МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ

УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«МОГИЛЕВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
им. А.А. КУЛЕШОВА»

В.Л. ФЕЛЬДМАН

THE CULTURAL, POLITICAL

AND ECONOMIC STATE
OF THE USA

РЕАЛИИ КУЛЬТУРЫ,
ПОЛИТИКИ И ЭКОНОМИКИ США

Методические р е к о м е н д а ц и и

Могилев 2005
УДК 802.0(076)
ББК 81.43.21 THE AMERICAN HEALTHCARE
Ф39 AND MEDICAL SYSTEM

Рецензент There are a couple of clear differences between the American

зав. кафедрой теории и практики
английского языка И. Б. Б и р ю к
Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского
и экспертного совета МГУ им. А. А. Кулешова
Фельдман, В. Л.
Ф39 The Cultural, Political and Economic State of the USA = Реалии куль­
туры, политики и экономики США : Метод, рекомендации / В.Л. Фель­
дман - Могилев: МГУ им. А.А. Кулешова, 2005. - 44 с.
Методические рекомендации предназначены для студентов 3 и 5-го курсов фа­
культета иностранных языков и исторического факультета специальности «История.
Иностранный язык». Содержат сведения и методические указания по проведению
практических занятий по страноведению в дополнение к существующему учебнику
«Хелло, Америка». Содержат аутентические тексты, содержащие новейшую инфор­
мацию по различным аспектам жизни и государственного устройства США.
УДК 802.0(076)
ББК 81.43.21
healthcare system and the healthcare systems of similar advanced,
industrialized nations. First, most Americans receive healthcare through
the private insurance industry instead of the State. Second, not everyone
has equal access to healthcare, making the United States an oddity in a
world where most countries provide socialized medicine to nearly all
citizens. Currently, about 39 million Americans remain uninsured, meaning
they pay for health care when they need it out of their personal finances.
In the case of a serious illness, this can add up to many thousands of
dollars. In general, medical care is quite expensive in the US, with few
free service options. Very little government-sponsored healthcare exists,
though Medicare and Medicaid are two examples. The responsibility of
healthcare belongs to each individual, who can choose to invest in a health
insurance plan or remain uninsured.
'Insurance' is a means of guaranteeing protection or safety. In the
United States people who have a health insurance policy pay money
regularly in advance to guarantee that when they need medical attention,
there will be money to pay for it. The first health insurance plans appeared
during the 1930's to help people pay for hospitals and physician's services.
They were called 'Blue Cross' plans, and everyone paid the same
membership fee in spite of age and health status.

Employers began providing health insurance to employees during

р В.Л. Фельдман, 2005
р МГУ им. А.А. Кулешова, 2005
World War II (WWII). They increased employee compensation, without
violating the government's wage and price freeze, by buying health
insurance for employees. In the beginning, employers generally agreed
to pay for a certain set of benefits, whatever the cost. However, medical
costs began to rise after WWII as the demand for health insurance grew
and for-profit insurers emerged. By the 1980's and early 1990's, finding
it difficult to pay the entire cost of insurance, employers began to shift
some of the cost to the employees themselves. In the end, the employer
pays a certain amount, leaving the employee responsible to pay for any
additional costs. Although this allows increasing numbers of employers
l
 members, HMO members simply present their membership card instead
to offer this plan to workers, the numbers of workers choosing not to
of having to fill out claims forms. However, an HMO member may have
accept the more expensive terms are also increasing.
to wait longer for an appointment than an FFS member.

So, what do Americans do when they get sick? The answer to this
The combination of an FFS plan and an HMO would result in the
question depends on what kind of health insurance, if any, the person has.
creation of a PPO (preferred provider organizations). The insurer covers
Nearly two-thirds of Americans receive health insurance through their
the cost of medical bills almost entirely when members use doctors and
employer, another 40 million elderly citizens receive Medicare benefits,
hospitals within the network; however, they may choose to use doctors
and about 40 million of the nation's low-income families receive healthcare
outside the network at a higher personal cost. PPO members still choose
through Medicaid.
a primary care physician from a given list. They generally pay a small co-
payment for regular services, but deductibles and co-insurance also
Traditionally, with a fee-for-service (FFS) plan, patients simply chose
occasionally apply. PPOs do not require claims forms, and simply require
a doctor and got treatment. The insurance company got the bill and patients
members to present their membership card.
usually paid part of the total. Under this plan, insurance companies pay
fees that provide (policy-covered) services to members. This plan offers
Though these plans are quite available, for many Americans they are
the most flexibility in choosing doctors and hospitals, and in changing
not affordable. The result is 39 million Americans with no health insurance.
providers. However, members must pay a certain amount of money -
There are literally millions of Americans who cannot afford to get sick!
called a deductible - every year before insurance payments begin.
Although the number of uninsured Americans has declined over the past
Members also pay a percentage (e.g. 20%) of the bill, while the insurance
few years, many expect it to grow again under the current recession.
company pays the rest (e.g. 80%), and must fill out claims forms and
Without health insurance, an individual must pay the full cost of any
keep their own medical records. Often FFS plans include a 'cap' or
maximum amount of money a member might have to pay in one year. The medical services, personally, as they need them. In the case of serious
insurance company agrees to pay any amount in excess of the 'cap' for illness, this can add up to thousands of dollars! In addition, it is harder for
services provided in the policy. FFS plans can be broken down into two those without insurance to access the healthcare system. When they do
parts - basic protection and major medical. The first covers hospital room receive attention, at free clinics and charities, it is generally of lower
and services, surgery, x-rays, prescriptions, and some doctor's visits. The quantity and quality, and more likely to cause problems due to postponed/
second funds long-term, high-cost treatments for serious illnesses and delayed treatment. In such cases, a small problem could turn big, and the
injuries. Together they make a 'comprehensive plan.' cost of caring for uninsured individuals in emergencies can be expensive.
Then the rest of the population ends up paying this cost in the form of
higher health costs and taxes.
HMOs (health maintenance organizations) are more restrictive than
FFS plans and require members to use certain doctors and hospitals within
Medicare is one of the few State-provided healthcare options. Created
their network. Members choose, or are assigned, a primary care physician
in 1965 in an amendment to the Social Security Act, almost all Americans
from a given list and cannot see any specialist without a referral from that
over the age of 65 years qualify for Medicare, regardless of income. Some
doctor. They pay a monthly fee as well as a small co-payment for doctor's
disabled individuals also qualify. Medicare consists of two parts. Part A
visits ($5) and emergency room services ($25). Because HMOs receive
is funded through a payroll tax and provides hospital care for members.
the same amount whether patients need something small or something
Part В gathers funds partly in the form of membership fees and partly
serious done, it is in their best interest to treat problems early. Therefore,
from general revenue. This funding pays for physician, home health and
t h i n g s like office visits, i m m u n i z a t i o n s , well-baby c h e c k - u p s ,
other care. About 40 million elderly Americans receive Medicare benefits.
mammograms and physicals are included in an HMO plan. Unlike FFS
2
з
 Medicaid provides benefits for another 40 million low-income, disabled individual affordability and choice, as opposed to universal coverage is
and elderly Americans. Created in 1965, along with Medicare, and jointly not common, especially among nations comparable to the US. While
funded by state and federal governments, the Medicaid program is these factors do not make up a perfect system, they do create a complex
committed to providing nursing home and long-term care services. and multi-faceted structure that is interesting and surprising to study.

The State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), approved Topics for discussion: Define and speak about "health insurance" in
in 1997 will provide more than $24 million to states for the expansion of the USA. Explain and describe similarities and differences between FFS,
health insurance provision for uninsured children. SCHIP targets families HMO and PPO. Speak about Medicare and Medicaid and SCHIP programs.
with incomes 200% below the federal poverty line in hopes of reducing
the number of uninsured children from more than 10 million, to 5 million. Answer the questions: What is major difference between the
More than 20% of all US children, compared to 11% of the total population, American healthcare system and the healthcare systems of other nations?
already receive Medicaid, and SCHIP should add even more. What do Americans do when they get sick? How does a fee-for-service
(FFS) plan operate? What is major difference between HMOs (health
Even with all of these attempts to control healthcare costs, the American maintenance organizations) and FFS plans? What happens to the
healthcare system is very expensive. When first systematically measured Americans who cannot afford to get sick? Does the Federal government
in 1960, total healthcare spending came to $26.9 billion, by 1996 it provide health benefits for poor and elderly Americans? What are Social
measured $1 trillion for the first time! Healthcare spending has grown at Security programs? How expensive is healthcare system in the USA? Is
a rate far greater than the rest of the US economy. Unfortunately, the there any control over healthcare organizations?
quality of and improvements in healthcare do not compare to the money
invested. Of the total $1,035 trillion, hospital and physicians receive a
little over half of that total for the services they provide. The next largest
amount goes for drugs, nursing home services, and program administration.
Remaining costs include other professional services, dental services,
government public health acts, research and construction, other personal
healthcare, vision and durables. Prescription drug costs alone have risen
more than 17% each year for the past four years!

Other organizations, outside the government, share this quality control

responsibility. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
Organizations, sponsored by the American Medical Association and the
American Hospital Association, accredits hospitals all over the United
States. The National Committee on Quality Assurance developed, and
uses, the most widely recognized 'report card' for comparing and
evaluating MCOs in the process of accreditation.

Overall, the American healthcare system is unique among healthcare

systems of the world. A privatized approach to healthcare contrasts with
most countries' socialized medicine. Healthcare coverage according to
4
 THE AMERICAN SYMBOLS
The American's Creed
If you know that the American's Creed exists, you know more than
most Americans! Unfortunately, contrary to what you might have learned
in school, many Americans of this generation have never even heard of
the American's Creed, much less had to memorize it in school. This is a
great pity, because the Creed is an incredible statement of faith in what
America is as a nation and a keen reminder of the responsibility all
Americans have to love and respect their country and her flag. It reads as
follows:
I believe in the United States of America as a Government ofthe People,
by the People, andfor the People; whose just powers are derivedfrom the
consent of the governed; A democracy in a republic, a sovereign Nation
of many Sovereign States; a perfect Union, one and inseparable;
established upon those principles of Freedom, Equality, Justice, and
Humanityfor which American Patriots sacrificed their Lives and Fortunes.
I therefore believe it is my duty to my country to Love it; to Support its
Constitution; to obey its laws; to Respect its Flag; and to defend it against
all enemies.
An understanding of the context in which the American's Creed was
written brings additional significance to its meaning. William Page
originally composed the text and entered it into a nation-wide essay contest.
The contest developed as a result of the need to boost morale amidst
divisions within the nation over American involvement in World War I.
The American people needed a common creed.
From 1914 to 1917, the United States struggled to maintain a neutral
position toward the European conflict. Finally, in the spring of 1917,
President Woodrow Wilson requested a Declaration of War from Congress
with the hope of helping to make the world "safe for democracy." The
statement was then adopted as "The American's Creed" by the House of
Representatives in 1918.
Though few Americans know of its existence, the American's Creed
continues to be a valuable statement for all generations of citizens,
6 7
symbolizing the loyalty Americans should have to their country as well as
Freedom, Equality, Justice and Humanity - the principles for which she
stands.
U.S. National Motto: In God We Trust
Perhaps you have heard the U.S. motto In God We Trust. You might
have even seen it printed on the dollar bill or some coins. Today, this
phrase can be found on all paper money and every coin printed or engraved
in the United States. However, it hasn't always been this way.
It all started during the Civil War with a letter to the Secretary of the
Treasury from the Rev. M.R. Watkinson. The reverend wrote about a
deep conviction that the nation's struggle was a result of "disowning God."
He wanted the Secretary to find some way to acknowledge "the Almighty
God" on the nation's coins. In response to this request, Secretary Chase
sent a letter to the Director of the Philadelphia Mint, giving him the
responsibility of creating such a design.
After some further correspondence, the two agreed on incorporating
the words In God We Trust into the design of the coins. In 1864, Congress
passed legislation approving the new motto, which appeared first on the
two-cent coin. Through subsequent acts of Congress (1865, 1873), the
motto began to appear on more and more of the nation's coins. Though at
times it has seemed to disappear, forgotten or overlooked in the new designs
of some coins, in 1956 In God We Trust was declared the United States
national motto. It has appeared on all paper money and every coin since.
The Statue of Liberty National Monument
Nicknamed "Lady Liberty" and described in Emma Lazarus' famous
poem {The New Colossus) as the "Mother of Exiles," the official name of
the national monument that welcomed over 12 million immigrants to the
United States from 1892 to 1924 and came to symbolize freedom and
opportunity, is "The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World." She stands
in New York Harbor on Liberty Island (formerly Bedloe's Island) and
overlooks former immigration station Ellis Island.
 The statue was originally commissioned to commemorate the one-
hundredth anniversary of the American Declaration of independence and
celebrate French-American friendship. It was given to the United States
by the French people. French sculptor Bartholdi and engineer Eiffel
together designed and built the statue and its iron framework in France.
Then the statue was shipped to the United States where she was assembled
and dedicated in October of 1886.
Lady Liberty is made mostly of copper and tin, weighs 225 tons and
stands 45.3 meters tall. From the base of her pedestal to the tip of her
torch measures 91.5 meters. Visitors can climb 168 stairs from the base
to the top of the pedestal, and another 167 stairs from the top of the pedestal
to the statue's head. From there, 54 ladder rungs lead into the arm holding
the torch.
In 1924, the Statue of Liberty was declared a national monument.
Ellis Island was declared part of the national monument in 1965. The
American Museum of Immigration, located at the base of the statue,
opened in 1972 and houses a permanent exhibition of photos, posters and
artifacts depicting the history of immigration to the United States.
The Flag of the United States of America
Is Francis Hopkinson's claim that he designed the flag true? Did Betsy
Ross really sew the first flag? Though there are many myths and mysteries
associated with the history of the Flag of the United States - especially
who designed and made the first flag - there is actually very little historical
evidence to prove any of them. It seems historians can't even find the
original flag law. Fortunately these questions have little to do with the
current symbolism that accompanies the American flag, also known as
Old Glory, the Star-Spangled Banner, or the Stars and Stripes.
What we do know is that the Marine Committee of the Second
Continental Congress in Philadelphia submitted a resolution that was
adopted on 14 July 1777 and read as follows:
Resolved: that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate
red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field,
representing a new constellation.
8 9
No other specifics were given. It seems there wasn't even, at that
time, significance in the colors chosen for the flag. Not until the
establishment of The Great Seal in 1782 did white come to represent purity
and innocence; red stand for valor and bravery; and blue symbolize
vigilance, perseverance and justice.
It wasn't until 1942 that any official document defined the customs and
proper usage of the flag. The U.S. Flag is to be raised quickly and lowered
slowly, taken in at night unless well-lit, flown at half-staff for 30 days
following the death of a president, and reverently burned when worn out.
Currently, the Flag of the United States of America retains the 13
stripes and 50 stars provided for in the original resolution.
The Great Seal of the United States
The Great Seal of the United States is actually a collection of natural
and universal symbols. The "obverse" or front side of the seal consists of
an American bald eagle supporting a shield of 13 vertical stripes alternating
red and white and representing the States, united under and supporting a
blue union, which symbolizes Congress and the President. In the eagle's
beak is a ribbon with the motto E Pluribus Unum, meaning "one out of
many" - one Nation out of many States. Representing peace, the eagle
holds an olive branch in its right talon, while in its left talon are 13 arrows
representing war. Above the eagle's head are 13 stars in a blue field,
representing a "new constellation" taking its place among the nations.
One notable feature of this side of the seal is the frequent occurrence of
items in the quantity of 13, even letters in the motto!
On the "reverse" side of the seal is an unfinished pyramid of 13 steps,
featuring the "Eye of Providence" at the top. Above the eye is the Latin
phrase Annuit Coeptis, meaning "He [God] favors our undertakings." At
the base of the pyramid are the Roman numerals for 1776. Underneath
are the words Novos Ordo Seculorum, meaning "a New Order of the Ages"
- the beginning of the new American era.
The Great Seal, a round piece of metal cast on both sides, is kept in
the Exhibit Hall of the Department of the State in Washington D.C. and is
the responsibility of the Secretary of the State. The obverse side is used
to authenticate certain official documents such as foreign treaties and
presidential proclamations. Both sides of the seal appear on the back of
the one dollar bill.
The Liberty Bell
Proclaim liberty throughout all the land
unto all the inhabitants thereof.
Leviticus 25:10
The Province bell was to bear this inscription. However, today the
bell is more widely known as "The Liberty Bell," which hangs in the
Liberty Bell Pavilion in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and is characterized
by the huge crack in its side.
The first crack appeared when the bell was test-rung after it had arrived
from London in 1752. Apparently the bell was too brittle, so it was recast.
This second attempt was unsuccessful as well and the bell sounded awful.
Recasting the second time was successful and the bell was hung in the
State House steeple where it rang for such historic events as the meeting
of the Continental Congress, the Boston Tea Party, and the first public
reading of the Declaration of Independence.
When British troops occupied Philadelphia in 1777, the bell was taken
down and hidden, so that the British army would not melt it down for
ammunition. The Liberty Bell rang for the last time on George
Washington's birthday on 23 February 1846. Another crack had developed
over the years and, after this final occasion, the bell's clapper was removed.
However, today the Liberty Bell continues to "proclaim liberty
throughout the land," from its place in the Liberty Bell Pavilion National
Monument, every Fourth of July when it is gently tapped.
U.S. National Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner
While it is true that many Americans do not have the vocal range to
adequately sing their official national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner,
10
they certainly don't let that stop them from doing their best! The official
United States National Anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, was written
in 1814 by Francis Scott Key.
Over time two additional, unofficial anthems have gained popular
recognition. These two songs that American's also consider anthem-
worthy, are: America (or My Country 'Tis of Thee) and America, the
Beautiful.
My Country 'Tis of Thee was written by Reverend Smith, a Baptist
minister who set his words to the German melody which happens to be
the same tune used for the British national anthem, God Save the King/
Queenl
The words of America, the Beautiful, composed by educator and author
Katherine Bates in 1893, were inspired by the view she experienced from
the top of Pikes Peak.
Today, these songs play important roles in various public gatherings,
both public and private, local, state and federal ceremonies, celebrations,
and recreational gatherings (e.g. sports events).
Answer the questions: What is the American's Creed? Do many
Americans know about its existence? How did the Creed originate? How
did the US National Motto come into existence? Where can one find the
Motto? What is the official name of the Statue of Liberty
National Monument? Where does she stand? What did the Statue
originally commemorate? What is at the base of the Statue? Who designed
and stitched the first flag? What are the names for the flag? Why does the
flag have 13 stripes and 50 stars? What is depicted on the obverse side of
The Great Seal? What is on the reverse side? Where is the Great Seal
kept? What is the importance of the Liberty Bell? How many national
anthems are there in the USA? Which is the official one?

THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT
AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
Abraham Lincoln provided the most accurate, brief description of
American democracy in the Gettysburg address when he challenged the
nation to ensure that a government of the people by the people for the
people shall not perish from the earth.
American democracy is further defined by two important historical
documents. The Declaration of Independence, signed on July 4, 1776,
marked the beginning of modern politics for the United States. It set forth
the very basic precept that all people have natural, God-given rights. The
second document, written in 1787, still stands as the highest law in the
land, the Constitution of the United States.
The Constitution performs two main functions, the first of which is to
ensure the rights of the people of the United States. This function is the
focus of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments added to the
Constitution in 1791. These ten statements convey five basic truths: God
granted equality to all men; all men have equal rights at birth; these are
the basic rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; these rights
are self-evident, and if the government takes away any of these rights, the
people have the right - as well as the responsibility - to do away with that
government.
The second primary function of the Constitution is to limit
governmental control over the people. One way it does this is by dividing
governmental power between the federal government and state
governments. When the colonies first began to organize themselves into
states they related to each other as their European parents did, as
independent nations. The founders of the United States saw the benefit of
this local autonomy, but also saw the need for a united nation of states.
These men established a central (federal) government, but preserved states
rights to set their own constitutions and manage their own internal affairs
while the federal government handled interstate affairs.
For the benefit of being part of a united nation, each state agreed to
allow the federal government to have certain powers as well. The federal
government regulates trade between states, conducts foreign affairs, prints
12
and coins money, sets up postal services, and builds the army and navy.
These duties, powers, and functions are listed in the main body of the
U.S. Constitution, which further divides them three ways. This again
separates the powers, ensuring that no one person or group becomes too
powerful. It also creates a system of checks and balances in which the
three divisions, or branches, keep each other accountable.
These three branches are the executive, legislative, and judicial. The
executive branch consists of the president, vice president and the cabinet.
The president's primary j o b is to preserve, protect and defend the
Constitution. He is elected by the people through an institution called the
electoral college. Candidates for president must be natural-born citizens,
at least 35 years old, and have lived in the United States for 14 years.
Each presidential term is four years, and no one can serve more than two
terms. The duties and responsibilities of the president include carrying
out laws passed by Congress, keeping Congress and the nation informed
of the state of the Union, exercising veto power, administering foreign
policy, serving as Commander-in-Chief of the military, appointing certain
government officials, and granting pardons, reprieves, and commutations
to federal offenders.
Vice-presidential functions are far less defined in the Constitution. In
fact, the vice president's only constitutional duty is to serve as the head of
the Senate, where he maintains order but only votes in the case of a tie.
However, the vice president must also be prepared to take over as acting
president if at any time the president should become disabled.
The presidential cabinet is the third major part of the executive branch
and consists of the heads of the fourteen state departments who provide
advice and opinions on issues to the president. These officials meet once
a week or when called on by the president, who also has the power to
dismiss them at any time.
The second branch of government is called the legislative, which is
made up of two houses the main function of which is to make laws.
Together, these two houses are called Congress. Its members,
Congressmen, meet for two-year terms consisting of two one-year sessions.
In addition, the president has the power to call special sessions of one or
13
both houses. Congress is organized into a two-house structure, as
mentioned before: the Senate and the House of Representatives. This
structure serves as a kind of internal system of checks and balances within
the legislative branch.
Members of the House of Representatives are called representatives
and are elected to a two-year term by the people of the state they represent.
The House is the larger of the two Congressional bodies because its
members are apportioned according to the population of each state.
Therefore, every ten years, a census is taken to count all the people in the
United States and 435 members of the House are reapportioned based on
the population of each state. Candidates for representative must meet
three qualifications before running for office. They must be at least 25
years old, a seven-year citizen of the United States, and a resident of the
state they wish to represent. They may run for as many terms as they like
and may be elected for as many terms as the people like.
The Senate is the smaller of the two houses because each state is allowed
an equal number of senators - only two each, for a total of 100 - no matter
what its population. However, senators, like representatives, are elected by
the people of their states and, though they serve six-year terms, can also be
reelected as many times as they and the people wish. Candidates for the
office of senator must be at least 30 years old, a nine-year citizen of the
United States, and a resident of the state they wish to represent. The Senate
is organized in such a way that only one-third of its members are reelected
every two years. This ensures that at least two-thirds of its members always
have some experience in the law-making process.
This organization provides a framework for the main function of the
legislative branch: law-making. Congress receives between 10,000 and
20,000 bill proposals per session. Since there is no way the whole group
could consider each and every one of these proposals, Congress has
developed a system of committees. In general, bill proposals considered
by these committees come from three places: citizens, the president, or
from the Congressmen themselves.
The third and final branch of the federal government is the judicial.
In the United States, there are two systems of courts, the state and the
14
federal. This description will be limited to the federal court system which
is responsible for enforcing federal legislation and protecting Constitutional
rights without bias. They do not make the laws.
The first level of the federal court system is made up of 94 district and
territorial courts. These are also known as trial courts because they are
where cases are first tried. Cases involving a violation of federal law and
civil suits in the areas of postal, patent, copyright, internal revenue and
bankruptcy laws are dealt with in district courts. The verdict is delivered
by a jury, unless the defendant requests that the judge rule, and is final. If
the case goes on to a higher court, it is no longer a question of whether the
defendant is guilty or not guilty. It is rather, did the defendant receive a
fair trial? Was the trial handled appropriately? Was it completely lawful?
The next level of the federal court system consists of 12 geographically-
determined circuit courts known as Courts of Appeal. These courts hear
appeals from the district courts and government agencies. Instead of being
heard by a jury, however, each case is heard and decided by a panel of
three judges at this stage. They decide whether persons appealing received
their full legal rights in a previous trial.
After a district court has delivered a guilty verdict and a circuit court
has upheld the ruling as Constitutional, the defendant's final appeal goes
to the Supreme Court, the highest court in the land. Besides hearing appeals
from circuit court, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases
involving foreign nations or their citizens, treaties, violations of laws made
by Congress, any part of the Constitution or its amendments, foreign
officials, crimes committed on US ships at sea/federal property, and
controversies between states. Original jurisdiction means that cases of
these kinds go directly to the Supreme Court without going through any
of the lower federal courts.
Nine justices sit on the Supreme Court at one time and are appointed
for life (on good behavior). They are chosen by the president and approved
by the Senate. One is considered the Chief Justice and the other eight, his
associates. They have the power to review legislation passed by Congress
and the president and decide whether or not it is Constitutional. This
power of judicial review is part of the checks and balances system. This
15
power applies to state laws as well. And with this summary of the judicial candidates are not generally strong enough to win the presidential election,
branch, that concludes a look at the three-pronged organization of the have played a significant role in bringing attention to some important
United States government as defined by the Constitution. issues. For the most part, third parties come and go with the trends.

Elections for the president and vice president are done by electoral This sums up the United States political system. To be sure, there is
college. In the electoral college system, the people vote within their states, much more that can be said about it, but these are the basics that every
and then representatives - or electors - relay their votes to Washington junior high school student learns in American government and economics.
D.C. Each state gets as many electors as it has Congressmen,
representatives and senators combined. Washington D.C. also has three Topics for discussion: Speak about the origin of the American political
electors, which means that there are 538 electors, total. After the November system. Explain the essence of the Bill of Rights. Electoral College: is it
popular election, each state sends its electors to Washington D.C. to cast obsolete today? Describe and explain the system of checks and balances.
their votes for the candidates who received the majority of the popular
votes in their state. Traditionally, all of the electors vote for the candidates
Answer the questions: Which are the two most important historic
who received the majority of the popular votes in their state. Because of
documents that define the American political system? What are the three
the way this system operates, it is possible for candidates to be elected to
branches of power? How many parts does the executive branch consist
office without having received the majority nationwide popular vote. All
of? What are their functions? What are the qualifications for presidency?
they have to do is get the electoral votes of eleven out of twelve of the
How many houses does the Congress consist of? What are the differences
most populous states. The electors of these eleven states alone carry a
between the two houses? How many systems of courts are there in the
majority - 270 - of the electoral votes needed to win. Presidential and
United States? How many levels are there in the federal system of courts?
vice-presidential candidates - who are elected by separate ballots - both
Describe them. What are the two dominant political parties? What is the
must secure this majority. If no one presidential candidate receives a
difference between them?
majority, the House of Representatives makes the final decision by a
majority vote among its members. The Senate chooses the vice president
in the same way if none of those candidates receives the majority.

Finally, it is impossible to discuss the U.S. political system without at

least making reference to its political parties. The United States has a
two-parry political system, meaning that it has two dominant parties:
democrat and republican. These parties are not directly provided for in
the Constitution, but emerged as people began to see that they could better
accomplish their goals if they joined forces with those that shared similar
views with them. Political parties also provide a means for presenting
tickets of candidates and issues to voters. Each party has a platform, or
certain governmental and societal issues they stand for. In general, the
Democratic Party has been known for its liberality and support of
governmental controls. The Republican Party, on the other hand, developed
out of northern anti-slavety sentiments and is characterized as conservative
and against governmental controls. Third parties, though their presidential
16

THE AMERICAN HOLIDAYS
AND TRADITIONS
Holidays in the United States can be categorized in many different
ways: religious vs. secular, national ("bank holidays") vs. private,
indigenous vs. "imported," to name just a few distinctions. However,
these categories do overlap in many ways. Some traditionally religious
holidays like Christmas and Easter are recognized by the government as
national holidays, or holidays on which banks and most government
agencies are closed. Also, because the United States began as colonies,
Americans celebrate a number of "imported" holidays, or those that their
ancestors brought over from their native lands, such as Halloween, Cinco
de Mayo, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, and so on. "Indigenous" American
holidays are those that have originated in the United States. These include
the Fourth of July, Memorial Day, Labor Day, Thanksgiving, Mother's
Day, Father's Day, and Veteran's Day.
This discussion will attempt to focus on those holidays traditionally
celebrated by the majority of Americans, most of which are also nationally
recognized holidays: New Year's Day, Martin Luther King Jr. Day,
President's Day, Easter, Mother's Day, Father's Day, the Fourth of July/
Independence Day, Labor Day, Veteran's Day, Thanksgiving, and
Christmas. Also included will be some light-hearted holidays that many
Americans celebrate just for fun, such as Valentine's Day, St. Patrick's
Day/Mardi Gras, April Fool's Day, Groundhog's Day, and Halloween.
Americans traditionally begin the New Year on 1 January, according
to the Gregorian calendar adopted by the American colonies in 1752, with
great celebration. Traditionally, the celebration begins the night before 1
January, on 31 December, also known as "New Year's Eve." Many
Americans plan parties for this evening that last through the night and
into the next day, the New Year. Guests generally spend the evening
laughing, visiting, eating and drinking, playing games, reminiscing about
the past year and looking ahead to the new. At many parties and in many
homes, the television will be turned on to one of several channels that
broadcast the events at Times Square in New York City where, every new
year at midnight, a giant ball descends as people count down the last minute
of the old year. The ball stops exactly at midnight and the New Year sign
18
lights up, signaling the moment for hugging and kissing and wishing loved
ones a "Happy New Year."
The New Year's kiss has become somewhat of a tradition among
couples. It supposedly brings good luck to the relationship if lovers share
the first kiss of the New Year with each other. Making New Year's
resolutions is another common way to observe this holiday. Many people
regard the New Year as a fresh start, a chance to start over, leaving behind
old habits and conflicts. New Year's resolutions often focus on being a
better person and improving relationships with others.
New Year's Day is often full of family - with relatives dropping in to
wish each other the best of the New Year - and food. The television also
continues to play a large role in the celebration of the New Year and many
families keep it turned on for the extravagant Tournament of Roses parade
in Pasadena, California, followed by the Rose Bowl (football game). New
Year's Day has become an important day for American college football as
the intercollegiate season culminates in the "Bowl games." The Rose
Bowl is joined by the Orange Bowl in Florida, the Cotton Bowl in Texas,
and the Sugar Bowl in Louisiana.
Ways of celebrating the New Year in America are as diverse as they
are across the globe. Americans bring New Year traditions and customs
from many different religious and national backgrounds. In spite of this
diversity, for all peoples across the country, it is a time for joyful new
beginnings.
Martin Luther King Jr. Day is also a day celebrated in honor of new
beginnings, specifically new beginnings championed by the civil rights
activist for whom the holiday is named. President Ronald Reagan signed
the bill into law in 1983, establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day on the
third Monday in January. This holiday is rather unusual in that it is neither
patriotic or religious. Martin Luther King Jr. Day can be considered a
truly American holiday because it is not imported from one of the many
rich cultures from which the ancestors of American citizens came.
President's Day is another example of a truly "indigenous" American
holiday In 1968, Congress officially recognized Washington's Birthday
19
as a federal holiday and shifted its celebration to the third Monday in
February in order simplify the yearly calendar and give federal employees
an established three-day weekend. Since then, the significance of the day
has expanded to honor the memory of Lincoln and the many other men
who have served the United States as president and has thus become
popularly referred to as "President's Day."
The next national holiday falls on the first Sunday after the full moon
on or after 21 March, always between 22 March and 25 April. Though its
name, "Easter," is derived from the spring festival of the Anglo-Saxon
goddess Eostre and some customs currently associated with it have pagan
origins, this holiday is the most important holy day of he Christian religion
and is the celebration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The story of
Easter comes from the Bible and can be found in each of the four gospels,
the biblical books of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. It is the miraculous
account of Jesus Christ coming back to life (three days after having been
crucified and buried in a tomb), appearing to his disciples, and
commissioning them to go and tell the world about what they had seen
and heard before disappearing into heaven.
For many religious Americans, Easter is nearly a week-long
observance. Also known as the "Passion week," this period starts with a
Palm Sunday celebration, one week before Easter Sunday, commemorating
Jesus' celebrated return to Jerusalem during the Jewish festival of Passover.
Maundy Thursday remembers the day of Jesus' Last Supper with his
disciples, followed by Good Friday, the day of Jesus' crucifixion (death
on a cross) and burial. Easter Sunday, the day after the Jewish sabbath, is
the joyful celebration of the empty tomb. When some women went to the
place that Jesus had been buried, they found it empty except for the cloths
that had covered his face and body and were told by angels he had come
back to life. In the following days, Jesus appeared to many people,
confirming the fact that he was indeed alive and encouraging them to
spread the news. Americans often attend sunrise worship services on this
day, wearing new spring clothes and special "Easter bonnets" for the
women. White lilies, symbolizing purity, are characteristic of this holiday.
Although its origins are particularly religious and many Americans
go to church on Easter Sunday whether or not they do the rest of the year,
Easter has also been developed for commercial profit. Because new life
20
is the focus of the Easter story as well as the season - spring - in which
Easter is celebrated, that theme has driven the product market as well.
Some items commonly associated with Easter and representative of this
new life include eggs - plastic, chocolate, candy, and real - and baby animals
- particularly lambs, chicks and rabbits/bunnies. Many Easter traditions
revolve around these symbols, such as dyeing and decorating Easter eggs,
the visit of the Easter Bunny, and the "Easter Egg Hunt." Just as Santa
Claus characterizes Christmas, the Easter Bunny represents Easter by
bringing baskets of candy and goodies to children on Easter morning.
The next two holidays are often said to have been created by the
greeting card industry in order to maintain business during the long interim
between the major holidays of Easter and the Fourth of July. Since 1914,
Americans have officially celebrated Mother's Day on the second Sunday
in May.
Today, most Americans observe Mother's Day in a family or church
setting by specifically honoring mothers. One way that people do this is
by wearing a carnation - a colored carnation indicates that the wearer's
mother is living, while a white carnation indicates that she is dead. In
general, people just try to do whatever they know will make their mother
feel special, whether that is fixing her breakfast in bed or letting her take
a nap. Mother's Day is a day of appreciation. Mother's Day is followed
by Father's Day which is the next month, on the third Sunday in June.
Like the Mother's Day tradition involving white and colored carnations,
some Americans wear a red rose to honor a father who is still living and a
white flower in honor of one who has died. Father's Day, as well, is very
basically an official opportunity and/or reminder to appreciate fathers,
and is often observed in any number of ways that are personally significant
to individual fathers.
Between Mother's Day and Father's Day, a special holiday for
remembering those who have died - specifically in the defense of the nation
- is observed. This holiday is called Memorial Day, originally Decoration
Day, and is nationally recognized on the last Monday in May. "Decoration
Day" was so called after the practice of decorating the graves of the
deceased with flowers. Because it is situated right on the verge of summer
and is part of a fixed three-day weekend, picnics and barbequing,
21
swimming, boating and fireworks are common Memorial Day activities.
Memorial Day is also the official opening date for many outdoor swimming
pools.
In July, Americans remember the adoption of the Declaration of
Independence on 4 July 1776, marking the birth of a new nation, the United
States of America, even though the signing of the Declaration was not
completed until August of that same year. The first Independence Day
was celebrated on 8 July 1776 with the public reading of the Declaration,
the ringing of bells and band music. However, it was not until 1941 that it
was declared a legal holiday. Called Independence Day or the Fourth of
July, the traditions surrounding this holiday have a particularly patriotic
and nationalistic theme, with reason. The Fourth of July is traditionally a
day for community and family picnics, parades and concerts. Often the
festivities end with extensive professional firework displays. Private
fireworks, however, have been severely restricted in recent years because
they have caused so many injuries.
There are no national holidays in August, so the next important date is
in September, the first Monday of the month. This holiday is known as
Labor Day. In 1884, however, it was decided that the fixed date for the
holiday should be the first Monday in September. In the past, laborers
celebrated their day off with street parades and festivals for whole
communities. More recently, however, these displays have become less
possible and have been replaced by widely covered speeches. So, Labor
Day, too, is a holiday for getting together with family and friends,
picnicking, and just enjoying the last day(s) of summer.
After celebrating and honoring America's laboring population in
September, Americans turn again to mourn the men and women who have
died in the service of their country. Proclaimed in 1919, Armistice Day
originally commemorated the armistice signed on 11 November 1918,
ending World War I. Wilson's proclamation for this day called Americans
to thanksgiving, prayer and "exercises designed to perpetuate peace"
among nations, following the most internationally destructive war in
history. After World War II, and the realization of even greater destruction,
in 1954 Armistice Day was renamed Veteran's Day and its scope was
expanded to honor the fallen in all wars the U.S. had been and would be
22
involved in. Ultimately, Veteran's Day exists to honor America's veterans
"for their patriotism, love of country, and willingness to serve and sacrifice
for the common good," according to Veteran's Day legislation. Sometimes
convocations and special decoration ceremonies take place on this day.
Also in November is the holiday of giving thanks for all the blessings
of the year, and particularly for the harvest. Americans call this holiday
Thanksgiving and celebrate it on the fourth Thursday in November.
Although for centuries people all over the world have observed harvest
celebrations, the story of American Thanksgiving began with the Plymouth
colonists in 1621. They had arrived in Massachusetts late in the year of
1620, with no time to plant and harvest crops. Many of them died in that
first terrible winter. However, the summer of 1621 brought renewed hope
for the colonists and valuable relationships with their Native American
neighbors who taught them how to grow maize and hunt and fish in their
new, unfamiliar home. When the second winter set in, the colonists were
better prepared with stores of food and knowledge of their surroundings.
To celebrate, Governor William Bradford set aside 13 December 1621
for feasting and prayer and invited their new Native American friends to
show their gratitude. The Native Americans brought wild turkey, deer
meat and fish to the feast. The men of the colony provided geese, ducks
and more fish. And the women spent several days preparing journey cake,
corn meal bread with nuts and succotash, and pumpkin stewed in maple
sap. For three days, the colonists and the Indians ate and prayed and sang
together before returning to their regular work.
After that, Thanksgiving was celebrated by colonies and then states
on an individual basis. Then, for 75 years, the president set aside the last
Thursday of November as "a day of thanksgiving and praise to the
beneficent Father" by yearly proclamation. In 1939, President Franklin
D. Roosevelt moved the date a week earlier in hopes of stimulating the
economy by adding an extra week of shopping between Thanksgiving
and Christmas. Finally, Congress set the official date of Thanksgiving as
the fourth Thursday in November, starting after 1941.
Today, many Americans join their extended families, sometimes
traveling great distances, for a day (or more) of giving thanks,
23
 But still, today Christmas traditions in America can be traced back to a
fellowshipping and eating. Each family usually has its own traditional
dozen or more parent cultures. Kissing under the mistletoe was borrowed
Thanksgiving dishes. Typical American Thanksgiving foods such as turkey
from the ancient Europeans who believed that the mistletoe plant had magical
and dressing, mashed potatoes and gravy, green beans, corn, cranberry
powers. Santa Claus has his origins in Dutch and German folklore, but has
sauce and pumpkin pie supposedly come from accounts of that first
taken on a different appearance since being adopted by American culture.
Thanksgiving in Plymouth. Visiting, watching TV (football games and
The Christmas tree, another significant part of the American celebration of
parades), napping or playing a game of football in the brisk, fall weather
Christmas, originated in Germany, with Martin Luther, according to legend.
commonly follow the Thanksgiving meal. Some people have church
And the custom of sending Christmas cards came from this common practice
services and community and church dinners. Others give thanks for what
in Europe. This blending of cultures is actually representative of the affect
they have been given by serving a Thanksgiving meal to people who can
celebrating Christmas had on early American colonists. In spite of their
not afford it or have no one to share the holiday with.
diverse backgrounds, the Christmas holiday became a time of community
and good will, as it continues to be today.
Thanksgiving Day is also the official start of the Christmas season, so
it is not unusual to see favorite, old Christmas movies on television for
Today, like many other present-day holidays, the celebration of
the first time on this day. It is also common to see people out on ladders,
Christmas in the United States has both religious and secular elements.
hanging their Christmas lights and decorations on Thanksgiving. The
Traditionally, the sacred season of Christmas, called Advent, starts on the
day after Thanksgiving is known as the biggest shopping day of the year
fourth Sunday before Christmas and culminates with a candlelight service
in the United States. People take the day off to get a head start on their
(Protestant)/Mass (Catholic) on Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. Each
Christmas shopping and stores have big sales to encourage these shoppers.
week of Advent, a candle is lit in anticipation of the second coming of
Americans tend to move very quickly from a Thanksgiving frame-of-mind
Christ. Christians give gifts, during the Christmas season, as a reminder
to a Christmas frame-of-mind.
of the gift God gave to man in His Son Jesus Christ. This practice of gift-
giving has dominated the secular celebration of Christmas. But even
Depending on the date of the fourth Thursday in November, the length
secularly, Christmas in the United States is traditionally a time for family.
of time between Thanksgiving and Christmas varies from year to year,
but it is always one of the busiest times of year, full of parties and shopping
Each American family usually has a few of its own unique traditions
and charitable functions. Unlike Thanksgiving, Christmas is celebrated
that make Christmas Christmas for them. Some of the characteristic
on a set date every year, 25 December. Christmas is the annual Christian
elements and activities of the season are Christmas caroling - where people
holiday celebrated in honor of the birth of Jesus Christ. This story can be
go from house to house singing Christmas songs and wishing best
found in the biblical books of Matthew (1:18-2:12) and Luke (1:26-56),
Christmas wishes to those at home, decorating the Christmas tree with
however, nowhere does it tell the actual date of his birth. Neither do
ornaments and strings of popcorn and/or cranberries, drinking hot apple
historians know when Christians first began celebrating the event of his
cider and hot chocolate, making and decorating sugar cookies in the shape
birth, but most conclude that the origins of this holiday date back to the
of Christmas trees and angels and stars and candy canes. The traditional
fourth century, and 25 December was chosen as a Christian alternative to
colors of the Christmas holiday are red, green, gold and silver. Other
the pagan festivals of winter solstice. The Catholics might have used it to
decorations include Christmas wreaths, evergreen garlands, stockings hung
introduce new meaning to these pagan observances.
by the fire ready to be filled with treats and small gifts, and Christmas
lights on houses and trees - inside and out. Entire cities in some areas of
Christmas came to America in as many different forms as nationalities
the United States have contests to see which house is best decorated for
represented. However, due to the different conditions of the New World,
the holiday season. The list of ways Americans celebrate the Christmas
some of these traditions and customs had to be altered or forgotten altogether.
25
24
holiday could go on forever, but here the discussion will be turned to a
Valentine's Day cards-both homemade and store-bought, called just
few holidays celebrated by Americans purely for fun.
"valentines," with each classmate. Card companies have come up with a
stunning array of manufactured valentines in all shapes and sizes with all
The first of these, in order according to their position in the calendar
kinds of messages on them. Special candy has even been made for the
year, is Groundhog's Day. This holiday is not entirely native to the United
occasion.
States, but comes from the German tradition of Candlemas, a celebration
of the mid-point between the Winter Solstice and the Spring Equinox.
In March, many Americans celebrate the Irish holiday of St. Patrick's
Superstition holds that on this day, 2 February, if the sun is shining, winter
Day. In Ireland 17 March began as a religious feast day and the anniversary
will last another six weeks, but if it is cloudy, spring is just around the
of the death of St. Patrick. The holiday fell in the middle of Lent for
corner. The German settlers brought this tradition with them when they
Catholic Irish families, but meat-eating restrictions were set aside for the
settled in present-day Pennsylvania where the Delaware Indians were
day of church and celebrations featuring dancing, drinking and the
already established at a campsite called Punxsutawney. The Delawares
traditional Irish meal of bacon and cabbage. St. Patrick's Day was
believed groundhogs were their honorable ancestors. The intermingling
introduced to the United States by Irish immigrants who, while serving in
of this belief and the German tradition of Candlemas resulted in what is
the English army, reconnected with their Irish roots through the hearty
now called Groundhog's Day when the whole country watches this
celebration of this holiday. Thus, the United States - New York City -
groundhog to see if, when he pokes his head out of his hole, he will see his
became the site of the first St. Patrick's Day parade. Still today, St. Patrick's
shadow (because the sun is shining) and scurry back into his hole to
Day is characterized by parades as well as four-leaf clovers, leprechauns,
hibernate for six more weeks of winter, or if no shadow (because of a
rainbows and pots of gold, and the color green. The most common tradition
cloudy sky) will scare him back into his hole and everyone can look forward
is that of wearing green and pinching those who forget to do so.
to a quickly approaching spring. The name of the current weather-
predicting groundhog is «Punxsutawney Phil, Seer of Seers, Sage of Sages,
Before switching to the Gregorian calendar, 1 April used to be the
Prognosticator of Prognosticators, and Weather Prophet Extraordinary."
beginning of the calendar year. When the new calendar was introduced in
1564, the date of the new year shifted to 1 January, however, some people
Later in February, on the fourteenth to be exact, Americans celebrate
continued to celebrate the new year on 1 April. In France these people
another imported holiday, although the origins of this one are not as clear.
were called "April Fools." The tradition of playing absurd, but harmless,
Just who Saint Valentine was and why he is associated with the sending of
jokes on friends and relatives also originated in France and quickly spread
love letters remains a mystery. Possibly, Valentine was a priest who was
to other European countries and eventually to the United States, where
put to death for secretly performing marraiges for young lovers after
the holiday continues to be observed through the playing of sometimes
Emperor Claudius И outlawed marraige because he believed that single
ridiculously elaborate April Fool's Day jokes. Last year, April Fool's
men made better soldiers. Or he may have been killed for freeing Christians
Day ended up being at the end of spring break at my university. A group
from terrible Roman prisons. According to a third legend, Valentine fell
of my fellow students and I had gone on a mission trip down to Mexico
in love with a young girl while he was in prison and wrote her a letter
for the week and were returning on 1 April. Classes were supposed to
signed "From your Valentine" before his death.
start the next day. In the bus on the way home, when we were driving
through Kansas, not far from home, one of the girls decided to play an
Whoever Saint Valentine was, the holiday that bears his name came April Fool's joke on her roommate. She called the girl on her cell phone
to America with the early settlers and is still observed by many Americans and told her that we had gotten stopped by the border guards at the Mexico
to this day. Although it is still a special holiday for lovers, Valentine's - U.S. border, that we were still there waiting and wouldn't make it back
Day has gained a more general appeal as well. School children exchange for class the following day. Her roommate completely believed her and
26
27
began asking what she could do to help. At that point, all of us on the bus
gathered around the phone and shouted "April Fool's!"
Finally, in October, many Americans - not all - celebrate a holiday
called Halloween. Halloween has its history in several ancient festivals
including the Celtic festival of "Samhain," the Roman "Pomona Day,"
and the Christian holidays "All Saints Day" and "All Souls Day." The
"Samhain" festival was a kind of harvest festival and new year celebration
for the ancient Celts whose calendar started on 1 November. On 31
October, after the harvest had been gathered and stored, all fires were put
out and the Druids, Celtic priests, met on a hilltop in a dark forest to light
a new fire, sacrifice crops and animals to their sun god, and dance to pass
the old season of the sun and bring in the new season of darkness. In the
morning, each family would take an ember from the fire on the hilltop to
start a new fire in their homes. The Celts believed that "Samhain," their
"Lord of Death," allowed the spirits of the deceased to return to their
homes on this night. These fires supposedly kept homes free from evil
spirits in addition to keeping them warm. The festival traditionally lasted
for three days and often involved parades in which people dressed in
costumes made from the heads and skins of their animals. These costumes
and noisy parades were intended to confuse and frighten spirits looking
for bodies to possess.
When the Romans took over in the first century, the customs of their
"Pomona Day," also a harvest festival celebrated around the beginning of
November, blended with those of "Samhain." In 835 AD, the Roman
Catholic Church created "All Saint's Day" (also known as "Hallowmas,"
or "All Hallows"), a holiday to honor all the saints, to be celebrated on 1
November. They later created "All Souls Day" for 2 November. This
"holy day" (from which "holiday" is derived) included bonfires, parades,
and people dressing up as saints, angels and devils.
Halloween appeared in America in the 1840"s, brought by Irish
immigrants trying to escape their country's potato famine. In the United
States, the customs of these Irish immigrants combined with the customs
observed by European Christians on "All Saints" and "All Souls Days" to
form the present American version of "Halloween." American children
still dress in costumes and walk from door to door saying "trick or treat."
28
Tradition holds that, if person at the house does not provide a "treat"
(candy nowadays, formerly fruit and such), the children will play a trick
on them.
However, Halloween is not only a children's holiday. Many companies
host Halloween costume parties for employees and individuals plan a fun
and spooky evening for friends. American teenagers enjoy going to haunted
houses, which are usually open throughout the month of October preceding
Halloween. Traditional American symbols of Halloween include: ghosts,
witches, devils, black cats, apples, the colors orange and black, and
pumpkins. Jack-o-lanterns, or empty pumpkins with faces carved out of
them and a candle set inside, sit on the front porches of many American
homes during this holiday season. Smashing these jack-o-lanterns in the
streets has, unfortunately, become a common teenage prank.
From the preceding discussion, it is evident that the sum of American
holidays and traditions actually represent a number of different countries
and cultures. Like the American people themselves, the days set aside for
celebration and the ways in which they are celebrated come from customs
developed all over the world. In addition, over the 200+ years the United
States has been in existence, the American people have added original
holidays such as the Fourth of July. However, the ways in which even
these original holidays are celebrated will forever be influenced by the
rich traditions and backgrounds of the cultures from which the American
people have descended.
Answer the questions: How can the holidays in the United States be
categorized? Which are the most favorite holidays for most Americans?
What are the distinctive features of New Year celebrations? What does
Martin Luther King Jr. Day stand for? How long do Easter celebrations
usually last? What do they involve? What are the two holidays created by
greeting card industry? What are the two holidays when the Americans
give tribute to their dead? What do the Americans have on their tables for
Thanksgiving? What is the most popular holiday in America? What
holidays do the Americans celebrate for fun?
 THE AMERICAN EDUCATION
SYSTEM
Based on experience and research, the American education system can
most easily be broken down into three parts: structure, ideology, and
methodology. Structure and methodology are the more practical, concrete
aspects, while ideology is more theoretical and abstract. For the American
education system, structure is the most easily defined because it is somewhat
consistent across the country. Ideology and methodology are a little more
difficult to pinpoint because of their many different manifestations within
the American system. Therefore, the following discussion of the American
education system will spend the most time on structure and briefly address
ideology and methodology in a very general way.
First, a short history of the structure of the American education system.
At its conception, formal education in the United States was reserved for
the wealthy, those who could afford it. For this reason, there was a limited
number of educated individuals for whom tutors and one-room school houses
were adequate. However, though education was limited, sometimes a single
teacher bore the responsibility for teaching 30 or 40 students of all ages and
academic abilities in a single room. It was often not an ideal situation.
With the Land Ordinance of 1785, land was set aside for the building
and operation of schools. This increase in resources made education
available to more than just the wealthy. In order to accommodate all the
students more and larger schools were built, but there was still the problem
of dividing the students up for more effective learning. Dividing students
by age was determined to be the best solution. So, schools separated
younger students (e.g. ages 6-9) from older students (e.g. ages 10-12). As
the number of students wanting an education grew, they were eventually
even further broken down into individual grades - by age - kindergarten
through twelfth grade. This K-12 system is the one that remains in use to
this day.
Preschool is often added to the early end of the K-12 system now as
well and is considered part of a child's primary education, although not
every parent sends his/her child to preschool. Kindergarten and elementary
30
school also fall into the primary school category. Preschool is for children
ages 4-5 and kindergarten for 5-6 year olds. Although now, since so many
children have two working parents, full day kindergarten programs have
been established, preschool and kindergarten both are traditionally only
half-day programs for the purpose of preparing children for school. In
preschool and kindergarten, children are exposed to structured days,
interacting with other children their age, and get used to being separated
from their parents for at least part of the day. Elementary school, then,
consists of the first through the sixth grades for children ages 6-11.
Secondary school is also known as high school and includes grades I'-
ll. Depending on the number of students and the size of the available
buildings, secondary schools come in several combinations. If there are
many students, an area may have a middle school, junior high school and
a (senior) high school. If there are a medium number of students, there
may only be a junior and a (senior) high school. If there are very few
students, seventh through twelfth grades might all fit in one school building
known as a high school.
The average student starts secondary school at about 12 years of age,
and finishes around 18. However, some do not graduate from high school
because in the United States students are only required to receive some
sort of education until they are 16 years old. There are many different
options for this education.
The most common type of primary and secondary education is public
school. Public school is considered "free," but is really supported by all
American citizens through their tax dollars. The United States education
system also recognizes private schools, which are generally not free
because they do not receive public tax dollars and are instead funded by
individuals, student tuition, private agencies and sometimes churches. This
type of school can sometimes be more selective about who it enrolls.
Students may be required to apply, unlike public school. Therefore, often
private school classes are smaller and students receive more individual
attention. A third educational option is the charter school. This type of
school is specialized as defined by its legal charter. Charter schools, like
public schools, are "free" and funded by public tax dollars. Magnet schools
are another unique aspect of the American education system. These schools
31
try to enroll students of different racial/ethnic backgrounds. Their purpose
is to reduce, prevent, or eliminate racial isolation and/or provide an
academic/social focus on a particular theme (e.g. fine arts, electronic
technology, etc.). Finally, parents may decide to home school their child/
children. This basically means that the parent takes responsibility for the
child's education, whether that means correspondence courses, distance
learning by satellite, or the parent actually teaching the lessons. Parents
who home school generally use a curriculum provided by one of many
home school services that are also licensed to award home school students
a diploma. That way, home schoolers can go on to colleges and universities
as well, if desired.
Part of understanding the American education system understands the
authority under which it operates. Education in the United States is not
controlled by the federal government. Instead, it is the responsibility of
individual states which determine the academic goals, curriculum
guidelines, and minimum competency requirements. These are passed
along to the school districts - groups of schools, usually related by city or
sector of the city - which are overseen by a superintendent. From there,
they are communicated to the individual schools, each overseen by a
principal who passes them along to his/her teachers, who implement them
in the classroom. Ultimately the teacher decides how students will learn
the information required by the state.
After secondary school, students have the option to obtain a higher
education, also known as a post-secondary education. There are many
options within this category as well. Technical or vocational schools
provide students with training in a certain skill ortrade, such as carpentry,
nursing, and auto mechanics. Another option is the 4-year college or
university, or undergraduate program. The difference between a college
and a university is generally that colleges only have undergraduate
programs and award only Bachelor's degrees (e.g. Bachelor of Arts =
B.A., Bachelor of Science = B.S.), while universities have the
undergraduate programs as well as graduate program(s), which is the next
step in post-secondary education.
Students must earn an undergraduate degree before advancing to the
graduate level. Starting with the master's degree (e.g. Master of Arts =
32
M.A., Master in Business Administration = MBA), graduate programs
become increasingly specialized to the interests and pursuits of the
individual student. A master's degree generally takes 1 - 2 more years of
study; a doctorate (e.g. PhD) usually takes another year after that, in which
students write their thesis/dissertation.
That is the general structure of the American education system, from
preschool through post-secondary opportunities. The next area of interest
is the ideology or theory behind the American education system.
Educational ideology can also be defined as the philosophy of education.
A philosophy or theory of education can be held on an group or individual
level and usually answers such questions as: What are the major goals of
education? What are the most important subjects to be taught in schools?
How should a school program be organized? What are the most effective
teaching methods? Should education be for everyone or just certain
people? How should teachers be trained?
The many different ideologies of education in the U.S. come mainly
from the ideas and models of respected, historical educators. One such
educator is Horace Mann, who is known as the "Father of American
Education" because of his vision for education to be equal and available
for all Americans.
In general, there are two main American educational philosophies:
progressive and conservative, which are basically opposites. The
progressive ideology emphasizes the need for co-curricular subjects (e.g.
art, music, physical education), real-life/practical learning environments,
flexibility, and active learning. This is the theory that has had the greatest
impact on the modern American educational system. The conservative
ideology revolves around systematic knowledge, discipline, structure,
memorization and the teaching of core subjects (e.g. reading, writing and
arithmetic).
Finally, these theories reveal themselves practically in the way teachers
teach, or their methodologies. Methodology is closely related to ideology,
for what a person believes usually influences that person's actions. This
is another area of the American education system that is hard to define
because, like ideology, it is not dictated by a central agency. It is monitored
33
more on a local level, by the district and local authorities, but ultimately,
it is left up to individual teachers how they want to conduct their own
classrooms.
This idea of local autonomy creates great variety in educational
programs across the country. However, there are some aspects of the
American education that are kept more consistent across the nation.
Students across the country take certain standardized tests at specified
times in their education to ensure that they know what the average student
at that grade-level ought to know. And as a junior or senior in high school,
every college-bound student must take either the ACT or the SAT. Colleges
and universities consider these test scores as part of the admission process.
Answer the questions: How many parts can the American education
system most easily be broken down into? What are they? Which of the
parts is easier to define and why? What is the history of the structure of
the American education system? What is the structure of the American
education system today? What types of schools are generally found in the
United States? What is home schooling? What are the options for post
school education? What questions does the philosophy of education
answer? What is the difference between the progressive and conservative
educational philosophies? Are there any national education standards in
the USA?
THE AMERICAN ECONOMY
The American economy is a free-market system that is constantly
evolving out of the choices and decisions made by millions of citizens.
The United States is generally described as mixed economy, which is to
say that even though the great majority of productive resources are privately
owned, the federal government does play an important part in the market.
The American economy that has evolved over less than 250 years has
been very successful until recently. With less than 5% of the world's
population, the United States in 1990 produced about 2 5 % of the world's
output. The US economy is more than twice as large as the next largest
economy, that of Japan. Productivity and standard of living remain among
the highest in the industrial world - although other nations have
experienced higher rates of growth in recent decades. The Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) is more than 6500 billion USD. The GDP per capita is
24,700 USD. In comparison, the GDP per capita in Belarus is 5800 USD.
The US national budget for 2003 was 1300 billion USD.
Primary trade partners for the US are Canada (22%), Japan (10%),
Mexico (9%), and the UK (6%). The most abundant minerals are coal,
copper, lead, molybdenum, phosphates, uranium, bauxite, gold, iron,
mercury, etc. Crude oil reserves amount to 24 bin. barrels. Twenty percent
of the country is arable land, and livestock populations are, cattle: 100
mln., pigs: 60 mln., and sheep: llmln.
Although the American economy has transformed itself over the years,
certain issues have persisted since the early days of the republic.
1. The US economy is based on free enterprise and is generally
characterized by private ownership and initiative, with a relative absence
of government involvement. However, government intervention has proven
necessary from time to time in order to prevent abuses, control inflation
and stimulate growth. The federal government has always taken part in
making decisions and implementing major projects - from canals and
th
post roads in the 19 century, to interstate highways and earth satellites in
th
the 20 century. The government has provided social welfare programs
that the private sector was unable or unwilling to provide. The "New Deal"
35
 programs under President Roosevelt in the 1930s brought the greatest
expansion of the government's role in American history. The Social Se-
curity program, enacted in 1935, still ensures that retired people have a
regular income each month and has been expanded to help them meet
their medical costs.
2. However, the pendulum has also swung the other way. In the 1970s
and especially in the 1980s the so-called "reaganomics" lead to major
reduction of government influence over the private sector. The goal was
to stimulate the private sector initiative and investment which is the engine
that drives free market economies. In general, the Democratic Party has
always advocated more government influence, while Republicans have
always stood for more private involvement.
3. Another outstanding feature of the American economy was trans-
formation by emerging technologies. Once a nation of farmers, the United
States was changed dramatically by successful adaptation of the machin-
ery and production processes of the Industrial Revolution. In a process
that began in 1870 and has lasted for about a century, the United States
has become the world's manufacturing powerhouse - leading the world in
the production of steel, automobiles and other products. Since the 1960s
the United States has become the first post-industrial country, a country
where more than 50% of the population is employed in the service sector.
By the 1990s, advances made in such fields as chemistry, electronics and
biotechnology were producing goods and services ranging from semicon-
ductors to laser surgery. Similarly, new farming technology has transformed
the American agricultural sector, allowing more food to be produced by a
constantly dwindling number of farmers.
4. The main theme of the American economy has always been inter-
national trade policy and the degree to which the United States partici-
pates in world economy. On the one hand, trade has always been important
for the American economy and calls for free trade have always been strong.
On the other hand, the protectionist measures advocated by Alexander
Hamilton just after the American Revolution have been an integral part of
the American economy since that early time. In this connection the United
States used the policy of double standards: creating global international
corporations while protecting her own market by high tariffs.
5. In any event, Americans and the American economy have often
been described as pragmatic. Clear evidence of the American people's
pragmatism is demonstrated by their actions in establishing and maintaining
36
an economy based on principles of free enterprise. At the same time,
Americans accept the government's important role in helping create an
environment with the widest possible opportunities for individual oppor-
tunity, economic growth and progress.
6. The last few years, however, have been very unfavorable for the
American economy in this respect. This is explained by several factors:
• The 1990s were a time of fast economic growth and high expecta-
tions from American consumers. The economy was excellent and
the stock market was overheated. When the cost of stock returned
st
to normal at the beginning of the 2 1 century, many Americans
were surprised to find that they had lost money investing in the
overheated stock market. This tendency is aggravated by the fact
that the majority of the population live beyond their means,
consuming more than they make.
• The role of the United States assumes as "world policeman" leads
to high spending in the international arena, including wars in Af-
ghanistan and Iraq, and at home to finance security measures due
to the growing terrorist threat.
• The price of crude oi 1 was steadily growing over the last few years
from 16 to 55 USD a barrel, the US being the world's largest oil
consumer.
• These factors, coupled with slower economic growth and increased
unemployment, lead to a growing budget deficit. America has lived
on credit with the rest of the world for a long time. Under these
circumstances the world market reacted by dropping the dollar
rate from 0.8 to 1.3 against the newly born euro. The dollar rate
against other major currencies (British pound, Japanese yen and
Swiss frank) has dropped to almost historic minimums. The bud-
get deficit announced by President Bush on February 1, 2004
reached the unimaginable figure of 521 bin., and continues to grow.
The United States has always imported more than exported. The dif-
ference was covered by investors in the American economy. In an attempt
to stimulate local production the American government came up with the
lowest possible interest rate of 1%, making the American currency unat-
tractive for investment but hoping to increase the export potential of the
American economy.
37
 This idea has a dark side though, too. Scared by the falling dollar and
huge budget deficit, international investors might abstain from investing
in the American economy. If the budget deficit does not return to normal
in the next few years, and the dollar rate does not become attractive again
to investors, the US economy might collapse, burying world economy as
well. The economic consequences would be gigantic. We live during in-
teresting times and the next few years will reveal what the American gov-
ernment and world economic community are ready to do to avoid this
scenario.
Answer the questions: How is the American economy usually de-
scribed? What are the opposing trends in the US economy? Is pragmatism
a characteristic feature of the American economy? What problems has
the economy faced recently?
GENERAL OUTLINE
AND MAIN REGIONS
The United States of America is located in central North America,
with Canada to the north, Mexico to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the
east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The two newest states, Alaska and
Hawaii are separated from the continent: Alaska borders northwestern
Canada and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific. The United States consists
of 50 states and the District of Columbia.
The US stretches for about 2500 km from north to south and 4500 km
from east to west. The main mountain ranges are: the Appalachians in the
east, the Rockies in the Midwest and the Sierra Nevada mountains in the
west. The main rivers are the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Colorado and
Rio Grande. The largest lakes are Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior, Huron
and the Great Salt Lake.
The population of the US is about 280 mln. 48.8% are male and 51.2%,
female. The average life expectancy is 72 for men and 76 for women.
Historically, most of the population came to the US in search of political
or religious freedom, others fled poverty and hunger. Before 1880 most
American settlers came from northern and western Europe, after that they
began coming from southern and Eastern Europe. Thousands of Asians
came to the Pacific Coast. From 1901 to 1910 immigration to America
reached its peak during which about 9 mln. persons entered the country.
Historically, geographically and climatically the US is divided into 6
main regions:
1. The Northeast. This is the most densely populated and economi-
cally developed part of the United States. About 20% of Americans live
on a narrow strip of land from Boston to Washington. The largest cities
are New York, Philadelphia, Detroit, Boston and Washington. New York
is the largest city in the country with a population of about 18 mln. It is the
financial and business heart of America. Boston is one of its oldest cities.
Philadelphia was an unofficial capital of the country for many years. Both
the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution were written in
Philadelphia. The famous Niagara Falls are located between lakes Ontario
39
and Erie. The Northeast is also famous for its industry. The Pittsburgh
area today still produces one-fifth of the country's steel. Detroit is the
heart of the automobile industry.
2. The Southeast. This region borders the Northeastern region in the
North, along the Ohio River, all the way to San Antonio. The largest cities
are Houston, Atlanta, Miami, San Antonio and New Orleans. Tradition-
ally, this is the poorest part of the country. Even today, Mississippi is the
poorest state in the country. Bumper stickers in Arkansas, which ranks
th
49 , read "Thanks God for Mississippi". This is explained historically
when the Southeast specialized mainly in three monocultures: cotton, to-
bacco and fruit. The other reason is that the victorious North did not want
to invest in its former enemy - the South - after the Civil war. Today the
southeastern region is changing more rapidly than any other part of the
United States. The region is blessed with plentiful rainfall and a mild
climate. Industries ranging from solar research to chemical technology
are moving to the Southeast, creating blue and white collar jobs and boost-
ing incomes. Three-fourths of the jobs created by this influx of popula-
tion are in service oriented businesses such as restaurants, hotels, gas sta-
tions and electronics shops.
3. The Central Basin. It is bounded by the Northeast and the Southeast
in the east and the 50 cm rainfall line in the west. This line is the place
where rainfall becomes less intense. Farmers also call it "a disaster line".
It is the area where forests end and grassland and prairies begin. The
prairies are the nation's richest agricultural region. Rich, fertile soil, warm
climate and abundant vegetation make this region ideal for agriculture.
Northern states Minnesota and Wisconsin specialize in animal breeding
and dairy products. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Nebraska are called
the "corn belt". Corn is the most important of all American crops, as basic
to American agriculture as iron is to American industry. In the United
States two farmers out of every three, and one hectare out of every four
cultivated, grow corn. Other crops grown are wheat, rice, oats and other
small crops. The average farm size is 155 hectares. The largest cities are
St. Louis, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Cincinnati and Chicago. Chicago,
one of the largest American cities owes its size to its geographical posi-
tion as it is located on the crossroads between the industrial Northeast and
agricultural central basin.
40
4. The Great Plains. In 1911 a member of the United States depart-
ment of Agriculture described the Great Plains as a territory whose his-
tory was filled with tragedy, but whose future held possibilities for great-
ness. The same words might describe the Great Plains today. The promise
of greatness was not really fulfilled. The Great plains begin in the east
with the 50 cm rainfall line. The climate is continental with relatively hot
summers and cold winters. Nowhere in the United States is the rainfall
more unpredictable and the climate more violent. The rapid changes of
weather cause violent tornadoes. Kansas and Oklahoma are notoriously
known for these phenomena. Today, farmers in the Great Plains special-
ize in growing wheat and breeding cattle. However, even today growing
wheat is risky and often the weather destroys a year's work in a single
day. There are no large cities in the Great Plains. The only large city is
Denver, situated at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Denver has a lot
of slaughter houses and ski resorts. Due to the nature of the Great Plains
the size of farms is generally very large. The average size of a farm is
about 200 hectares.
5. The Mountains and Desert. Like the Great Plains, the vast Mountain
and desert region was a land which people hurried through on their way
west. Seeking land and gold, the settler at first found neither until he
reached the Pacific slopes. This region consists of two vast areas:
mountains in the north - west and deserts in the south - east. The majestic
Rocky Mountains stretch all the way from Mexico to the Arctic. Compared
to the Appalachians in the East, they are high, sharp and rugged. The first
white men to visit the mountains were Spanish explorers moving across
the southern ranges to the Pacific. Stories of gold took them there but they
did not stay. Today 8 railroads and a dozen highways go winding over
those mountains, following the routes made by these settlers. In the days
when gold was king and thousands of miners lived in camps in the
wilderness, agriculture began in the Rockies. Most of the farmers were
Mormons. After facing persecution in the East, where their sect was
founded, they traveled west and settled in a secluded valley near the Great
Salt Lake, in what was later to become the state of Utah. Since the end of
th
the 19 century, the immense stretch of barren American desert has been
growing smaller. In the 1860s, wasteland extended from the Mississippi
valley to the Pacific coast. But men learned to grow corn in the prairies
and to use grassland to feed cattle and sheep. As they continued to cultivate
41
the desert, its size decreased. Today there are about 170,000 square
found in Alaska and "gold fever" followed. Alaska paid for itself 40 times
kilometers of desert, where there is nothing but dead lakes, dry rivers,
only by gold found during the "gold fever". It also has considerable fish,
snakes, small animal life, enormous mineral wealth and the beauty of the
timber and oil resources. In addition, the state has large deposits of coal,
desert. The sun shines 11 months of the year, and the temperature gets up
copper and other minerals, to say nothing of its important strategic location.
to about 50 degrees centigrade in the shade. Close to the western edge of
The population of Alaska is about 325,000 people. Hawaii was discov-
this region there is a stretch of desert named Death Valley. It is a lake bed
ered in 1778 by British Captain James Cook. It is a group of islands about
85 meters below sea level. The largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego,
2400 km off the coast. Hawaii is best known for the Pearl Harbor where
Phoenix and Salt Lake City. Los Angeles is the second largest city in the
the US Pacific Fleet is based and where it was attacked by the Japanese
United States, the capital of the Pacific. Two of its districts are very fa-
torpedo carriers in 1941 which led to the US joining WWII, and for the
mous: Beverly Hills where many millionaires live, and Hollywood, the
famous Waikiki beach - the most famous resort for world visitors today.
capital of the movie industry. Las Vegas in Utah is the gambling center of
The capital is Honolulu. Hawaii's main export crop is sugar. Pineapple is
the United States. Silicone Valley has a major concentration of hi - tech
the second most important crop. Other important crops include coffee,
industries. The mountains and desert region is famous for its beauty. To-
fruit and vegetables.
day there are several national parks in its territory. Among them are
Yellowstone National Park, Yosemite National Park - famous for its
waterfalls, and Death Valley National Park. But perhaps there is nothing Topics for discussion: Describe each of the regions. Speak about gen-
equal to the Grand Canyon in Colorado. eral facts of American geography. Name and describe trie most famous
national parks.
6. The Coast Valleys. This region is a narrow strip of land between
the Pacific Ocean and the Sierra Nevada range. This land is ideal for Answer the questions: Which of the regions is the most economi-
cally developed and densely populated? Which region is the most suit-
people to live and grow vegetables and fruit. Its warm climate, abundant
able for crops? What do farmers call the "disaster line"? What is the "corn
rainfall and fertile soils create very good conditions for living. The largest
belt"? What is The Great Plains region famous for? Which are the windiest
cities are San Francisco, Seattle, San Jose and Portland. The area is
states? Why? Which is the largest region? What are the largest lakes,
famous for seaside resorts. Also many manufacturing and fishing towns
mountain ranges and the longest rivers in the USA?
lie along the coast. Goods from Asia and the South Pacific are unloaded,
while fruit, grain, fish, condensed milk, timber and machines are put
aboard ships bound for ports all over the world. Seattle is the headquar-
ters of the Boeing company which manufactures famous aircraft. About
1400 km south of Seattle, San Francisco lies at the tip of land broken by
the narrow channel of the Golden Gate. The city has long been a center
of commerce, finance, shipping and culture. It is also one of the most
beautiful American cities.

7. The Newest States are Alaska and Hawaii. In 1959 Americans

th
welcomed Alaska into the Union as the 49 state, symbolizing a change
of attitude from that held in 1867, when the peninsula was purchased
from Russia for 7.2 mln. dollars. Then, most Americans had little interest
in the 1.5 mln. square km of "icebergs and polar bears". Later, gold was
42
 COPlTENTS

Учебное издание
THE AMERICAN HEALTHCARE AND MEDICAL SYSTEM 1

THE AMERICAN SYMBOLS 6

Фельдман Владимир Леонидович
THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT

AND POLITICAL SYSTEM 12

THE CULTURAL, POLITICAL
AND ECONOMIC STATE
OF THE USA
THE AMERICAN HOLIDAYSAND TRADITIONS 18
РЕАЛИИ КУЛЬТУРЫ,
ПОЛИТИКИ И Э К О Н О М И К И США
THE AMERICAN EDUCATION SYSTEM 30

Методические рекомендации
THE AMERICAN ECONOMY 35

GENERAL OUTLINE AND MAIN REGIONS . 39 Редактор К.А. Комарова

Технический редактор А.Н. Гладун
Компьютерная верстка B.C. Цумарева

Лицензия ЛИ №2330/278 от 30.04.2004 г.

Сдано в набор 03.02.05. Подписано в печать22.О2.05.Формат 60х84'/ |(
Гарнитура Times New Roman. Усл.-печ. л. 2,6.
Уч.-изд. л. 2,8. Тираж 100 экз. Заказ № ?й.

Могилевский государственный университет

им. А.А. Кулешова, 212022. Могилев, Космонавтов, 1.

Напечатано на ризографе полиграфического отдела

МГУ им. А.А. Кулешова. 212022, Могилев, Космонавтов, 1