of this effect. Lelea D (2007)
investigated the effect of partial heating (upstream and downstream side) of
microchannel using conjugate heat transfer. Similar kind of studies has been carried
out by Croce (2015) and Ambatipudi (2000). Qu (2000) investigated conjugate
heat transfer model in trapezoidal microchannel. However, while comparing the
numerical results with experiments they have found significant discriminations in
the Nusselt number. The importance of axial conduction and conjugate heat transfer
has also been discussed by Gamrat (2005), Maranzana (2004) and Morini, (2006).
Recently Duryodhan (2016) have numerically studies the conjugate heat transfer
effect in diverging microchannel having divergence angle in the range of (1-8º). It
has been found that along the flow direction temperature gradient reduces. From the
above discussion it is apparent that conjugate heat transfer analysis has conceivably not
been considered. Keeping this objective in mind, present work has been undertaken.
A better understanding is required to comprehend the single phase heat transfer
performance of diverging microchannel considering the conjugate effect.
METHODOLOGY
In the present work, conjugate heat transfer analysis of water flow in a single
microchannel has been presented. Simultaneous conduction in copper substrate and
convection in coolant has been modelled using three dimensional (3D) geometry of
the microchannel. Two types of channels geometries namely, uniform and diverging
cross-section have been used in the study. Figure 1(a) shows the schematic diagram
of microchannel with substrate.
Figure 1. Schematic of (a) Microchannel with substrate (b) Top view
80
A copper substrate of dimension 25×0.9×4 mm has been used to generate

microchannel. Inlet cross-section of both channels has been kept equal however;
cross-section of diverging channel keeps on increasing as width is continuously
increasing along the flow direction. Figure 1(b) shows the top view of both
configurations of microchannels. Due to divergence angle of 0.5º, exit width of
diverging microchannel is 0.84 mm. Table 1 tabulates the complete specifications
and operating range of data.
Governing Equations
Single phase water flows in the channels. Following assumptions have been considered
to simplify the problem:
1. Fluid is incompressible;
2. Steady and fully developed laminar flow;
3. Copper substrate has uniform thermal conductivity;
4. Outer walls are insulated;
5. Water is cooling medium with constant properties.
Uniform heat flux (q) has been provided at the bottom wall of the copper
substrate. Remaining all walls have adiabatic boundary condition. Velocity inlet and
pressure outlet boundary conditions have been considered at the inlet and outlet of
the channel respectively.
Continuity equation:
∇ ⋅V = 0 (2)
Table 1. Range of data
81
For 3D fully developed laminar flow it is assumed that:
∂u
= 0, v = 0, w = 0 (3)
∂x
therefore, momentum equation is simplified to:
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 1 dP
+ 2 =− (4)
∂y 2
∂z µl dx
Energy equation for liquid coolant becomes:
∂Tl k  ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 
u = l  2l + 2l + 2l  (5)
∂x C p ρl  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Energy equation for conduction in solid copper substrate:
∂  ∂Tw  ∂  ∂Tw  ∂  ∂Tw 

k + k + k  = 0 (6)
∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z 
only important boundary condition is:
∂Tw
y = 0, −k = qw (7)
∂y
In the above expressions V is velocity vector, u, v and w are components of velocity

in x, y and z directions respectively. P, T, k, q, ρ and cp are respectively, pressure,
temperature, thermal conductivity, heat flux and specific heat. The subscript l and
w represents the liquid and wall.
MESH
Commercial code ANSYS FLUENT based on finite volume method has been used
in the present study. Three dimensional (3D) simulations have been performed
considering the conjugate approach. PISO (pressure implicit with splitting of
82
operator) algorithm has been implemented for pressure velocity coupling. Second
order upwind scheme is adopted for the discretization of different equations. Non-
uniform grids of hexahedral cells have been used and grid has been clustered in near
wall region. The grid sensitivity test of the computation has been performed with
three sets of grids, i.e. 239552, 449592 and 867420 hexahedral cells. The maximum
difference between the predictions with last two sets of grid has been observed as
1%. Based on the grid independency test simulations have been performed with
449592 numbers of cells.
Figure 2 shows the resolution of the mess for the front face of uniform channel. It
can be observed that mess has been refined at the interfacing of the liquid and solid
interface. The computation has been assumed to be converged when the normalized
sum of the residual for mass is less than 10-4 and variation of other variables in
successive iteration is less than 10-3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Simulations have been carried out for single heat flux value of 25 kW/m2 and three
values of Reynolds number i.e. 100, 200 and 500 at the inlet of the channel. Fixed
inlet temperature of (20ºC) the coolant has been used for the all cases. Comparative
performances of heat transfer and pressure drop for both configurations of
microchannels have been presented. Heat transfer performance of the heat sink in
terms of temperature, heat flux (q), heat transfer coefficient (h) and Nusselt number
(Nu) have been estimated.
Figure 2. Mess resolution of the front face of the uniform channel
83
Validation of the Model
The present numerical method has been validated with the results of Qu and Mudawar
(2002) for conjugate heat transfer in silicon substrate with water as coolant. The
methodologies of the present code have been applied to reproduce the results of
Qu and Mudawar (2002) at Re = 140. Identical geometry, substrate material and
all other operating conditions of above work have been used.
A single channel which is etched on Silicon substrate has been used in the above
mentioned work. Uniform heat flux has been given from the top wall of the channel.
For the validation purpose, wall heat flux of q = 50 W/cm2 and Re = 140 has been
considered. Single-phase liquid water flows inside the microchannel. The comparison
of temperature distribution at the vertical middle plane of the substrate from present
work with those of Qu and Mudawar (2002) has been shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Temperature distribution at the middle plane (a) Present model (b) Qu
and Mudawar (2002)
84
Further, a comparison of Nusselt number (Nu) along the channel length has been
shown in Figure 4. Good agreement may be observed between Figure 3 (a) and (b)
which is showing temperature contour at the vertical middle plane of the silicon
substrate. It can be observed that compared to solid region of silicon; temperature
gradient in liquid coolant is very large. Due to this fact, channel section is clearly
differentiable from the solid section. It is worth mentioning that silicon has high
thermal conductivity therefore, temperature gradient in the silicon is much smaller
than that in water.
Figure 4 shows the comparison of Nusselt number (Nu) at channel side wall and
top wall along the length of the channel. Nu is significantly high at the entrance
and developing region of the channel. However, in the developed region of the
microchannel, Nu almost remains constant up to the exit of the channel. Above
comparison conforms that present numerical prediction is in good agreement with
the Qu and Mudawar (2000) results.
Figure 4. Validation of Nusselt number (Nu)
85
Temperature Profile
Figure 5 shows the temperature rise of the coolant as well as bottom wall of the
channel. Bulk fluid temperature has been shown corresponding to a line drawn at
the midpoint of the channel whereas, a line drawn at the middle of the bottom wall
along the channel length represents the bottom wall temperature of the channel.
Consistent temperature rise of bulk fluid and bottom wall may be observed along
the flow direction for both configurations of the channels. Plots also indicate that
inlet temperature of the coolant is 20ºC for all operating conditions. It is obvious
that bulk fluid temperature increases sharply in the entrance region of the channel.
Afterward, linear rise of the bulk fluid temperature can be observed in both channels.
In Figure 5(a) at Re = 100, it can be observed that compared to uniform channel,
bulk coolant temperature is consistently higher in diverging channel. Similarly,
bottom wall temperature of diverging channel is 6ºC higher than uniform channel
at the inlet itself. This initial temperature difference keeps on increasing towards the
outlet of the channel, as slope of curve of diverging channel increases significantly
compared to uniform channel bottom wall temperature. And it approaches to 13ºC
at the outlet of the channel. Therefore, it can be concluded that diverging channel
dissipates less heat compared to uniform channel.
Similar observation can also be made in Figure 5(b) for Re = 500. In this case,
temperature rise of bulk fluid is very small (6-7ºC) and curves for both channels
have similar slope. Bottom wall temperature also represents similar trend as for Re
= 100, although, temperature rise is significantly less. This is due to the increased
convection heat transfer at higher Reynolds number. More heat dissipation at this
Re causes wall temperature to decrease. In this case also bottom wall of diverging
channel shows more temperature compared to uniform channel. Less heat dissipation
Figure 5. Temperature profile in the microchannels (a) Re = 100 (b) Re = 500
86
in diverging channel may be due to the fact that convective heat transfer reduces as
coolant velocity decreases along the flow direction. The reason for decreasing coolant
velocity is enlarging cross-section area of diverging channel towards the outlet.
Temperature contour at the middle plane of the copper substrate has been shown in
Figure 6 for Re = 100 and 500. Isotherms have been plotted across the solid substrate
and fluid zone. In the contour plots, red colour indicates higher temperature (in ºC)
and blue colour indicates lower temperature. It can be seen that for copper substrate,
magnitude of inclined isotherms are increasing in the flow direction. Higher thermal
conductivity of copper substrate causes very low temperature gradient as predicted
in figure. Whereas, temperature gradient in the liquid region is quite large therefore
isotherms are clearly differentiable from solid substrate. This is due to the fact that
thermal conductivity of coolant water is significantly lesser than copper substrate.
Comparing the temperature profile of two channels at Re = 100, it has been found out
that diverging channel possess higher temperature than uniform channel. Similarly,
corresponding to Re = 500 also difference in maximum reported temperature is
Figure 6. Temperature contour plot at the vertical middle plane (coolant flows from
left to right)
87
about ≈ 10ºC. It is as per the discussion made for Figure 5. Higher temperature of
the solid substrate for diverging channel clearly point out that less heat dissipates
from the diverging configuration.
Pressure Profile
Similar to bulk fluid temperature, pressure drop has been plotted across the midpoint
of the channel as shown in Figure 7 (a, b). In Figure 7 (a), pressure curves have been
shown for uniform channel, it can be observe that curves are linear for all values of
Reynolds numbers. Moreover, total pressure drop decreases with decreasing value
of Re. The maximum value of predicted pressure drop is 3200 Pa corresponding to
Re = 500 whereas it is 1190 Pa and 550 Pa for Re = 200 and 100 respectively. It is
obvious that pressure drop decreases with reduction in Reynolds number.
Unlike uniform channel, pressure drop is no more linear in diverging channel
as shown in Figure 7(b). Along the flow direction, magnitude of pressure drop
decreases as cross-sectional area increases. It is worth mentioning that pressure
drop is significantly less in diverging channel compared to uniform channel.
Maximum value of predicted pressure drop corresponding to Re = 500 is merely
1000 Pa compared to 3200 Pa of uniform channel. Likewise, ∆p is 420 Pa and 215
Pa corresponding to Re = 200 and 100 respectively. Therefore, it may be concluded
that diverging channels could be implemented with less pressure.
Figure 7. Pressure drop plots for different values of Re (a) uniform (b) diverging
88
Heat Flux Distribution
Heat flux at the bottom wall and side wall of the microchannels has been shown in
Figure 8 (a, b). Figure 8(a) shows the heat flux at Re = 100. In the entrance region of
the channel high heat flux has been found. This is due to the fact that in this region
boundary layer is under development subsequently; thermal boundary layer is very
thin. Comparing the side wall and bottom wall of the channel, q is significantly
high at the side wall. Similar observations have been made by Qu and Mudawar
(2002). They have revealed that small distance between side walls caused the large
velocity gradient.
After initial shoot-up of heat flux in both channels, it is almost constant in the
remaining section of the channel and its value lies in the range of 70-115 kW/m2
corresponding to Re = 100. Stable value of heat flux (q) lies in the range of 90-120
kW/m2 for Re = 500. High initial value of heat flux predominates at the side wall
of channel compared to bottom wall.
Heat Transfer Coefficient
Figure 9 (a, b), shows the heat transfer coefficient (h) at the bottom wall of the
channel. It has been calculated as:
q
h=
(Tw − Tb )
Figure 8. Heat flux (q) along the channel length (a) Re = 100 and (b) Re = 500
89
Figure 9. Heat transfer coefficient (h) along the channel length (a) Re = 100 and
(b) Re = 500
where Tw is wall temperature and Tb is bulk fluid temperature. Like heat flux, heat
transfer coefficient is significantly high in the entrance region of the channel for
both configurations. Slope of the curve during initial is quite high for Reynolds
number of 100 whereas at Re = 500, it is moderately declining in the flow direction.
It is attributed due the increased convection rate at higher flow rate. Heat transfer
coefficient keeps on decreasing along the channel length for both the cases. Moreover,
only nominal decline has been reported corresponding to Re = 100 compared to Re
= 500 in the downstream section of the channels.
It has been observed that curve of heat transfer coefficient significantly deviates
for uniform and diverging channels for Re = 500. Uniform channel has higher heat
transfer coefficient compared to diverging channel. It is obvious that average value
of h is almost double at the higher Reynolds number.
Nusselt Number (Nu)
Figure 10 (a, b) shows the Nusselt number (Nu) at the bottom wall of the channel
for Re = 100 and 500. Nusselt number distribution is illustrating the clear picture
of heat transfer in the channels. It has been defined as:
(qDh )
Nu =
(Tw − Tb )k f
where kf is the thermal conductivity of the coolant. It can be seen from the figure
that Nusselt number is approaching to 22 in the entrance region of the channel
90
Figure 10. Variation of Nusselt number (Nu) for Re = 100 and 500
whereas; it sharply declines in the remaining part of the channel. It specifies the
higher heat transfer occurring in the inlet region followed by moderate and constant
heat dissipation in the downstream section of the channel. Compared to Re = 100,
at higher Reynolds number, moderate change in slope has been reported.
At Re = 500, significant rise in Nu can be observed in the downstream section
of the channel also. Moreover, compared to diverging channel, in uniform channel,
Nusselt number is high in the most of the region especially in the middle as illustrated
in Figure 10. However, very close to the exit of the channel, both channels show
similar value of Nu. It can be established form the above discussion that diverging
channel of present geometry is not much influential to support higher heat transfer
rate compared to uniform channel of similar inlet width.
FUTURE SCOPE
It is worth mentioning that present work covers the simulation of only single channel.
However, in the real practice multiple parallel channels are used in the microchannel
heat sinks. Therefore, present work may be extended in this direction to predict
the more actual flow condition. Uniform heat flux has been applied at the bottom
wall of the substrate, essentially it may be non-uniform and uneven hot spot heat
sources. In the present work, considered geometry of diverging channel with similar
inlet hydraulic diameter not performs satisfactorily hence, improved geometry with
constricted inlet may be examined. Moreover, varying physical properties of coolant
is also required to incorporate in the simulation.
91
CONCLUSION
Numerical work has been carried out to investigate the performance of uniform
and diverging cross-section microchannels. Hydraulic diameters at the inlet of both
configurations are equal. Heat transfer, temperature isotherms and pressure drop
have been studies. Conjugate heat transfer effect has been implemented. Results
have been validated with the existing literature and good agreement has been found.
It has been found that channel geometry has significant influence in heat transfer
performance. In the present case considered geometry of diverging channel has not
performed satisfactorily. However, predicted pressure drop is less in diverging channel
compared to uniform cross-section channel. It has been commonly observed in both
channels that at the entrance region, where flow is developing and boundary layer
is thinner, heat transfer coefficient is significantly high whereas in the remaining
section along the flow direction, it becomes less and stable.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Conjugate: A scheme that estimates the heat conduction as well as convection.

Diverging Channel: Cross-section of the channel increases along the flow
direction.
Microchannel: Flow passage with high surface to volume ratio having hydraulic
diameter less than 1 mm.
95
96
Chapter 6
A Study of Flexible
Manufacturing System
With Multiple Failures
Monika Manglik
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Mangey Ram
Divya Ahluwalia
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
ABSTRACT
Flexibility refers to the capability of a manufacturing system to respond cost effectively
and arbitrarily to adapting production needs and necessities. This ability is becoming
increasingly important for the design and operation of manufacturing systems, as
these systems do function in highly variable and unpredictable environments. In
this chapter, the reliability of the flexible manufacturing system has been calculated
based on the mathematical framework. The model of the system consists of the system
structure and the distribution of its components. The components are assumed
to be repairable after various types of failures. In this work, the reliability and
availability have been analyzed by using Markov process, Laplace transformations
and supplementary variable techniques. Furthermore, the impacts of various failures
on reliability, and availability of the system have also been analyzed.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch006
A Study of Flexible Manufacturing System With Multiple Failures
INTRODUCTION
Reliability analysis is an essential viewpoint of the business as far as higher profitability

and lower running cost which can be accomplished by making the system free from
failures by appropriate support, arranging and control. This can likewise help the
administration to comprehend the impact of expanding or diminishing the repair rates
of a specific part or subsystem in a general framework. While Managing unwavering
quality based outline of machinery and structures, we may concentrate the relative
mechanical and auxiliary failures from the perspective of loss of human lives.
Reliability analysis of such sorts of systems helps us to get the required data about
the control of different parameters. In the present section authors have examined the
unwavering quality investigation of the paper, assembling plant by considering the
failures of its primary segments. A few specialists for the last numerous years have
examined the different certainties of dependability innovation of the subsystems or
frameworks in process ventures at different level and various research papers have
been distributed toward this path including Gupta et al. (2005) derived a numerical
analysis of reliability and availability of the serial processes in butter-oil processing
plant. Shakuntla et al. (2011) analyzed the reliability of palliative industry using the
supplementary variable technique. Zadeh (1965) proved a separation theorem for
convex fuzzy sets without requiring that the fuzzy sets be disjoint. Wong and Chen
(2000) proposed a design and implementation methodology of a GA-based fuzzy
system on a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) chip.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Different authors talked about the system having Markovian properties. The system
has non-Markovian property can be changed over into a system having the Markovian
nature by presenting another supplementary variable.
Initially, (Cox, 1955) utilized supplementary variable method for the examinations
of non-Markovian systems. He displayed a methodological arrangement of reliability
and availability of that system with the assistance of Supplementary variable
technique. Dhillon and Yang (1995) displayed a numerical model for reliability and
availability investigation of a general standby system with expanding human error
rates and irregular fizzled framework and repair rates. The authors utilized joint
density function approach and supplementary variable method. Elsayed and Turley
(1980) introduced a two-stage manufacturing system with buffer storing. Ram and
Viswanadham (1994) introduced a structure for execution assessment of assembling
97
system subject to failure and repair. Jain et al. (2002) explored a stochastic model for
an assembling system comprising of adaptable machine, stacking/emptying robot
and a computerized bed taking care of gadget. Lin and Chang (2012) examined the
reliability of assembling systems with improving activity and distinctive failure
rates. Kumar et al. (1988) dissected the accessibility of the encouraging system
in the sugar industry. Gottumullala et al. (2010) talked about the dependability of
k hubs for superior registering application. Different authors have worked in the
field of dependability of mechanical frameworks, for example Dhillon and Natesan
(1983), Mahajan and Singh (1996, 1997), Gupta et al. (2007), and so forth have
examined the reliability and accessibility of the different assembling systems by
utilizing distinctive methods. The execution examination of plastic pipe producing
plant was talked about by Gupta et al. (2007) accepting consistent failure and repair
rates. Manglik and Ram (2014) examined the different dependability measures of
hydroelectric power plant under various failures by utilizing supplementary variable
strategy and Markov Process. Wang et al. (2012) examined two accessibility systems
with warm standby and diverse flawed scope. Ram et al. (2013) talked about a scope
demonstrate for a parallel repetitive system to enhance the reliability, availability
and for the decrease in the cost of the system. Garg et al. (2010) talked about the
maintenance planning of a repairable square board producing system.
The paper producing system has been talked about before by utilizing Fuzzy
logic. In the present chapter authors examined five-unit paper produces plant
subject to consistent failure and repair rates of the subsystems and talked about the
reliability demonstrating of the paper fabricating Plant by utilizing supplementary
variable technique.
The chapter has been organized as follows: The section one is introductory in
nature. In section one, a brief introduction about the system is presented. In Section 2
the literature review has been discussed. Section three consists of system description
notations and assumptions related to the work. The mathematical formulation of
paper manufacturing plant developed by using the supplementary variable technique,
assuming constant failure and repair rates. Analysis of the reliability and availability
of the system has been discussed.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION, NOTATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
The paper making procedure is an exceptionally complex system, including numerous

unit operations and procedures; it basically comprises taking after five subsystems.
98
Raw Material Preparation
Common fiber based crude materials are received and cut or chopped into little
pieces and afterward screened for further handling the failure of this component
cause complete failure of the system.
Pulp Making
Pulping indicates two different mechanical procedures used to change over crude
plant materials or reused paper into a stringy crude material known as pulp, which
is utilized principally to make paper or paperboard items. The pulp is then washed
to make the mash free from solvent pollutions and expulsion of black liquor through
usual 3 or 4 phases of counter current washing with the help of revolving drum
filters. The washed pulp is then sent for bleaching to build the splendor of the pulp
and the dilute black liquor is sent to the evaporators. The failure of this component
causes the complete failure of the system.
Bleaching
Pulp when it comes from digester contains residual coloring matter. This unbleached
pulp may be used for making heavy wrapping paper or bags. However, paper to be
used for printing, writing or paper which is to be dyed must first be bleached. The
main object in bleaching is to remove residual lignin from the pulp fibers as well as
to destroy or remove remaining coloring matter. The Minor failure of this subsystem
reduced the capacity of the system, hence a loss in production. Major failure results
in complete failure of the system.
Stock Preparation
It is comprised to give the pulp different required qualities through refining. It is

mostly accomplished in either twofold plate or tapered refiners. The Minor failure
of this subsystem lessened the capacity of the system, whereas major failure causes
complete failure of the system.
Sheet Formation and Water Removal
Minor failure of paper machine reduces the capacity of the system while the Major
failure of the machine causes the complete failure of the system. The flow chart of
working of the paper manufacturing plant and state transition diagram is mentioned
in Figure1 and Figure 2 respectively.
99
Figure 1. Paper manufacturing process flow chart
Notations
A, B, C , D, E : Represent that the sub-system is working in full capacity.

C , D, E : Represent the reduced state of subsystem C, D and E.
a, b, c, d , e : Represent the failed state of the subsystems.
λi ( x) i = 1,2,….5: Failure rates of the Subsystem A,B, C, D and E respectively.
µ j ( x) j = 1,2,….5: Repair rates of A, B, C, D and E, respectively.
P0 (t ) : Probability of the system when it is in full working condition.
Pk ( x, t ) k = 1,2…..22: Probability the system is in state k at time t has elapsed
failure and repair time x.
100
Figure 2. State transition diagram
Assumptions
• Failure and repair rates are independent of each other;

• Failure and repair rates of the subsystems are taken as constant;
• A repaired unit is as good as new ones for specified duration performance
wise;
• Adequate repair facilities are provided;
• A service of the subsystem includes repair and/or replacement;
• The system can work at reduced capacity also;
• There are simultaneous failures.
101
Mathematical Modeling of the System
∂ 
 ∂t + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5  P0 (t ) = µ3 P1 (t ) + µ4 P2 (t ) + µ5 P3 (t )
∞ ∞
(1)
+ ∫ µ1 ( x) P6 ( x, t )dx + ∫ µ2 ( x) P7 ( x, t )dx
0 0
∂ 
 ∂t + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3  P1 (t ) = λ3 P0 (t ) + µ4 P4 (t )
∞ ∞ ∞
(2)
+ ∫ µ1 ( x) P8 ( x, t )dx + ∫ µ2 ( x) P9 ( x, t )dx + ∫ µ3 ( x) P10 ( x, t )dx
0 0 0
∂ 
 ∂t + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + µ4  P2 (t ) = λ4 P0 (t ) + µ3 P4 (t ) + µ5 P5 (t )
∞ ∞ ∞
(3)
0 0 0
∂ 
 ∂t + λ4 + µ5  P3 (t ) = µ4 P5 (t ) + λ3 P0 (t ) (4)
∞
∂ 
 ∂t + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3 + µ4  P4 (t ) = λ4 P1 (t ) + λ3 P2 (t ) + ∫ µ1 ( x) P14 ( x, t )dx

0
∞ ∞ ∞
0 0 0
(5)
102
∞
∂ 
 ∂t + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + µ4 + µ5  P5 (t ) = λ4 P3 (t ) + λ5 P2 (t ) + ∫ µ1 (xx) P18 ( x, t )dx
0

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
+ ∫ µ2 ( x) P19 ( x, t )dx + ∫ µ3 ( x) P20 ( x, t )dx + ∫ µ4 ( x) P21 ( x, t )dx + ∫ µ5 ( x) P22 ( x, t )dx
0 0 0 0
(6)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P6 ( x, t ) = 0 (7)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P7 ( x, t ) = 0 (8)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P8 ( x, t ) = 0 (9)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P9 ( x, t ) = 0 (10)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ3 ( x)  P10 ( x, t ) = 0 (11)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P11 ( x, t ) = 0 (12)
103
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P12 ( x, t ) = 0 (13)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ4 ( x)  P13 ( x, t ) = 0 (14)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P14 ( x, t ) = 0 (15)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P15 ( x, t ) = 0 (16)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ3 ( x)  P16 ( x, t ) = 0 (17)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ4 ( x)  P17 ( x, t ) = 0 (18)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P18 ( x, t ) = 0 (19)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P19 ( x, t ) = 0 (20)
104
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ3 ( x)  P20 ( x, t ) = 0 (21)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ4 ( x)  P21 ( x, t ) = 0 (22)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂t + ∂x + µ5 ( x)  P22 ( x, t ) = 0 (23)
Initial Condition
P0 (t ) = 1 , when t=0 (24)
P0 (t ) = 0 , when t>0 (25)
Boundary Conditions
P6 (0, t ) = λ1 P0 (t ) (26)
P7 (0, t ) = λ2 P0 (t ) (27)
P8 (0, t ) = λ1 P1 (t ) (28)
P9 (0, t ) = λ2 P1 (t ) (29)
P10 (0, t ) = λ3 P1 (t ) (30)
105
P11 (0, t ) = λ1 P2 (t ) (31)
P12 (0, t ) = λ2 P2 (t ) (32)
P13 (0, t ) = λ4 P2 (t ) (33)
P14 (0, t ) = λ1 P4 (t ) (34)
P15 (0, t ) = λ2 P4 (t ) (35)
P16 (0, t ) = λ3 P4 (t ) (36)
P17 (0, t ) = λ4 P4 (t ) (37)
P18 (0, t ) = λ1 P5 (t ) (38)
P19 (0, t ) = λ2 P5 (t ) (39)
P20 (0, t ) = λ3 P5 (t ) (40)
P21 (0, t ) = λ4 P5 (t ) (41)
P22 (0, t ) = λ5 P5 (t ) (42)
106
Taking Laplace of Equations (1) - (23) and (24) - (40) we get:
[ s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 ] P0 ( s) = µ3 P1 ( s) + µ4 P2 ( s) + µ5 P3 ( s)
∞ ∞ (43)
+ ∫ µ1 ( x) P6 ( x, s )dx + ∫ µ2 ( x) P7 ( x, s )dx
0 0
[ s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3 ] P1 ( s) = λ3 P0 ( s) + µ4 P4 ( s)
∞ ∞ ∞ (44)
+ ∫ µ1 ( x) P8 ( x, s )dx + ∫ µ2 ( x) P9 ( x, s )dx + ∫ µ3 ( x) P10 ( x, s )dx
0 0 0
[ s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + µ4 ] P2 ( s) = λ4 P0 ( s) + µ3 P4 ( s) + µ5 P5 ( s)
∞ ∞ ∞ (45)
0 0 0
[ s + λ4 + µ5 ] P3 ( s) = µ4 P5 ( s) + λ3 P0 ( s) (46)
[ s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3 + µ4 ] P4 ( s) = λ4 P1 ( s) + λ3 P2 ( s) + ∫ µ1 ( x) P14 ( x, s)dx

0
∞ ∞ ∞
0 0 0
(47)
[ s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + µ4 + µ5 ] P5 ( s) = λ4 P3 ( s) + λ5 P2 ( s) + ∫ µ1 ( x) P18 (xx, t )dx

0

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
+ ∫ µ2 ( x) P19 ( x, s )dx + ∫ µ3 ( x) P20 ( x, s )dx + ∫ µ4 ( x) P21 ( x, s )dx + ∫ µ5 ( x) P22 ( x, s )dx
0 0 0 0
(48)
107
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P6 ( x, s ) = 0 (49)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P7 ( x, t ) = 0 (50)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P8 ( x, s ) = 0 (51)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P9 ( x, s ) = 0 (52)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ3 ( x)  P10 ( x, s ) = 0 (53)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P11 ( x, s ) = 0 (54)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P12 ( x, s ) = 0 (55)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ4 ( x)  P13 ( x, s ) = 0 (56)
108
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P14 ( x, s ) = 0 (57)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P15 ( x, s ) = 0 (58)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ3 ( x)  P16 ( x, s ) = 0 (59)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ4 ( x)  P17 ( x, s ) = 0 (60)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ1 ( x)  P18 ( x, s ) = 0 (61)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ2 ( x)  P19 ( x, s ) = 0 (62)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ3 ( x)  P20 ( x, s ) = 0 (63)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ4 ( x)  P21 ( x, s ) = 0 (64)
 ∂ 
 s + ∂x + µ5 ( x)  P22 ( x, s ) = 0 (65)
109
Boundary Conditions
P6 (0, s ) = λ1 P0 ( s ) (66)
P7 (0, s ) = λ3 P0 ( s ) (67)
P8 (0, s ) = λ1 P1 ( s ) (68)
P9 (0, s ) = λ2 P1 ( s ) (69)
P10 (0, s ) = λ3 P1 ( s ) (70)
P11 (0, s ) = λ1 P2 ( s ) (71)
P12 (0, s ) = λ2 P2 ( s ) (72)
P13 (0, s ) = λ4 P2 ( s ) (73)
P14 (0, s ) = λ1 P4 ( s ) (74)
P15 (0, s ) = λ2 P4 ( s ) (75)
110
P16 (0, s ) = λ3 P4 ( s ) (76)
P17 (0, s ) = λ4 P4 ( s ) (77)
P18 (0, s ) = λ1 P5 ( s ) (78)
P19 (0, s ) = λ2 P5 ( s ) (79)
P20 (0, s ) = λ3 P5 ( s ) (80)
P21 (0, s ) = λ4 P5 ( s ) (81)
P22 (0, s ) = λ5 P5 ( s ) (82)
Solving above equations, one may get:
 d1 − λ1S µ1 ( s ) − λ3 S µ1 ( s )  P0 ( s ) = 1 + µ3 P1 ( s ) + µ4 P2 ( s ) + µ5 P3 ( s ) (83)
 d 2 − λ1S µ1 ( s ) − λ2 S µ2 ( s ) − λ3 S µ3 ( s )  P1 ( s ) = λ3 P0 ( s ) + µ4 P4 ( s ) (84)
 d3 − λ1S µ1 ( s ) − λ2 S µ2 ( s ) − λ4 S µ4 ( s )  P2 ( s ) = λ4 P0 ( s ) + µ3 P4 ( s ) + µ5 P5 ( s )
(85)
111
dP3 ( s ) = λ3 P0 ( s ) + µ4 P5 ( s ) (86)
 d 4 − λ1S µ1 ( s ) − λ2 S µ2 ( s ) − λ3 S µ3 ( s ) − λ4 S µ4 ( s )  P4 ( s ) = λ4 P1 ( s ) + λ3 P2 ( s )
(87)
 d5 − λ1S µ1 ( s ) − λ2 S µ2 ( s ) − λ3 S µ3 ( s ) − λ4 S µ4 ( s ) − λ5 S µ5 ( s )  P4 ( s )
(88)
= λ4 P3 ( s ) + λ5 P2 ( s )
P6 ( s ) = λ1 P0 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (89)
P7 ( s ) = λ3 P0 ( s )[1 − S µ2 ( s )] / s (90)
P8 ( s ) = λ1 P1 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (91)
P9 ( s ) = λ2 P1 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (92)
P10 ( s ) = λ3 P1 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (93)
P11 ( s ) = λ1 P2 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (94)
P12 ( s ) = λ2 P2 ( s )[1 − S µ2 ( s )] / s (95)
112
P13 ( s ) = λ4 P2 ( s )[1 − S µ4 ( s )] / s (96)
P14 ( s ) = λ1 P4 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (97)
P15 ( s ) = λ2 P4 ( s )[1 − S µ2 ( s )] / s (98)
P16 ( s ) = λ3 P4 ( s )[1 − S µ3 ( s )] / s (99)
P17 ( s ) = λ4 P4 ( s )[1 − S µ4 ( s )] / s (100)
P18 ( s ) = λ1 P5 ( s )[1 − S µ1 ( s )] / s (101)
P19 ( s ) = λ2 P5 ( s )[1 − S µ2 ( s )] / s (102)
P20 ( s ) = λ3 P5 ( s )[1 − S µ3 ( s )] / s (103)
P21 ( s ) = λ4 P5 ( s )[1 − S µ4 ( s )] / s (104)
P22 ( s ) = λ5 P5 ( s )[1 − S µ5 ( s )] / s (105)
where:
d = s + λ4 + µ5 , d1 = s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 , d 2 = s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3
113
d3 = s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + µ4 , d 4 = s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3 + µ4
d 4 = s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + µ3 + µ4 , d5 = s + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 + λ5 + µ4 + µ5
∞ x
S µ1 ( s ) = ∫ µ1 ( x){exp(− sx − ∫ µ1 ( x)dx)}dx,
0 0
∞ x
S µ2 ( s ) = ∫ µ2 ( x){exp(− sx − ∫ µ2 ( x)dx)}dx
0 0
∞ x
S µ3 ( s ) = ∫ µ3 ( x){exp(− sx − ∫ µ3 ( x)dx)}dx,
0 0
∞ x
0 0
∞ x
0 0
The Laplace transformations of the probabilities that the system is in up (i.e.

good state) and failed state at any time are as follows:
Pup ( s ) = P0 ( s ) + P1 ( s ) + P2 ( s ) + P3 ( s ) + P4 ( s ) + P5 ( s ) (106)
Pdown ( s ) = P6 ( s ) + P7 ( s ) + P8 ( s ) + P9 ( s ) + P10 ( s ) + P11 ( s ) + P12 ( s ) + P13 ( s )

+ P14 ( s ) + P15 ( s ) + P16 ( s ) + P17 ( s ) + P18 ( s ) + P19 ( s ) + P20 ( s ) + P21 ( s ) + P22 ( s )
(107)
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
All things considered, circumstances, the significant worry of a producer is to expand

the benefits and profitability of the system and make the system very dependable for
a long term of time. In this way, it is essential while outlining the system to know
the data about its units which impact system’s working limit and furthermore pick
the best parts which increment the general working of the system for longer run time
with respect to their failures. In this manner our fundamental reason for existing is
114
to locate the best system plan units by choosing proper estimations of failure and
repair rates inside the predefined ranges to such an extent that the system long run
accessibility boosts. The extents or fresh estimations of failure and repair rates of the
system can be found by exploring the past records of that system or by exploratory
process or by worrying that specific system examiner.
Through this study, one can find the measure of performance such as availability,
reliability, cost etc. we consider a physical situation where each subsystem of paper
manufacturing plant has constant failure and repair rates.
CONCLUSION
After complete study of the system we concluded that the subsystem B i.e., pulp
making affect the availability of the system more than any of other subsystems. The
authors also analyzed that the other subsystems are almost equally affected. We, thus
make an analysis that during the manufacturing process management should take
care of subsystem B in order to improve the availability and Reliability of the system.
FUTURE SCOPE
The reliability and availability of the paper manufacturing plant by considering the
possible failures have been analyzed in this chapter. In future the redundancies also
can be used to avoid the complete failures of the subsystems. Further, it is assumed
that every subsystem can be repaired immediate after failure where as there is a
scope of waiting repair strategy in future.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
In the current chapter authors solved the equations by using Laplace Transformations
in future that can be done by Numerical Methods. Also expected cost and sensitivity
of the system with respect to various failure rates can also be evaluated and analyzed.
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118
Chapter 7
FEA-Based Numerical
Simulation and Theoretical
Modeling for Predicting
Thermal Contact Conductance
Sachin Rana
ABES Institute of Technology Ghaziabad, India
ABSTRACT
The chapter states the problem of thermal contact conductance between surfaces.
Rough surface generation and thermal contact conductance has been simulated
using Finite Element Method (FEM) based Ansys. The resulting geometry is meshed
by different meshing method to convert the solid model into FEM model. The
main aim of meshing is to create fine and coarse mesh at the contact to reduce the
computational time. To create a fine mesh at contact free meshing with refinement
and mapped mesh has been used. The analysis has been performed on the FEM
model with varying loading condition of different surface roughness and different
materials to get the real contact area and thus thermal contact conductance. The
INTRODUCTION
All engineering surfaces exhibit some level of microscopic roughness. The resistance
to heat flow through a contact interface occurs because only a small portion (usually
1-2%) of the nominal surface area is actually in contact. Heat may pass through
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch007
Numerical Simulation Modeling for Predicting Thermal Contact Conductance
the interface via three paths: conduction through the contact spots, conduction
through the gas present in the gap between the surfaces, and radiation across the
gap. Convection may be neglected due to the small length scales involved. Also,
radiation does not play a significant role at temperatures below 500°C.
Since the conductivity of the gas is much smaller than that of the substrate, most
of the heat is constrained to flow through the contact spots. This constriction and
subsequent spreading of heat flow lines in the two materials in contact manifests
as a thermal resistance at the interface. The total resistance of the surface is found
by summing, in parallel, the constriction resistances of all of the contact spots.
This thermal resistance impedes the heat flow across the interface, when two solid
bodies at different temperatures are brought into mechanical contact, and results in
a temperature drop as shown in Fig. This resistance, commonly known as thermal
contact resistance, is well-explained by the fact that the real contact area is exceedingly
small as compared to the apparent contact area due to the presence of roughness and
waviness of the engaging surfaces. As the interstitial material, such as air, is a poor
heat conductor and the radiative heat transfer is often insignificant, a large portion
of the heat flow converges to the discrete solid-solid contact spots as illustrated in
Figure 1. Hence, the increase in the heat-flow path length causes the thermal contact
resistance. Its reciprocal is called thermal contact conductance, defined as:
q
hc = (1)
A∆T
where q is the heat flow rate, A is the apparent contact area, and △T is the temperature
drop at the interface.
Thermal contact conductance plays an important role in all thermal systems where
a mechanical contact is involved. Recently, such conductance has received special
interest and attention in small-scale heat removal systems such as microelectronics
and in heat transfer between superconductor films. More recent attempts at predicting
thermal contact conductance at an interface, especially focusing on the low contact
pressures allowable in electronics cooling, have taken advantage of the speed and
processing power of modern computers to track the number of asperities in contact
at a surface by directly using surface profile data. Inputs to the model include the
surface profiles, mechanical and thermal material properties, nominal contact area,
and specified loads. The mode of deformation of each asperity is not assumed, but
determined by guessing the mean plane separation between the surfaces, calculating
the pressure and area of each microscopic asperity in contact, and summing the
contribution to the total load from each asperity.
119
Figure 1. Illustration of thermal contact conductance
Surface roughness is a measure of the microscopic irregularity, whereas the

macroscopic errors of form include flatness deviations, waviness and, for cylindrical
surfaces, out of roundness. Two solid surfaces apparently in contact touch each other
only at a few individual spots as shown in Figure 1. Even at relatively high contact
pressure of the order of 10 Mpa, the real area of contact for most metallic surfaces
is only about 1 to 2% of the nominal contact area Leung (1998).
Thermal contact conductance is an important factor in a variety of applications,
largely because many physical systems contain a mechanical combination of two
120
materials. Some of the fields where contact conductance has importance are Electronic
packaging Luo (2010) Microelectronics Yovanovich (1984), Biomedicine Singhal
(2005), Nuclear reactor Mochizuki (1994), advanced materials, space applications
Peterson (1990), I.C. Engine Marotta (1999), Heat exchanger Jeng (2006) Metal-
Forming Rosochowska (2003) and Super Conductor Mantelli (1980) etc.
Cooper (1969) developed a thermal contact conductance model (CMY Model).
They consider the resistance to the flow of heat between two thick solid bodies in
contact in a vacuum. Existing analyses of single idealized contacts are summarized and
compared, and then applied, together with results of recent electrolytic analogy tests,
to predict the conductance of multiple contacts “Appropriately” or “inappropriately”
distributed at the interface. Reconsideration of the theory of interaction between
randomly rough surfaces shows how the parameters required predicting heat transfer
can be determined in principle by simple manipulation of typical profiles of the
mating surface, together with an approximation from deformation theory. It is also
shown that this process depends more crucially than had been realized upon the
distribution of the few high peaks of the surfaces, where the assumption of Gaussian
distribution of heights is suspect. In place of that assumption, the use of describing
functions is suggested.
Mikic (1970) presents the major theoretical contributions in the area of thermal
contact resistance dealt with a simple contact, multiple contacts, directional effects
and others. In this work, Mikic eliminated the concept of the contour area and the
macroscopic construction is related directly to non-uniformity of the macroscopic
heat flux and specifically, to the pressure distribution over the interface. Mikic (1974)
considered the thermal contact conductance of nominally flat surfaces in contact was
considered. The emphasis of the work is on effect of the mode of deformation on
the value of conductance. Sayles and Thomas (1976) derived a completely general
relationship for the conductance of the elastic contact of an isotropic Gaussian random
surface with a flat in terms only of properties of the bulk material and quantifiable
parameters of the surface topography. Gibson (1976) considered the flow through
abutting cylinders having, in general, different conductivities. As Cooper has shown
that the contact spot may be considered as an isotherm.
Antonetti and Yovanovich (1985) has developed a thermo mechanical model for
nominally flat, rough contacting surfaces coated with a metallic layer. The model is
shown to agree quite well with thermal test data obtained using nickel specimens,
with one side of the contact coated with silver and the other side glass-bead blasted.
McGee (1985) developed a line-contact model for the thermal resistance of a
cylinder-flat contact. Resistance due to heat flow constriction across the solid-to-
solid contact was calculated. Huang (1992) present the inverse solution methodology
based on the conjugate gradient method is developed for estimating the variation
121
of air-gap resistance with time from the transient temperature measurements taken
with thermocouples inside the casting region and at the outer mould surface.
Tsai and Crane (1992) presented an analytical temperature distribution solution
to the one-dimensional symmetric system with heat flux on one outside surface
and insulation on the other. The analysis provided theoretical basis for transient
measurement of thermal contact conductance. Antonetti (1993) developed a
correlation for an approximate thermal contact conductance which does not depend
upon the surface asperity slope. Madhusudana (1993) demonstrated that in many
applications involving contact heat transfer, including electronic components, the
contact pressure is low or moderate. Nishino (1995) was studied the thermal contact
conductance in a vacuum environment under low applied load with square test plates
made of aluminum alloy. Sridhar and Yovanovich (1996) made a measurement on
thermal contact conductance on ground-lapped interfaces of tool steel and they were
compared with the recently proposed elastoplastic model. Sridhar and Yovanovich
(1996) proposed a new thermal elastoplastic contact conductance model for isotropic
conforming rough surfaces. This model is based on surface and thermal models used
in the Cooper, Mikic, and Yovanovich plastic model but it differs in the deformation
aspects of the thermal contact conductance model.
CHALLENGES IN NUMERICAL SIMULATION

OF THERMAL CONDUCTANCE
The main challenges in numerical simulation of thermal conductance are as follows:
1. Generation of Rough Surface profiles;

2. Evaluation of Real Contact Area.
For the analysis of structures, users have historically chosen to model the gross
geometry of the system and ignore the details to simplify the model and reduce
computation times. Surface effects are generally ignored in the analysis, partly
because of the difficulty in creating a reasonable model of the surface and partly
because of the assumption that surface effects are less important. However, surface
effects caused by surface topography are of major concern in some engineering
applications and may become critical when contact is involved.
Evaluation of real contact area by experimental methods is also a difficult task
because no instrument can be put at the contact interface therefore no work has been
done experimentally to evaluate real contact area and uses the nominal contact area
in place of real contact area. The prediction of real contact area is needed in many
122
applications such as electronic packaging, I.C.Engines etc. to obtain the actual heat
transfer rate and provide required cooling effect.
Some of the available commercial finite element programs have incorporated
features that permit the user to customize or modify the program to increase the
capabilities and flexibility of the program. This allows the programs to bridge the
gap between commercial and custom codes. ANSYS and ABAQUS are two of
the leaders in this area. In ANSYS, these capabilities include a scripting language
called the ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL) and User Programmable
Features which allow the user to write FORTRAN routines to create a custom
version of ANSYS. Because of the difficulty in creating the model of rough surface
in contact and evaluation of real contact area, I have chosen to create the rough
surface geometry in a FEM software ANSYS to predict the correct estimation of
heat transfer between contacting surfaces.
ROUGH SURFACE MODELLING
This work presents two methods for creating surface geometry using the normal
Gaussian distribution data. It is shown that it is possible to solve relatively small
contact problems with real surface geometry on a desktop computer. (Larger problems
could be solved on industrial computers with or without parallel processing capability
today if desired.) The results of mechanical contact analyses with imported surface
geometry are shown to qualitatively match expectations.
Rough surfaces profile is composed of a large number of surface asperities which
can be thought of as local deviations from the nominal or average surface height.
Real surfaces may exhibit roughness (high frequency asperities), waviness (medium
frequency asperities) and surface form (the general shape of the surface neglecting
roughness and waviness). Surfaces may also exhibit lay, which is a directional
characteristic of the surface “such as a parallel, circular, radial or multidirectional
pattern.”
Surface roughness and other surface topography may be a function of more
than one roughness (waviness, form or lay) distribution. Bimodal or multimodal
systems would require up to six more parameters for each additional distribution
mode, whether the additional mode is an additional roughness distribution or a
contribution from waviness or surface form. The affect of lay can be incorporated
by careful choice of coordinate system and asperity density parameters.
Consider a simple surface in Cartesian coordinates that is characterized by a single
modal distribution of roughness and does not exhibit waviness, surface form or lay.
The rough surface can then be fully described by six parameters. Two parameters
should describe the asperity density, or the amount of space between asperities: one
123
in x and another y. Three parameters should describe the asperity size: length (x),
width (y) and height or depth (+/- z). The last parameter should describe the asperity
shape and define any coupling between the first five parameters if appropriate. These
parameters may have values that are constants, functions, or statistical distributions.
Here we have assumed the asperity density to be equal in X and Y directions
and set to a single parameter: ASPDENS= 5000asperities/unit length. The asperity
sizes in X and Y was assumed to be equal to each other and set to a value of 1/
ASPDENS, thus each asperity is 200μm X 200μm square. The asperity size in z
was assumed to be a normal Gaussian distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 0.33 * MAXZ meters, where MAXZ is the maximum roughness of
the surface. The length, width and height of model are set to 5mm.
The main benefits of this procedure are its robustness and flexibility. It can be
used on arbitrary geometry including on models that have been imported from an
Figure 2. Stages of creating rough surface by moving all nodes (Brick Mesh)
124
external CAD package. It is also slightly less complicated and quicker procedure to
perform. The disadvantages of this procedure are a lack of user-friendliness. After
the rough surface is created, the model cannot be re-meshed (only modified manually
by moving nodes and elements). And, finite element entities (nodes and elements)
can no longer be selected based on their attachment to solid model entities. Careful
planning is, therefore, required when modifying the finite element mesh.
In this model two volumes having rough surface has been created separately
and brought into contact. ANSYS has a feature to create contact pair between two
contacting surfaces to transmit forces across the interface in the model. To create
a contact pair between rough surfaces 8-noded surface to surface contact elements
(CONTACT 174) and 3D target element (TARGET 170) are applied to the rough
surface to create the contact and target surface and to allow 3D mechanical contact
Figure 3. Rough surfaces in contact to create interface
125
Figure 4. 3-D mechanical contact between two contacting surfaces
to occur and forces to be transmitted across the interface in the model. Contact
behavior is defined as rough key option five for the CONTACT 174 element was set
to “3” to allow element to close the gap and reduce penetration between contacting
surfaces. A small value of coefficient of friction has been given to allow the sliding
between surfaces.
EVALUATING REAL CONTACT AREA
Analysis consists of modeling of real contact area and TCC based on real contact
area. Real contact area has been evaluated by using ANSYS and a MATLAB program
and on the basis of real contact area TCC has been evaluated by using available
co-relation Jeng (2013).
126
After modeling and meshing, the analysis has been performed to estimating real
contact area under varying loading condition. Mapped meshing has been found
suitable to use for estimating the area of each element at interface to get the real
contact area. In this work real contact area has been evaluated by using ANSYS
and MATLAB. A small program in MATLAB has been used to evaluate the real
contact area.
To evaluate real contact area an element table has been created in ANSYS. The
element table contains the each and every element in contact with their corresponding
value of contact gap. It is assumed that the element having zero gap is in perfectly
contact with the target element. The data in element table has been saved and imported
into MATLAB and fined the elements having zero contact gap by using a program.
MATLAB counts the no. of elements having zero contact gap and multiply to the
area of one element to get the real contact area. The area of one element can be
calculated by using the formula:
2
 Asperity size 
Area of one element =  
 No. of element division 
Real Contact Area = Area of one element

×No. of elements having zero contact gap
ESTIMATING THERMAL CONTACT CONDUCTANCE
The governing equation:
∂2T 1 ∂T ∂2T
+ + 2 = 0 (2)
∂x 2 r ∂r ∂r
The appropriate boundary conditions are:
∂T Q
k1 = , z − 0, 0 < r < b
∂z
( )
1/2
2πb b 2 − r 2
∂T
k1 = 0, z = 0, b < r < c
∂z
127
∂T Q
k1 = 2 ,z = ∞
∂z πc
∂T
k1 = 0, r = c (3)
∂r
Using the method of variable separation, we can write the temperature distribution
at z=0 as:
8 Q c
∞ sin (αnb )J 1 (αnb )

T0 = C 0 +
π 4k1b b ∑ (αnc)3 J o 2 (αnc )
n =1
Q b 
= C0 + Ψ  
4k1b c 
b  8 c  ( n ) 1 (αnb )
∞ sin α b J
(4)
Ψ   =   ∑
c  π b  n =1 (αnc )3 J o 2 (αnc )
where Ψ is the constriction parameter of contact area heat transfer.

When the two contact surfaces are of different heat transfer coefficients, the
temperature difference can be given by:
Q b 
∆Tc = Ψ   (5)
4ksb c 
where ks is the mean thermal conductivity, b is the mean radius, b is the mean
radius of the real contact area and c is the nominal contact area.
The CMY Model showed that the relation between the contact area and the heat
transfer coefficient can be written as:
N N
2ks Nbc 1 1
hc = ∑ Ψ (ε ) = 2ks nbc ∑ (6)
An i =1 i =1 Ψ (ε )
Mikic proposed the constriction parameter of contact area heat transfer as:
128
1.5
 At 

Ψ (ε) = (1 − ε)  (7)
1.5
= 1 −

 An 
From Equations (6) and (7), the thermal contact conductance can be expressed as:
2ks nbc (8)

hc = 1.5
 At 

1 − 
 An 
where n is the density of asperities and bc is the mean radius of spherical asperity.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
After meshing and creation of contact pair the analysis can be start with properly
constrained model. To perform the analysis on the FEM model, all of the key points
on the bottom of the block were constrained in all three direction i.e. x, y and z
and all the key points at the above side of the block were constrained in x and y
direction to prevent the rigid body displacement and rotation, leaving the surface
free to deform. A varying load is applied on all the key points at the above side of
the block to move the contact surface towards the target surface and analysis starts.
Results have been produced with varying loading condition and varying roughness.
Contact Pressure Plots
Figure 5 shows the contact pressure plots of aluminum and mild steel models of
roughness 10 µm with different loading condition. The real contact area in case of
aluminum at 5N is about 95% and the real contact area in case of mild steel at 5N is
about 80% at roughness 10µm but as the roughness increases the percentage of real
contact area decreases. In the contact pressure plots it is clear that elements having
zero pressure are not in contact and the elements having some value of pressure are
in contact hence the pressure plots also shows the area of contact. It is clear that for
the same loading condition the area in contact for mild steel is less than as compared
to area in contact for aluminum for roughness of 10µm. The maximum contact
pressure is located at the same place for both the materials because both materials
have same roughness but the value of maximum contact pressure in case of mild
129
Figure 5. Comparison of pressure plots between aluminum and mild steel models
of roughness 10µm with different loading condition
130
steel is greater than as compared to aluminum. The percentage of real contact area
in case of aluminum at 2N is about 21% and the percentage of real contact area in
case of mild steel at 2N is about 19%.
Roughness Effect: Mild Steel Model
Figure 6 shows the effect of surface roughness on real contact area at different
loading condition. The analysis has been performed on the rough surface model of
the surface roughness of 10µm, 25µm and 40µm at 0.5N, 1N, 2N, 3N, 4N and 5N
to see the effect of roughness at different loading condition on real contact area. As
the surface roughness increases the real contact area decreases for the same load
due the increase in gap between the rough surfaces.
Figure 7 shows the relation between the surface roughness and percentage of real
contact area at different loading condition. The analysis has been performed on the
rough surface model of the surface roughness of 10µm, 25µm and 40µm at 0.5N,
1N, 2N, 3N, 4N and 5N to see the effect of roughness at different loading condition
on the percentage of real contact area. With the increase in surface roughness the
real contact area decreases because of the increase in gap between the contacting
surfaces and hence the percentage of real contact area decreases.
THERMAL CONTACT CONDUCTANCE (TCC)
Figure 8 and Figure 9 shows the variation of TCC with pressure for different materials.
Figure 8 is the results from the present wok for three materials aluminium, mild steel
and stainless steel at increasing pressure. Figure 9 is the result taken from Jeng et. al.
(2003) for aluminium and stainless steel at both increasing and decreasing pressure.
For the same pressure, TCC in the process of decreasing pressure is larger than that
in the process of increasing pressure due to plastic deformation. The trend of the
curves of TCC with pressure is same for the models of aluminium and stainless
steel for both the study. It is clear from both the fig that TCC increases of all the
materials with the increase in pressure.
131
Figure 6. Contact area vs. roughness plot
132
Figure 7. Percentage of contact area vs. roughness plot
133
Figure 8. Comparison of the curves for thermal contact conductance versus contact
pressure
FUTURE SCOPE
In the future this research work can be extended to find:
1. Actual contact area and Thermal contact conductance for higher pressure and
more complex trajectory;
2. To evaluate contact area vs. hardness, contact pressure vs. nominal pressure,
contact area vs. nominal pressure, TCC vs. roughness, TCC vs. hardness.
CONCLUSION
To convert the solid model into FEM model different meshing method has been
used. The main aim of meshing in this model is to create a fine mesh at the contact
and create coarse mesh at the remaining model to reduce the computational time.
To create a fine mesh at contact free meshing with refinement and mapped mesh
134
Figure 9. TCC vs. contact pressure for aluminum and stainless steel
has been used but due to the limitation of element shape free meshing cannot be
used in this work. Thus mapped meshing with 8 noded structural solid hexahedral
elements (SOLID 185) has been used to evaluate the real contact area. To create a
contact pair between rough surfaces 8-noded surface to surface contact elements
(CONTACT 174) and 3D target element (TARGET 170) are applied to the rough
surface to create the contact and target surface and to allow 3D mechanical contact
to occur and forces to be transmitted across the interface in the model.
The analysis has been performed on the FEM model with varying loading condition
of different surface roughness and different materials to get the real contact area
and thus TCC. Effect of varying parameters on real contact area has been obtained.
Increase in Roughness (10-40μm) results in increase in real contact area for Al &
MS. Under negligible Loading, real contact area is ≤5% of the nominal area. Increase
in Load results in terms of increase in real contact area for Al & MS.
135
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140
Chapter 8
Mathematical Modeling
of Five-Link Inverted Cart
and Pendulum System
Ashwani Kharola
ABSTRACT
This chapter describes a mathematical model and design structure of five-link
inverted pendulum on cart. The system comprises of five rigid pendulums or links
mounted on a mutable cart. The objective is to control all the five links at vertical
upright position when cart is stationary at particular location. The study considered
free-body-diagram (FBD) analysis of proposed system and applied Newton’s second
law of motion for deriving a mathematical model of proposed system. The derived
governing equations of motion can be further used by researchers for developing a
Matlab-Simulink model of five-link inverted pendulum system. The developed model
can be further used for deriving equations of motions for n-link cart and pendulum
system. Researchers can further apply various control techniques for control of
proposed system.
INTRODUCTION
Inverted Pendulum system belongs to a category of highly non-linear, multi-

variable and dynamic system which acts as a testing bed for validating various
control algorithms (Lee & Jung, 2008; Lobas, 2005). Some of the popular control
algorithms which are being widely tested using inverted pendulum system include
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch008
Mathematical Modeling of Five-Link Inverted Cart and Pendulum System
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers (Prasad et al., 2014), neural

networks (Noh et al., 2010), fuzzy logic controllers (Elsayed et al., 2006), adaptive
neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), genetic algorithms (Dadios et al., 2006),
particle swarm optimsation algorithm etc. The system comprises of a rigid/flexible
pendulum mounted over a movable cart. The system has got its center of mass above
its pivot point which makes the behaviour of complete system highly nonlinear.
The objective is to control the pendulum at vertically upright orientation when
cart is being stabilised at particular location under influence of a control force
(Soumelids et al., 1997). A traditional pendulum system employed in wall clocks
is inherently stable when it is positioning vertically downwards whereas an inverted
pendulum needs a counter force for its balancing (Ananevskii & Anokhin, 2014).
The dynamics of inverted pendulum is related to the behaviour of missile or rocket
guidance system, ship yaw motion control, aircraft control in turbulence, human
standing etc (Gawthrop et al., 2014). There exist various variants of conventional
single-stage cart and pendulum system. These variants may include a multi-link cart
and pendulum system (Bowden et al., 2012), an elastic/flexible inverted pendulum
(Chao & Yu, 2004), cart and pole system climbing on slope (Dai et al., 2014), ball
and beam system, rotary inverted pendulum etc (Yavin, 1999). These systems are
widely employed in various robotics and industrial applications in order to satisfy
futuristic needs of mankind (Pomales & Gonzalez, 1996). This chapter focuses on
deriving a mathematical model of five-link cart and pendulum system. The system
comprises of five rigid links attached to each other and mounted on a movable cart as
shown in Figure 1. A five-link cart and pendulum system comprises of five identical
rigid links of masses (m1, m2…..m5) and lengths (l1, l2…..l5) respectively attached
one above another. These links or pendulums are inclined at an angle of (θ1, θ2…..
θ5) respectively from the vertical axis. The bottom most link is pivoted to a movable
cart of mass (m) which can move freely along horizontal direction under action of
frictional force (b). The cart is supplied an input force (F) to drag it on the surface.
The overall objective is to balance all the pendulums in vertical upright orientation
while the cart is stationary at the desired location. The configuration of proposed
system can be effectively used for analysing behaviour of flexible machine structures
and humanoid robots (Lee et al., 2012). The governing equations of motion for five-
link inverted pendulum system have been derived applying Newton’s second law
of motion. The complete system has been divided into separate cart and pendulum
sub-systems for better free-body-diagram (FBD) analysis.
141
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF FIVE-LINK

CART AND PENDULUM SYSTEM
The mathematical model for five-link cart and pendulum system was built using
governing equations applying Newton’s second law of motion. The complete cart
and pendulum system was divided into various sub-systems for better free-body-
diagram (FBD) analysis of proposed system. The equations of motion derived for
various sub-systems are given below (Eltohamy & Kuo, 1999).
Figure 1. A schematic view of Five-link cart and pendulum system
142
Equation of Motion for Cart-Subsystem
A FBD of cart sub-system incorporating all the forces acting on it is shown in

Figure 2. A control force (F) is required to drag the cart in horizontal direction under
influence of friction (b). The interaction forces acting between the cart and link-1
along vertical and horizontal directions are represented by P1 and N1 respectively.
Summing all the forces acting in horizontal direction on cart gives the following
equation of motion:
1
x=
 ( F − N1 − bx ) (1)
M
Equations of Motion for Link-1
A FBD analysis of link-1 incorporating all the forces acting on it is shown in Figure
3. It is clear from the figure that link-1 makes an angle of θ1 from vertical and is
subjected to a vertical downward force of magnitude m1 g . The interaction forces
acting between link-1 and link-2 along vertical and horizontal directions are
represented by P2 and N2 respectively.
Summing all the forces acting in horizontal direction on link-1 gives the following
equations of motion:
x1 = x − l1 sin θ 1 (2)
Differentiating Equation (2) once yields:
Figure 2. FBD analysis of cart sub-system
143
Figure 3. FBD analysis of link-1
x1 = x − l1θ1 cos θ1 (3)
Differentiating Equation (2) twice yields:
 x − θ12l1 sin θ1 − θ1l1 cos θ1

x1 =  (4)
Summing all the forces acting in vertical direction on link-1 gives the following
y1 = l1 cos θ1 (5)
y1 = −l1θ1 sin θ1 (6)
y1 = −θ12l1 cos θ1 − θ1l1 sin θ1

 (7)
Now, considering the interaction forces between cart and link-1 along horizontal
direction give the following equations:
m1 
x1 = N1 − N 2 (8)
144
Solving for N1 gives:
N1 = m1 
x1 + N 2 (9)
Now, considering the interaction forces between cart and link-1 along vertical
m1 
y1 = P1 − m1 g − P2 (10)
Solving for P1 gives:
P1 = m1 
y1 + m1 g + P2 (11)
The above equations were further used for deriving an expression for angular
( )
acceleration θ1 of link-1 given by:
θ1 = ( N1l1 cos θ1 + Pl

1 1 sin θ1 − b1θ1 + N 2l1 cos θ1 + P2 l1 sin θ1 )
1  (12)
I1
4. It is clear from the figure that link-2 makes an angle of θ 2 from vertical and is
145

x2 = x − 2l1 sin θ1 − l2 sin θ 2 (13)
x2 = x − 2l1θ1 cos θ1 − θ2l2 cos θ 2 (14)
x + 2θ12l1 sin θ1 − 2θ1l1 cos θ1 + θ2 2l2 sin θ 2 − θ2l2 sin θ 2 − θ2l2 cos θ 2
x2 = 

(15)
y2 = 2l1 cos θ1 + l2 cos θ 2 (16)
y 2 = −2θ1l1 sin θ1 + θ2l2 sin θ 2 (17)
y2 = −2θ12l1 cos θ1 − 2θ1l1 sin θ1 − θ2 2l2 cos θ 2 − θ2l2 sin θ 2

 (18)
Now, considering the interaction forces between link-1 and link-2 along horizontal
m2 
x2 = N 2 − N 3 (19)
Solving for N 2 gives:
146
N 2 = m2 
x2 + N 3 (20)
Considering the interaction forces between link-1 and link-2 along vertical
m2 
y2 = P2 − m2 g − P3 (21)
( )
θ2 = ( N 2l2 cos θ 2 + P2l2 sin θ 2 − b2θ2 + N 3l2 cos θ 2 + P3l2 sin θ 2 )
1
(22)
I2
subjected to a vertical downward force of magnitude, m3 g . The interaction forces
147
x3 = x − 2l1 sin θ1 − 2l2 sin θ 2 − l3 sin θ3 (23)
x3 = x − 2l1θ1 cos θ1 − 2θ2l2 cos θ 2 − l3θ3 cos θ3 (24)
x + 2θ12l1 sin θ1 − 2θ1l1 cos θ1 + 2θ2 2l2 sin θ 2 − 2θ2l2 cos θ 2 − θ3l3 cos θ3 + θ32l3 sin θ3
x3 = 

(25)
y3 = 2l1 cos θ1 + 2l2 cos θ 2 + l3 cos θ3 (26)
y3 = −2θ1l1 sin θ1 − 2θ2l2 sin θ 2 − θ3l3 sin θ3 (27)
y3 = −2l1 (θ1 sin θ1 + θ12 cos θ1 ) − 2l2 (θ2 sin θ 2 + θ22 cos θ 2 ) − l3 (θ3 sin θ3 + θ32 cos θ3 )

(28)
m3 
x3 = N 3 − N 4 (29)
Solving for N 3 gives:
N 3 = m3 
x3 + N 4 (30)
Considering the interaction forces between link-2 and link-3 along vertical
148
m3 
y3 = P3 − m3 g − P4 (31)
P3 = m3 
y3 + m3 g + P4 (32)
( )
θ3 = ( N 3l3 cos θ3 + P3l3 sin θ3 − b3θ3 + N 4l3 cos θ3 + P4l3 sin θ3 )
1
(33)
I3
6. It is clear from the figure that link-4 makes an angle of θ 4 from vertical and is
x4 = x − 2l1 sin θ1 − 2l2 sin θ 2 − 2l3 sin θ 3 −l4 sin θ 4 (34)
149
x4 = x − 2l1θ1 cos θ1 − 2θ2l2 cos θ 2 − 2l3θ3 cos θ3 − l4θ4 cos θ 4 (35)
x + 2θ12l1 sin θ1 − 2θ1l1 cos θ1 + 2θ2 2l2 sin θ 2 − 2θ2l2 cos θ 2 + 2θ32l3 sin θ3
x4 = 


−2θ l cos θ + l θ 2 sin θ − l θ cos θ
3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4
(36)
y4 = 2l1 cos θ1 + 2l2 cos θ 2 + 2l3 cos θ3 + l4 cos θ 4 (37)
y 4 = −2θ1l1 sin θ1 − 2θ2l2 sin θ 2 − 2θ3l3 sin θ3 − θ4l4 sin θ 4 (38)
y4 = −2l1 (θ1 sin θ1 + θ12 cos θ1 ) − 2l2 (θ2 sin θ 2 + θ22 cos θ 2 )

(39)
−2l (θ sin θ + θ 2 cos θ ) − l (θ sin θ + θ 2 cos θ )
3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4
m4 
x4 = N 4 − N 5 (40)
Now, considering the interaction forces between link-3 and link-4 along vertical
m4 
y4 = P4 − m4 g − P5 (41)
150
P4 = m4 ( 
y4 + g ) + P5 (42)
( )
θ4 = ( N 4l4 cos θ 4 + P4l4 sin θ 4 − b4θ4 + N 5l4 cos θ 4 + P5l4 sin θ 4 )
1
(43)
I4
subjected to a vertical downward force of magnitude m5 g .
x5 = x − 2l1 sin θ1 − 2l2 sin θ 2 − 2l3 sin θ3 − 2l4 sin θ 4 − l5 sin θ5 (44)
x5 = x − 2l1θ1 cos θ1 − 2θ2l2 cos θ 2 − 2l3θ3 cos θ3 − 2l4θ4 cos θ 4 − l5θ5 cos θ5
(45)
151
x + 2θ12l1 sin θ1 − 2θ1l1 cos θ1 + 2θ2 2l2 sin θ 2 − 2θ2l2 cos θ 2 + 2θ32l3 sin θ3
x5 = 


−2θ l cos θ + 2l θ 2 sin θ − 2l θ cos θ + l θ 2 sin θ − l θ cos θ
3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
(46)
y5 = 2l1 cos θ1 + 2l2 cos θ 2 + 2l3 cos θ3 + 2l4 cos θ 4 + l5 cos θ5 (47)
y5 = −2θ1l1 sin θ1 − 2θ2l2 sin θ 2 − 2θ3l3 sin θ3 − 2θ4l4 sin θ 4 − θ5l5 sin θ5 (48)
y5 = −2l1 (θ1 sin θ1 + θ12 cos θ1 ) − 2l2 (θ2 sin θ 2 + θ22 cos θ 2 )


−2l3 (θ3 sin θ3 + θ32 cos θ3 ) − 2l4 (θ4 sin θ 4 + θ42 cos θ 4 ) − l5 (θ5 sin θ5 + θ52 cos θ5 )
(49)
m5 
x5 = N 5 (50)
Now, considering the interaction forces between link-4 and link-5 along vertical
m5 
y5 = P5 − m5 g (51)
P5 = m5 ( 
y5 + g ) (52)
152
( )
θ5 = ( N 5l5 cos θ5 + P5l5 sin θ5 − b5θ5 )

1
(53)
I5
FUTURE SCOPE
As an extension to future work the proposed governing equations can be further used
to build a Simulink model of five-link cart and pendulum system. The Simulink
model can be further used to test various control algorithms and techniques. Apart
from this these equations can be further used to obtain a general expression for
n-link cart and pendulum system.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has successfully presented mathematical modeling and dynamic

representation of a five-link inverted pendulum on cart. Initially, a brief introduction
and description about the system has been given. The proposed system is further
divided into different sub-systems for developing governing equations of motion
through FBD representation. The study applied Newton’s second law of motion
for deriving equations of motion for the proposed sub-systems. As an extension to
future work the above derived equations can be further used to generate a Matlab-
Simulink model of five-link inverted pendulum system which can be used by students
and researchers for testing various control algorithms. The proposed system can be
considered for analysing behaviour of many practical systems and assemblies like
robotic joints, humanoid robot motion control, missile subsystems etc (Baltes et al.,
2014; Takano & Nakamura, 2017; Liano et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2016).
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155
156
Chapter 9
Design and Thermal Analysis
of MgZrO3 Ceramic Coated
I.C. Engine Piston Based on
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Shailendra Kumar
College of Engineering Science and Technology Lucknow, India
ABSTRACT
Piston is considered to be one of the most important part of internal combustion
engine. Piston is used to deliver thrust via connecting rod to the main shaft of the
engine. Normally it is made of cast iron which bears high gas pressure and has
damping property. The main objective of this chapter is to perform structural and
thermal analysis of MgZrO3 top surface ceramic coated piston. Piston made up of
gray cast iron coated with ceramic material (MgZrO3) which is bonded by special
material (NiCrAl) is designed by machine design approach to determine the dimensions
of the piston and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was performed using ANSYS 17.1.
The pressure of the 5 N/mm2 was applied at top land of piston. An equivalent Von
misses stress in ceramic coated piston was found less in comparison to uncoated
piston. Thermal analysis of both coated and non-coated piston was performed.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3722-9.ch009
INTRODUCTION
Piston is an integral part of internal combustion engine. It helps to produce power and
it is subjected to high temperature and pressure. The life of components like piston,
piston pin, connecting rod, crank and other internal part of piston is affected by high
temperature and pressure. Piston is a cylindrical part in cylinder which reciprocates
in it. It is either moved by the mixture (air and fuel) or it moves the mixture which
enters inside the cylinder of I.C. engine. Function of piston is to receive thrust due
to combustion of mixture and then transfer thrust to the crankshaft via connecting
rod which in turn runs the engine shaft. It also transferred a large amount of heat
from the combustion chamber to the cylinder walls.
Cerit (2014) in his research article titled “Temperature and thermal stress analyses
of a ceramic-coated aluminum alloy piston used in a diesel engine” has determined
temperature and thermal stress distributions on a plasma-sprayed and magnesia-
stabilized zirconia coated aluminum piston crown. It improves the performance
of a C.I. engine. Effect of the coating thickness on temperature and thermal stress
distributions was well investigated, including results comparison with uncoated
piston. Temperature and thermal stress analysis was performed for various coating
thicknesses from 0.2 to 1.6 mm. Temperature at the coated surface is found to be
significantly higher than that of the uncoated piston. It observed that the coating
surface temperature increases with decreasing rate of coating thickness. For 1 mm
thickness coating on piston it increases 64.3% higher temperature sustainability.
The normal stress on the coated surface decreases with increase in coat thickness.
The higher combustion chamber temperature achieve by coating results with better
thermal efficiency of the engine.
Chan (2000) in his article titled “The effect of thermal barrier coated piston
crown on engine characteristics”, has investigated the use of ceramic components
in reciprocating engines. Ceramic components are now in service, mainly for
enhancing cylinder heat absorption on thermal coating. They work on a low heat
rejection engine. Experiments were conducted on a three-cylinder SI engine with
piston crowns coated with layers of ceramic, which is composed of Yttria-Stabilized
Zirconia (YSZ). Measurement and comparison of engine performance has been
done for particular fuel consumption, made before and after the application of YSZ
coatings on the piston crowns.
Hejwowski (2002) in research article entitled “ The effect of thermal barrier
coatings on diesel engine performance” has performed experimental study to know
effects of thin thermal barrier coatings on the performance of a diesel engine. The
results obtained from the analysis of thermally insulated pistons of engines were
compared with the base (existing) engine data. Engine trials demonstrated good
157
properties of both coating systems. The temperature and stress distributions on the
pistons were evaluated analytically by means of the Cosmos/Works FEM. Results
of a road test on a gasoline-engine-driven car are also reported. They concluded
that the performance of the modified engine-driven car was found satisfactory and
ceramic coating did not produce observable knocking in the engine, no significant
wear of piston skirts or cylinder liners were reported.
Pierz (1993) in research article “Thermal barrier coating development for diesel
engine aluminum pistons” determined the Specific outputs of some diesel engine
applications have applied thermal loadings in excess on aluminum-piston alloys. He
has evaluated Thermal barrier coatings to find the component durability to acceptable
levels and also giving a means of lowering heat rejection. The use of a finite element
model to analyze these thermal barrier coating systems which include the impact on
material properties, coating thickness, residual stress and boundary conditions was
discussed in this research article. The resulting temperature and stresses, together
with material strength were found. The main cause of failure of coating was found
to be due to low cycle fatigue arises due to localized yielding when the coating is
hot and in compression.
Buyukkaya (2008) in article, “Thermal analysis of functionally graded coating
Al Si alloy and steel pistons” found that functionally graded coatings are useful to
increase performances of high temperature components in engines. These coatings
consist of a transition from the metallic bond layer to cermet layer and from cermet
layer to the ceramic layer. In his summary, thermal behavior of functional graded
coatings on AISi and steel piston materials was determine by means of using a
analysis software, ANSYS. Thermal analyses were employed to deposit metallic,
cermet and ceramic powders such as NiCrAI, NiCrAI + MgZrO3 and MgZrO3
on the substrate. The results of AISi and steel pistons are comparing with respect
to each other. It was showing that the max surface temperature of the functional
graded coating AI Si alloy and steel pistons was gradually increased by 28% and
17%, respectively. Silva (2006), has performed case study on the fatigue of pistons
uses in different applications and found that fatigue is not the major reason for all
the piston damages but it remains a problem. Now days more investigations are
made into fuel consumption obtained by decreasing weight which resulted in the
thin walls for the piston and thus possess maximum stresses.
Cerit (2014) carried out “Thermal analysis on partially coated SI engine piston”
to explore the effects of ceramic coatings on the temperatures of crevices and wall
quenching regions. The results obtained by analysis shows that the temperatures
on the coated surfaces close to the crevice and wall quenching regions resulted in
increase of 100°C in the temperatures. These increases in the temperatures indicate
the fact that the temperature of air fuel mixture can be raised.
158
Previously, cast iron was used as piston material because of its better wear
properties, but possesses high specific weight, thus experiencing larger inertia forces.
Later on Aluminum alloy containing silicon come into existence which has high
strength and reduced expansion. Aluminum alloy uses mainly two configurations
of silicon. One is eutectic and another is hyper-eutectic which having 12% and 22%
of silicon respectively. The material becomes more brittle if its content is more than
12%. Performance of an engine can be increased by insulating the components.
Insulation prevents the components to with stand the higher temperatures resulting
in failure. In order to avoid this, ceramic coatings are employed which can resist high
temperatures to work efficiently as metal alone cannot withstand high temperatures.
The requirements of the materials used in the piston very wide and of diverse nature
as it works in extreme hostile environment. The Materials used in the manufacturing
of piston are Cast Iron, Aluminum Alloys, Special steel alloys.
Cast iron used in piston is mainly of perlite structure with laminas as separate
entity. When it is alloyed, fine-grained structure is obtained to improve the
mechanical properties of the material. The advantages of cast iron are high abrasion
resistance, good sliding properties small decrease in strength and hardness in high
temperatures, small coefficient of thermal expansion but disadvantages are high
density and small coefficient of heat conduction. Hardness in cast shall be iron in
the range 180 – 240 HB.
CERAMIC COATING
Ceramic Coatings are often used as a protective coating on or in between the engine
Parts, which result in minimize of friction, increase wear resistance and maintaining
heat Shielding. All above factors have great influence on the performance parameters
and the life of the component in an automobile vehicle. Ceramic coatings help parts
to connect in Uniform manner and in compatible fashion. Zirconium based ceramic
coatings are used mainly. Zirconiums in combination with Magnesia have very good
mechanical properties, thermal shock resistance and impact properties. Zirconium-
based ceramic coatings are used as thermal barrier coatings (TBC) because of they
possess very low thermal conductivity and relatively high coefficients of thermal
expansion in comparison to other ceramics which reduce the stresses. Thermal
barrier coatings acting as the insulators on piston surface making it possible to
avail maximum heat for combustion, which results in better work completed on
piston. These coatings distribute the heat evenly, which help in preventing high
temperature zones.
159
Acquiring more heat on to the piston surface rather than transferring prevents the
Pre-ignition of the gasses in the cylinder. The problem in the combustion chamber
with conventional materials is that most of the heat generated in an engine will be lost
through conduction, convection and radiation. Hence, the way out of this situation
is to make the components insulated so that it could withstand high temperatures in
combustion chamber (C.C.) By TBCs. Burning of gases in an engine can be done
more efficiently and effectively by increasing the temperature of the air-fuel mixture.
Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) help in increasing the thermal efficiency of the
engine. The heat rejection to surroundings is minimized by use of ceramics material.
The excess heat can be used for effective burning of the air-fuel mixture and reduces
heat loss. These coatings have high thermal durability so the requirement to cool
them immediately is not needed. Wear and corrosive properties are very much better
than regularly used component materials. Less heat transfer from the combustion
chamber due to thermal coatings helps in using the cylinder heat more effectively.
More heat can be transferred to exhaust system. This heat can be reused for heat
recovery systems for power generation. These coatings also help in reducing the
cold start emissions.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
A ceramic coated (MgZrO3) piston made of gray cast iron is designed for a single acting
four stroke internal combustion engine. Ceramic coated piston is then structurally
and thermally analyzed under given load and in convective environment respectively.
Design experiment was performed to determine the variation of different parameters
like equivalent stresses, total deformation and the maximum temperature with the
application of different thickness of ceramic coating. Specification of engine is as
following for which piston coating has been done (see Figure 1):
Bore of cylinder = 100 mm
length of Stroke = 125 mm
Maximum gas pressure(Pmax) = 5 N/mm2
Indicated mean effective pressure = 0.75 N/mm2
160
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of ceramic coated piston
Mechanical efficiency (η) = 80%
Fuel consumption = 0.15 kg per brake power per hour
Higher calorific value of fuel = 42 × 103 kJ/kg
Speed = 2000 R.P.M
NUMERICAL CALCULATION FOR PISTON MODELLING
The analysis of piston is broadly divided into several parts which include designing
of piston parts. In this section different parameters has been determined for solid
modelling of piston.
161
Piston Head or Crown
There are two methods on which the thickness of the piston head is designed:
1. Strength basis
2. Heat dissipation
To find the thickness of piston head on the basis of strength, we require tensile
stress for cast iron which may be taken as (σt= 38 MPa):
3 pD 2
th = = 15.7 ≈ 16mm
16σ t
The engine is a four-stroke engine, therefore, the number of working strokes

per minute:
n = N / 2 = 1000
Cross-sectional area of the cylinder:
π 2
A= D = 7855mm 2
4
The indicated power of the cylinder may be calculated as:
LANpm
IP = = 12.276kW
60
Brake power:
BP = IP ×ηm = 9.8kW
162
The heat flowing through the piston head (Assuming C = 0.051) is given by:
H = C × HCV × m × BP≈ 860W
Thickness of the piston head on the basis of heat dissipation, we require thermal
conductivity for cast ironk = 46.6 W/m/°C, and assume (TC– TE)= 200°C):
H
th = = 7.3mm
12.56k (Tc − TE )
Taking the larger of the two values, we will take:
th = 16 mm
since the ratio of L / D is 1.25.

A cup in the top of the piston head with a radius equal to 0.7 D (i.e. 70 mm) is
provided.
Radial Ribs
The radial ribs are taken as four in number. The range of thickness of the ribs varies
from th / 3 to th / 2.
Range of Thickness of the ribs:
tR = 16 / 3 to 16 / 2 = 5.33 to 8 mm
Lets take it astR = 7 mm.
Piston Rings
Assuming, there are total four rings out of which three are compression ringsand
one is an oil ring. And taking Pw = 0.035 N/mm2, and σt= 90 MPa.
The radial thickness of the piston rings is given by:
3 pw
t1 = D = 3.4mm
σt
and axial thickness of the piston rings:
163
t2 = 0.7 t1 to t1 = 0.7 × 3.4 to 3.4 mm = 2.38 to 3.4 mm
Take:
t2 = 3 mm
We also know that the minimum axial thickness of the piston ring:
D
t2 = = 2.5mm
10nr
Thus the axial thickness of the piston ring as already calculated (i.e. t2= 3 mm)
is satisfactory.
The distance from the top of the piston to the first ring groove.
The width of the top land of the piston:
z1 = th to 1.2 th = 16 to 1.2 × 16 mm = 16 to 19.2 mm
The width of lands of other ring:
z2 = 0.75 t2 to t2 = 0.75 × 3 to 3 mm = 2.25 to 3 mm
Taking:
z1 = 18 mm; and z2= 2.5 mm
The gap between the free ends of the ring is calculated as:
Gap1 = 3.5 t1 to 4 t1 = 3.5 × 3.4 to 4 × 3.4 mm = 11.9 to 13.6 mm
The gap when the ring is in the cylinder is determined as:
Gap2 = 0.002 D to 0.004 D = 0.002 × 100 to 0.004 × 100 mm
= 0.2 to 0.4 mm
Taking:
Gap1= 12.8 mm and Gap2= 0.3 mm
164
Piston Barrel
The radial depth of the piston ring grooves (z) is about 0.4 mm more than the radial
thickness of the piston rings (t1).
Thus, z is calculated as:
z = t1 + 0.4 = 3.4 + 0.4 = 3.8 mm
The maximum thickness of barrel is calculated as 4.5mm more than the sum of
0.03 times diameter and radial depth:
t3 = 0.03 D + z + 4.5 = 0.03 × 100 + 3.8 + 4.5 = 11.3 mm
The piston wall thickness towards the open end:
t4 = 0.25 t3 to 0.35 t3 = 0.25 × 11.3 to 0.35 × 11.3 = 2.8 to 3.9 mm
Taking:
t4 = 3.4 mm
Piston Skirt
Let L = Length of the skirt in mm.

The maximum side thrust on the cylinder due to gas pressure (p) and assuming
μ = 0.1:
π D2
T =µ p = 3.928kN
4
Because of bearing pressure on the piston barrel (Pb= 0.45 N/mm2), the side
thrust may be calculated as:
T = Pb× D × L = 0.45 × 100 × L = 45L N
From above, we find that:
45L= 3928 or L = 3928 / 45 ≈90 mm
165
Total length of the piston:
L = Length of the skirt + Length of the ring section + Top land
= L + (4 t2 + 3z2) + z1
= 90 + (4 × 3 + 3 × 3) + 18 ≈ 130 mm
Piston Pin
Let:
d0 = Outside diameter of the pin in mm
l1 = Length of pin in the bush of the small end of the connecting rod in mm (Taking
l1 = 0.45 D)
and:
pb1 = Bearing pressure at the small end of the connecting rod bushing in N/mm2
Bearing pressure for bronze bushing is 25 N/mm2.

The load on the pin because to bearing pressure may be calculated as:
= Bearing pressure × Bearing area = pb1 × d0 × l1
= 25 × d0 × 0.45 × 100 = 1.125 d0kN
The maximum load on the piston due to gas pressure or maximum gas load:
π D2
= p = 39.275kN
4
From above, we find that:
1.125 d0 = 39 .275 or d0 = 39. 275 / 1.125 ≈ 35 mm
The inside diameter of the pin (di) is usually taken as 0.6 d0:
di = 0.6 × 35 = 21 mm
166
SOLID MODELLING AND MESHING
Figure 2 shows modelling of piston using calculated dimensions. To know accurate

stresses and thermal profile of piston calculated modelling of piston has been done.
Figure 3 shows front and isometric view of 3D modeled piston. After solid modelling
of piston ceramic coating has been applied on top surface of piston as shown in
Figure 4. Ceramic coating (MgZrO3) was applied on gray cast iron piston using
bonding material (NiCrAl). Mechanical properties of ceramic material and bonding
material have been listed in Table 1.
Figure 2. Piston modelling based on previous calculations
167
Figure 3. Different 3D views of solid piston
Figure 4. Ceramic coated piston
For Finite Element Analysis (FEA) solid mesh was generated individually for all
three materials (ceramic coating, bonding material and gray cast iron). Tetra mesh
was used to meet more number of elements for approximately match the accuracy
of the hex mesh. Figure 5 shows meshed model of coated piston.
168
Table 1 Mechanical properties of piston materials
MgZrO3 NiCrAl
S.N. Property Gray Cast Iron
(Ceramic Material) (Bonding Material)
1 Young’s Modulus(MPa) 110000 46000 90000
2 Poisson’s ratio 0.28 0.2 0.27
Thermal Conductivity (W/
3 52 8 12
mm0C)
Thermal expansion
4 0.000011 0.0008 16
coefficient(1/0C)
5 Density (Ton/mm3) 7.2 E-09 5.6 E-09 7.8 E-09
6 Specific heat(J/kg0C) 460 650 764
Figure 5. FEA meshing of ceramic coated piston
After meshing the 3D model, has been checked for elemental quality. If the
elements fail in quality check by permissible amount, the quality of results obtained
from post processing will deteriorate. Different entity sets were created to ease the
load application in ANSYS. As the piston is a complex structure, SOLID 186 was
chosen for the thermal analysis and structural analysis. The number of elements
obtained after default settings in ANSYS are 4661 and the number of nodes are
10698 for the uncoated piston.
169
MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND FEA SIMULATION RESULTS
Structural Analysis
To perform the FEA analysis of piston mechanical properties are required. Piston is
made up of gray cast iron material and MgZrO3 has been used as ceramic material
for coating. To add coating on piston surface NiCrAl has been used as bonding
material. Mechanical properties of these materials are listed in Table 1.
For structural analysis the main objective was to calculate stresses and total
deformation due to stresses. As per specification of engine maximum pressure of 5N/
mm2 is applied at the top land of the piston for evaluating stresses and deformation
patterns.
In first stage equivalent stresses and total deformation was simulated for uncoated
gray cast iron piston. In second stage stresses and deformation was calculated for
ceramic coated piston and FEA results comparison has been done. Figure 6 shows
structural analysis of uncoated piston. From stress pattern Figure 6 (a) it is confirmed
that maximum stress was evaluated at top land and piston pin area of piston. Von
misses stress variation in uncoated piston is in range of 15 to 20 Mpa. Due to high
stress generation maximum deformation has been seen on top centre portion of piston.
Red hues show maximum deformation in piston (Figure 6 (b)) which is 0.029 mm.
Figure 7 shows structural analysis of ceramic coated piston. Figure 7 (a) shows
equivalent von misses stress. Blue hues shows minimum stress pattern in coated piston.
Figure 6. Structural analysis of uncoated piston
170
Figure 7. Structural analysis of coated piston
Stress pattern numerically varies between 5 to 7 Mpa which is within permissible

range of ceramic material. In comparison to uncoated piston the stress generation
in ceramic coated piston is (50-70) % less. It will result in high service life of piston
under extreme condition of temperature and pressure. Figure 7 (b) shows deformation
pattern in ceramic coated piston. Red hues show maximum deformation (0.028 mm)
where blue hues show minimum deformation (0.0031 mm). Use of ceramic coating
reduces deformation by 0.001 mm. These results signifies that MgZro3 ceramic
coating have significant effect on piston service life.
Thermal Analysis
Thermal analysis of uncoated and ceramic coated piston was performed and full
temperature profile of piston was simulated. For thermal analysis convective heat
transfer coefficient and maximum head load was considered and applied in different
part of piston as shown in Figure 8. Maximum temperature profile was generated
shown in Figure 9. Red hues shows maximum temperature of 6820C found at top land
of piston and at different side of piston rings. Inner core of piston have temperature
up to 1800C.
Figure 10 shows temperature profile of ceramic coated piston. At top land of
ceramic piston maximum temperature is 6970C which is 170C higher than uncoated
piston. Inner core of piston have temperature up to 3000C. Higher temperature
profile signifies lower heat loss which was the main objective of ceramic coating.
On thermal ground it was found that Zirconium based ceramic coating (MgZrO3)
serve the purpose of thermal barrier coatings (TBC) because it have low thermal
conductivity and relatively high coefficients of thermal expansion in comparison.
171
Figure 8. Application of thermal convective load on uncoated piston
Figure 9. Variation of temperature profile on uncoated piston
Design of experiment work has been done. All parameters were considered to find
the variation of stresses and temperature with ceramic coating thickness. Figure 11
shows temperature variation with ceramic coating thickness. When coating thickness
is 0.6 mm maximum temperature of piston is 6970C. For coating thickness variation
of (0.6 to 2.4) mm maximum temperature varies (681 to 697) 0C.
Figure 12 shows variation of total deformation with thickness of ceramic coating.
It was concluded that as thickness increases level of deformation decreases. When
coating thickness is less than 1mm total deformation is more than 0.028 mm. As
coating thickness increases deformation level decreases.
172
Figure 10. Variation of temperature profile on ceramic coated piston
Figure 11. Graphical representation of temperature variation with respect to the

thickness of ceramic coating
173
Figure 12. Variation of total deformation with respect to the thickness of ceramic
coating
FUTURE SCOPE
In future this research work can be extended for following problem definition:
1. Validation of simulation results by experimental temperature profile

measurement of ceramic coated piston;
2. Evaluation of heat transfer effect due to ceramic coating and role of bonding
material.
CONCLUSION
The following points have been concluded from the structural and the thermal analysis
of the gray cast iron piston coated with ceramic material (MgZrO3). NiCrAl has
been used as special bonding material for ceramic coating of piston:
• Equivalent stresses for ceramic coated piston are found to be around 7 Mpa
which is half of uncoated piston stresses (15-20) MPa;
• The maximum temperature experienced by the piston crown is 697 ºC for
ceramic coated piston which signifies TBC property of ceramic coating. This
temperature is higher than 15 ºC in comparison to uncoated piston higher
temperature (682 ºC);
174
• The total deformation decreases considerably with the increase in the thickness
of the ceramic coats. There is decrease of 0.01 mm in total deformation for
ceramic coated piston in comparison to uncoated piston.
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238
About the Contributors
Ashwani Kumar is Officer at Department of Technical Education (Ministry

of Technical Education), Government of Uttar Pradesh, India. He has seven years
of academic and research experience in mechanical vibration and design, design
of dynamics system with special emphasis in heavy vehicle dynamics, mechanics
of solid, industrial management and BioMechanical body vibration analysis. He
is editorial board member of two international journals and acts as review board
member of 15 prestigious Web of science international journals. In addition he
has also published 67 research articles in journals, book chapters and conferences.
Presently he is involved in research and training for skill development.
Pravin P. Patil received M.Tech (Machine Design) and PhD (Mech. Engg.)
degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. He has published more
than 100 research papers in highly indexed international journals and conferences.
He is on reviewer panel of various reputed International Journals in his areas of
research such as IEEE/ASME Transaction of Mechatronics, ISA Transactions of
Elsevier, etc. He has been awarded with Young Scientist Award for the year 2013
(Research Grant of Rs. 18.3 Lakhs) by Department of Science and Technology
(DST), New Delhi, Govt. of India. He is a recipient of MHRD / QIP Fellowship
award of Govt. of India. He is recipient of Meritorious Research Performance award
at Graphic Era University, Dehradun. He is consistently involved in teaching and
research since last 18 years in multidisciplinary research areas which includes finite
element analysis, mechatronics, mechanical vibration, soft computing techniques,
computational statistics techniques, etc.
Yogesh K. Prajapati received M.Tech (Thermal Engg.) and PhD (Thermal Engg.)
degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur and Patna respectively.
He has published several research papers in highly indexed international journals
and conferences. He has also been reviewer of reputed International Journal and
conferences in his areas of research such as Elsevier, FMFP, etc. He is consistently

involved in teaching and research since last 8 years in interdisciplinary research areas
which includes Multiphase flow, heat transfer, flow boiling in miniature devices,
computational fluid dynamics, etc.
***
Divya Ahluwalia received her Ph.D degree in Mathematics from Indian Institute
of Technology, Roorkee (India) in 2004. Currently, she is an Associate Professor
& Head, Department of Mathematics, University of Petroleum and Energy Stud-
ies, Dehradun (India). Her research interest include controllability of deterministic
systems and reliability theory.
Monika Manglik received a Bachelor’s Degree in Science from Rohilkhand

University, Bareilly in 2002 and a Master’s Degree in Mathematics from H. N. B
Gharwal University, Srinagar (Gharwal) in 2004. She has completed Ph.D. in math-
ematics from Graphic Era University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand in 2014. She worked
as a Faculty Member for around two Years. Currentry she is working as Assistant
Professor in University of Petroleum and Energy studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
She has taught several core courses in applied Mathematics at undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. She has published research papers in National and international
Journals also presented her works at National and International conferences. Her
fields of research are reliability theory and applied Mathematics.
Mangey Ram received the B.Sc. degree in science from Chaudhary Charan Singh
University, Meerut, India, in 2000, the M.Sc. degree in mathematics from Hemwati
Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), India, in 2004, and the
Ph.D. degree major in mathematics and minor in computer science from G. B. Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India, in 2008. He has been a
Faculty Member for around nine years and has taught several core courses in pure
and applied mathematics at undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctorate levels. He
is currently a Professor at Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India. Before joining
the Graphic Era University, he was a Deputy Manager (Probationary Officer) with
Syndicate Bank for a short period. He is Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of
Mathematical, Engineering and Management Sciences; Executive Editor of Journal
of Graphic Era University; Associate Executive Editor of Journal of Reliability and
Statistical Studies and the Guest Editor & Member of the editorial board of many
journals. He is a regular Reviewer for international journals, including IEEE, Elsevier,
Springer, Emerald, John Wiley, Taylor & Francis and many other publishers. He has
239
published 111 research publications in IEEE, Springer, Emerald, World Scientific

and many other national and international journals of repute and also presented his
works at national and international conferences. His fields of research are reliability
theory and applied mathematics. Dr. Ram is a senior member of the IEEE, member
of Operational Research Society of India, Society for Reliability Engineering, Qual-
ity and Operations Management in India, International Association of Engineers in
Hong Kong, and Emerald Literati Network in the U.K. He has been a member of
the organizing committee of a number of international and national conferences,
seminars, and workshops. He has been conferred with “Young Scientist Award” by
the Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Dehradun, in 2009. He
has been awarded the “Best Faculty Award” in 2011 and recently Research Excel-
lence Award in 2015 for his significant contribution in academics and research at
Graphic Era University.
240
241
Index
A F
Active vibration control 23, 42, 47 FEM formulation 23, 47
advanced numerical simulation technique finite element 1, 18, 22-23, 34, 40, 47, 51,
51 118, 123, 125, 156, 158, 168
aluminium 50, 52, 65-68, 70, 72-73, 131 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 1, 3-4, 7,
aluminum alloy 122, 157, 159 9, 11, 14, 16, 18-19, 50-52, 54-55, 59,
automobile 23, 38, 64, 73, 159 156, 168-170
Availability 96-98, 115 Finite Element Method (FEM) 22-23,
47, 118
C Five-link inverted pendulum 140-141, 153
free-body-diagram (FBD) 140-145, 147,
Ceramic Coating 67, 158-160, 167-168, 149, 151, 153
171-174 free-body-diagram (FBD) analysis 140-142
ceramic-coated aluminum alloy 157 fuel economy 2, 9
Composite materials 63-64 Fundamental Frequency 51, 55, 59
composites 64-68, 70, 72-73 fuzzy logic 22-23, 32-34, 42-47, 98, 141
Conductance 118-122, 127, 129, 131, 134 Fuzzy logic controller 22-23, 32-34, 42-47
Conjugate 76, 79-80, 82, 84, 92, 95, 121
conversion systems 64 G
copper substrate 76, 80-82, 87
gas turbines 64
D Gaussian distribution 121, 123-124
Gear oil 1-4, 7, 11, 13, 19
deformation theory 23-24, 47, 121 Gearbox 1-9, 11-19
dissipates frictional heat 2
Diverging Channel 76, 78-79, 81, 86-88, H
90-92, 95
double input-single output (DISO) 23, 47 heat transfer 3, 7, 12, 15, 76, 78-80, 83-
Dynamic Analysis 7, 35, 39-40, 42, 55 84, 86-87, 89-92, 119, 121-123, 128,
160, 171
E Higher gearing 2, 4, 8-9, 11-16
elastic strain 7-9, 68 I

EMMFS 50-52, 54-56, 58-60
Excitation 52, 55, 59 internal combustion engine 156-157, 160
Index
Internal friction 64, 68, 70 R

Inverted Pendulum 140-141, 153
Relaxation phenomena 70
M Reliability Analysis 97
repair rates 97-98, 115
Manufacturing System 96-97 resonating tubes 51-52
Markov process 96, 98 rotational speed 1-3, 6-8, 11-15
Material 2, 4, 11, 24, 28, 35-38, 50-51, 63- rough surfaces 118, 121-125, 131, 135
64, 68, 70-71, 78, 84, 99, 119, 121, Roughness 118-120, 123-124, 129-133, 135
156, 158-160, 167-168, 170-171, 174
mathematical modeling 102, 140, 153 S
Mechanical properties 2, 64, 70, 73, 159,
167, 170 shell structure 22-23, 32, 35-36, 39-43,
metal 66, 71-73, 159 45, 47
Microchannels 76-81, 83, 86, 89, 92 SiC particles 66-68, 72
Modeling 4, 50, 102, 118, 126-127, 140, 153 solar cells 64
spherical shell 22, 35-43, 45
N spherical shell structure 35-36, 39-43, 45
steady state 1, 3-4, 11, 14, 18-19
Newton’s second law 140-142, 153 structural elements 64, 68, 73
nonlinear fuzzy logic 23, 44-46 supplementary variable 96-98
numerical simulation 3-4, 14, 18, 34, 39, surface temperature 1, 11-19, 157-158
51, 118, 122
T
O
temperature 1-3, 11-19, 23, 64, 68-71, 77,
omega shape 51 79-80, 82-88, 90, 92, 119, 122, 128,
157-160, 171-173
P thermal analysis 1, 3, 11, 18, 156, 158,
169, 171, 174
paper manufacturing 98-100, 115 Thermal contact 77-78, 118-122, 127, 129,
physical properties 2, 11, 64, 91 131, 134
Piezo-laminated composite 23, 40, 43, 47 three dimensional (3D) 79-80, 82, 125,
Piston 156-174 135, 167-169
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) Total deformation 7-9, 11, 160, 170, 172,
controllers 141 174
transfer effect 80, 92
242
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Related References............................................................................................ 177

Compilation of References............................................................................... 220

About the Contributors.................................................................................... 238

The active control of vibration of piezoelectric flexible smart structure is an important

Flexibility refers to the capability of a manufacturing system to respond cost effectively

This chapter describes a mathematical model and design structure of five-link

Piston is considered to be one of the most important part of internal combustion

Related References............................................................................................ 177

Compilation of References............................................................................... 220

About the Contributors.................................................................................... 238

With Piezoelectric Layers,” addresses the topic of active control of vibrations,

We are thankful to Dr. Anshul Sharma, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Multi speed transmission gearbox is assembly of gears. The gearbox assembly is

CAD MODELLING AND EVALUATION OF

ASSIGNMENT OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Individual materials have been assigned to transmission gearbox components. Grey

Figure 1. Model of transmission gearbox assembly with housing

Figure 2. Transmission gearbox assembly

loading conditions. When vehicle is in running condition the operating parameters

Figure 3. FEA meshing of 4-speed transmission gearbox

Table 1. FEA simulation combined load case

Case B (4000 Case C (6000

DYNAMIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Table 2. Transient structural analysis of multi speed transmission gearbox lower

Figure 4. Max. principal stress variation 2nd gear 2000 rpm

Figure 5. Total deformations on second gear at 6000 rpm

Table 3. Transient structural analysis of 4 speed transmission gearbox higher gearing

Steady State Thermal Analysis: FEA Results and Discussion

Surface temperature study of transmission gearbox is highly nonlinear problem

Figure 6. Total deformations on third gear at 6000 rpm

Figure 7. Gearbox surface temperature distributions for lower gearing

Figure 8. Temperature variations at different points of gearbox surface for lower

FEA SIMULATION STEADY STATE

Figure 9. Gearbox surface temperature distributions for higher gearing

at 13 different points and simulation results were taken at 10 different points on

Figure 13 Gearbox surface temperature variations at 6000 rpm and comparison

In future this research work can be extended to:

1. Experimental study of temperature measurement for high speed vehicle

The chapter provides a reference at the initial stage of designing of transmission

FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

Figure 1. Four noded isoparametric degenerated shell element

Piezoelectric Constitutive Equations

The linear piezoelectric constitutive equations demonstrate direct and converse

Geometry and Displacement Field

x  x   l 

u  u 0  l −l2i   

Strain Displacement Relationship

Substituting equations (6 - 11) in equation (5)

{ε} = B  {q ′}

[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + [K uu ] {q } + [K uφ ] {φ} = {Fm } (31)

[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + [K uφ ] {φs } = {Fm } − [K uφ ] {φa } (33)

[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + ([K uu ] + [K uφ ][K φ φ ]−1[K φ u ]) {q } = {Fm } − [K uφ ] {φa }

[M uu ] {q} + [C uu ] {q } + [K ] {q } = {Fm } − {FA } (37)