1

1. Vectors as Classes of Arrows

2. Component Representation of Vectors

3. Point Sets in 3D

4. Adding Vectors, Multiplying Vectors with Scalars

5. Representation of Lines and Planes

6. Relationships between Points, Lines, and Planes

Download this chapter (without training or quizzes) as pdf. ( > 6MB )

If you think you've already mastered the content of this chapter, you can proceed directly to the final exam.

To be able to interpret vectors as classes of arrows (Section 1 ).

To be able to represent vectors via their components (Section 2 ).

To be able to investigate vectors in space with the help of point sets (Section 3 ).

To be able to add two vectors, as well as perform scalar multiplication on vectors (Section 4 ).

To be able to represent lines and planes in space with the help of vectors (Section 5 , 6 ).
 2

In this chapter we will deal with vectors in the plane and in 3D space. You will learn how to perform simple
operations such as addition and multiplication with vectors. Simple geometric objects such as right
triangles, rectangles, as well as lines and planes in space will be of great use in investigating vectors and
how they are described. In addition, the relationship between points, lines, and planes in space will be
learned as well as how to calculate possible intersection points between these objects.

In order to achieve these goals, the knowledge of triangles and quadrilaterals from Chapter V: Geometry is
beneficial. The confident handling of lines in a two-dimensional coordinate system as in Chapter IX: 2D
Coordinate System will be necessary. When dealing with the relationship between objects, it will be
important to know how to find the solution of a linear system, which was dealt with in Chapter IV: Linear
Systems of Equations .

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 3

1.1 Vectors
1.2 Arrow Classes

To be able to describe directional quantities via vectors.

To be able to interpret vectors as classes of arrows.

Many physical quantities are not only determined by their magnitude, rather also by the direction in which
they act. In this chapter we will focus on learning about these directional quantities: so-called vectors.

→ →
A vector v is a quantity that is identified by both a length and a direction. If v is a vector, then we denote
→
the vector's length by ∣∣ v ∣∣ .

2
 4
A vector with zero length is called the zero vector. We will only ever deal with vectors in 2D and 3D, i.e. ℝ2
and ℝ3 , respectively. The concept of a vector can be strongly generalized.

→ → →
v is a vector, then we denote by − v the vector that has the same length as v but that points in the
If
→
opposite direction of v .

We want to be able to interpret vectors as a collection of arrows, so that we can also imagine them graphically
(as above). Arrows and classes of arrows, or arrow classes help us interpret and visualize vectors.

An arrow is defiend by its starting point, its direction, and its length (or equivalently by its starting point
and endpoint).

Vectors can be interpreted as so-called arrow classes.

 5

The set of all arrows with the same direction and the same length are called an arrow class.

Equivalently: all arrows of an arrow class are copies of each other that have been parallel shifted, and hence
an arrow class is only defined by a direction and a length.

The image below shoes 14 arrows, however only four arrow classes. These four arrow classes are denoted
by different colours.

We can now consider vectors as arrow classes, whereby we map directions and lengths to each other.
 6

Vectors are not fixed by their starting point, but rather only by their direction and length. For this reason,
we also need arrow classes.

→ →
If a vector v is given by an arrow (more precisely, a class of arrows), then the vector − v is given by the
arrow pointing in the opposite direction.

Many directional quantities are fixed to a concrete point (i.e. have a special starting point). In order to
distinguish such vectors from others, the following terms are commonly used: Vectors that have no fixed
starting point are called free vectors. Vectors that have a fixed starting point are called bound vectors. Bound
vectors that start at the origin are called position vectors.
 7

→
In the image below, u is a position vector,
→
v is a bound vector with starting point P , and →
w is a free
vector.

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 8

Which of the following arrows belong to the same arrow class?

How many different vectors are depicted in the image below?
 9
Classification

Two arrows belong to the same arrow class if they can be put overtop of each other by parallel shifts. This is the
case if they both point in the same direction and have the same length, hence we get the following classification:
 10
Number of Vectors

With the help of the division into arrow classes, there are six different vectors depicted.
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 14

2.1 Component Representation of Vectors

If you think you've already mastered the content of this section, you can proceed to the exercises, training,
and quiz.

To be able to represent vectors by their components.

Vectors in either 2D (ℝ2 ) or 3D (ℝ3 ) can be broken down into their respective components. In order to do
this, we need the orthogonal coordinate systems:
 15

(y)
→ x →
A vector v in ℝ2 can be written as a pair of real numbers , x, y ∈ ℝ . Analogously, a vector v in ℝ3

⎛x⎞
⎜ ⎟
can be written as a triple ⎜ y ⎟ , x, y, z ∈ ℝ . Vectors are differentiated from points be writing them as
⎜ ⎟
⎝z ⎠
columns (as so-called column vectors).
 16

Let P and Q be points in ℝ2 with coordinates P = (Px , Py ) ∈ ℝ2 and Q = (Qx , Qy ) ∈ ℝ2 . Then the
−→
−
vector PQ that points from P to Q is given by

( Qy − Py )
−→
− Qx − Px
PQ = .

Similarly, the vector between two points in 3D can be calculated.

 17

Let P and Q be points in ℝ3 with coordinates P = (Px , Py , Pz ) ∈ ℝ3 and Q = (Qx , Qy , Qz ) ∈ ℝ3 .

−→
−
Then the vector PQ from P to Q is given by

⎛ Qx − Px ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
PQ = ⎜ Qy − Py ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ Qz − Pz ⎠

The following rule is useful to remember:

Vector between two points = Endpoint minus starting point

or

'tip' minus 'tail'.

 18

−→
−
Let P = (1,2,3) and Q = (3,2,1) . The vector PQ (i.e. the vector that starts at P and ends at Q ) is given
by

⎛3 − 1⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
PQ = ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − 3 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

The letter O commonly represents the origin of a coordinate system which has coordinates O = (0,0) or
O = (0,0,0) . The position vector of a point P is the vector that starts at the origin and goes to the point P ,
−→
−
i.e. OP . If a point P in 3D has coordinates P = ( Px , Py , Pz ) ∈ ℝ3 , then its position vector is given by

⎛ Px ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
OP = ⎜ Py ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ Pz ⎠

The position vector of a point has the exact same coordinates as the point itself, however instead of writing its
as a row (in the case of a point), we write its components in a column to denote that it is a vector.

The zero vectors in ℝ 2 and ℝ3 are given by

⎛0⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟
(0)
→ 0
0 = and 0 = ⎜ 0 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝0⎠

With the help of the Pythagorean Theorem we can determine the length of vectors in 2D and 3D. If

( vy )
→ vx
v = is a vector in ℝ2 then its length is given by

∣∣→
v ∣∣ = √‾v‾‾‾‾‾
2 + v‾
x
2.
y
 19

⎛ vx ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Analogously, the length of a vector v = ⎜ vy ⎟ in ℝ3 is given by
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠

∣∣→
v ∣∣ = √‾v‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2 + v2 + v‾
x y
2.
z

The zero vector

⎛0⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟
0 = ⎜0⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝0⎠

in ℝ3 has length

∣∣→
0 ∣∣ = √‾0‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 02 + 02‾ = 0.
∣ ∣
 20

The vector

⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟
v = ⎜2⎟
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠

in ℝ3 has length

∣∣→
v ∣∣ = √‾1‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 22 + 32‾ = √14
‾‾
‾ ≈ 3. 74.

When taking the negative of a vector, we can

( vy )
→= vx
The negative of a vector v in 2D is given by

( vy ) ( −vy )
→ vx −vx
−v =− = .

⎛ vx ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Analogously, for a vector v = vy in 3D:
⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠

⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ −vx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
− v = − ⎜ vy ⎟ = ⎜ −vy ⎟.
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠ ⎝ −vz ⎠

−→
− −→
− −→
− −→
−
Let P and Q be points in 3D. Then the vector −PQ is the same as QP , i.e. −PQ = QP .

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 21

Given the points A = (1,4, −2) , B = (2,1,1) , and C = (−1, −1,2) , calculate:

−→ −→
− −→
−
AB , AC and BC .

→
AB

−→
The vector AB is given by:

⎛ 2−1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎜ 1 − 4 ⎟ = ⎜ −3 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − (−2) ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

→
AC

−→
−
The vector AC is given by:

⎛ −1 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AC = ⎜ −1 − 4 ⎟= ⎜ −5 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 − (−2) ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

→
BC

−→
−
The vector BC is given by:

⎛ −1 − 2 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
BC = ⎜ −1 − 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2−1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
 22

Calculate the lengths of the vectors

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
( −1 )
2
b =⎜ 4 ⎟ c = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
→ →
a = , and
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −5 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

→
a

→ →
The length (∣∣ a ∣∣ ) of the vector a is given by:

∣→ ∣ ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾2‾
∣ a ∣ = √ 2 + (−1) = √ 5‾.
2

→
b

∣→∣ →
The length (∣ b ∣ ) of the vector b is given by:
∣ ∣

∣→∣
∣ b ∣ = √ ‾3‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 4 2 + (−5)2‾ = √50
‾‾
‾.
∣ ∣

→
c

→ →
The length (∣∣ c ∣∣ ) of the vector c is given by:

∣→ ∣ ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾2‾
∣ c ∣ = √ (−1) + (−2) + 3 = √ 14
2 2
‾‾
‾.
 23

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 24

Which of the following vectors describe the vector from the point P = (2,3,1) to the point
Q = (1,1, −2) ?
⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟
a) ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠
⎛ −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
b) ⎜ −2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠
⎛3⎞
⎜ ⎟
c) ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠
⎛ −3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
d) ⎜ −2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠

Solution

−→
−
b) is the vector PQ .

Explanation

−→
−
The vector PQ can be calculated:

⎛ Q x − Px ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 2 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
PQ = ⎜ Q y − Py ⎟ = ⎜ 1 − 3 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Qz − Pz ⎠ ⎝ −2 − 1 ⎠ ⎝ −3 ⎠

hence b) is the correct answer.

 25

3.1 Point Sets

If you think you've already mastered the content of this section, you can proceed to the exercises, training,
and quiz.

To be able to investigate point sets in 3D with the help of vectors.

With the help of vectors we can now investigate objects in 3D as well as in the plane (2D). To do this, we will
look at properties of triangles and quadrilaterals in the plane with the help of the coordinates of its corner
points. From the corner points we can calculate vectors which can be used, for example, to describe the sides
of triangles or quadrilaterals. Information on triangles and quadrilaterals can also be found in Section V.2 in
Chapter V: Geometry.
 26

In right trangles with legs a and b and hypotenuse c, the relationship called the Pythaogrean Theorem
holds:

a2 + b 2 = c 2 .

The converse is also true: If a triangle with side lengths a , b , and c satisfies the equation

a2 + b 2 = c 2 ,

then this triangle is a right triangle with hypotenuse c.

Rationale

From V. Geometry we know the Pythagorean Theorem as well as the congruency relationship SSS.
With these two theorems, we can work through the converse. If a triangle with side lengths a , b , and
c is given where

a2 + b2 = c2,

then we can construct a right-triangle with side lengths a and b with a right angle between these
two sides (at the corner point C ). According to the Pythagorean Theorem, the hypotenuse now has
length c , and as per SSS congruency, both triangles are congruent: the original triangle is in fact a
right triangle.
 27

The three points A = (1,0,1) , B = (4,0,1) , and C = (4,0,5) are the corner points of a triangle in 3D.
The vectors

⎛3⎞ ⎛ 0⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ −→
− ⎜ ⎟ −→
− ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎜ 0 ⎟, BC = ⎜ 0 ⎟, CA = ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝0⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠

describe the sides of the triangle. Since

−→∣
∣∣AB −→
− ∣
∣∣BC −→
− ∣
∣∣CA
∣ ∣∣ = 3, ∣ ∣∣ = 4, ∣ ∣∣ = 5

2
and the fact that 3 + 42 = 52 , we can tell that this triangle is in fact a right triangle with hypotenuse CA .

−→
As we saw in the example, the length of the vector AB between the points A and B is naturally the same
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
length as the line segment AB between the two points.
 28

Let's now take a look at the relationships between the four points A = (1,0,2) , B = (3,2,1) ,
C = (2,2, −1) , and D = (0,0,0) .

Because

⎛ 2 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ −→
−
AB = ⎜ 2 ⎟ = DC
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠

and

⎛ −1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ −→
−
BC = ⎜ 0 ⎟ = AD
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠

these four points construct a planar quadrilateral ABCD . This quadrilateral is a parallelogram, since the
sides lying opposite each other are parallel and are the same length (they can both be described by the
same vector). Because

∣⎛ 1 ⎞∣
− ∣ ∣⎜
−→ ⎟∣
∣ ∣∣ = ∣∣⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟∣∣ = √14
∣∣AC ‾‾
‾
∣⎝ −3 ⎠∣

∣−→∣ ∣−→
− ∣
and ∣AB ∣ = 3 , ∣BC ∣ = √5
‾, the three points ABC construct a right triangle. In this case, the
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
parallelogram is a rectangle as well, but not a square.
 29
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 30

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Consider the triangle ABC where A = (1,3,4) , b = ⎜ 1 ⎟ and c = ⎜ 1 ⎟.
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝1⎠
Note: The picture below may not be to scale!

a) Find the coordinates of the corner points B and C of the triangle.

b) Calculate the side lengths of the triangle.

c) Is the triangle a right triangle?

Answer

a) B = (2,4,5) and C = (−1,2,7) .

∣−→∣ ∣−→
− ∣ ∣−→
− ∣
b) The side lengths are ∣AB ∣ = √ 3
‾ , ∣BC ∣ = √17
‾‾
‾ , and ∣AC ∣ = √14
‾‾
‾.
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣

c) The triangle is a right triangle with its right angle at A.

 31

Solution a)

With the help of the sketch, we get that

−→ →
AB = c .

Analogously,

−→
− →
CA = b .

⎛ Bx − Ax ⎞ ⎛ Bx − 1 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Because AB = ⎜ B y − A y ⎟ = ⎜ By − 3 ⎟ , this means that
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bz − Az ⎠ ⎝ Bz − 4 ⎠

⎛ Bx − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ By − 3 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bz − 4 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

and hence B x − 1 = 1 , B y − 3 = 1 , and B z − 4 = 1 . From this, we get that B x = 2 , B y = 4 , and

Bz = 5 , thus B = (2,4,5) .
⎛ A x − Cx ⎞ ⎛ 1 − Cx ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Because CA = ⎜ A y − Cy ⎟ = ⎜ 3 − Cy ⎟ this means that
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A z − Cz ⎠ ⎝ 4 − Cz ⎠

⎛ 1 − Cx ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 − Cy ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 − Cz ⎠ ⎝ −3 ⎠

and hence 1 − C x = 2 , 3 − Cy = 1 , and 4 − Cz = −3 . From this, we get that Cx = −1 , Cy = 2 ,

and C z = 7 , thus C = (−1,2,7) .
 32

Solution b)

We can calculate the lengths of the sides of the triangle:

∣−→∣ →
∣AB ∣ = ∣∣ c ∣∣ = √‾1‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 12 + 1 2‾ = √ 3‾,
∣ ∣
∣−→
− ∣ ∣ →∣ ∣→∣
∣AC = ∣− b ∣ = ∣ b ∣ = √‾2‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 1 2 + (−3)2‾ = √ 14
‾‾
‾.
∣ ∣∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣

−→
−
The vector BC can be calculated to be:

⎛ −1 − 2 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
BC = ⎜ 2 − 4 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 7−5 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

The length of the third side is:

∣−→
− ∣
∣BC ∣ = √ ‾(−3
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
)2 + (−2)2 + 22‾ = √ 17
‾‾
‾.
∣ ∣

Solution c)

In a right triangle, the hypotenuse is always the longest side. In our case, that is the side BC .
Because a triangle is a right triangle if and only if the Pythagorean Theorem holds for it, we can
check this given our sides.

Because

∣−→
− ∣2 ∣−→∣ 2 ∣−→
− ∣2
∣BC ∣ = 17 = 14 + 3 = ∣AB ∣ + ∣AC ∣ ,
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣

the triangle is indeed a right triangle with its right angle at A.

 33

Is the quadrilateral given by the points A = (1,2, −1), B = (3,4, −2), C = (2,6,0) , and D = (0,4,1) a
square? Proceed taking the following steps:

a) Describe the sides using vectors.

b) Calculate the side lengths.

c) Calculate the lengths of the diagonals.

d) Check whether the quadrilateral is a square.

Answer

The quadrilateral ABCD is a square.

a) The vectors describing its sides are:

⎛ 2 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎜ 2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ −1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
BC = ⎜ 2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ −2 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
CD = ⎜ −2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
DA = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠

b) All of the sides of the quadrilateral have a length of 3 .

c) The length of both diagonals is √18

‾‾
‾.

d) The quadrilateral is a square.

 34

Solution a)

The sides of the quadrilateral can be expressed by the vectors:

⎛ Bx − Ax ⎞ ⎛ 3 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎜ By − Ay ⎟ = ⎜ 4 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bz − Az ⎠ ⎝ −2 − (−1) ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ Cx − B x ⎞ ⎛ 2 − 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
BC = ⎜ Cy − B y ⎟ = ⎜ 6 − 4 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Cz − Bz ⎠ ⎝ 0 − (−2) ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ Dx − C x ⎞ ⎛ 0 − 2 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
CD = ⎜ Dy − C y ⎟ = ⎜ 4 − 6 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D z − Cz ⎠ ⎝ 1 − 0 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ Ax − Dx ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 0 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
DA = ⎜ Ay − Dy ⎟ = ⎜ 2 − 4 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Az − Dz ⎠ ⎝ −1 − 1 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

Solution b)

The side lengths of the quadrilaterals are:

∣−→∣
∣AB
∣ ∣∣ = √‾2‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 2 2 + (−1)2‾ = 3,
∣−→
− ∣
∣BC
∣ ∣∣ = √‾(−1
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
)2 + 22 + 22‾ = 3,
∣−→
− ∣
∣CD ∣ = √‾(−2
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
)2 + (−2)2 + 12‾ = 3,
∣ ∣
∣−→
− ∣
∣DA ∣ = √‾1‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ (−2)2 + (−2)2‾ = 3.
∣ ∣
 35

Solution c)

The diagonals of the quadrilateral are given by the vectors

⎛ Cx − Ax ⎞ ⎛ 2 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AC = ⎜ Cy − Ay ⎟ = ⎜ 6 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 4 ⎟ ,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Cz − Az ⎠ ⎝ 0 − (−1) ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ Dx − B x ⎞ ⎛ 0 − 3 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
BD = ⎜ Dy − B y ⎟ = ⎜ 4 − 4 ⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D z − Bz ⎠ ⎝ 1 − (−2) ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

The lengths of the diagonals are thus

∣−→
− ∣
∣AC ∣ = √‾1‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 42 + 12‾ = √18‾,
‾‾
∣ ∣
∣−→
− ∣
∣BD ∣ = √‾3‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
+ 02 + (−3)2‾ = √ 18
‾‾
‾.
∣ ∣

Solution d)

Because all of the sides of the quadrilateral are the same length and the diagonals are also the same
length, ABCD is a square.
 36

Do the four points A = (2,3,1) , B = (−2,2,3) , C = (1, −1,2) und D = (5,0,0) construct a
parallelogram?

Answer

The quadrilateral ABCD is indeed a parallelogram.

 37

Explanation

In order for the four points to be the corners of a parallelogram, each pair of opposite sides need to
be described by the same vector.

The sides can be described by the following vectors:

⎛ Bx − Ax ⎞ ⎛ −2 − 2 ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎜ By − Ay ⎟ = ⎜ 2 − 3 ⎟ = ⎜ −1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bz − Az ⎠ ⎝ 3−1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ C x − Bx ⎞ ⎛ 1 − (−2) ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
BC = ⎜ C y − By ⎟ = ⎜ −1 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ −3 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Cz − Bz ⎠ ⎝ 2 − 3 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ Dx − Cx ⎞ ⎛ 5 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
CD = ⎜ Dy − Cy ⎟ = ⎜ 0 − (−1) ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D z − Cz ⎠ ⎝ 0 − 2 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
⎛ Ax − D x ⎞ ⎛ 2 − 5 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
DA = ⎜ Ay − D y ⎟ = ⎜ 3 − 0 ⎟ = ⎜ 3 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Az − D z ⎠ ⎝ 1 − 0 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

−→ −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
−
Because AB = −CD = DC and BC = − DA = AD , the four points build a parallelogram.
 38

Is the triangle ABC where A = (−2,1, −3) , B = (1,2,3) , and C = (2,5,9) an equilateral triangle?

Answer

The triangle ABC is not an equilateral triangle.

Explanation

In order for ABC to be an equilateral triangle its three sides need to be the same length.

∣−→∣ ∣−→
− ∣ ∣ −−→∣
The side lengths are just the lengths ∣AB ∣ , ∣AC ∣ , and ∣BC ∣ , which are just the lengths of the vectors
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
of its sides.

⎛ Bx − Ax ⎞ ⎛ 1 − (−2) ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎜ By − Ay ⎟ = ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Bz − Az ⎠ ⎝ 3 − (−3) ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
⎛ Cx − Ax ⎞ ⎛ 2 − (−2) ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AC = ⎜ Cy − Ay ⎟ = ⎜ 5 − 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 4 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Cz − Az ⎠ ⎝ 9 − (−3) ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛ Cx − Bx ⎞ ⎛ 2 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
BC = ⎜ Cy − By ⎟ = ⎜ 5 − 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Cz − Bz ⎠ ⎝ 9 − 3 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠

Hence the side lengths are:

−→∣
∣∣AB √‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2 2 2‾
∣ ∣∣ = 3 + 1 + 6 = √46 ‾‾
‾,
∣∣AC−→
− ∣
√‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2 2 2‾
∣ ∣∣ = 4 + 4 + 12 = √176 ‾‾‾‾,
−→
∣∣BC− ∣
√‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2 2 2‾
∣ ∣∣ = 1 + 3 + 6 = √46 ‾‾
‾.

The triangle ABC is not an equilateral triangle, however it is an isosceles triangle with base AC .
 39

4.1 Adding Two Vectors

4.2 Multiplying Vectors with Scalars

If you think you've already mastered the content of this section, you can proceed to the exercises, training
and quiz problems.

To be able to add two vectors.

To be able to multiply a vector with a scalar.

To be able to interpret vector operations geometrically.

→ → → → →
Given two vectors v and w , we can build the sum, v + w , as follows: first, we follow the arrow given by v
→
and then attach the second arrow given by w . The sum of both vectors is the same as attaching both vectors
together, tail-to-tip.

→
v +→
With the help of the following sketch, we can see that for the addition of two vectors, w =→
w+→
v ; the
 40
addition of two vectors is commutative, i.e. the order in which you add two vectors does not matter. Here you
can also see that this property holds true because the vectors are classes of arrows, and not single arrows.

The sum
→
v +→
w of two vectors →
v and →
w can be calculated with the help of the so-called parallelogram
law. The law says that the sum of these two vectors is the diagonal of the paralellogram created when the
vectors are attached to each other, tip to tail.

−→
− −→
−
Let P , Q , and R be points in the plane (or in space). The sum of the vectors PQ and QR is given by
−→
− −→
− −→
PQ + QR = PR .

⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ wx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
For the vectors v = ⎜ v y ⎟ and w = ⎜ wy ⎟ in 3D, the sum can be easily calculated. It is:
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠ ⎝ wz ⎠

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
+ =⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
 41
⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ wx ⎞ ⎛ vx + wx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
v + w = ⎜ vy ⎟ + ⎜ wy ⎟ = ⎜ vy + wy ⎟.
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠ ⎝ wz ⎠ ⎝ vz + wz ⎠

The sum of two vectors in 2D can be calculated analogously.

The sum of two column vectors in 3D is given by the vector that is just the sum of their components
(component wise addition):

⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ wx ⎞ ⎛ vx + wx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ vy ⎟ + ⎜ wy ⎟ = ⎜ vy + wy ⎟ .
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠ ⎝ wz ⎠ ⎝ vz + wz ⎠

Analogously, for two vectors in 2D:

( vy ) ( wy ) ( vy + wy )
vx wx vx + wx
+ = .

In the following interactive example, you will be able to visually see the addition of two vectors in the
→ →
plane. You can change the vectors v and w as well as change the components of the vector individually.
The corresponding vector
→
v +→
w will be shown and its components calculated.

[online-only]

⎛2⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Let v = ⎜ 3 ⎟ and w = ⎜ 1 ⎟. Then
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

⎛ 2+4 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
v + w = ⎜ 3 + 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 4 ⎟.
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + (−2) ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

Using the opposite of a vector we can also calculate the difference between two vectors: if
→
v and →
w are two
→−→ → + (−→) −→
 42
→ → → → →
vectors, then v − w is the vector given by v + (− w ) , where − w is just the vector pointing in the opposite
→
direction of w .

We can draw out the subtraction of two vectors as follows:

→ →
v −→
v =→
v + (−→
v ) = 0 for any vector →
v.
 43

⎛2⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
The difference of the two vectors v = ⎜ 3 ⎟ and w = ⎜ 1 ⎟ is given by
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

⎛2⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 4 ⎞⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
v − w = ⎜3⎟ − ⎜ 1 ⎟ =
→ → ⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎜− ⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + ⎜ −1 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ −2 ⎠⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

We can also add together more than two vectors by adding together two vectors step-by-step. Let u ,
→ →
v , and
→
w be three vectors. Then

→
u + (→
v +→
w ) = (→
u +→
v)+→
w,

i.e. the addition of vectors is associative. When building the sum of multiple vectors we do not need to use
any brackets, and are free to choose the order of summation.

⎛1⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ → ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Calculate the sum of the three vectors u = ⎜ 2 ⎟ , v = ⎜ −1 ⎟ and w = ⎜ 1 ⎟.
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝1⎠

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛0⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
u + v + w = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ⎜ 1 ⎟ =
→ → → ⎜ 1 ⎟ + ⎜1⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝3⎠

→+→
where we first calculated uv . If we were instead to calculate →
v +→
w first, then the calculation would
look like:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛0⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
u + v + w = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ⎜ 1 ⎟ =
→ → → ⎜ 2⎟ + ⎜ 0 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝3⎠

The result is the same in both cases.

We often like to change the length of a vector without changing its direction. We call this process scaling
whereby we multiply vectors with scalars, i.e. multiply vectors with real numbers.
 44

→
Given a vector v and a real number λ ≥ 0 , the vector λ · →v is the vector that points in the same direction
→ ∣→ ∣ → →
as v whose length is λ · ∣ v ∣ . For λ < 0 , λ · v points in the same direction as − v and has a length of
|λ| · ∣∣→
v ∣∣ .
 45

The Greek Alphabet

α alpha

β beta

γ gamma

δ delta

ε, ε epsilon

ζ zeta

η eta

θ , ϑ theta
ι iota

κ, ϰ kappa
λ lambda

μ mu

ν nu

ξ xi

o omicron

π , ϖ pi
ρ , ϱ rho
σ , ς sigma
τ tau

υ upsilon

φ, φ phi
χ chi

ψ psi

ω omega

There is also a so-called scalar product between two vectors. The multiplication with scalars (also called
scalar multiplication) is not to be confused with the scalar product.
 46

⎛ vx ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Given the vector v = vy in 3D and λ ∈ ℝ,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠

⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ λvx ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
λ · v = λ · ⎜ vy ⎟ = ⎜ λvy ⎟.
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ vz ⎠ ⎝ λvz ⎠

Scalar multiplication can be performed component wise.

⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Let v = ⎜ 1 ⎟. Then
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
2· v =2·⎜ 1 ⎟=⎜ 2 ⎟
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠

and

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −6 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
−3 · v = −3 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −3 ⎟.
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠

With the help of scalar multiplication we can now investigate whether two vectors are parallel to each other.

→ →
Two non-zero vectors v and w are called parallel if there is a λ ∈ ℝ such that:

λ·→
v =→
w

Two non-zero vectors are parallel if one is a multiple of the other.

 47

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟ → ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Let u = −1 ⎟, v = ⎜ 2 ⎟ and w = ⎜ −1 ⎟ be three given vectors. If →
→ →
u and v are parallel, then
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ −6 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠

→ →
(−2) · u = v .

→ → → →
However, u is not parallel to w because λ · u = w means that

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
λ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ = ⎜ −1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠

i.e. the three equations

2λ = 4
−1λ = −1
3λ = 5

all need to be satisifed by the same λ . This is however not the case. The first equation gives us that λ = 2,
5
the second that λ = 1, and the third equation λ = .
3

Addition and scalar multiplication of vectors can also be combined together.

 48

→ →
Given two vectors v and w and a real number λ ∈ ℝ:

→ → → →
λ · ( v + w) = λ · v + λ · w.

It doesn't matter whether two vectors are added together and then scaled, or whether they are first scaled
and then added together.

→
Given a vector v and two real numbers λ, μ ∈ ℝ then:

(λ + μ) · →
v =λ·→
v +μ·→
v

and

→ →
(λ · μ) · v = λ · (μ · v ).

Any further questions? Ask the ombTutor via Skype:

 49

Calculate the following vector sums:

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
a) ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ⎜ −2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
b) ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
c) ⎜ 1 ⎟ + ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
d) ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

Solution a)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎛ 2 + (−3) ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 ⎟ + ⎜ −2 ⎟ = ⎜ −1 + (−2) ⎟= ⎜ −3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 3 + (−1) ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Solution b)

⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 5 + 1 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2⎟ = ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ −4 + 1 ⎠ ⎝ −3 ⎠

Solution c)

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1+2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟+⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 1+1 ⎟= ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 + (−1) ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
 50

Solution d)

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 + (−2) ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜2⎟+⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 2+2 ⎟= ⎜ 4⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 + (−2) ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
 51

Calculate the following multiplications:

⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
a) 3 · ⎜ −2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
b) −2 · ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −4 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
c) −5 · ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
d) 2 · ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠

Solution a)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3·2 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
3 · ⎜ −2 ⎟ = ⎜ 3 · (−2) ⎟ = ⎜ −6 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 3 · (−1) ⎠ ⎝ −3 ⎠

Solution b)

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 · 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
−2 · ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 · 2 ⎟ = ⎜ −4 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −4 ⎠ ⎝ −2 · (−4) ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠

Solution c)

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −5 · 1 ⎞ ⎛ −5 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
−5 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −5 · 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −5 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −5 · (−1) ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
 52

Solution d)

⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 · (−2) ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
2·⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 2·2 ⎟ = ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 · (−2) ⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠
 53

Simplify the following terms (where P , Q , R , and S are points in Euclidian space):

−→
− −→
−
a) PQ − RQ
−→ −→ −→ − −→ −→
b) PR − ( SQ − PQ + PR) + SP
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
c) ⎜ 4 ⎟ − ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ⎜ −3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟
d) −2 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + 4 · ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ −1 ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠

Solution a)

−→
− −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
PQ − RQ = PQ + QR = PR

Solution b)

The first set of simplifications that can be performed is

−→ −→− −→ −→ −→ − −→ −→
SQ − PQ + PR = SQ + QP + PR = SR .

Thus,

−→ −→ −→ − −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ →
PR − ( SQ − PQ + PR ) + SP = PR − SR + SP = PR + RS + SP = PP = o ,

which is the zero vector.

 54

Solution c)

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 1−2+3 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 4 ⎟ − ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ⎜ −3 ⎟ = ⎜ 4 − (−1) + (−3) ⎟=⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ −1 − 3 + 2 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

Solution d)

The first term is:

⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ −2 · (−2) ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
−2 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 · 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝ −2 · (−3) ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠

The second term:

⎛⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞ ⎛ 1−2 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 4 · (−1) ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
4 · ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ −1 ⎟⎟ = 4 · ⎜ 2 − (−1) ⎟ = 4·⎜ 3 ⎟ = ⎜ 4·3 ⎟ = ⎜ 12 ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠ ⎝ 1−2 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 4 · (−1) ⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠

Both terms together:

⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞ ⎛ 0⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
−2 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + 4 · ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ −1 ⎟⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟ + ⎜ 12 ⎟ = ⎜ 10 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
 55

Which of the following vectors are parallel to each other?

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ → ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
a = ⎜ −1 ⎟, b = ⎜ 2 ⎟, c = ⎜ 1⎟
→ →
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

→ →
a and b

→ →
First, we assume the Ansatz λ a = b , hence

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
λ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

We then get three equations:

2λ = −4
−λ = 2
−λ = 2

→ →
All three equations are solved by the value λ = −2 , hence a and b are parallel.
 56
→
a and →
c

→ →
The Ansatz λ a = c gives us

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
λ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

We then get three equations:

2λ = 2
−λ = 1
−λ = 1

The first equation is solved by λ = 1 , the other two are solved by λ = −1 , hence there is no λ ∈ ℝ
→ → → →
such that λ a = c ; the vectors a and c are not parallel.

→ →
b and c
→ →
Using the Ansatz λ b = c , we get

⎛ −4 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
λ·⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

and hence the three equations:

−4λ = 2
2λ = 1
2λ = 1

1 1
→ →
The first equation is solved by λ = − 2 , the other two are solved by λ = 2 , and hence b and c are
not parallel.
 57

5.1 Lines
5.2 Planes

If you think you've already mastered the content of this section, you can proceed to the exercises, training,
and quiz.

To be able to describe lines in 3D.

To be able to describe planes in 3D.

Two different points in space, P and Q , uniquely define a line that goes through both points.
 58

The line g through two different points P and Q in 3D is given by the set of all points whose position
vectors have the form

→ −→
− −→
−
(−→
−
x = OP + λ · OQ − OP , )
−→
− −→
− −→
−
where λ ∈ ℝ runs through all real numbers. Because OQ − OP = PQ , the line can also be written

−→
− −→
−
g:→
x = OP + λ · PQ , λ ∈ ℝ.

Note that this line g that is described by this equation is a set, i.e.

−→
− −→
−
g = {OP + λ · PQ ∣ λ ∈ ℝ},

(see Definition 1.1 in Chapter IX, Section 1).

Alternatively, a line in space can be described by a point in space and a non-zero direction vector.
 59

The line g through the point P in the direction given by the non-zero vector
→
v is given by

→ −→
−
x = OP + λ · →
v,

−→
−
where λ ∈ ℝ runs through all real numbers. In this form, the vector OP is sometimes referred to as the
→
support vector and v is called the direction vector of the line. Note that this line g that is described by this
equation is a set, i.e.

−→
− −→
−
g = {OP + λ · PQ ∣ λ ∈ ℝ},

(see Definition 1.1 in Chapter IX, Section 1).

−→
−
Of course, one representation can be transformed to the other transformation. In the first case PQ is a
−→
− −→
−
direction vector of the line, and in the other case OQ = OP + →
v is the position vector of a second point on
the line.

⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Let P = (1,1,1) and Q = (2,2,3) and let v = ⎜ 0 ⎟. From these, we can determine two lines that go
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠
through P . The first line, g 1 , goes through both P and Q and is given by

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
−→
− −→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g1 : x = OP + λ · PQ = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟,
→ λ ∈ ℝ,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝2⎠

⎛2⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞

−→
− −→
− −→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
since PQ = OQ − OP = ⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟ . The second line, g2 , goes through P in the direction of
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝2⎠
→
v and is given by

⎛1⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g2 : x = OP + λ · v = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 0 ⎟,
→ → λ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

To represent lines in the plane, you can also find rules and examples in Section 1. Lines from Chapter IX. 2D
Coordinate System .
 60

Three pairwise different points P , Q , and R in 3D that do not lie on a line uniquely define a plane that
contains these three points.

If P , Q , and R are three pairwise distinct points that do not lie on a (single) line, then the plane E that goes
through these points is the set of all points whose position vectors have the form

→ −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
−
x = OP + λ · (OQ − OP) + μ · (OR − OP), λ, μ ∈ ℝ.

−→
− −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
− −→
Because OQ − OP = PQ and OR − OP = PR , the plane can also be written

−→
− −→
− −→
E:→
x = OP + λ · PQ + μ · PR, λ, μ ∈ ℝ.

Note that this plane E that is described by this equation is just a set, i.e.

−→
− −→
− −→
E = {OP + λ · PQ + μ · PR ∣ λ, μ ∈ ℝ},

(see Definition 1.1 in Chapter IX, Section 1).

−→
− −→
The fact that P , Q , and R do not lie on a single line corresponds to the fact that PQ and PR are not parallel.
 61
Alternatively, planes in 3D can be described with the help of a point and two different non-zero directions.

Given a point P in ℝ3 and two different non-zero non-parallel vectors

→
v and →
w in ℝ3 , the plane that
goes through the point P with directions
→
v and →
w is described by

→ −→
−
x = OP + λ · →
v +μ·→
w, λ, μ ∈ ℝ.

−→
− → →
The vector OP is called the support vector and the vectors v and w are called direction vectors of the
plane.

⎛1⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
Find the plane through the points P = (1,1,1) , Q = (2,3,3) , and R = (3,1, −1). Because PQ = ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ −→
− −→
and PR = ⎜ 0 ⎟ , then PQ and PR are not parallel. The plane through P , Q , and R is thus given by
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
−→
− −→
− −→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = OP + λ · PQ + μ · PR = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 0 ⎟,
→ λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
 62
Any further questions? Ask the ombTutor via Skype:
 63

Calculate the line through the points P = (5,3, −1) and Q = (2,1,0) .

Answer

The line through P and Q is given by

⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ −2 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

Ansatz

Let g be the line through the points P and Q . In two-point-form, g can be written

→ −→− −→
−
g : x = OP + λ · PQ , λ ∈ ℝ,

−→
− −→
−
where the support vector is OP and the direction vector is PQ .
 64

The Equation of the Line

−→
−
The position vector OP to the point P is given by

⎛ 5 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
OP = ⎜ 3 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠

−→
−
The vector PQ can be calculated from

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
−→
− −→
− −→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
PQ = OQ − OP = ⎜ 1 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

The line can now be written

⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ −3 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ −2 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
 65

⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Let g be the line through the point P = (1,2,1) with direction vector v = ⎜ 3 ⎟. Find an equation for g.
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠

Answer

The line g is given by

⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 3 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

Ansatz

The line g can be written in point-direction form as

→ −→− →
g : x = OP + λ · v , λ ∈ ℝ.

The Equation of the Line

−→
−
The position vector OP is given by

⎛ 1⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
OP = ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠

The line g can be written

⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 3 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠
66
 67

Let E be the equation of the plane through the points P = (1,1,1), Q = (2,3,1) , and R = (−1, −1,2) .
Find an equation for E .

Answer

E can be written

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ −2 ⎟, λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

Ansatz

The plane E can be written in three-point-representation as

→ −→− −→
− −→
E : x = OP + λ · PQ + μ · PR , λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
 68

Equation of the Plane

−→
−
The position vector OP is given by

⎛ 1⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
OP = ⎜ 1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠

−→
−
The vector PQ can be calculated to be

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
−→
− −→
− −→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
PQ = OQ − OP = ⎜ 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠

Analogously,

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
−→ −→− −→
− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
PR = OR − OP = ⎜ −1 ⎟ − ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ −2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

Finally, E can be written

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ −2 ⎟, λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
 69

Find an equation of the plane E which goes through the point P = (−1, −1,4) with direction vectors
⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
v = ⎜ −3 ⎟ and →
→ w= ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝3⎠

Answer

The plane E is given by

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ −3 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ , λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

Ansatz
→ →
The plane E which goes through the point P with direction vectors v and w can be written in point-
direction form as

→ −→− → →
E : x = OP + λ · v + μ · w , λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
 70

Equation of the Plane

−→
−
The position vector OP is given by

⎛ −1 ⎞
−→
− ⎜ ⎟
OP = ⎜ −1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠

The plane E can be written

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ −3 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ , λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
 71

6.1 General Relationships

6.2 Point - Point
6.3 Point - Line
6.4 Point - Plane
6.5 Line - Line
6.6 Line - Plane
6.7 Plane - Plane

If you think you've already mastered the content of this section, you can proceed to the exercises, training,
and quiz.

To be able to determine the relationship between points, lines, and planes.

This section deals with the relationships between points, lines, and planes. The following cases can arise:

Point Line Plane

Points are either identical or Points either lie on a line or Points either lie in a plane or
Point
different do not lie on a line do not lie in a plane

Lines are identical,

Lines lie in a plane,
parallel,
Line are parallel to a plane, or
intersect each other in a point or
intersect a plane
skew

Planes are identical,

Plane parallel, or
intersect each other in a line

Two points can either be the same or different.

 72

Two points P = (Px , Py , Pz ) and Q = (Qx , Qy , Qz ) in ℝ3 are the same if and only if each of their
coordinates is the same. That is, if

Px = Qx , Py = Qy , and Pz = Qz .

If two points are not the same, they are different.

A point can either lie on a line or not lie on a line.

Given the line g

−→
−
g:→
x = OQ + λ · →
v, λ∈ℝ

which goes through the point Q with direction vector

→
v , then a point P lies on g if there is a real number
−→
− −→
− → −→
−
λ ∈ ℝ such that OP = OQ + λ · v . This is the same as saying that the vector OP belongs to the vectors
→
x (which are the vectors that describe the line g).
 73

⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟
A line g goes through the point Q = (−1,2,0) and has a direction vector of v = ⎜ 0 ⎟. We can now
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
check whether or not a given point, say P = (1,2,3) , lies on this line.

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 0 ⎟,
→ λ∈ℝ
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝3⎠

The Ansatz

−→
− −→
−
OP = OQ + λ · →
v

gives us that

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −1 + 2λ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜2⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜0⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3λ ⎠

This is a linear system of equations with three equations

1 = −1 + 2λ
2 =2
3 = 3λ

and a single unknown, λ . This system has exactly one solution λ = 1, hence the point P does lie on g .

A point can either lie in a plane or not lie in a plane.

→ →
Let E be a plane with direction vectors v and w that goes through the point Q . A point P lies in the plane

−→
−
E:→
x = OQ + λ · →
v +μ·→
w, λ, μ ∈ ℝ

−→
− −→
−
∈ ℝ such that OP = OQ + λ · →
if and only if there are two real numbers λ, μ v +μ·→ w . This is the
−→
− →
same as saying that the vector OP belongs to the vectors x (which are the vectors that describe the
plane).
 74

⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Let E be the plane that goes through the point Q = (1,2,0) with direction vectors v = ⎜ 0 ⎟ and
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
w = ⎜ 1 ⎟. We can now check whether the point P = (3,2,1) lies in E .
→
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 0 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 1 ⎟,
→ λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

The Ansatz

−→
− −→
−
OP = OQ + λ · →
v +μ·→
w

gives us that

⎛3⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1 + λ + μ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜2⎟ = ⎜ 2⎟ + λ · ⎜ 0⎟ + μ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 + μ ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ λ−μ ⎠

This is a linear system with three equations

3 =1+λ+μ
2 =2+μ
1 =λ−μ

and two unknowns, λ and μ . This system has no solution, because the second equation gives us μ = 0,
which leads to λ = 2 from the first equation. Under these conditions, the third equation leads to the
contradiction 1 = 2, hence the point P does not lie in E .

Two lines can either be identical, parallel (but not identical), intersect each other in exactly one point, or be
skew to each other.
 75

−→
−
Let g be the line g:→ x = OP + λ · →
v , λ ∈ ℝ that goes through the point P with direction vector →
v
→ −→
− →
and let h be the line h : x = OQ + μ · w , μ ∈ ℝ that goes through the point Q with direction vector
→
w . These two lines are:

identical if
→
v and →
w are parallel and P lies on h .

parallel (but not identical) if

→
v and →
w are parallel and P does not lie on h.

→ →
intersect each other in exactly one point if v and w are not parallel, and there are two real numbers
λ, μ ∈ ℝ such that
−→
− −→
−
OP + λ · →
v = OQ + μ · →
w.

The point that belongs to this vector is the desired intersection point.

→ →
skew to each other if v and w are not parallel and they do not intersect in a point (i.e. there are no
such numbers λ, μ ∈ ℝ ).

The first three cases can take place in both 2D and in 3D. Skew lines can only occur in 3D (ℝ3 ) or higher
dimensions.

Identical Lines
 76

Parallel Lines

Intersecting Lines
 77

Skew Lines

Let g and h be the lines defined as follows:

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 0 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2 ⎟,
→ λ ∈ ℝ,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝3⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
h : x = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 1 ⎟,
→
μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝1⎠

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Because ⎜ 2 ⎟ and ⎜ 1 ⎟ are not parallel, g and h can either intersect each other in exactly one point, or be
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝1⎠
skew to each other. The Ansatz

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2⎟ = ⎜1⎟ + μ · ⎜1⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝1⎠

leads to the system

1+λ =1+μ
2λ = 1 + μ
1 + 3λ = 3 + μ,
 78
which after some simplifications is

λ−μ =0
2λ − μ = 1
3λ − μ = 2.

The solution of this system is λ = 1, μ = 1 , hence the lines intersect each other in exactly one point.
Substituting these values into either equation g or h gives the same result. Substituting λ = 1 , for
example, into the equation of g results in the point S with position vector

⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛2⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
OS = ⎜ 0 ⎟ + 1 · ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ .
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝4⎠

The same point can be calculated by setting μ = 1 in the equation of h :

⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛2⎞
−→ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
OS = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + 1 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ .
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝4⎠

The point S = (2,2,4) is the intersection point of both lines.

A line can either lie in a plane, be parallel to a plane, or intersect a plane in exactly one point.

→ −→ − →
Let g be the line g: x = OP + λ · u , λ ∈ ℝ which goes through the point P and has direction vector
→ → −→ − → →
u , and let E be the plane E : x = OQ + μ · v + σ · w , μ, σ ∈ ℝ which goes through the point Q
→ →
and has direction vectors v and w . If the system

−→
− → −→− → →
OP + λ · u = OQ + μ · v + σ · w

for the real numbers λ , μ und σ has:

infinitely many solutions (λ, μ, σ) then g lies in the plane.

exactly one solution (λ, μ, σ), then g intersects the plane.

no solution, then g is parallel to the plane.

 79

Line in the Plane

Line Intersecting Plane

 80

Line Parallel to Plane

 81

Let g be the line

⎛1⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = 1 + λ · ⎜ −1 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

and E be the plane

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛0⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = −1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ −2 ⎟ + σ · ⎜ 3 ⎟, μ, σ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝1⎠

The Ansatz

⎛1⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛0⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ −2 ⎟ + σ · ⎜3⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝1⎠

leads to the system

1 − λ = −1 + μ
1 − λ = −1 − 2μ + 3σ
1 − 2λ = −1 + σ,

which after simplifications is

−λ − μ = −2
−λ + 2μ − 3σ = −2
−2λ − σ = −2.

The solution of this system is λ = 0, μ = 2 , σ = 2 . Substituting λ = 0 into the equation of the line, g ,
gives us the intersection point S = (1,1,1). Alternatively, we could have substituted μ = 2 and σ = 2
into the equation for E , and have nevertheless calculated the same intersection point S = (1,1,1).

Two planes can either be identical, parallel (parallel but not identical), or intersect each other in a line.
 82

Let E and F be the planes:

→ −→
− → →
E : x = OP + λ · u + μ · v , λ, μ ∈ ℝ,
−→
−
F:→ x = OQ + ρ · →
w +σ·→ y , ρ, σ ∈ ℝ.

→ →
Based on their descriptions, E goes through the point P and has direction vectors u and v , F goes
→ →
through the point Q and has direction vectors w and y . The linear system

−→
− → → −→ − → →
OP + λ · u + μ · v = OQ + ρ · w + σ · y

in λ , μ , ρ , and σ can have:

infinitely many solutions (λ, μ, ρ, σ) , where the solution set is described by two real parameters. In
this case, the planes are identical.

infinitely many solutions (λ, μ, ρ, σ) , where the solution is described by one real parameter. In this
case, the planes intersect each other in a line.

no solution, in which case the planes are parallel to each other.

What relationship do the following two planes have with each other?

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 0 ⎟, λ, μ ∈ ℝ
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝1⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
F : x = ⎜ 0 ⎟ + ρ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ + σ · ⎜ 1 ⎟, ρ, σ ∈ ℝ.
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

The Ansatz

⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 0 ⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟ + ρ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ + σ ·⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

leads to the system

 83
−1 + λ + μ = 1 + 2ρ
−1 + λ = −ρ + σ
−1 + 2λ + μ = 2 − σ,

which after some simplifications is

λ + μ − 2ρ = 2
λ+ρ−σ =1
2λ + μ + σ = 3.

This system has three equations in four unknowns has the parameter-dependent solution

λ = 1 + 3t
μ = 1 − 7t
ρ = −2t
σ =t

where t ∈ ℝ . Substituting λ and μ into the equation for E , (or alternatively, by substituting ρ and σ into
F ) results in the line

⎛1⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = 0 + t · ⎜ 3 ⎟, t ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

Any further questions? Ask the ombTutor via Skype:

 84

a) Does the point P = (−3, −2,1) lie on the line

⎛1⎞ ⎛2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟,
→
λ ∈ ℝ?
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝2⎠

b) How do the two lines

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g 1 : x = 5 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 4 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g2 : x = 2 + μ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ , μ ∈ ℝ
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

lie relative to each other?

Answer

a) The point P does not lie on the line g .

b) The lines g 1 and g2 are skew to each other.
 85

Solution a)

First, we make the Ansatz:

⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −2 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝2⎠

−→
− →
This Ansatz is simply the assumption that the position vector OP can be written as a vector x on
the line g .

This Ansatz leads to the following three equations:

−3 = 1 + 2λ
−2 = 2 + λ
1 = 3 + 2λ.

Doing a little math, we get the linear system

−2λ = 4
−λ = 4
−2λ = 2

with three equations for the one unknown λ .

Because there is only one unknown, we can solve each equation individually. From the first equation
we get that λ = −2 ; from the second, λ = −4 , and from the third λ = −1 . From this it is clear that
there is no single λ ∈ ℝ that solves all three equations at the same time, and hence the solution set
of the system of equations is empty.

Because there is no solution for the linear system, the point P does not lie on g .

Solution b)
⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Since the direction vectors of g 1 and g 2 are ⎜ 4 ⎟ and ⎜ 2 ⎟ respectively, the lines cannot be
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
parallel. The two lines can either intersect each other in exactly one point or be skew to each other.
Make the following Ansatz:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 5 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 4 ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠

This Ansatz lets us look for all points that belong to both g 1 and g2 .
 86
The above Ansatz gives us the three equations:

1−λ = 2+μ
5 + 4λ = 2 + 2μ
−2 + λ = 1 − 2μ.

Simplifying things a bit we get the linear system

−λ − μ =1
4λ − 2μ = −3
λ + 2μ =3

with three equations in two unknowns, λ and μ .

Solve the system

−λ − μ =1
4λ − 2μ = −3
λ + 2μ =3

using Gaussian Elimination. Adding a multiple of the first row to the second row and adding the first
row to the third row gives:

−λ − μ = 1
−6μ = 1
μ = 4.

1
The second row gives us that μ = − 6 , which is contrary to the μ = 4 in the third row. This linear
system has no solution.

Because there is no solution to the linear system and the direction vectors of the lines are not
parallel, g1 and g 2 are skew to each other.
 87

Find the intersection point S of the lines:

⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
g : x = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟, λ ∈ ℝ,
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
h : x = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 1 ⎟, μ ∈ ℝ.
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

Answer

The intersection point of the two lines g and h is S = (1,1,1) .

Solution

Set the equations of both lines equal to each other so that we can calculate their intersection point:

⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠

The above Ansatz gives us three equations:

−3 + 2λ = 7 + 3μ
−1 + λ = 3+μ
−3 + 2λ = −1 − μ.

Simplfying the equations gives us the linear system:

2λ − 3μ = 10
λ−μ = 4
2λ + μ = 2.

Subtracting half of the first equation from the second, and subtracting the first equation from the
third gives:

2λ − 3μ = 10
 88
2λ − 3μ = 10
1
2
μ = −1
4μ = −8.

The last equation gives us that μ = −2 , which is what the second equation tells us as well. From the
first equation we get that λ = 2 . Because we found a solution, there is an intersection point of the
lines (just as the question asks).

Substituting λ = 2 and μ = −2 into g and h gives us

⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 ⎟ + 2 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −3 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝1 ⎠

and

⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ − 2 · ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

The intersection point is S = (1,1,1) .

 89

a) Find the value of the parameter t ∈ ℝ so that P = (1, t,3) lies in the plane:
⎛2⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 3 ⎟,
→
λ, μ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

b) Calculate the intersecting line of the two planes:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E1 : x = 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ −2 ⎟, λ, μ ∈ ℝ
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝0⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛3⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛4⎞
→ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E2 : x = 0 + ρ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + σ · ⎜ 1 ⎟, ρ, σ ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝4⎠

Answer

a) In order for P to lie in the plane E , t must be equal to 5 . b) The intersecting line of the planes E1
and E2 is:

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ 5
⎟ ⎜ 5
⎟
x =⎜
g:→ 6
⎟+t·⎜ 12
⎟, t ∈ ℝ.
⎜ 5
⎟ ⎜ 5
⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
11 27
5 5
 90

Solution a)

Make the Ansatz:

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛2⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ t ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 3 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠

This leads to the system

1 = 2 + λ − 2μ
t = 1 + λ + 3μ
3 =3−λ+μ

with three equations in three unknowns λ , μ , and t . Simplifying the system we get:

λ − 2μ = −1
λ + 3μ − t = −1
−λ + μ = 0.

The third equations gives us that λ = μ and from the first equation, −μ = −1, hence λ = μ = 1 .
The second equation now gives us

1 + 3 − t = −1,

which means that the parameter is t = 5.

Solution b)

Make the Ansatz:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛4⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 2 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ −2 ⎟ = ⎜0⎟ + ρ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + σ · ⎜ 1 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝0⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝4⎠

This Ansatz leads to the system

1 + λ − μ = 3 − 2ρ + 4σ
2 + 2λ − 2μ = ρ + σ
−1 + 3μ = 1 + ρ + 4σ
 91
with three equations in four unknowns. Simplifying the system gets us to

λ − μ + 2ρ − 4σ = 2
2λ − 2μ − ρ − σ = −2
3μ − ρ − 4σ = 2.

Using Gaussian Elimination we can transform this system step-by-step: taking mulyiplying the first
equation by two and subtracting it from the second equation; take the second equation and swap it
with the third equation we get:

λ − μ + 2ρ − 4σ = 2
3μ − ρ − 4σ = 2
−5ρ + 7σ = −6.

6
If we let σ = t we get ρ = 5
+ 75 t from the third equation. The middle equation then gives us that

16 9
μ= + t.
15 5

The first equation finally gives us:

2
λ= + 3t.
3

Substituting the values for ρ and σ into E2 results in the equation of the intersecting line g :

⎛3⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛⎜ ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞
3

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ 5 ⎟
( )
5
6 7
g : x = ⎜0⎟ +
→ + t · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + t · ⎜1⎟ = ⎜ 6
⎟ + t · ⎜ 12 ⎟, t ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ 5 5 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 5
⎟ ⎜ 27
5
⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 11
⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
5

The same line could have been calculated by substituting λ and μ into E1 :

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ −1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
( ) ( )
5 5
2 16 9
g: x =⎜ 2 ⎟+
→ + 3t · ⎜ 2 ⎟ + + t · ⎜ −2 ⎟ = ⎜ 6
⎟+t·⎜ 12
⎟, t ∈ ℝ.
⎜ ⎟ 3 ⎜ ⎟ 15 5 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 5
⎟ ⎜ 5
⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝0⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 11
⎠ ⎝ 27
⎠
5 5
 92

How do the two planes

⎛2⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E : x = ⎜ 3 ⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1 ⎟ + μ · ⎜ 0 ⎟, λ, μ ∈ ℝ
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝1⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
F : x = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ρ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ + σ · ⎜ 3 ⎟ , ρ, σ ∈ ℝ
→
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝ 5⎠

lie relative to each other?

Answer

The planes E and F are parallel, but not identical.

 93

Solution

Make the Ansatz:

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3⎟ + λ · ⎜ 1⎟ + μ · ⎜ 0 ⎟ = ⎜ −1 ⎟ + ρ · ⎜ −1 ⎟ + σ · ⎜ 3 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ −1 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎝5⎠

This leads to the system

2+λ+μ = 2 − 2ρ + σ
3+λ = −1 − ρ + 3σ
1+λ−μ = −1 + 5σ

with three equations in four unknowns λ , μ , ρ , and σ . Simplifying things we get the system:

λ + μ + 2ρ − σ =0
λ + ρ − 3σ = −4
λ − μ − 5σ = −2.

Subtracting the first equation from the second, and subtracting the first equation from the third
gives:

λ + μ + 2ρ − σ =0
−μ − ρ − 2σ = −4
−2μ − 2ρ − 4σ = −2.

Subtracting two times the middle equation from the last equation results in

λ + μ + 2ρ − σ =0
−μ − ρ − 2σ = −4
0 = 6.

The last equation gives us a contradiction, 0 = 6 , hence the linear system is not solvable. The planes
E and F do not have a single point in common, hence they are parallel.