DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE SCHOOL

TAXATION FOR DEVELOPMENT

A report submitted to
DR. LUIS M. LANSANG
Professor

In partial fulfilment
Of the requirements for the subject course
PUBLIC FISCAL ADMINISTRATION

By:
Michael Angelo F. Bacani
Erwin Paul M. Sarita
MPA Student
April 14, 2018
 Table of Contents

I. Introduction
II. THEORY AND PURPOSE OF TAXATION
Definition and Essential Characteristics
Bases and Purposes
Classification of Taxes
III. DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
IV. THE PHILIPPINE TAX SYSTEM
V. RECOMMENDATION
VI. REFERENCES
 I. INTRODUCTION

Taxation is the important hope of capital formation in developing countries. Furthermore, it is the
important instrument of underdeveloped countries to break the vicious circle of poverty.
Taxes are normally the vehicles for driving developmental projects and are imperative to
actualization of the government’s aspirations.
However, Taxation plays a crucial part to development especially for developing countries. It is
important that government finances are in order and an efficient tax policy is a key challenge.
In the Philippines, Taxation is one of the inherited powers of the government namely; Police
Power, Power of Eminent Domain and the Power of Taxation.
In this paper, the reporters discussed the Theory and Purpose of taxation; Its Definition, Essential
Characteristics, Bases and Classifications.
Also, the reporters recognized the importance of discussing the requirements for a responsive tax
system.
Lastly, The Philippine Tax System was added to give the readers a brief background on how the
government exercises its power of taxation.
 II. THEORY AND PURPOSE OF TAXATION

A. Definition and Essential Characteristics

Taxation may be defined as a State power, a legislative process and a mode of government cost
distribution
1. As a state power
Taxation is an inherent power of the state to enforce proportional contribution from its
subjects for public purposes.
2. As a process

Taxation is a process of laying taxes by the legislature of the State to enforce proportional
contributions from its subjects for public purposes

3. As a mode of cost distribution

Taxation is a mode by which the State allocates its costs or burden to its subjects whop are
benefited by its spending

Taxation is a broad and complex topic yet it is one of the most essential knowledge all citizens and
residents of a country should possess. An adequate understanding of taxation is highly crucial to
enable us to properly discharge our duty to the common good. (Banggawan, 2015)

According to De Leon’s “The Fundamentals of Taxation” the following are the features of a tax:
1. It is an enforced contribution;
2. It is generally payable in money;
3. It is proportionate in character;
4. It is levied on persons, properties or transactions;
5. It is levied by the state which has jurisdiction over the person, property or transactions;
6. It is levied by the lawmaking body of the state; and,
7. It is levied for the public purpose or purposes.

From the point of view of Economics, taxes are classified as follows:

1. Those imposed in the product or factors markets;

2. Those imposed on households or firms;
3. Those that enter on the sources of uses side of the taxpayer’s account.
B. Bases and Purposes

The existence of government (and ultimately that of the state) is a necessity since the state
is considered the ultimate socioeconomic and political human organization. It provides the
people an apparatus or machinery where they could cooperate and consolidate their
resources. It is believed that without the state, civilization will be retarded and chaos will
result, thus leaving the people at the primitive “survival of the strongest” level.

Like all other organization the state needs resources for its operation- specifically for the
support of its government. It is often stated that to justify taxes is to justify the existence of
the state itself. According to the Supreme Court ruling, taxes are considered the lifeblood of
the government.

Taxation for Development- Taxation had been used as an instrument of directing the
economy of the state to prosperity. More specifically, taxation has been employed to effect
equitable distribution of wealth and to stabilize the economy.

To developing countries, however, taxation plays a much more important role. Tax policies
and systems are formulated and implemented to support the development thrusts of these
countries. Taxation for development is, therefore, aligned to the strategies for
development which include the generation of capital for economic growth, the efficient
allocation of resources for balanced socioeconomic growth, and the preservation of the
economic independence and self-sufficiency of the country.

There are various theories of taxation have been used to formulate ideal tax system in
relation to development goal. One of the enduring theories of taxation relevant to a design
of a development-oriented tax system is Adam Smith’s canons of taxation. Smith’s principle
of an ideal tax system: Equity, Certainty, Convenience, and Economy.

1. Equity – The principle prescribes that taxes must be based on the taxpayer’s ability to
pay, as measured by his size of income. Equity is achieved when those who have more
are taxed more.
2. Certainty – The second criterion specifies taxpayers should know which taxes are
imposed, the amount to pay, and the manner of payment. This is necessary in order to
avoid overpayment or underpayment of taxes, evasions, or discouragement on the part
of the taxpayer to pay.
3. Convenience – This principle demands that the government must locate its collection
offices at places where they are easily and conveniently accessible to taxpaying public.
4. Economy – Taxation should not exert negative influences on productive undertakings.
Therefore, it should not be too high so as to discourage investment nor too low to
 permit diseconomies. Tax administration according to Smith, must not involve too
expense on the government. If a tax is to be economical, the cost of its collection must
be minimal, otherwise the cost of collecting tax will be greater that then the revenue
realized.

C. Classification of Taxes

Taxes may be classified according to: purpose, subject matter, incidence, amount, rate and
authority.
A. As to purpose
1. Fiscal or Revenue tax – a tax imposed for general purpose
2. Regulatory – a tax imposed to regulate business, conduct, acts or transactions.
3. Sumptuary – a tax levied to achieve some social or economic objectives.
B. As to subject matter
1. Personal, poll or capitation- a tax on persons who are residents of a particular territory.
2. Property tax – a tax on properties, real or personal.
3. Excise or privilege tax – a tax imposed upon the performance of an act, enjoyment oaf
a privilege or engaging in an occupation.
C. As to incidence
1. Direct tax - are taxes based on the taxpayer’s ability to pay as measured by
income, consumption, or net wealth.
2. Indirect tax – are taxes imposed on the production or consumption of goods and
services or on transactions, including imports and exports.
D. As to amount
1. Specific tax – a tax fixed amount imposed on a per unit basis such as per kilo, litter, or
meter, etc.
2. Ad valorem – a tax of a fixed proportion imposed upon the value of the tax object.
E. As to rate
1. Proportional tax – A tax of flat or fixed percentage is applied to the tax base.
2. Progressive or graduated tax – Tax rates increases as the tax base increases
3. Regressive tax – Tax rate decreases as the tax base increases.
4. Mixed tax – A tax with a tax rate which is a combination of any of the above rates.

F. As to imposing authority
1. National tax – tax imposed by the national government.
Examples:
a. Income Tax
b. Estate Tax
c. Donor’s Tax
d. Valued Added Tax
 e. Other percentage tax
f. Excise tax
g. Documentary stamp tax

2. Local Tax – tax imposed by the municipal or local government

Examples:
a. Real property tax
b. Professional tax
c. Business taxes, fees and charges
d. Community tax
e. Tax on banks and other financial institutions

III. DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS

A responsive tax system must be able to support and promote a nation’s economic and
social objectives. Taxation has to contribute towards realizing the requirements of
development, namely:
1. The generation of capital and savings necessary to economic growth
2. The reduction of inequalities in income and wealth for social justice and equity
3. The proper allocation and utilization of resources for a balanced development
4. The protection of the “exposed” economy from external forces so as to attain
stability and unimpeded economic growth.

A. Capital Formation

Taxation for capital formation should maximize savings, mobilize them for productive
socioeconomic investments and provide, where the private sector fails or refuses, the
necessary revenues for social and economic infrastructures needed for development.

B. Allocation of Resources

Tax measures, through exemptions and incentives, should be able to enhance the
efficiency of resource allocation and maximize the benefits of allocated resources such that
not only full utilization and productivity for economic growth is achieved but also balanced
economic and social development.
 C. Redistribution of Income and Wealth

A progressive tax system redistributes income and wealth in that it taxes more those
who possess greater wealth and income. Hence, more taxes are borne by those who have
the ability to bear such burden.

D. Stability

A development-oriented tax system must be able to contend with the instabilities of

the “exposed” economies of developing countries.

An “exposed economy” is essentially that which is highly vulnerable to world market developments
which are beyond its control. This exposed position is generally caused by:

1. The heavy dependence of the local economy on the export of its agricultural or mineral
products as a source of national economy
2. Dominance of foreign investments in the economy
3. The dependence on foreign sources for manufactured products including oil,
machinery, foodstuffs and others not met by local production.

As a fiscal measure for economic stabilization, taxation should employ a system of tariff controls in
order to effectively regulate the flow of export and imports with a view towards balancing the
foreign exchange requirements and the competitiveness of some industries; giving the proper
incentives and protection to local industries in order to promote the diversification and financial
activities of foreign investors.
 IV. THE PHILIPPINE TAX SYSTEM
With the acceleration of development financing activities of the government, fiscal reforms
involving the tax system became imperative. The Philippine tax system underwent radical reforms,
both organizational and substantive, in order to align the goals and policies of taxation to national
development and to generate more revenues for development projects.

A. The Constitutional Mandate

The Constitution contains one basic principle of taxation which embodies the desired correlation of
taxation to developmental goals and strategies.
The Constitution expressly provides that the rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable and
mandates Congress to evolve a progressive system of taxation.
What is a progressive tax system?
- It emphasized that the main thrust of tax reforms should be towards improving social equity by a
sharp rise in direct taxation and by higher indirect taxation of goods and services consumed by the
upper income groups.

B. The Major Revenue Agencies

1. Department of Finance (DOF)

- the principal fiscal and administrative arm of the government.

- responsible for the judicious and effective management of the government's tax programs and
borrowings to achieve national development goals.

MANDATE

Under Executive Orders 127, 127-A and 292, the Department of Finance is responsible for the
following:
o Formulation, institutionalization and administration of fiscal policies in coordination with
other concerned subdivisions, agencies and instrumentalities of the government;
o Generation and management of the financial resources of government;
o Supervision of the revenue operations of all local government units;
o Review, approval and management of all public sector debt, domestic or foreign; and
o Rationalization, privatization and public accountability of corporations and assets owned,
controlled or acquired by the government.
 POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

1. Formulate goals, action plans and strategies for the Governments resource mobilization
effort;
2. Formulate, institutionalize and administer fiscal and tax policies;
3. Supervise, direct and control the collection of government revenues;
4. Act as custodian of, and manage all financial resources of Government
5. Manage public debt;
6. Review and coordinate policies, plans and programs of GOCCs;
7. Monitor and support the implementation of policies and measures on local revenue
administration;
8. Coordinate with other government agencies on matters concerning fiscal, monetary,
trade and other economic policies
9. Investigate and arrest illegal activities such as smuggling, dumping, illegal logging, etc.
affecting national economic interest

2. The Bureau of Internal Revenue

A. Organizational Set Up. The BIR is the premier agency in charge of all matters pertaining to
internal national taxation.

B. The Powers of the BIR.

In general, the power and duties of the BIR are the following:
1. Assessment and collection of all national internal revenue, taxes, fee and charges;
2. Enforcement of all forfeitures, penalties and fines connected with item 1;
3. Execution of judgments in all cases decided in its favor by the courts;
4. Giving effect and administering the supervisory and police power conferred to it by law;
5. Recommend to the Secretary of Finance all needful rules and regulations for the enforcement of
the provisions of the National Internal Revenue Code; and
6. And through the Commissioner, the BIR has the following functions:
a. accounting for all revenues collected;
b. exercising all legal requirements that are appropriate;
c. preventing and prosecuting tax evasions and other illegal economic activities;
d. exercising supervision and control over its constituent units; and
e. performing such other functions as may be provided by law

C. Taxes Collected by the BIR. Under Sec. 19 of the National Internal Revenue Code (NIRC), the
national internal revenue taxes administered by the BIR are:
1. Income Tax
2. Estate and Gift Taxes
3. Excise Tax
4. Taxes on Business
5. Documentary Stamp Tax
6. Mining Tax
7. Miscellaneous Taxes, Fees and Charges imposed by NIRC.
a. taxes on banks, finance companies, and insurance companies;
b. franchise taxes;
c. taxes on amusement;
d. charges on forest products;
e. tobacco inspection fees; and
f. such other taxes as are hereafter may be imposed and collected by the BIR

3. The Bureau of Customs (BOC)

A. Organizational Set Up. The second major revenue-collection agency of the national government
is the BOC.

B. Powers of the BOC. Under the Tariff and Customs Code, the BOC is charged with:
1. Assessment and collection of the lawful revenues from imported articles and all other dues, fees,
charges, fines and penalties accruing under the tariff and customs laws;
2. Prevention and suppression of smuggling and other frauds;
3. Supervision and control over the entrance and clearance of vessels and aircraft engaged in
foreign commerce;
4. Enforcement of the tariff and customs laws and all other laws, rules and regulations relating to
tariff and customs administration;
5. Supervision and control over the handling of foreign mails arriving in the Philippines, for the
purpose of collection of the lawful duty on the dutiable articles thus imported and the prevention of
smuggling through the medium of such mails;
6. Supervision and control over all import and export cargoes, landed or stored in piers, airports,
terminal facilities, including container yards and freight stations for the protection of government
revenue;
7. Exclusive jurisdiction over seizure and forfeiture cases under tariff and customs laws;
8. And the following, through the Commissioner:
a. Accounting for all customs revenues collected;
b. Exercising police authority for the enforcement of tariff are customs laws
c. Prosecuting smuggling and other illegal activities in all ports under its jurisdiction;
d. Supervision and control over its constituent units; and
e. Performing other functions as may be provided by law.
Under the customs law, the BOC is empowered to collect fees, dues and charges for the following:
a. Each original import or export entry
b. Each entry for immediate transportation in bond;
c. Each original internal revenue entry;
d. For each original withdrawal entry from any bonded warehouse;
e. For each bond accepted or received;
f. For each approval of application in respect to transaction covered by general bond; and
g. For each Certificate made in the routine administration of the Bureau

C. Major Philippine Taxes

Two (2) Basic Types
1. National Taxes
2. Local Taxes

National Taxes in the Philippines

1. Capital Gains Tax – is a tax imposed on the gains presumed to have been realized by the seller
from the sale, exchange, or other disposition of capital assets located in the Philippines, including
pacto de retro sales and other forms of conditional sale.

This also means that the sale or exchange of ordinary assets (those that are not capital assets) are
not subject to capital gains tax, instead, they may be subjected to creditable withholding tax.
What is the tax base/rate used for computing Capital Gains Tax on transfer of real property?
There shall be imposed a final tax rate of six percent (6%) based on whichever is higher of the
following:
1) The fair market value as determined by the Commissioner (zonal value);
2) The fair market value as shown in the Schedule of Values of the Provincial and City Assessors; or
3) The selling price of the property or fair market value of the property received in an exchange
transaction.

Sample computation of capital gains tax on sale of real property

Example: Mr. Santos sells a residential lot in Pasig City with a floor area of 200sqm on cash with
Selling Price of P3 Million. Mr. Santos is not engaged in a real estate business. The proceeds from
the sale will be used by Mr. Santos for his trip to US and other personal expenses. The following are
the fair market value information of the real property:
1. Fair Market Value as determined by BIR Commissioner (Zonal Value/BIR Rules):
1a. Land: P1,600,000 (let us say BIR Zonal value is P8,000/sqm [200 x 8,000=1,600,000])
1b. Improvement: P1,200,000
2. Fair Market Value as determined by Provincial/City Assessor’s (per latest Tax Declaration):
2a. Land: P1,400,000
2b. Improvement: P1,300,000

How much is the Capital Gains Tax?

Answer/solution:

Step 1. Determine the highest fair value (FMV):

Total FMV1 (1a + 1b): P2,800,000
Total FMV2 (2a + 2b): P2,700,000
Total FMV3 (1a + 2b): P2,900,000
Total FMV4 (2a + 1b): P2,600,000

The Highest FMV is FMV3: P2,900,000. This is the FV we will use in the step 2.

Step 2. Determine the higher between FMV and Selling Price:

FMV = P2,900,000
Selling Price = P3,000,000

The higher value is the selling price P3,000,000. This is our tax base for computing Capital Gains Tax.

Step 3. Calculate Capital Gains Tax.

CGT = P3,000,000 x 6%
CGT = P180,000

2. Documentary Stamp Tax – is a tax on documents, instruments, loan agreements and papers
evidencing the acceptance, assignment, sale or transfer of an obligation, rights, or property incident
thereto.

Examples of documentary stamp tax are those that are charged on bank promissory notes, deed of
sale, and deed of assignment on transfer of shares of corporate stock ownership.

How to Compute DST on transfer of real property?

In computing the DST on transfer of real property or Deed of Sale and conveyance of real property,
the following DST tax rate is used:

1.5% x Selling Price/Consideration or Fair Market Value, whichever is higher

Sample computation of DST on transfer of real property

Example: A residential lot in Pasig City with a floor area of 200sqm has a Selling Price of P3 Million.
The Deed of Sale stipulated that the buyer shall shoulder DST. The following are the fair market
value information of the real property:
1. Fair Market Value as determined by BIR Commissioner (Zonal Value/BIR Rules):
1a. Land: P1,600,000 (let us say BIR Zonal value is P8,000/sqm [200 x 8,000=1,600,000])
1b. Improvement: P1,200,000
2. Fair Market Value as determined by Provincial/City Assessor’s (per latest Tax Declaration):
2a. Land: P1,400,000
2b. Improvement: P1,300,000

Question: How much is the DST?

Answer/solution:

Step 1. Determine the highest fair value (FMV):

Total FMV1 (1a + 1b): P2,800,000
Total FMV2 (2a + 2b): P2,700,000
Total FMV3 (1a + 2b): P2,900,000
Total FMV4 (2a + 1b): P2,600,000

The Highest FMV is FMV3: P2,900,000. This is the FV we will use in the step 2.

Step 2. Determine the higher between FMV and Selling Price:

FMV = P2,900,000
Selling Price = P3,000,000

The higher value is the selling price P3,000,000. This is our tax base for computing DST.

Step 3. Calculate DST.

DST = P3,000,000 x 1.5%
DST = P45,000

3. Donor’s Tax – is a tax on a donation or gift, and is imposed on the gratuitous transfer of property
between two or more persons who are living at the time of the transfer. Donor’s tax is based on a
graduated schedule of tax rate.
TRAIN simplifies the payment of donor’s taxes to a single tax rate of 6% of net donations is imposed
for gifts above P250,000 yearly regardless of relationship to the donor.

4. Estate Tax – is a tax on the right of the deceased person to transmit his/her estate to his/her
lawful heirs and beneficiaries at the time of death and on certain transfers which are made by law
as equivalent to testamentary disposition. Estate tax is also based on a graduated schedule of tax
rate.

Instead of having a complicated tax schedule with different rates, TRAIN reduces and restructures
the estate tax to a low and single tax rate of 6% based on the net value of the estate with a
standard deduction of P5 million and exemption for the first P10 million for the family home.

Sample Computation:

Mr. Mayaman, a 70-year-old businessman, single, died of Myocardial Infarction or heart attack. He
left a good amount of estate and his siblings will be his heirs. How much would be the Estate Tax to
be paid by his heirs under the new train law?

His gross estate is as follows:

Php13M Family Home
Php3M business properties
Php3M Shares of stocks
Php2M Other Assets

Mr. Mayaman’s Estate Tax Liability under the TRAIN law:

Total Gross Estate: Php13M Family Home + Php3M business properties + Php3M Shares of stocks +
Php2M Other Assets = Php21 Million
Net Estate: Gross Asset minus Allowable deduction
Php21 Million (less) Php 10M from Family Home (less) Php5 M Standard Deduction
Total Taxable Net Estate = Php6 Million

Under the TRAIN law, from the old estate tax table, it is now computed with 6% flat rate. Thus, 6%
of the Php6 million estate is Php360,000.

5. Income Tax - is a government tax on the taxable profit earned by an individual or corporation.
The resulting revenue is usually one of the chief sources of cash for a government entity. It is
considered one of the more fair forms of taxation, since it is only imposed if a person or business
has been successful enough to generate taxable income. Thus, its impact on the poor or
unprofitable is minor to nonexistent.
Most tax rates are progressive, which means that the tax rate increases as the level of income
increases. The reasoning behind this tax structure is that the poor are less able to pay taxes, while
the rich have more excess cash with which to pay taxes.
Sample Computation:

Passive Income
6.Percentage Tax – is a business tax imposed on persons or entities who sell or lease goods,
properties or services in the course of trade or business whose gross annual sales or receipts do not
exceed P1,500,000 and are not VAT-registered.

Sample computation of Percentage Tax Due and Payable

Assuming a person who is registered as a self-employed professional (e.g., lawyer, accountant,

doctor, architect, engineer, writer or blogger), has an annual gross receipts of P1,200,000, and is a
Non-VAT registered taxpayer, receives gross receipts for the month of February amounted to Php
100,000. The person is under taxpayers who are required to file Monthly Percentage Tax Return BIR
form 2551M.

The computation of his PT due and payable for the month of February is as follows:
Monthly Percentage tax due = gross receipts x 3%
=P100,000 x 3%
=P3,000

7. Value Added Tax – is a business tax imposed and collected from the seller in the course of trade
or business on every sale of properties (real or personal) lease of goods or properties (real or
personal) or vendors of services. It is an indirect tax, thus, it can be passed on to the buyer, causing
this to increase the prices of most goods and services bought and paid by consumers. VAT returns
are usually filed and paid monthly and quarterly.
8. Excise Tax – is a tax imposed on goods manufactured or produced in the Philippines for domestic
sale or consumption or any other disposition. It is also imposed on things that are imported.

TYPES OF EXCISE TAX:

1. Specific Tax – refers to the excise tax imposed which is based on weight or volume capacity or
any other physical unit of measurement
2. Ad Valorem Tax – refers to the excise tax which is based on selling price or other specified value
of the goods/articles

MANNER OF COMPUTATION:

Specific Tax = No. of Units/other measurements x Specific Tax Rate

Ad Valorem Tax = No. of Units/other measurements x Selling Price of any specific value per unit x
Ad Valorem Tax Rate

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF EXCISABLE ARTICLES AND RELATED CODAL SECTION:

1. Alcohol Products (Sections 141-143)
a. Distilled Spirits (Section 141)
b. Wines (Section 142)
c. Fermented Liquors (Section 143)
2. Tobacco Products (Sections 144-146)
a. Tobacco Products (Section 144)
b. Cigars & Cigarettes (Section 145)
c. Inspection Fee (Section 146)
3. Petroleum Products (Section 148)
4. Miscellaneous Articles (Section 149-150)
a. Automobiles (Section 149)
b. Non-essential Goods (Section 150)
5. Mineral Products (Sections 151)
9. Withholding Tax on Compensation – is the tax withheld from individuals receiving purely
compensation income. This tax is what employers withheld in their employees’ compensation
income and remit to the government through the BIR or authorized accrediting agent.

10. Expanded Withholding Tax – is a kind of withholding tax which is prescribed only for certain
payors and is creditable against the income tax due of the payee for the taxable quarter year.
Examples of the expanded withholding taxes are those that are withheld on rental income and
professional income.

11. Final Withholding Tax – is a kind of withholding tax which is prescribed only for certain payors
and is not creditable against the income tax due of the payee for the taxable year. Income Tax
withheld constitutes the full and final payment of the Income Tax due from the payee on the said
income. An example of final withholding tax is the tax withheld by banks on the interest income
earned on bank deposits.
12. Withholding Tax on Government Money Payments – is the withholding tax withheld by
government offices and instrumentalities, including government-owned or -controlled corporations
and local government units, before making any payments to private individuals, corporations,
partnerships and/or associations.
 V. RECOMMENDATION

We, the reporters, believed that it is only substantial that a government imposes taxes to its
citizens. These taxes are important to fuel the government’s projects and goals for the attainment
of a national development.
However, it is still a challenge to every country especially for the developing countries like the
Philippines to come up efficient tax policies that is acceptable and promotes fair distribution of tax
burden.
We recommend in any attempt to formulate and implement tax policies, one must be in support
and promotes the nation’s economic and social objectives. Any tax polices should contribute in
generation of capital and savings necessary to economic growth, reduction of inequalities in income
and wealth, proper allocation and utilization of resources and the protection of the “exposed”
economy from external forces.
To finish, we encourage everyone to pay its taxes right. It is our duty to have a fair share in the
development of our country. However, our duty as a taxpayer does not end there. We should keep
an eye on how the government uses these taxes. Remember, taxes are levied for public purposes.
 VI. REFERENCES

Rex B. Banggawan, CPA, MBA. Income Taxation Laws, Principles and Applications. 2015 OBE Edition.
Manila: Real Excellence Publishing, 2015.

Leonor M. Briones. Philippine Public Fiscal Administration, Volume 1, 2nd edition. Fiscal
Administration Foundation, Inc. (FAFI) Publication No. 25,

Philippine Public Fiscal Administration

https://www.bir.gov.ph/

http://customs.gov.ph/

https://www.dof.gov.ph/

https://businesstips.ph/different-kinds-of-taxes-in-the-philippines/

https://www.accountingtools.com/articles/2017/5/11/income-tax