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Interviewing
M any of the early important empirical
works on policymaking in Washington
were built around elite interviews. We first
survey research, which relies on different
kinds of questions). This lack of attention
mirrors readers’ expectations of published
learned about how Congress really operates work using elite interviews. There simply isn’t
from pioneers in elite interviewing such as a demand for political scientists to document
Lewis Anthony Dexter (1969), Ralph Huitt the resolution of methodological issues associ-
(1969), and Donald Matthews (1960). No less ated with this kind of interviewing. It is usu-
revered is the scholarship of Richard Fenno ally sufficient merely to describe the sampling
(1978), John Kingdon (1995), and Robert framework (if there is one) and to reprint the
Salisbury (1993), who have produced enduring interview protocol in an appendix.
and respected work from elite interviewing. The methodological issues in elite inter-
Yet there are few other contemporary political viewing are serious and involve both issues
scientists working on public policymaking of validity—how appropriate is the measur-
who have built reputations for their method- ing instrument to the task at hand?—and
ological skills as interviewers. Elite interview- reliability—how consistent are the results of
ing is still widely used as the basis for repeated tests with the chosen measuring
collecting data, but most interviewing depends instrument? I’ve confronted these issues for
on a few trusted templates. Most commonly, years as almost all my research projects have
elites in a particular institution are chosen at used elite interviews. I was lucky enough to
random and subjected to the same interview be trained by a master—Robert Peabody of
protocol composed of structured or semistruc- the Johns Hopkins University. As a graduate
tured questions. For example, state legislators student I followed him around the Congress
are asked a series of questions about their and sat in on his interviews with legislators,
attitudes on particular issues or institutional staffers, and lobbyists. He taught me some of
practices. Or policy- the basic skills of an interviewer. None was
makers involved in more important than this: the best inter-
certain issues are viewer is not one who writes the best
by selected and then questions. Rather, excellent interviewers are
Jeffrey M. Berry, quizzed about those excellent conversationalists. They make inter-
matters. Some confi- views seem like a good talk among old
Tufts University dent and skilled friends. He didn’t carry a printed set of
interviewers, like questions in front of him to consult as the
William Browne interview progressed; yet he always knew
(1988) and Richard Hall (1996), combine were he was going and never lost control of
different interview approaches in their work the discussion. He gave his subjects a lot of
but they are the exceptions and not the rule. license to roam but would occasionally corral
When scholars use a sample of interviews, it them back if the discussion went too far
is the statistical manipulation of the coded in- astray.
terview transcripts that is considered to be the His method illustrates the paradox of elite
rigorous part of the research; the fieldwork it- interviewing: the valuable flexibility of open-
self is largely viewed as a means to that end. ended questioning exacerbates the validity
Unless researchers pay close attention to the and reliability issues that are part and parcel
field methodology, though, the “error term” in of this approach. As I’ve followed my initial
elite interviews can easily cross an unaccept- training and developed my own style of elite
able threshold. What if the questions are poorly interviewing, I’ve thought about the method-
constructed, or the subjects are unrevealing, or, ological problems of open-ended questioning
worse, misleading in their answers? More to and tried to develop ways to minimize the
the point, how does the interviewer know if risks associated with this approach. Here I
any of these problems exist? focus on three methodological issues com-
Despite the common use of elite interviews mon to this kind of elite interviewing. In
to collect primary data, it is a skill that is each case, I’ll offer some suggestions to
rarely taught in graduate school. In contrast, improve the chances that the data acquired
methods courses pay enormous attention to won’t be badly compromised by validity or
the most minute of statistical issues, and reliability concerns. These suggestions are far
newly minted Ph.D.’s enter the profession from foolproof. Open-ended questioning—the
with an impressive proficiency in quantitative riskiest but potentially most valuable type of
methods. What little training graduate pro- elite interviewing—requires interviewers to
grams offer related to interviewing is usually know when to probe and how to formulate
restricted to matters of question wording and follow-up questions on the fly. It’s a
bias (and often this comes about in training in high-wire act.
References
Browne, William P. 1988. Private Interests, Public Policy, and American Huitt, Ralph K., and Robert L. Peabody. 1969. Congress: Two Decades of
Agriculture. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Analysis. New York: Harper and Row.
Dexter, Lewis Anthony. 1969. The Sociology and Politics of Congress. King, Gary, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba. 1994. Designing Social
Chicago: Rand McNally. Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fenno, Richard F., Jr. 1978. Home Style: House Members in Their Kingdon, John W. 1995. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. Second
Districts. Boston: Little, Brown. ed. New York: HarperCollins.
Hall, Richard L. 1996. Participation in Congress. New Haven, CT: Yale Matthews, Donald R. 1960. U.S. Senators and Their World. New York:
University Press. Vintage Books.
Heinz, John P., Edward O. Laumann, Robert L. Nelson, and Robert H.
Salisbury. 1993. The Hollow Core: Private Interests in National Policy
Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.