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400 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.

At Eastport, Me., and Grand Menan during several years past,

I have made manyobservationson this subject,but mostlyrelating
to fishesof which the habits are betterknown,like the cod, hake,
haddock, etc.
The Wolf-fish(Anarrhicas vomerinus)is not at all particular as
to its food. At Eastport I took from the stomach of a large one
at least fourquarts of the commonround sea-urchin(Euryechinus
Dribachiensis V.), most of them with-the spines on, and many of
them quite entire. From another,I took an equal quantity of a
mixtureof the same sea-urchinand the large whelk (Buccinurmun-
dulatum). Many of the latter were entire or but slightlycracked.
The Sculpins not unfrequentlyswallow entire large specimens
of several crabs (Cancer irroratus,Hyas coarctatus,etc.).
The Haddock is addicted to the same habit, but is a very gen-
eral feeder,swallowing all sorts of mollusca, worms,fishes,etc.
The Herring (Clupea elongata) in the Bay of Fundy feeds very
extensively,at least during all the monthswhen I have observed
them (June to November), upon several species of Mysis and Thy-
sanopoda, called " shrimp" by the fishermen. These swim free
at and near the surface in extensive " schools " and are persist-
entlypursued by the Herring. The commonestspecies, apparently
a Thysanopoda, is about an inch and a half long, of a pale reddish
color. The species of Mysis are smaller and paler. The two gen-
era oftenoccur together. Young Pollock or Coal-fish,fourto ten
inches long, pursue the same species in large schools, oftencom-
ing around the wharvesof Eastport in great numbersin eager pur-
suit of theirprey, and by leaping out after them produce a great
commotion in the water. When thus pursued the Thysanopoda
will leap out of the water to the height of a foot or more. The
commonSebastes, or " Red Perch" at Eastport, feeds upon the same
species when they come around the wharves,but probably does
not pursue themto the same extent as the herringand pollock.

POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.
BY M. C. COOKE.

IT is now generallyadmittedthata greatmanyfungi,formerly

regardedas good and distinctspecies,arein reality,onlyconditions
 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI. 401

or stages of otherforms. It has been proved beyond doubt that

many species of fungi are trulypolymorphic,appearing under clif-
ferent phases. It is, notwithstandingall this, most premature
and unjustifiableto conclude, as some have done, that there are
no good species at all, or that there is no certaintywhateverin
the study. Whilst admitting that many of our old notions have
been overturned,that what at one time we hardly deemed possible
has been proved to take place, we are not prepared to go the
length of some, whose knowledge of the subject falls far short of
their assumption. It is not verylong since that one writergravely
asserted his opinion that all the British species of ZCicdium, for
instance, would be reduced to a single species; that, in fact, there
was no sound specific distinction between them. This opinion
originatedprobably ratherin prejudice than as the result of study
and investigation. Others have lumped togethera host of unasso-
ciated species, withoutsatisfactoryevidence, and declared them to
be only the same thing under different conditions. Hasty general-
izations in this, as in other cases, produce more harm than good.
It is exceedingly difficultto trace such minute organisms as
fungi, especially moulcds,and to prove, without doubt, that they
are conditions,the one of the other. It is easy enough to sow the
spores of a certain Mlucedine on paste, or potato, or any other
matrix, cover them carefully,and watch the result; then, if the
commonAspergillus or Penicilliurnmakes its appearance, to some
minds it is at once conclusive that the said Mucedine is only a
condition of Asperyillusor Penicilliurn. Such a conclusion is not
only rash, but mischievous, and far from the truth. There is no
evidence that the Aspergillus or Penicillium originated from the
spores of the Mucedine which were sown, but perhaps never ger-
minated. When two moulds proceed apparently from the self-
same mycelium,judgment may be pronounced too hastily, for the
myceliumof both may be distinct,thoughinterlaced together; the
safest conclusion being based on two forms of fruitwhen devel-
oped upon the same thread. Beyond this, thereis always room
for doubt. Hence it will be seen how difficultit is to prove di-
morphismin moulds under such conditions. In many cases it is
more presumption than proof. These remarks are not made with
the view of discreditingthe conclusions of such observers as Prof.
De Bary and the brothersTulasne, but ratheras a caution against
assumning as fact that which is only conjecture.
Messrs. Tulasne, in their splendid work, "Selecta Fungorum
402 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.

Carpologia,"have givena greatnumberof instances.of polyinor-

phism. We have no reasonto doubt thatin manycases, perhaps
most,theyare quite correct,but even some of theirconclusions
requireverification
beforethey6an be acceptedas establishedfact.
As an illustrationof the resultsdeterminedwithregardto one
speciesby theseauthors,we mayinstancetheverycommonSphc-
ria (Plceospora) herbarum. It occurs on the dead stems of herba-
ceouisplaints,on theleaves of sometrees,and even sometimeson
decayingAlgae. On pea and bean stemsit is usuallyplentiful.
In fact,it is almostthecommonest Sphceria,and easilyrecognized.
The sporidiaare, of course,containedin elongated,transparent,
meembranaceous asci; they are of a yellowish-brown or amber
color,ovate-oblong,and dividedby numeroussepta,with trans.
verse divisions. The asci are enclosedwithincarbonaceousperi-
thecia.;
-Equally as common,and even moreso, is a mouldwhichforms
sooty or dark olive spots, or patches,on all kinds of decaying
vegetablesubstances. This is called Cladosporium herbarum. It
maybe characterized as cosmopolitan, and one of thecommonest,
if not the commonest,, of fungi. Under the microscopethis
mould consistsof a profusemycelium, fromwhicharise tuftsof
jointed threads,mixed with ellipticalor elongated spores,ulti-
matelyseptate. This mouldis one condition,accordingto M.
Tulasne,of Sphaeriaherbarum.
Anotherconditionof the same plant is a very prettymould
foundmixedwith,or parasiticupon,the Cladosporium, and known
as Alternariatennis. This speciesis figuredin 'Corda's" Pracht-
flora,"andconsistsof chainsof sporesresembling inverted
jointed
clubs. Thejointsare also transversely divided,as in theSphceria
sporidia.
A thirdformof the same speciesis that namedby Rev. M. J.
Berkeley,Macrosporium sarcinula,whichis developedon.decaying
gourds. The sporesare clavate,at lengthsomewhatrectangular,
withnumeroussepta.,constricted, and veryvariable,both in size
and in thenumberof cells.
Besides these,thereare certain" distinctpapillate,or bottle-
shapedcysts,whichcontainnakedspores,capable.of.germination."
So that altogetherwe have fivedifferent formsof fungi,all of
whicharebut stagesorconditions ofone and the samething. It is
veryprobable,that,in additionto these,spermatiamayalso here-
afterbe discovered,'or tracedto some alreadyknownConiomyce-
 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI. 403

tous species. From this example it will be readily understood

what we mean when writing of " poly- Fig. 76.

morphicfungi."
Haviilg thus, as it were, defined our
terms, we will proceed to notice two
instances of apparent polymorphism
which have come before us. We say
" apparent " advisedly, because in the
second instance only suspicions can be
predicated. Some two or three years
ago, we collected a quantity of dead
box-leaves, on which grew a mould
named by Link, Penicillium roseum.
This mould has a roseate tint, and oc-
curs in patches on the leaves; the
threads are erect and branched above,
bearing oblong, somewhat spindle-
shaped, spores. When collected these
leaves were examined, and nothingwas
observed or noted upon them except
the Penicillium. After some time,cer-
tainly between two two and
ailcithree years, Penicilliuzr cliarlta), , consider-
ably magnified; a, portion of chain

during which the box remained unclis- ofspores.

turbed, circumstancesled to the examination again of one or two
Fig. 77. of the leaves, and afterwardsof the greater
numberof them,and the patches of Peinicil-
lium were found to be intermixed with an-
other mould of a higherdevelopment and far
differentcharacter (Fig. 77). This mould or
ratherMucor, forit belongs to the Mueorini,
consists of erect branching threads, many of
the branches terminatingin a delicate, glo-
bose, glassy head, or sporangium,containing
numerous very minute subglobose sporidia.
This species has been named Mucor hyalinbus.
The habit is verymuch like that of the Peni-
cillium, but without any roseate tint. It is
Fertile thread of Mucor almost certain that the Mucor could not have
hyalinus, bearing sporan-
gia. been present when the Penicillium was ex-
amined,and theleaves on whichit had grownwereenclosedill the
AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. V. 26
404 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.

tin box, but that the Mucor afterwardsappeared on the same

leaves, sometimes fromthesamepatches,and fromthe same my-
celium. The great difference in structureof thetwo specieslies
in the fructification.In Penicillium,of whichfig. 76 is a good
illustration, the spores are naked, and in moniliform threads,
whilstin Mucor the spores are enclosedwithinglobose membra-
nous heads or sporangia,as shownin fig. 77. The moulds,or
Mucedinesto whichPenicilliumbelongs,are includedin one of
thelargefamiliesof fungitermedHyphomycetes, and the Mucors
belong to anotherfamily,the Physomycetes.We entertainno
doubt whatever,that the Mucor,to whichwe have alluded as
growingon box-leaves,intermixed withPenicilliumroseum,is no
otherthanthehigherand morecompleteformof thatspecies,and
thatthePenicilliumis onlyits conidiiferous state. The presump-
tion in this case is strong,and not so open to doubt as it would
be, did not analogyrenderit so extremely probablethat such is
the case, apart fromthe fact of both formsspringingfromthe
samemass of mycelium. In suchminuteand delicate structures
it is verydifficultto manipulatethe specimensso as to arriveat
positive evidence. If a filamentof myceliumcould be isolated
successfully, and a fertilethread,bearingthe fruitof bothforms,
could be tracedfromthe same individualmyceliumthreadthe
evidencewouldbe conclusive. In defaultof such conclusiveevi-
dence,we are compelledto restwiththe assumptionuntilfurther
researchesenableus to recordtheassumptionas fact.
In Lewis's recent" Report on MicroscopicObjects foundin
CholeraEvacuations" (Calcutta,1870), a similarinstanceof pre-
sumed,dimorphism betweenpreciselythe same generais thusre-
corded. "On a preparation preservedin a moistchamber,on the
thirdday a white speck was seen in the surfaceconsistingof in-
numerable' yeast' cells withsome filaments, branchingin all di-
rections. On thefourrth day, tuftsof Penicilliumhad developed
twovarieties,P. glauwumand P. viride. This continueduntil
theninthday,when a few of the filaments. springingup in the
midstof the Penicillium- were tippedwitha dew-droplike dilata-
tion, excessivelydelicate- a mere distendedpellicle. In some
cases theyseemedto be derivedfromthe same filament as others
bearingthe ordinary branchingsporesof Penicillium,but of this
I couldnotbe positive. This kindof fructification increasedrap-
idly,and on thefourteenth day sporeshad undoubtedly developed
 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI. 405

withinthe pellicle, just as had been observed in a previous culti-

vation, precisely similar revolving movements being also mani-
fested." Here we have another example of a Mucor developed
froma Penicillium, and one observation strengthensand confirms
the other.
Before enteringupon the details of the second apparent poly-
morphism,it may be as well to give some particulars of the cir-
cumstancesunder which the fungiappeared. It was our fortune-
yood fortuneas far as this investigationis concerned- to have a
portion of wall in our dwelling persistentlyclampforsome months;
it was close to a cisternthat became leaky. The wall was papered
with "marbled" paper, and varnished. At first there was for
some time- perhaps months- nothing worthy of observation
except a damp wall; decidedly damp, discolored, but not by any
means mouldy. At length,and rathersuddenly,patches of mould,
sometimestwo or three inches in diameter,made their appearance.
These were at firstof a snowy whiteness, cottony,and dense, just
like large tufts of cotton-wool,of considerable expansion but of
miniatureelevation. They projected fromthe paper about a quar-
ter of an inch. In the course of a few weeks the color of the
tuftsbecame less pure, tinged with an ochraceous hue, and resem-
bling wool ratherthan cotton, less beautiful to the eye or a lens,
and more entanglecl. Soon afterthis, darker patches made their
appearance, smaller, dark olive, and mixed with, or close to, the
woolly tufts; and ultimatelysimilar spots of a dendritiecharacter
either succeeded the olive patches, or were independentlyformed.
Finally, little black balls, like small pinheads, or grains of gun-
powder, were found scattered about the clamp spots. All this
mouldy forestwas more than six monthsunder constant observa-
tion, and, during this period, was held sacred from the disturbing
influencesof the housemaid's broom, being consigned to the mas-
ter's care with little compunction,but occasionally it became the
subject of remarks not altogether flatteringeither to the wall or
the moulds, or the master who was protector and patron of such a
wretchedmess.
Curiosityprompted us frontthe firstto submit the mouldy deni-
zens of the wall to the microscope, and this curiosity was in-
creased week by week, on findingthat none of the forms found
vegetating on nearly two square yards of damp wall could be
recognized as agreeing specificallywith any described moulds with
406 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.

which we were acquainted. Here was a problem to be solved un-

der the most favorable conditions,a forestof mould indoors,within
a few yards of the fireside,growing quite naturally,and all stran-
gers; could they all be related, or if not, why should all of them
appear on that wall forthe firsttime? Whence could these new.
forms proceed? Were they a new creation? Wete they only
other conditions of verycommon things? Certainlyhere was ma-
Fig. 78. terial for much reflection,per-
haps some speculation. Some
of the problems are still un-
solved.
The cottony tufts of white
mould which were the firstto
appear had an abundant my-
celium, but the erect threads
which sprung from this were
-all for some time sterile (Fig.
78, a); theywere slender,very
delicate,jointed, and branched;
so interlaced that it was dif-
ficult to trace the threads
throughouttheir length, or to
separate them fromeach other.
Fertile threads were then.de-
veloped in tufts, mixed with
the sterile threads, or individ-
ual fertile threads appeared
amongstthe sterile. These lat-
a, Barren thread of Rhinotrichmei lanosumn; ter were rather shorter and
b, Fertile thread; c, Portionof'fertile thread,
showing one of the brauchlets with terminal
apicnles hearing the -spores.; d, a spore de- Stouter, alsosprnlbach
tackled. ed, but beset throughoutnearly
their whole length with short,patent, alternate (mostly) branch-
lets. The branchlets were broadest towards the apex, so as to be
almost clavate, and the extremitywas beset with two or three
short spicules (Fig. 78. b). Each spicule was surmounted by an
obovate spore (Fig. 78, d) attached to the spicule by its smallest
end (Fig. 78, c). The presence of fertile threads gave the pale
ochraceous tint to the tuftsalready alluded to. This tint was so
slight that perhaps it would have passed unnoticed but for the
proximityof the snow-whitetuftsof barren threads. The fertile
 POLYAIORPHIC FUNGI. 407

flocci,it may be from the weight of the spores, were decumbent,

hence the fertiletuftswere not much elevated above the surface of
the matrix.
This is a most interesting mould belonging to the order of Mu-
cedines,but it seemed to agree so little with the charactersof any
known genus, that, on distributing specimens last year, it was
placed provisionally in a new genus under the name of Clinotri-
chuvtilanosumm;*since then, with the advice of some mycological
friends, it has been referredto the old genus Rhinotrichun, as
Rhinotrichumlanosurm. Without entering here upon the reasons
which led to this course, or attempting to discuss generic and
specific distinctions,it is sufficientto indicate that the mould in
question possessed such positive characters,and was so different
from all recognized forms,that it not only had claims to be re-
garcled as a distinct species, but it still remains doubtfulwhether
it should not constitutethe type of a new genus.
The mould above described having become established for a
week or two, small blackish spots made their appearance on the
paper, sometimes amongst thin patches of the mould and some-
times outside them. These spots, at firstcloudy and indefinite,
varied in size, but were usually less than a quarter of an inch in
diameter. The varnish of the paper was afterwardspushed oft
in little translucent flakes or scales, an erect olivaceous mould
appeared, and the patches extended to nearly an inch in diameter,
maintainingan almost universal circular form.
This new mould sometimes possessed a dirtyreddish tint,but
was commonlydark olive. There could be no mistake about the
genus to which this mould belonged; it had all the essential char-
acters of Penicilliuim: erect jointed threads, branched in the
upper portion in a fasciculate manner, and bearing long beaded
threads of spores, which formeda tassel-like head, at the apex of
each fertile thread (Fig. 76). For the benefit of the mycologist,
we may observe that, although at firstremindedof the Penicilliun
olivaceurnof Corda by the color of this species, it differsin the
spores being oblong (Fig. 76, a), instead of globose, and the ram-
ificationsof the flocci are different. Unable agaia to find a de-

*CLINOTRICHUL, gen. nov. Hyphasm-iacreeping; fertileflocci septate, decumibent.

simple, or branched; branchlets alternate,patent, short, bearing at their tips a few
spores attached to short spicnles; spores simple. Type, Clinotrichumlaiiosnum.-
Cooke, Fungi Brit. Exs. No. 3565.
408 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.

scribed species of Penicillium with which this new mould would

agree, it was named Penicillium chartarum.
Almost simultaneously, or but shortly after the perfection of
the spores of the Penicillium, other and very similar patches ap-
peared, distinguished by the naked eye more particularlyby their
dendritic form (Fig. 79, e). This peculiarity seemed to result
from the dwarfed habit of the third fungus, since the varnish,
though cracked and raised, was not cast off,but remainedin small
angular fragments,giving to the spots their dendritic appear-
ance, the dark spores of the fungus protruding through the fis-
Fig. 79. sures. This same mould
was also found in many
cases growing in the
N E W _ same spots amongst
Penicillium chartarum,
but whether from the
same mycelium could
not be determined.
The distinguishing
features of this fungus
consist in an extensive
mycelium of delicate
threads, from which
arise numerous erect
branches, bearingio at
the apex dark brown
a, Part of chain ot spores of Algernaria chartarum of
Preuss; b, spores of Bporidesmium alternarta c, supposed opaque spores. Some-
earlyconditionof sporesof the same; d, mode; of growth
of 5peidemiu elernria, showingmycelium,witherect times the branches are
threadsand spores e dendriticpatch of Sporidesmium
elternerie, naturalsize,showingits habit. again shortlybranched,
but in the majorityof instances are single. The spores are sep-
tate, sometimeswith two, three, or four divisions, many of them
again divided by cross septa in the longitudinal direction of the
spore, so as to give a muriformappearance. As far as the struct-
ure and appearance of the spores are concerned, they are very
similar to those of Sporidesmriuwm polymorphunm;consequently
specimens were published as a variety of that species, but the ac-
curacy of this determinationis open to very grave doubts. The
mycelium and erect threads are much too highlydeveloped for a
good species of Sporidesmium,and certainlyso for the species to
which they were referred,so that in the " Handbook of British
 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI. 409

Fungi" it is named Sporidesmium alternaria, for reasons here-

afterdetailed (Fig. 79, d).
Press has described, in " Sturm's Flora," a species of Alterna-
ria in which the spores are attached end to end in a beaded man-
ner, as in other species of that genus, and the spores themselves
are just of the character of the spores of our Sporidesmium,as
will be seen by referenceto, and comparison of, Figs. 79, a and b.
Preuss's Alternaria,whichhe calls A. chartarum,was also devel-
oped on paper, and it is not improbable that it is a more highly
perfected form of the Sporidesmium in question. This view is
strengthenedby the appearance of freshlycollected specimens of
the Sporidesmiunn,in which, as seen by a half-inch objective,
the spores seem to be moniliform; but if so, the attachment is
so slight that all attempts to see them so connected when sepa-
rated fromthe matrix have failed. On one occasion a very imma-
ture condition of the 4poridesmium.was examined containing
simple beaded spores (Fig. 79, c), connected by a short neck.
There is thereforesome foundation for believing that the spores
of this species are at first hyaline, simple, and connected to-
gether in a moniliformmanner by a short apiculus; but, as sub-
sequent search did not reveal any furthercorroborativeevidence,
it can only be considered probable. Finally, Mr. C. E. Broome,
to whom specimens of the Sporidesmium were submitted, con-
firmedthe observation that, when seen in sita, the spores seemed
to be beaded.
The last production which made its appearance on our wall-
paper burst throughthe varnish as little black spheres like grains
of gunpowder. At firstthe varnish was elevated by pressure from
beneath, then the filmwas broken, and the little blackish spheres
appeared. These were, in the majority of instances, gregarious,
but occasionally a few of the spheres appeared singly, or only two
or three together. As the whole sjlrfaceof the damp paper was
covered by these differentfungi,it was scarcely possible to regard
any of them as isolated, or to declare that one was not connected
with the nycelium of the others. The little spheres, when the
paper was torn from the wall, were also growing from the under
surface, flattenedconsiderably by the pressure. We shall call this
species, for the sake of distinction, Sphceria cyclospora. The
spherical bodies, or perithecia, were seated on a plentiful color-
less mycelium. The walls of the perithecia,rathermore carbona-
410 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI.

ceous thanmembranaceous, are reticulated,bringingto mindthe

same structure in Erysiphe,to whichthe peritheciabear consider-
able resemblance. The ostiolumis so obscure- thatwe could not
be satisfiedof its existence,orwhether theperitheciaare ruptured
whenmature. It is ratherfromanalogythan positiveevidence
thatthenameof Sphoeriais given (Fig. 80, a). The interiorof
the peritheciais occupiedby a gelatinoussubstanceconsistingof
long cylindricalsacs or asci, each containingeightglobose,color-
less sporidia (Fig. 80, b). These are accompaniedby slender
branchedthreads,calledparaphyses,supposedto be abortiveasci.
At first,and forsometime,theperitheciacontainonlya granular
mass,at lengthmixedwithparaphyses. The contentsof the fer-
tile asci are also at the firstgranular,and
Fig. 80. finallythe sporidia are perfected.
We have now described, as fully as
seemedto be necessary,the fourformsof
fungiwhichvegetatedduringlast winterand
springon our dampwall. What presump-
tion have we that theybelong to one and
the same fungus -direct evidencethere is
none- or.shouldtheybe regardedeach as
autonomous? We have already intimated
the difficulties
whichbeset all attemptsto
obtain positiveevidencein suchcases. Al-
readytoo manytheorieshavebeen basedon,
a, PeritheciumofSphe-- or supportedby, supposedresultsfromthe
rna cyclospora; b, ascus
with sporidia and para- cultivation of fungi spores. Many ridicu-
physis.
lous assertionshave been made by those
whohave thusexhibitedtheirthorough ignoranceof even generic
to say nothingof morecomplexrelationsin mycol-
distinctions,
ogic science. Still we are by no means preparedto doubt that
manyof the recordedcases of polymorphism will ultimatelybe
provedto be fact,and that manymorewill yet be discovered.
We wouldadmitthatit is possible that noneof the species,now
includedin thetwogreat familiesof Coniomycetes and Hyphomy-
cetesare autonomous. But,becauseit is possible,it by no means
followsthatwe are preparedto condemnthemby wholesale,or to
admitthatthereis at presentanyevidencefordoubtingtheauton-
omy of some entiregenera. In the presentconditionof the
study,and in-thefaceof somestartlingfacts,it is importantthat
 POLYMORPHIC FUNGI. 411

all observations should be recorded which bear upon the subject

of polymorphism,whilst great care ought to be exercised in the
declaration of positive judgment.
Reviewing the instances of association above recorded, and we
should prefer,for the present, calling them association only, the
mind naturally reverts to other and similar recorded instances.
Supposing the whole of the four forms described above to be con-
ditions of Sphceria cyclospora,thereis no greater faith needed to
believe it true than in the case of Sphceria herbarum. If Alterna-
ria tennisis really a condition of a Sphoria, why not Alternaria,
chartarurn? If Alternaria be associated with Cladosporium, why
not with Penicillium? Or if Sporidesmiumepochnum,whynot Spo-
ridesmiurnpolymorphum? And as for Rhinotrichumand Penicil-
lium, it is just as possible for these to be polymorphic,as for
Dactylium, Dendryphiumand Verticillium. When the presump-
tion is confirmedby repetition,and more positive relations, there
can be no doubt of a much more ready acceptance of their poly-
morphismthan therewould have been prior to the investigations
of the Messrs. Tulasne and De Bary.
We are unable, within the limits prescribed for this article to
explain the relations which subsist between such fungi as the
"'red-rust" and "mildew" of corn, and the barberry "c luster-
cups;" or between the "yellow rust" and the "black brand" of
the bramble and rose. In other words, the polymorphismof the
Uredines and their allies. This is less to be regretted, since
there has not, during the past fouror fiveyears, been any impor-
tant additions to our knowledge on this subject and what had
previouslybeen discovered and illustratedis verygenerallyknown.
If we are asked what deductions we are to make fromthe facts
proved and the presumptions admitted,but not proven, we may
answer briefly-that the tendency of recent discoveries, in the
relations of one formto another amongst fungi,is to demonstrate
that reproductionis not so simple a process in these low condi-
tions of plant life as had hithertobeen supposed. " This it is and
nothingmore."
At one time the word " spore" representedthe only recognized
organ associated with the multiplication of fungi. Male organs
or fecundative power was now and then mysteriouslyalluded to,
but until recently all reproductionwas supposed to be confined
to a kind of germinative bud which was termed a spore. Each
funguswas held to be perfectin itself, and reproduced itself,with
412 REVIEWS.

no relationto anyotherindividual,by thismeans. The changeof

opinionamongstmycologistsis manifested, as muchas anything,
in thenewterms,or theappropriation of termsfromothercryp-
togams,nowin vogue. Conidia,spermatia,oospores,zoospores,
pycnidia,protospores, etc., all relate to organsbut recentlyrec-
ognizedin fangi. And howevermuch we may qualifythe fact,
howevermuchwe may doubt the evidencein special cases, we
cannot ignorethe conclusionthat reproduction is verycompli-
cated, althoughvery little understoodin these extraordinary
plants. Whilstadmitting thattheCladosporiumand theMacros-
porium,the Alternaria,bottle-shaped cysts,and minutesperma-
tia are all so intimatelyrelatedwitha certainspeciesof Sphkeria,
that theycan no longerbe regardedas plants witha distinctau-
tonomyand independentexistence,we are unableto explain the
relationswhichone bearsto theother,or by'whatmeans each ex-
erts its influence.The field for observationand researchis a
large one and promisesa rich reward;all thatis requiredis ear-
nest and carefulworkers,in whichthis,of all European coun-
triesprofessing to be scientific,has hitherto been mostlamentably
deficient. How long shall sucha reproachcontinue?-Popular
ScienceReview.

REVIEWS.
INLAND FISHERIES. -The Report of the MassachusettsCom-
* containsmanyitemsof encouragement
missioners forthosewho
advocate restockingour rivers with salmon, trout,shad, alewives,
bass, etc. Indeed the great run of shad in the Connecticut in the
spring of 1870, has been by popular voice attributed to the arti-
ficial hatching of the fish in that river in 1867,-undoubtedly
thesmall meshof the nets
aided,however,by thelaw prohibiting
formerlyused, which, being only two and a half inches, caught
thefishof one and twoyearsof age and of courseat once dimin-
ished the catchof large fish. Under the newregulationa mesh
of not less than fiveinches is allowed,and thus-only the full

*FifthAnnual Report of the Commissioners on Inland Fisheries. 8vo pamph. pp.

77. January, 1871. State Document.