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 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW
Published bimonthly by the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers

January-February 2007 Vol 24 No 1

Special Issue
on
Nanotechnology Education — A Paradigm Shift

CONTENTS

2 Guest Editorial 31 Nanobiotechnology Human Resource

Development
S Ahmad
S Ahmad

5 Nanotechnology: Inspiration from Nature

B G Sheeparamatti, R B Sheeparamatti and 37 Nanotechnology Education and Research
J S Kadadevaramath Activities in Indian Universities
E N Ganesh and Lal Kishore
9 Nano-materials: Science of bottom-up and
top-down
43 Nanotechnology - An Indian Perspective
D D Majumder, R Banerjee, Ch Ulrichs, I Mewis
and A Goswami D N Singh

27 Nanobiogenomics: Education & Research 51 Education in MEMS

Kamya Bhatnagar and Ajit Varma V K Jain

Note : The Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers assumes no responsibility for the statements and
opinions expressed by individual authors and speakers.

1
 Guest Editorial
Nanoscience and Technology Education, Human Resource
Development for Tomorrow Changing Perspective

Nanoscience emerged out of the basic studies of atomic clusters. These clusters were found to be stable
only with specific number of constituent atoms (magic numbers) and corresponding crystalline arrangements
(minimum energy). It was also noted that such clusters demonstrated modified physical and chemical
characteristics (compared to the corresponding bulk) based on their crystallite sizes. Alternately, one could thus
easily extrapolate that an assembly of few tens to few hundreds/thousand atoms, bound together in a stable
form, behave as a quasi-atom in which few free electrons are spatially confined to the nanometer size material
core having discrete energy levels contrary to the continuous energy bands of the corresponding bulk. The inter-
level separations of these energy levels are inversely proportional to the size of the nanoclusters. Thus,
depending upon the number of free electrons and their quantized orbitals arranged almost similar to classical
Bohr atom, the allowed inter–level transitions decide the novel optical properties of such a nanostructure. These
quasi-atoms can combine further to form molecular, one (wire), two (sheet) and three-dimensional defect free
crystalline lattice structures very well suited for variety of applications. The enhanced chemical activity due to
presence of unsaturated bonds of the most of the atoms residing on the surface could easily be employed for
functionalization purposes. These nanostructures could be attached with a variety of chemical moieties either
directly or indirectly having an intermediate covering of one or two monatomic layer thin self-assembled
polymer sheet. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces could thus be incorporated in these nanostructures by
choosing appropriated chemical ligands. Consequently, a significant area of biological markers is fast growing
using these characteristics of such nanostructures. Due to their strong fluorescents behavior and longer lifetime
compared to organic dyes available for the same purpose these nanostructures (quantum dots) are now
available in quantity for their widespread use in imaging applications in nanobiotechnological applications in
health care. Another extremely useful area involving functionalized nanostructures is that of nanobiosensors
wherein the molecular recognition based sensing of specific biomolecular species is carried out with ease at low
cost. Nanobiosensors are expected to open up ample opportunities in the fields of drug delivery, personalized
health care, disease diagnostics and prevention, industrial biotechnology, smart farming and smart herds to name
a few out of whole lot to be expected to come up soon.
The free electrons available in the outermost orbital decide the chemical behavior of any element from the
well-known periodic table. The same concept could be extended in case of these quasi-atoms as well and simply
by controlling the number of the atoms participating to form nanostructure, their chemical behavior could be
varied over a wide range though still keeping the basic chemical constituents same. This is a unique property of
these quasi-atoms, which has prompted the scientists to call them the future building blocks to synthesize
‘artificial materials’ or ‘programmable materials’.
Parallel to these quasi-atoms described above, developments have been witnessed in few more new and
exotic areas of macromolecules like inorganic and organic fullerenes, nanotubes, a variety of polymers,
dendrimers and their combinations. These macromolecules are regular chemical species prepared in a
systematic way with very well controlled characteristics. It is possible to combine these macromolecules with
the functionalized quasi-atoms to form organic-inorganic nanosize hybrid structures giving another yet powerful
new dimension to their already remarkably novel characteristics used in many ways as briefly mentioned above.
Biomolecular species involved in living organisms are though relatively larger in size (few to few hundreds
of micrometer) when compared to nanostructures (few to hundred nanometer) but most of the physico-
chemical changes taking place inside these structures are on nanometer scales. It is therefore expected that
nanostructure will in general influence the biological species considerably when present in their vicinity. This
makes the above said quasi-atoms and macromolecules as well as their hybrids biologically active. This third
dimension of organic-inorganic nanostructures interacting with a variety of biological species is therefore
foreseen to change the entire situations regarding health care of human beings, animals, plants and crops besides
environmental pollutions which cover practically every aspect of human life on earth.

2
 GUEST EDITORIAL 3

Information technology (IT) is in a position to provide on board intelligence to various nanomaterials

based bio-sensing platforms to be realized in future. Such intelligent systems are expected to influence the
development of industrial processes to produce raw materials using microbial chemistries and genetic
engineering at low cost. The realizations of personalized medical care systems, designer’s food to meet
individual nutritional requirement and taste, green technologies to produce minimum environmental pollutions
are very soon expected to usher new era in using science and technology to make human life more livable.
Keeping in view the upcoming situations in the fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology in combination
with bio and information technologies, the task of preparing programs of higher education and training well
suited to the future needs requires completely new look into the existing education system and finding out
suitable changes to be incorporated therein. The kind of opportunities arising out of the developments taking
place in the domains of quasi-atoms, macromolecules and biomolecules, the needs of developing interdisciplinary
educational and training programs is getting sharply focused further. It appears that in future instead of the
conventional ways of establishing various departments of basic sciences, engineering and technologies it will
be primarily based on the concept of providing the complete solution of a generic problem as the criteria to
name the upcoming department. This is also necessary because now the situations are slowly changing from
‘chance discoveries and looking for their technological applications’ practiced in past fifty years or so to
finding a ‘complete solution of the problem in a top down approach’. This kind of ‘paradigm shift’ is
inevitable. The future planning to prepare appropriate course structures and laboratory experiments will be
needed accordingly. The developments already made in last fifty years in developing and nurturing various
departments of sciences, engineering and technologies will need fresh revisions. An appropriate blend of the
knowledge components borrowed from different domains of expertise acquired over years in past will be
necessary to provide a better solution to the problem of human resource development in future.
Our national effort to develop higher education in the country to suit to the future requirements of
nanosciences and technology needs considerable preparations and planning. This will not only suffice to
involve introduction of R&D programs at PhD and Master levels but should also necessarily start from
primary level and extend to the undergraduate levels in a sequence. A similar need was sometime back felt
in cases of IT (Information Technology) and BT (Biotechnology) educational programs. But the task is going
to be still more complex and demanding when all the three technologies namely nano, bio and info are going
to be integrated together and made application specific. The variety of demand patterns is going to change in
an interwoven form more complex than those coming up so far in cases of IT and BT either alone or together.
It is very timely that the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) is in the process of
finalizing the recommendations of the Expert Committee on Higher Education for 11th Five Year Plan period
in very near future. At this point of time, it is necessary to draw the kind attention of the Planning Body to
keep in view the future demands of Nanoscience and Technology, which will ultimately and inevitably be the
course to follow in times to come. Having realized the imminent importance of Nanotechnology Education in
the country, the Institutions of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) decided to bring out a
special issue to address to various facets of this task of preparing ourselves suitably. The authors contributing
in this special issue of Nanotechnology Education are drawn from R&D, academic industrial backgrounds so
that the aspects of human resource development and training/retraining of manpower for future industries are
addressed suitably. Hopefully the readers find the present attempt useful in planning their activities in future.
The contributors to this special issue on Nanotechnology Education deserve special appreciations for
their kind support in preparing their papers as per the objectives.

S Ahmad
Guest Editor, Special Issue
Nanotechnology Education
Jamia Hamdard University
Hamdard Nagar,
New Delhi 110 062, India.
6 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007

Guest Editor
Dr S Ahmad took his MSc (Tech) from Allahabad University, Allahabad and PhD degree from Birla
Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani. Just after completing his doctoral work, he took a brief
teaching assignment at BITS, Pilani. He joined Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute (CEERI),
Pilani, in 1972 and continued there for more than three decades. He headed various R&D projects related
to high reliability silicide interconnects, micro and millimeter wave semiconductor devices, high power
laser sources for medical applications, micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) based micro sensors.
His pioneering contributions in setting up of modern semiconductor device fabrication laboratory,
equipped with processing and characterization facilities in clean rooms, enabled his team to indigenously
develop micro and millimeter wave silicon high power impact avalanche transit time effect (Impatt) and
low noise barrier injection transit time effect (Baritt) sources followed by successful development of high
power laser sources for medical applications and MEMS based miniaturized micro sensors namely – single and polycrystalline
silicon piezo-resistive pressure sensors, ZnO based piezoelectric acoustic sensors, bulk and surface micro machined capacitive
pressure sensors, RF switch and polysilicon load cells. His team carried out extensive semiconductor device design simulations
using numerical solutions of charge carrier transport equations under practical boundary conditions. All these efforts resulted in
more than 60 publications in national and international journals and about a dozen patents. Dr Ahmad led the team involved in
MEMS technology development to batch produce bulk and surface micromachined capacitive pressure sensors under National
Program on Smart Materials (NPSM) funded by the Government of India. He also coordinated the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) Network Program on MEMS and Micro sensors in which nine laboratories were involved to develop
five families of chemical and biosensors namely – Micro Hotplate chemical sensor, Polymer Cavity gas sensor, Ion Sensitive Field
Effect Transistor (ISFET) chemical sensor, Micro Cantilever biosensor and Micro Total Analysis System (Micro TAS). Dr.
Ahmad, the former Director, CEERI, Pilani, joined Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi in October 2005 as Vice
Chancellor.

His current interests involve applications of nanomaterials in MEMS/NEMS devices for health diagnostics, drug delivery,
drug discovery and industrial applications of nanotechnology in association with Indian industry. He has been actively involved
in preparing 11th Five Year plan documents for carrying out R&D and promoting Higher Education in the field of ‘Nanobiotechnology’
and ‘Nanotechnology for Agriculture and Environment’ spearheaded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government
of India. In Jamia Hamdard, he has been trying to set up the faculty of ‘Interdisciplinary Studies’ to promote higher education and
research in the field of Nanoscience and Technology applied to human health care. In this context, Dr Ahmad has been actively
involved in starting from the coming session some newer programs namely - Hamdard Medical College, Multidisciplinary
Hospital and Hamdard Nanobiotechnology Advanced Research Center besides adding engineering degree courses in Information
Technology and Computer Science.

Dr. Ahmad is a Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineers (INAE), Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineers (IETE) and the Chief Editor of IETE Journal of Research. He is recipient of 19th RL Wadhwa Memorial IETE Gold
Medal Award.
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 5-8

Nanotechnology: Inspiration from Nature

B G SHEEPARAMATTI, R B SHEEPARAMATTI
Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot
AND

J S KADADEVARAMATH
Karnataka University, Dharwad

Nanotechnology is molecular manipulation. Any branch of technology that results from

our ability to control and manipulate matter on length scales of 1-100 nm can be treated as
nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is not new to nature. Nature has been doing molecular
manipulation to build its systems like plants and animals. After observing and understanding
the fundamental design principles of natural products, one gets inspiration to build his own
nanoproducts. This paper stimulates a nanotechnician or a student to study nanotechnology
and to think inline with nature, since it has been a great nanoscientist and nanotechnologist.

INTRODUCTION through billions of years of trial and error has produced

innumerable natural systems like plants, birds and

N ANO is one billionth of a meter. In Greek, nano

means dwarf. Particles of the dimension of about
1 to 100 nanometers are treated as nano particles.
Nanotechnology is the application of scientific
knowledge for the purpose of producing such particles
and systems using them. Nanotechnology deals with
the physical and chemical attributes of molecular-
scale structures, and they can be combined to form
larger structures for human use. Because of this
dimensional range, nano particles and structures get
some unusual and novel properties and nanotechnology
deals with study and analysis of these properties also.
It seems a mysterious world where individual atoms
and molecules rule and all our conventional physical
laws go in vain. The properties of a material depend
on how their atoms and molecules are arranged.
Nanotechnology in its ultimate form would be
molecular manipulation. In nature also when molecules
began organizing into the complex structures that could
support life something happened similar to the present
nanotechnology that everybody talks now. The current
science and technology, makes the things to divide
whereas nature constructs its objects atoms by atoms
or molecules by molecules. In fact with the elementary
particles atoms are made in nature. Understanding the
basic design principles of natural (non-man made)
systems will help nanotechnologists to design systems
using man-made nano particles/elements. Nature,
Paper No 72-B; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE.
animals. Nature’s experience or intelligence is hidden
in those natural systems, so that a single cell supplied
with food and oxygen results into a complex system
like man. In this process of evolution, nature has used
some principles-nature itself can’t go against its own
principles- which are called by human being as natural
laws and the process of making these things is nature’s
technology. Human technology is recently developed
for the benefit of human race.
‘The relation of nanotechnology to nature is reduced
to the relation of human beings and their actions to
nature. As a human affair, nanotechnology is a cultural-
historical phenomenon that uses appropriate and
knowledge-based ability in pursuance of objectives.
Strictly speaking, there are no nanotechnological
processes or products in nature’ [1].
Importance of nanotechnology lies in helping
mankind to make most products lighter, stronger, robust,
cheaper, cleaner, precise and smarter. Ultimate aim
of nanotechnology would be making anything from
anything: take few atoms of carbon and make either
coal or diamond, or take few leaves rearrange their
atoms to get a banana.
NATURE’S INSPIRATIONS
Biology will provide the insights into how nature
does things differently. Mainly we need to know, how
evolution achieved these biological products. These

5
6 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
biological devices can process matter, energy, and
information precisely, efficiently, and with high
productivity. One of the benefits of biology will be to
show how to control complex systems and how to
handle complexity, without making any computing.
Biology shows us that nature uses many different
systems for storage and processing of information.
Cell biology gives us endless examples of
sophisticated nano-scale machines. These include
molecular motors of the kind that make up our muscles,
which can convert chemical energy to mechanical
energy with astonishingly high efficiency. There are
also ion channels and ion pumps that can control the
flow of molecules through membranes. Other examples
include ribosomes - molecular structures that can
construct protein molecules, amino acid by amino acid,
with ultimate precision according to the instructions on
DNA.
Nature exhibits self-assembly- molecular designs
that automatically arrange themselves into the desired
pattern or device. DNA has been called the perfect
example of a self-assembling machine: a single
molecule that, under the right conditions, not only
replicas itself, but also creates incredibly complex
organisms. If self assembly is understood properly,
then this might be an area where nature can make a
significant input to nanotechnology. DNA provides
an example of long term information storage. It is
very compact.
Human muscles work because we’ve got tiny
little motors that are really molecular in size, it’s actually
the molecule which changes its shape [5]. Cells in
green plants converts more energy(great efficiency)
and synthesizes a greater tonnage of organic
compounds(builds or self replicates itself) than a
chemical factory, and does it job so cleanly using
cheap raw materials picked up by itself.
Polymerization is nothing but making bigger
molecule with monomer or smaller unit. In nature,
many natural polymers are seen and humans have
started making artificial polymers in early 20th century.
This natural polymerization process has to be
understood properly. Remember that nature does this
process in normal temperatures and pressures. That is
nature has achieved an optimal polymer chain in normal
room temperature and pressure with very high
productivity and best suitable molecular assembly.
The Multidisciplinary Nanotechnology
Many fields of endeavor contribute to
nanotechnology, including molecular physics, material
science, chemistry, biology, computer science,
electrical engineering and mechanical engineering [2].
However the main objective here is to deal with
manipulation of atoms, molecules and their
arrangement. Similar to other engineering design and
development jobs one need analytical skills, open
mind, mathematics, computer programming skills in
simulation and algorithm development in
nanotechnology.
• For a physicist it may be just scaling issue
and concepts in molecular and quantum
physics
• For chemical engineer it is only making
nanoparticles and nanotubes and some other
product with possible self assembly built-in.
• A biologist need to understand the basic
principles behind all living things in nature
down to individual parts of the cell and
experiment with each of them both in-vitro
and in-vivo. Because cell biology gives us
innumerable examples of sophisticated nano-
scale machines with astonishingly high
efficiencies.
• Nanotechnology for an electrical engineer is
just making transistors or other devices like
semiconductor nanostructures - such as
quantum dots and quantum wells in nano
dimensions and making larger and useful
circuits.
• Similarly for software engineer,
nanotechnology means to make nano-models,
develop its design, then modeling and use
simulation tools of nanotechnology. Here one
has to use scaling issues, quantum issues
and other possible energy domains in the
nano scale.
The Tools
The earlier microsystems or micro-electro-
mechanical systems (MEMS) exploited the materials
and processing techniques used by the integrated
circuit(IC) technology. The world of MEMS is already
revolutionizing the world. The existing micro-technology
or micromachining techniques can build tools which
are required by researchers who wish to manipulate,
test and measure nano sized particles or systems.
Current technological advances have made it possible
to image and manipulate individual atoms. In the early
80’s IBM researchers invented two new microscopy
techniques- AFM and STM. The Scanning
Tunneling Microscope (STM) made it possible to
capture direct images of matter at the atomic scale.
 B G SHEEPARAMATTI et al : NANOTECHNOLOGY: INSPIRATION
An Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) can push atoms
and molecules and also prods them into places. Since
then nanotechnology is being emerged as experimental
science and technology.
Traditional manufacturing is based on “top down”
fashion, taking a lump of material and removing chunks
of it - for example, by grinding, or by dissolving with
acids - until the final product part is achieved. The goal
of nanotechnology is, to instead build in a “bottom-up”
fashion, starting with individual molecules and bringing
them together to form product parts in which every
atom is in a precise, designed location. In comparison
with the top-down approach, this method could
potentially have much less material unused, thereby
greatly reducing pollution.
Today, researchers assemble nanodevices one
molecule at a time. At the technological level -there is
an increasing realisation by scientists that- nothing
much can be achieved by manipulating single atoms or
molecules. For example, it would take thousands of
years for a single assembler to produce any kind of
material one atom at a time. That is, to be useful, a
device would have to incorporate millions of molecules,
precisely arranged. Therefore novel concepts are
needed such as self fabrication and self assembly,
which raise problems both at the physics level but also
at the level of architecture, computer science and
systems engineering.
Nanotech’s development can usefully be divided
into stages, for example [6]:
• 1st generation: Passive nanostructures
• 2nd generation: Active nanostructures
• 3rd generation: Three-dimensional nano-
systems with heterogeneous nanocomponents
• 4th generation: Heterogeneous molecular
nanosystems, where each molecule in the
nanosystem has a specific structure and plays
a different role
Here, 1st generation products are commercially
available, 2nd generation work is going on in the
laboratory, and later generations are at the computational
experiment and modeling stage.The 4th and later
generations will include highly advanced developments
such as molecular manufacturing (also termed
productive molecular machine systems) and molecular
nanorobotic systems, including those for use in
nanosurgery inside cells, at the molecular level.
Nanoproducts
Importance of nanoproducts lies in helping mankind
FROM NATURE 7
to make most products lighter, stronger,
robust, cheaper, cleaner, precise and smarter. It seems
potential benefits of nanotechnology are more compared
to possible dangers. Here, one moves beyond simple
materials that have been redesigned at the nano-scale
to actual nano-scale devices that do something
interesting. Such devices can, for example, sense the
environment, process information or convert energy
from one form to another. They include nano-scale
sensors, which exploit the huge surface area of carbon
nanotubes and other nano-structured materials to detect
environmental contaminants or biochemicals. Other
products of evolutionary nanotechnology are
semiconductor nanostructures - such as quantum dots
and quantum wells - that are being used to build better
solid-state lasers. Scientists are also developing ever
more sophisticated ways of encapsulating molecules
and delivering them on demand for targeted drug
delivery.
Some of the nanoproducts in the laboratory/testing
stage are listed below.
• Storage devices with 50nm size area for a
single bit.
• Nano wheel
• Nano wire sensors
• Consumer products: Stain-resistant trousers,
better sun creams and tennis rackets
reinforced with carbon nanotubes
• Industrial products: paints, catalysis,
membranes etc.
• Biomedical products: biosensors, biochips,
drug-delivery systems, analytical devices,
materials in bone and dentistry substitutes.
Challenges
The integration of nano-electro-mechanical systems
(NEMS) and mico-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) will lead to the development of full fledged
and smart nanosystems.
• The effect of nanoparticles and products on
nature and natural systems especially on
human health is also of great concern to the
environmentalists. If a nano particle is
airborne, they have the potential to be inhaled
and it would take up by the cell on which it
sits and becomes toxic. Man-made nano
particles/products should not become threat
to the nature.
• Interfacing the micro scale systems with the
nano scale systems is the biggest problem.
8 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
• Building self-replicating, learning machines
from much smaller structures- say with fewer
groups of atoms and molecules like natural
products.
• Adding distributed computing/processing
facilities in each nanoproduct to achieve a
goal collectively.
• It is also equally important to understand the
relation of nanotechnology to other
technologies.
• To produce more highly optimized nano-scale
products than nature has already achieved in
small organisms.
• Understanding ‘self-assembly’ which are the
properties of some molecules to arrange
themselves into a desired pattern or devices.
• To improve one’s control over how things
are built, so that products can be of the
highest quality and cause the lowest
environmental degradation.
• There is a need for protection from
environment for the nanoproducts and also
packaging the nanoproducts is also a big
challenge.
Nanotechnology has been identified as essential in
solving many of the problems faced by humans.
Specifically, it is the key to address the Foresight
Nanotech Challenges [6]:
1) Meeting global energy needs with clean
solutions
2) Providing abundant clean water globally
3) Increasing the health and longevity of human
life
4) Maximizing the productivity of agriculture
5) Making powerful information technology
available everywhere
6) Enabling the development of space
CONCLUSIONS
Nanotechnology already exists in nature; Evolution
- nature’s remarkable optimization tool - has produced
very powerful and efficient nanomachines. Thus,
nanoscientists/ nanotechnologists have a wide variety
of components and techniques already available for
study from nature. There is a need to understand the
fundamental design principles of natural products. It
seems that, if ideas from nature, suitably interpreted
and implemented, could drastically improve the
performance of nanoproducts. This transfer of
technology is to be carried out immediately. Though
the evolution is a very efficient way of finding the
optimal solution to the problem of life, it need not
always find the best possible solution. Hence, one can
conclude that, even if natural nanostructures work
well, researchers ought to be able to develop much
better nanosystems. Obliviously there is a chance for
man to do better. Physical scientists, life scientists,
engineers and other scientists have to join hands to
achieve this enabling technology. Ultimate aim of
nanotechnology would be making anything from
anything.
REFERENCES
1. Gregor Schiemann, Nanotechnology and Nature: On
two Criteria for understanding their relationship,
HYLE-International Journal for Philosophy of
Chemistry, vol 11, no 1, pp 77-96, 2005.
2. Richard Booker & earl Boysen, Nanotechnology,
wiley Publishing, Inc. 2005.
3. B G Sheeparamatti, C M Javalagi & S B Kerur,
Manufacturing Micro and Nano Structures,
Proceedings of National seminar on Recent
Advances in Automation in Manufacturing
organized by Institute of Engineers Mangalore
Local Center and NMAM Institute of Technology,
Nitte on 16th Feb. 2002, pp.109-114.
4. B G Sheeparamatti, S A Angadi & Rajeshwari
Sheeparamatti, Invited Article on Nature’s
Perspective to Material Technology: an
Introduction in the course material of STTP on
Futuristic Materials organized by the Dept of
Mechanical Engineering Basaveshwar Engineering
College BAGALKOT during Aug 2003.
5. http://www.tifr.res.in
6. http://www.foresight.org/nano/whatisnano.html
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 9-25

Nano-materials: Science of
bottom-up and top-down
D D MAJUMDER, FIETE

ECSU, Indian Statistical Institute, 203 B T Road Kolkata 700 108, India.
e-mail: ddm@isical.ac.in / ddmdr@hotmail.com / ddmdr@rediffmail.com
R BANERJEE
Glass Science Section, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute,
Jadavpur, Kolkata 700 032, India.
e-mail: rajatbanerjee@hotmail.com / drrajatbanerjee@gmail.com
CH ULRICHS, I MEWIS
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute für Gartenbauwissenschaften
Fachgebiet Urbaner Gartenbau, Lentzeallee 55, 14195 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: christian.ulrichs@agrar.hu.berlin.de [C.U.] / inga@entomology.de [I.M.]
AND

A GOSWAMI

Biological Sciences Division, Indian Statistical Institute,

203 B T Road Kolkata 700 108, India.
e-mail: agoswami@isical.ac.in / Arunava_Goswami@brown.edu

The most frequently used high tech words in the scientific world now are Computer,
gene and nanometer. On 29 December 1959, Richard P Feynman [1] gave a talk at the annual
meeting of the American Physical society that has become one of the twentieth century’s
classic science lectures titled “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom”. He presented a
technological vision of the miniaturization of materials, manipulating and controlling things
on a small scale called “Nanotechnology”. Feynman visualized a technology using a toolbox
of nature to build nano-object by atom by atom or molecule by molecule.
Taking into account of the future potential of nanoscience, National Science and
Technology Council (NSTC) of the White House created the interagency working group on
Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology (IWGN) in 1998. A grant of $497 million was
granted to National Nanotechnology Institute (NNI) in the year 2001 and made it a top science
and technology priority. Scientists are already developing nano-applications that will be
bringing revolution in a host of products and services like battery storage capacity, computer
chip minimization, drug delivery, facial creams, food processing, agricultural insect control,
solar energy management and water purification. The United States have decided to spend
US $3.7 billion during 2005-2008 and have spent almost US $3 billion during 2002-2005. The
European Union will spend US $1.7 billion and the figures for other countries are – Japan (US
$3 billion), China (US $240 million), Brazil (US $25 million), India (US $23 million), South Africa
(US $6 million) and Argentina (US $10 million) [2].

range of about 10-9 to 10-7 m (1 to 100 nanometers)

N ANOTECHNOLOGY is concerned with
materials and systems whose structures and
components exhibit novel and significantly improved
physical, chemical and biological properties, because
of their nanoscale size. Structural features in the
Paper No 72-C; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE.
9
determine important changes as compared to the
behavior of isolated molecules (1 nanometer) or of
bulk materials. For comparison, 10 nanometers are
1000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair,
a thousand times smaller than a red blood cell, or about
half the size of the diameter of DNA (Fig 1).
10 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
Football (–22cm) RBC (–7µm) Bacteria (–3–6µm)
Fig 1 Representation of nanoscale
Though Nanotechnology is a new word but it is
not an entirely new field. Nature has made many
objects and processes that function on a micro to
nanoscale. Novel behavior of nanoparticles at the
nanoscale is not necessarily predictable from that
observed at large size scales. Important changes in
behavior are caused not by the order of magnitude
size reduction, but also by new phenomena such as
size confinement, predominance of interfacial
phenomena, quantum mechanics and Coulomb blockade
[3]. It is notable that all relevant phenomena at
nanoscale are caused by the tiny size of the organized
structure as compared to molecular scale, and by the
interactions at their predominant and complex interfaces.
If one can control the feature size, then one can
enhance the material properties mechanically as well
as physically and its functions beyond those that one
currently do not know or even imagine [4]. Reducing
the dimensions of structures leads to entities with
novel properties, such as carbon nanotubes, quantum
wires and dots, thin films, DNA based structures, and
laser emitters. Such new forms of materials and devices
herald a revolutionary age for material science and
technology provided that we can discover and fully
utilize the underlying principles [5].
It was not until the 1980s that miniaturization of
instruments actually surfaced in developments like
scanning tunneling microscopes, force microscopes
and near field microscopes. These instrument classes
exploited micro fabrication technology to enable
nanometer resolution—a wide variety of the “eyes”
and “fingers” required for nanostructure measurement
and manipulation [6]. In a parallel development,
augmented computational capability now enables
sophisticated computer simulations of nanostructures.
These new techniques have sparked excitement in
nearly all parts of the scientific community. Traditional
models and theories for most of the material properties
and device operations involve assumptions leading to
Virus (–60–150nm) DNA stand (–2nm wide)
Base Pairs
Adenine Thymine
Guanine Cytosine
Super Phosphate
backbone
“critical scale lengths” that are frequently larger than
100 nm. When the dimension of a material structure is
under the respective critical length scale, then the
models and theories are not able to describe the novel
phenomena. Scientists in all materials and technology
disciplines are in avid pursuit of the fabrication and
measurement of nanostructures to see where and
what kind of interesting new phenomena occur. Further,
nanostructures offer a new paradigm for materials
manufacture by assembling (ideally utilizing self-
organization and self-assembly) to create an entity
rather than the laborious chiseling away from a larger
structure.
Classification
Nanomaterials could be classified into four major
types:
1) Carbon-based materials: These
nanoparticles are composed entirely of carbon
taking the form of a hollow, ellipsoid, or tube.
Spherical fullerenes are sometimes called
bucky balls, while cylindrical fullerenes are
called nanotubes [7]. These particles have
many potential applications, including
improved films, coatings, stronger and lighter
materials etc.
2) Metal-based materials, such as quantum
dots, nanogold, nanosilver and reactive metal
oxide like titanium dioxide. A quantum dot is
a closely packed semiconductor crystal
comprised of hundreds or thousands of atoms
and whose size is on the order of a few
nanometers to a few hundred nanometers
[8]. Quantum dots can be manipulated to
change their physical properties, particularly
their optical properties. The small size also
means that typically, over 70 percent of the
atoms are at surface sites, so that chemical
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS 11

changes at these sites allow tuning of the nanostructured metals, nanopolymers,

light-emitting properties of the dots, permitting
the emission of multiple colors from single
dots.
3) Dendrimers are nano size polymers built
from branched units [9]. The surfaces of the
dendrimers are numerous chain ends which
can be tailored to perform specific chemical
functions. This property could also be useful
for catalysis. Also, because three-dimensional
dendrimers contain interior cavities into which
other molecules (such as drugs) could be
placed making them useful for controlled
drug delivery.
4) Composites are those which combine
nanoparticles/fibre with other nano particles
or with larger bulk type materials. Already
nanoparticles, such as nanosized clays are
being added to products ranging from auto
parts to packaging materials to enhance
mechanical, thermal barrier and flame-
retardant properties. The unique properties
of these various types of nanomaterials give
them novel electrical, catalytic, magnetic,
mechanical thermal or imaging features that
are highly desirable for applications in
commercial, medical, military and
environmental sectors [10].
Development and application of nano-structured
materials is expected to go through four overlapping
phases, viz.
i) First Generation [~2004-2010 (coded as
passive nanostructure generation phase)]:
The focus is on the basic research and
development of nano-materials. It includes
nano structured coatings, nanoparticles,
catalysts, nanocomposite. This stage is on
the verge of completion.
ii) Second Generation [~2005 onwards (coded
as active nanostructure generation
phase)]: Transistors, amplifiers, Targeted
drugs and chemicals, actuators, adaptive
structures, sensors, diagnostics assays, fuel
cells, solar cells, high performance
nanocomposites, ceramics, metals.
iii) Third Generation (~2012 onwards): This
generation is anticipated to bring novel
robotics, devices, 3 dimensional networks,
biomimetic materials and guided assemblies
within the next 10-15 years.
iv) Fourth generation (~2018 onwards): This
generation will specialize in molecule-by
molecule design and self assembly capabilities.
NANOFABRICATION METHODS
In general, nano-fabrication is done by following
two methods- top-down and bottom-up. Starting with
templates made on a large scale and subsequent
reduction in its lateral dimensions to the nanoscale
constitutes what is known as top-down method. In
bottom-up methods, using processes including self-
assembly, atoms or molecules are assembled to make
nano-structures [11].
Top-down fabrication
Top-down methods are generally classified as (a)
bulk or film machining, (b) surface machining and
(c) mold machining.
(a) In bulk / film machining, a channel or trench

TABLE 1: Examples of nano-material containing products

End User Therapeutic Components Software Capital Imaging

Applications Systems Equipments

Tennis Ball & Drugs; Tansistors; Modeling; Cantilevers; Microscope;

Racket;
Clothings; Sprays; Fillers; Controller Manipulators; Electron
for Beams;
Cameras; Burn Catalytic; Microscope; Lithography;
dressings; X-rays
Razor Blades; Fuel cell. Computer Mask
Medical aided
Cosmetics. components. Design.
12 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
is created on the substrate surface or
deposited on the substrate. Standard
photolithography along with wet or dry film
etching of the substrate is used in general
followed by closure of the structured substrate
by another wafer. Channels of
500 nm depth with an accuracy of a few
percent and etch roughness less than 0.5nm
could be easily created by this method.
(I) Patterning: Standard lithography using a
mask is often used for patterning. A beam of
light (viz. 250 nm UV) is targeted through
the mask and focused on the photosensitive
coating of the desired source of nanomaterial.
The areas of the substrate exposed to the
beam can be removed leaving behind the
desired pattern or particles of nanometer
sizes. Standard lithography is insufficient in
majority of the cases, as it causes blurred
features. X-rays or extreme UV could be
used for better clarification. However, as
conventional lenses do not focus X-rays, so
the process becomes expensive. Therefore,
lithography techniques based on electron
beam lithography (EBL) and focused ion
beam (FIB) lithography using GA ions are
increasingly becoming popular for generation
of nanoparticles. The costs of these
techniques are still very high and techniques
like inter-ferometric lithography (IL) could
be used for patterning as well. It is based on
the interference of two and more coherent
beams. IL is inexpensive and could be
employed in mass scale unlike others.
II. Self assembly lithography: A low cost
and efficient method for generation of nano-
structures below 100 nm size. This process
could also be considered as bottom-up
process partly because of the nature of the
methodology used. An example of self
assembly lithography is the formation of mask
by self-assembly.
III. Hybrid method: Using both lithography
and self assembly, nanopatterns are
generated. This cost-effective method has
the disadvantage of producing materials with
defects in assembly, but could create ordered
periodic structures of ~ 5-50 nm size.
IV. Etching: In dry etching, moderate and
accurate etching rates are absolutely essential
for precision and smooth surface finish. In
wet etching isotropic and anisotropic methods
are followed. For example, in case of silicon
etching, alkaline solutions are used. Dry
etching uses techniques are like FIB, reactive-
ion-etching (RIE), deep reactive ion etching
(DRIE).
(b) In surface machining, the surface of the
deposited surface is etched out to make the
nanostructure. The most commonly used
methods in surface machining these days is
sacrificial layer etching.
(c) The mold machining is usually performed by
soft-lithography. The advantages of the
method are robustness and nanostructures
could be formed on any surfaces (curved
and planar). The disadvantage is that it is not
suitable for generation of complex
nanoelectronic devices.
Bottom-up fabrication
In these methods, building block atoms or molecules
are carefully deposited via controlled chemical reactions,
thus making the process cheaper and nanostructures
of the 2-10 nm range could be easily made by these
processes. Self assembly of few hundred and
molecules could make nanostructures.
Biologically and nature inspired self-assembly is
very often used by material scientist to achieve the
target nano-structure. For example, dynamical behavior
of water adsorbed in bikitaite (a rare lithium containing
zeolite) could be studied with naturally formed nano-
channels of zeolites (aluminosilicates) or novel materials
like porous carbons could be generated using well
ordered zeolite channels as template.
Bottom up methods are also used to fabricate
carbon nanotubes (CNT) and quantum dots.
Evaporation of solid carbon in an arc discharge, laser
ablation and catalytic decomposition could be used to
produce CNT. On the other hand, quantum dots are
crystals containing few hundred atoms and they have
different visible wavelength spectra. Therefore, they
could be used as reported molecules. Two different
patterning modes have been identified so far- (1) self
patterning via physical routes and (2) self patterning
via chemical routes. Simple growth concepts like island
(Volmer-Weber) or layer-thin-island (Stranski-
Krastanov) are used in the first route. The second
route uses micro-emulsion concept to fabricate nano-
crystals or nano-particles in colloidal suspensions, which
could be later spread on the desired substrate. Quantum
dots would have wide range of applications in quantum
computing, lasers, thermoelectric power generation,
nanofluid systems and FACS. Bottom up methods
mainly use naturally formed and well defined structures.
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS 13

TABLE 2: Salient features of top-down and bottom-up nano-fabrication [12]

Fabrication techniques Nanostructures Channel Strengths Weakness

materials
Nano Nano Size
channels structures (nm)

Top- Bulk- / film X X ~10 Silicon dioxide, Suitable Expensive;

down machining Fused silica for mass Might create
production deformation
Surface- X - ~100 Photoresist, Easy to Long etching
machining Al Polymers fabricate; time; special
insensitive to irrigation holes
bonding needed, channel
disruption tapering, limited
channel length.
Mold- X X ~20 Organic Inexpensive Expensive
machining molecule, and fabrication
Parylene relatively of master
easy for template
molding
Bottom-up - X 2-10 Octapeptides, Mainly Faulty
liposome, Porin used for fabrication
MspA naturally unless
formed well- combined
defined with top-
structures. down structures

But at this stage of development, they are unable to
produce designed and complex inter-connected patterns
due to random positioning of the obtained nanostructures.
Therefore, a combination of top-down and bottom-up
methods could be used to generate complex targets
[12].
Nanomaterials and their useful properties:
Nanotechnology is fundamentally changing the way
materials and devices will be produced in the future
including ceramic metals polymers and their composites.
The ability to synthesize nanoscale building blocks
with precisely controlled size and composition with
unique properties and functions will revolutionize
segments of material manufacturing. Advantages
include lighter, stronger, and programmable materials,
reduction in life cycle costs through lower failure
rates, innovative devices based on new principles and
architectures and use of molecular/ cluster
manufacturing.
Atomic clusters: It is essential to understand the
properties of structures in the nanometer scale for the
development of miniaturization of electronic devices.
There are many ways of achieving this nanometer
scale structure. One way of achieving the nanosize is
to start from the micron length and go down in size
using different techniques such as ball milling, chemical
methods etc [13]. All these methods of coming to the
smaller sizes from the larger one are technically what
is termed as the top-down process. Another way is to
fabricate the nanostructures is to synthesize them
directly from atoms associating them or forming clusters
out of atoms. This is called bottom up process of
making nanoscale objects [14]. These atomic clusters
are nanosized objects artificially made out of atoms
through different techniques. They can be classified
as objects with countable number of atoms starting
with a minimum of two to hundreds of thousands of
constituent atom [15,16] clusters offer unique
opportunity to look at matters, since they allow the
study of evolution of physical properties by varying an
essential parameter.
Coatings: Recent work has shown that coatings with
grain size smaller than 100 nanometer are inherently
thermally stable and effectively block dislocation
movements giving rise to ultrahigh hardness, and in
some cases ultra high toughness value. This is a
solution for thermal barrier coatings used on turbine
14 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007

blades to wear resistant rotating parts. to increase barrier properties by creating a maze or
“tortuous path” that slows the progress of gas molecules
Materials for imaging: Thinner imaging layers have
through the matrix resin [21]. At the same time, these
been generated using nanoparticulate preparation in
nano-platelets are only 1 nm thick, less than the
image-recording layers e.g. graphite film systems [17].
wavelength of light, so they do not impede light’s
This allows higher feature performance and results in
passage. Nanocomposites now draw on a wider menu
the ability to reduce the concentration of the dye
of resin matrices, including PP, EVA, acetal,
components. This has effect in the photographic film
polycarbonate, biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA),
industry to produce more high resolution photos.
and inherently conductive polyaniline. The nano-
Catalysts: Due to the smaller size of the particles the particles most widely used so far in these compounds
proportion of their constituent atoms at the surface are clays. But a new generation of emerging
will be higher than in their bulk. Collection of very nanomaterials—including nanostructured silicas, carbon
small particles will have higher surface area than their nano-tubes, and ceramic nano-fibers—suggest that
volume. This fact is profound because most of the impressive gains in nano-composite performance lie
phenomena occur at the surface. Also it has been just a few years ahead [22,23].
observed that nanoparticles do not have the same
structures as their bulk. For example gold as a bulk New Nano-Polypropylene (pp)
has an fcc structure but nanoscale gold particles of 3-
5 nanometer diameter have icosahedral structure that General Motors recently announced the first-ever
have more amount of kinks and edges than a cube. automotive production part in an olefinic nanocomposite.
This is an important issue as catalyst because it is now It’s an exterior step assist for 2002 vans, made of a
known that catalyst primarily happens on steps and nano-clay/TPO compound. Initially, the auto industry
edges of the surface where the atoms are comparatively expressed most interest in nylon 6 nanocomposites for
loosely bonded. In fact it has been observed that use under the hood, where higher Heat Defection
nanoscale gold particles have novel catalytic properties Temperature (HDT) and lightweighting were the goals.
[18]. The mobil oil company long time research program But a serious downside for a 5%-nano-clay nylon
to use crystalline materials as catalyst supports has compound tested by BASF was a loss of toughness
yielded catalysts with well defined pore sizes in the more pronounced than with standard fillers.
range of 1nm; their discovery is now the basis of an More recently, automotive OEMs and molders
industry that exceeds $30 billion per year. This have turned their attention to PP and TPO
nanocatalyst code name as MCM-41[19] is widely nanocomposites. These polyolefin materials potentially
applied in removal of ultrafine contaminants. offer engineering-thermoplastic properties at 20% lower
Nanocomposites: Nanocomposites are gradually density and 50% lower cost. Automotive OEMs want
gaining acceptance in the mainstream of global plastics
processing. These polymer compounds containing
relatively low loadings of nanometer sized mineral
particles, are beginning to show up in automotive
exterior claddings, barrier bear bottles, nylon packaging
films, polyethylene pipe and wire/cables coatings.
Optimism surrounding these novel materials has
increased since they burst into industry consciousness
two three years ago [20]. Exploratory efforts has
intensified as a growing body of data substantiates the
potential of established nylon/clay nanocomposites,
emerging polyolefin versions and a range of other
resin matrices and nano fillers. Yet the promise of
nanocomposites is undiminished. They can improve
polymers’ stiffness, HDT, dimensional stability, gas
barrier, electrical conductivity, and flame retardancy.
Nano-particles are so small and their aspect ratio
(L/D) so high that properties improve with lower
loadings and fewer penalties (such as higher density, Fig 2 Nanofibres and biopesticides generation for wound
brittleness, or loss of clarity) than with conventional dressing and insect control (adapted from
reinforcers like talc or glass. Nanoclays are believed Electrosols Ltd. [24]
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS
lighter parts at no extra cost and has focused its
attention on non-automotive uses, including pallets,
electronics, and appliance housings.
Another chemical company “Dow” [25] has
developed a nanoparticle reinforced polymeric material
that can replace metallic components in the auto
industry. The wide spread use of those nanocomposites
could lead to a reduction of 1.5 billion liters of gasoline
consumption over the life of one year’s fleet of vehicles
and reduce the related carbon dioxide emissions by
more than five billion kilograms. A long-term goal for
Dow Plastics is in-reactor compounding of nano-PP
by using nano-clays as the catalyst support for in-situ
polymerization of PP homopolymer. Dow’s effort is
focused on highly loaded (up to 10% clay) nano-PPs
for semi-structural automotive uses. Dow sources say
preliminary findings show “quite promising”
performance of these composites.
Nanocor [26], another company has developed a
40-50% nanoclay concentrate in PP. One potential
use is in heavy-duty electrical enclosures that must
meet various fire ratings plus demanding specs for
low-temperature toughness and weatherability.
Switching to nano-PPs could bring 18% weight savings
and permit use of less halogenated FR additive to
reach a given UL rating.
In other polyolefins, melt blending of nano-clay
into EVA shows promise for wire and cable
compounds. Calorimeter tests reveal a dramatic decline
in heat release at relatively low (3-5%) loadings. Nano-
EVAs also exhibit superior mechanical properties,
chemical resistance, and thermal stability. Meanwhile,
not all automotive work in nanocomposites involves
polyolefins. A role for nanocomposites in polycarbonate
automotive glazing is being explored by Exatec, the
joint venture of Bayer and GE Plastics for the exterior
coating needed to achieve weatherability and abrasion-
resistance without reducing clarity.
Packaging materials
The major application focus for nylon 6
nanocomposites today is in high-barrier packaging.
Honeywell offers a 2%-nano-clay nylon 6 for bottles
and has a 4% nanoclay version in development. An
early commercial use of this technology is pasteurizable
beer bottle. Nanoclays significantly boost the barrier
performance of nylon 6 while retaining most of its
existing favorable characteristics like nylon’s toughness,
clarity, hot-fill heat resistance, and oil/grease resistance.
Honeywell claims that nylon 6 with 2% nanoclay has
three times oxygen barrier of straight nylon 6, and 4%
nano-clay confers a six-fold improvement. That makes
15
Honeywell’s Aegis NC nano-nylon a candidate for
medium-barrier bottles and films—those offering
around 0.5 to 1 cc/mil/day O2 transmission rate (OTR).
Data also show a doubling of stiffness, higher HDT,
and improved clarity for nano-nylon 6 packaging.
Honeywell has turned its attention to creating nano-
nylon materials that can beat the cost of high-barrier
plastics or even glass. Its current contender is an
active-passive barrier system called Aegis OX [27],
which synergizes nanoclays as the passive barrier and
a proprietary, nylon-specific oxygen scavenger as the
active agent. Bayer is aiming nylon 6 nanocomposites
at cast film for multi-layer packaging, protective films
for medical and corrosion-prone items, and more.
Eco-friendly Nanocomposites
Meanwhile, nanocomposites also limit emissions
of gasoline, methanol, and organic solvents. Ube
America is developing nanocomposite barriers for
automotive fuel systems. It uses up to 5% nanoclay in
nylon 6 and 6/66 blends. Nylon 6 with 2% nanoclay is
said to be five times more resistant to gasoline
permeation than unmodified nylon 6. Ube has developed
a co-extruded barrier fuel line, trade-named Ecobesta
[28], using nylon 6/66 nanocomposite as the core
layer.
Argonide has a technology for producing alumina
ceramic nano-whiskers by electro-explosion of metal
wire. These NanoCeram whiskers offer potential for
reinforcement because of their small size (2 nm diam.)
and high aspect ratio (50:1 average). Applications for
NanoCeram are being pursued as reinforcements and
thermally conductive additives. For the first time, a
PP-based nanocomposite has been adopted for use in
an automotive production part. A step-assist for 2002
General Motors Safari and Astro vans is molded by
TPO matrix reinforced with 2.5% nanoclay. The nano-
TPO replaces a 15% talc-filled PP but is molded as in
Fig 3.
Agricultural Nano-Products
Fig 3 First automotive production part of a polyolefin
nanocomposite is a TPO step-assist for 2002
G e n e r a l
Motors Safari and Astro vans.
16 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
Though major investments are thought to be spent
towards health sector but efforts are initiated in the
discovery of nano-devices and nanoscale products for
the agricultural sector [29]. Converging technologies
could reinvigorate the battered agrochemical and
agribiotech industries, igniting a still more intense debate
- this time over “atomically-modified” foods. No
government has developed a regulatory regime that
addresses the nanoscale or the societal impacts
of the invisibly small. A handful of food and
nutrition products containing invisible, unlabeled and
unregulated nano-scale additives are already
commercially available. Likewise, a number of
pesticides formulated at the nanoscale are on the
market and have been released in the environment. A
nanotech research initiative in Thailand aims to
atomically modify the characteristics of local rice
varieties - including the country’s famous jasmine
rice- and to circumvent the controversy over Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMOs) [30]. Nanobiotech takes
agriculture from the battleground of GMOs to the
brave new world of Atomically Modified Organisms
(AMOs) where rice has been modified atomically.
The research involves drilling a nano-sized hole (a
nanometer is one-billionth of a meter) through the wall
and membrane of a rice cell in order to insert a
nitrogen atom. The hole is drilled using a particle beam
(a stream of fast-moving particles, not unlike a lightening
bolt) and the nitrogen atom is shot through the hole to
stimulate rearrangement of the rice’s DNA.
One of the attractions of this technique is that it
does not require the usual (and controversial) technique
of genetic modification, where genes are transferred
between unrelated organisms or are removed or
rearranged within a species. Nanotechnology is also
used to modify the colour of a local rice variety. Using
nanotechnology, the scientists changed the colour of
the leaves and stems of rice. Recently it has been
shown that surface charge modified hydrophobic
nano-silica (~3-5nm) could be successfully used to
control a range of agricultural insect pests and for
controlling animal ecto-parasites of veterinary
importance [31-36].
Nanocarbon Structures:
Carbon Fullerenes
Carbon fullerenes are large, closed caged carbon
structures in a spherical shape. Fullerenes, discovered
in 1985, are stable in gas form and exhibit many
interesting properties that have not been found in other
compounds before. Figure 4 is a representation of a
C60 Fullerene molecule. A fullerene is a spherical
structure composed of both pentagonal and hexagonal
carbon rings. Fullerenes are considered zero
dimensional quantum structures which exhibit interesting
quantum properties. Once fullerenes were proven to
exist, research for other fullerene like structures led to
the discovery of Carbon nanotubes in 1991.
Carbon nanotubes
Nanotubes are the one dimensional wire form of a
Fig 4 Representation of a Fullerene Molecule
fullerene; the diameter is typically 1 to 5 nanometers
(nm), while the length can be in the range of microns.
The society stands to be significantly influenced by
carbon nanotubes. The world already dream of space-
elevators, hydrogen powered vehicles, artificial muscles
and so on that would be made possible by emerging
carbon nanotube science. The first carbon concentric
multiwall nanotubes was developed in 1991 [37] as by
products of the formation of fullerenes by the electric-
arc technique. But the real breakthrough occurred
two year later when attempts were made to fill the
nanotubes with various metals in situ led to the discovery
of single walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) by Lijma et
al [38] and Bethune [39]. Ideally a carbon nanotube
can be considered to be a perfect graphene sheet to
roll it into a cylinder so that the hexagonal rings if put in
contact join coherently, then to close the tips by two
cap, each cap being a hemi-fullerene with the
appropriate diameter. The sidewalls of CNT consist
of only hexagonal carbon rings, whereas the end caps
are made of pentagons and hexagons in order for
curvature to exist. Due to the symmetry of the cylindrical
tube, CNT have a discreet number of directions that
can form a closed cylinder. But calculations have
shown that collapsing the single-wall tube into a
flattened two-layer ribbon is energetically more
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS
favourable than maintaining the tubular morphology
beyond a diameter value ~ 2.5nm [40]. On the other
hand it intuitively comes to mind the shorter the radius
of curvature, the higher the stress and the energetic
cost although SWNT with diameter as low as 0.4nm
have been successfully synthesized [41]. A suitable
energetic compromise is thus reached for ~1.4 nm, the
most frequent diameter encountered regardless of the
synthesis technique. There is no such restriction for
the nanotube length, which only depends on limitation
bought by preparation method and the specific conditions
used for the synthesis.
Two important consequences derived from
the SWNT structures:
1) All carbon atoms are involved in hexagonal
aromatic rings only and are therefore in
equivalent position, except at the nanotube
tips where 6×5 = 30 atoms at each tips are
involved in pentagonal rings.
2) Though carbon atoms are involved in aromatic
rings the c=c bond angle are no longer planar
as they should ideally be. This means that
the hybridization of carbon atoms is no longer
pure sp2 but gets some percentage of the
sp3 character, in a proportion that increases
as the tube radius of curvature decreases.
There are many ways to roll a graphene sheet into
a SWNT which can be mathematically defined by the
vector of helicity Cn and the angle of helicity θ as
follows in Fig 5.
Two atoms in the sheet are selected as the origin,
and when the sheet is rolled, the two atoms coincide
with one another. The vector OA is known as the
“rollup” vector or chiral vector, whose length is equal
to that of the circumference of the nanotube. The tube
is created so that point O touches point A, and B
touches B´. The tube axis is perpendicular to the rollup
vector.
Fig 5 The helicity angle of SWNT
17
OA = Cn= na1+ma2 where n and m are integers of
vector OA and a1 and a2 are unit vectors in the two-
dimensional hexagonal lattice.
with a1 = ax√3/2 + ay√3/2
and a2 = ax√3/2 - ay√3/2 with a= 2.46Å
cos (θ) = (2n+m)/2√(n2+m2+mn)
The chiral angle θ is taken with respect to the so
called Zig-Zag axis, i.e vector of helicity that makes
nanotube of the Zig-Zag type. The diameter D of the
corresponding nanotubes is related to Cn by the relation
D = | Cn | / π
Carbon atoms in SWNT can be assigned to a
coordinate system (n,m), with m <= n at all times. As
chiral vectors change, nanotube properties changes
from metallic to semi-conducting (Fig 4). The (n, 0)
direction is known as zigzag structure, while the n=m
is denoted as armchair structure (Fig 6). Although Fig
7 shows all co-ordinations of (n, m), not all of these
chiralities have been observed in CNT.
It should be noted that all armchair chiralities of
CNT display metallic properties (green circles in
Fig 7). In addition, chiral vectors with:
n – m = 3i
Fig 6 Possible structures of CNT based on chiral
vectors
Where, i is an integer value, yield metallic
properties. All other arrangements of (n, m) in CNT
display semi-conductor properties (blue circles in
Fig 4). Chirality affects the electrical properties of
nanotubes, as well as optical activity, mechanical
strength, and various other properties. Deformations
and defects in CNT can also have a profound impact
on intrinsic properties. Junctions or bends in nanotubes
can be introduced by the replacement of a hexagonal
carbon ring with a pentagonal or heptagonal ring.
Bends, which may be inward or outward, can severely
affect the electrical conductivity of nanotubes.
18 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
Fig 7 Armchair, zigzag and chiral nanotubes
Many experiments have resulted in bundled SWNT.
These are regular SWNT in very close proximity to
one another, but the tubes do not share a wall. Multi
walled nanotubes (MWNT) are another common type
of fullerene structure. MWNT are concentric rings
SWNT with different diameters centered around a
common point. Figure 8 shows TEM images of isolated
SWNT, bundled SWNT, and MWNT. Since the nested
tubes in a MWNT structure are independent of one
another, each tube has its own chiral vector, and
therefore chiralities of individual tubes in a MWNT
structure may be different. Furthermore, since CNT
are simply rolled graphene sheets, the spacing between
individual tubes in MWNT can be considered equal to
the spacing of adjacent graphene layers in graphite, or
approximately 0.34nm.
Bonding in carbon nanotubes
Bonding in CNT is exactly as bonding of graphene
sheets in graphite. Each carbon atom within the
graphene sheet holds a covalent bond with three
neighbor carbon atoms. The bonds are due to the
Fig 8. TEM Images of (a) SWNT, (b) Bundled SWNT, and (c) MWNT
interaction of the each carbon atom’s three sp2 orbitals
interacting with the sp2 orbitals of neighboring carbon
atoms. As a result, s bonds are formed, and one 2p
orbital is left un-hybridized. Individual tubes in MWNT
experience only van der Waals forces between adjacent
tube layers.
Some novel objects based on carbon
nanotube
1) Hetero nanotube: Hetero nanotube are
defined as carbon nanotube whose carbon
atoms, part or all of them are substituted
with another element while the overall
honeycomb lattice based graphene structure
is maintained. Elements involved are either
boron or nitrogen.
2) Hybrid nanotube: hybrid carbon nanotubes
are defined as carbon nanotubes, SWNT of
MWNT whose inner cavity has been filled,
partially or entirely by foreign atoms,
molecules, compounds or crystal. Such hybrid
are therefore noted as X@SWNT or
X@MWNT, where x can be atom or
molecules [42].
Application of nanotubes
1) High mechanical strength of carbon nanotubes
makes them a near ideal force sensors in Scanning
probe microscope (SPM). The idea was first
proposed and experimented by Dai et al. [43]
using C-MWNT.
2) Near field microscope probes: Such nanotube
based SPM tips also offer the perspective of
being functionalized in the prospect of making
selective images based on chemical force
microscope (CFM). Today the cost of
nanotube based SPM tips is in range of $
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS
200 / tip. Such a high cost is explained both
by the processing difficulty, which ideally
requires one or two grow .or mount a single
MWNT in the appropriate direction at the tip
of a regular SPM probe.
3) Based on the pioneering work by de Heer et
al [44] carbon nanotube have been
demonstrated efficient field emitters and are
currently being incorporated in several
applications, including flat panel display for
TV or computers. It can also be used in
chemical sensors and catalyst supporting
materials.
Expected future applications of nanotubes:
It can be used as an absorbent. It has been found
that the nanotube can absorb some toxic gases such
as dioxim [45], fluorides, lead etc. It can be used as
biosensors. Attaching molecules of biological interest
of carbon nanotubes is an ideal way to realize
nanometer sized biosensors. The use of the internal
cavity of nanotubes for drug delivery would be another
amazing application. Because of their exceptional
morphological electrical, thermal and mechanical
characteristics, carbon nanotubes are particularly
promising materials as reinforcement in composite
material with metal, ceramic or polymer matrix. It can
also be used in nanoelectronics. SWCNT can be
either metallic (with an electrical conductivity higher
than that of copper, Fig 8) or semiconductor. This has
inspired the design of several components for
nanoelectronics.
Nanotechnology in Computer Industry
The attraction of molecular manufacturing for the
computer industry is well understood since it projected
to fabricate computers at a manufacturing cost of less
CARBON BLACK
AGGREGATE
INDIVIDUAL
NANOTUBE
Fig 9 Carbon nano-tubes dispersed in plastic create
electrically conductive networks that provide
s t a t i c
dissipative performance (Photo: Hyperion).
19
than a dollar per pound, operating at frequencies of
tens of gigahertz or more, with linear dimensions for a
single device of roughly 10 nanometers, high reliability,
and energy dissipation (using conventional methods)
of roughly 10 -18 joules per logic operation. If
thermodynamically reversible computers can be made
from conventional electronic devices, e.g., CMOS
[46-49] then the energy dissipation per logic operation
can be reduced to well below kT at T = 300 Kelvins
(well below 10-21 joules). The computer industry is
spending billions of dollars to make better computers.
It is widely acknowledged within the industry that
lithography is approaching its limits. Articles like The
Future of the Transistor [50], Miniaturization of
Electronics and its Limits [51] and Outlook for
VLSI: Will the Balloon Burst? [52] It quite clearly
shows that conventional lithography will run out of
steam. There is already interest in molecular logic
devices [53] and that interest will increase sharply as
improvements in conventional manufacturing methods
become increasingly difficult.
Molecular Manufacturing of nanostructures
and challenges ahead
All manufactured products are made from atoms
and molecules. The properties of those products depend
on how those atoms and molecules are arranged.
Viewed from the molecular level, at present
macroscopic manufacturing methods like casting, milling
and welding are very crude. Even lithography (which
put millions of transistors on a chip no bigger than a
fingernail) is fundamentally statistical and random.
Exactly how many dopant atoms are in a single transistor
and exactly where each individual dopant atom is
located is neither specified nor known. But large high
purity crystals can have almost every atom in the right
place. The structures of proteins with hundreds and
even thousands of amino acids can be specified down
to the last atom. Most dramatically DNA strands with
tens of millions of bases can be copied with almost
perfect accuracy. And it seems that almost any small
molecule (with perhaps several dozens of atoms) can
be synthesized, if only proper skill and patience can be
exhibited.
Almost any manufactured product could be
improved, often by several orders of magnitude, if its
structure at the molecular level could be precisely
controlled. At present, the research is mainly focused
on the molecular manufacturing of the materials which
are lighter, stronger and has good electrical properties.
One such material is diamond. It is lighter and stronger:
the strength-to-weight ratio of diamond is over 50
20 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
times that of steel. Due to its tetrahedral structure it
can make better computers than silicon [54]. It has a
wider band gap and hence electrical devices will work
at higher temperatures. It has greater thermal
conductivity, so devices can be more easily cooled. It
has a greater breakdown field, hence devices can be
smaller. It has higher electron and hole mobility which,
when combined with higher electric fields, will result
in higher speed. Yet it is not possible to make diamond
spars in aeroplanes or diamond hulls for rockets or
diamond computers since it is economically not viable.
Economically viable molecular manufacture from
almost any specified structure that is consistent with
the laws of chemistry and physics demands more
research. To simplify the problem somewhat the focus
should be narrowed to structures that resemble diamond
in a broad sense: the diamondoid structures as defined
by Drexler [55]. This class includes (among other
things) diamond crystals of arbitrary shape but with
stably terminated surfaces [e.g., hydrogenated (111)
or the like] and with impurities at precise locations in
the diamond lattice (e.g., substitutional boron).
Molecular switches
When the personal computers, cellular phones,
CD players are turned on or off by pressing a button
then dozen of switching operation takes place. The
finger exert a mechanical stimulation on the control
device, namely the switch. The external stimulus
changes the physical state of the switch, closing or
opening an electric circuit and enabling or preventing
the passage of electrons. In all cases input stimulations
reach the switch changing its physical state and
producing a specific output. The development of
nanoscale counterparts to conventional switches is
expected to have fundamental scientific and
technological implication. For instance, one can envisage
practical applications for ultra-miniaturized switches
in areas ranging from biomedical research to information
technology. The major challenge for nano switches
however is the identification of reliable design criteria
and operating principles. Chemical approaches to
implement molecule sized switches appear to be
extremely promising. The intrinsically small dimensions
of organic molecules coupled with the power of
chemical synthesis are the main driving forces behind
these exploratory investigations. Certain organic
molecules adjust their structural and electronic
properties when they are stimulated by chemical,
electrical or optical inputs. Overall, the nanostructure
transducer inputs stimulation into detectable outputs,
which are called “molecular switches” (56-57). The
chemical transformations with these switching
processes are often reversible. The system returns to
its original state when the input signal is turned off.
Molecular brake: Kelly and coworkers [58] have
designed a molecular compound consisting of a
triptycene unit covalently linked to a 2-2 bipyridine
moiety which they have described as a molecular
brake. In the absence of a metal ions, the triptycene
unit rotates spontaneously [59] around the single bond
that serves as a connector to the bipyridine moiety.
However the addition of Hg(O2CCF3)2 produces
dramatic changes. The presence of metal ion in the
solution forces a conformational change upon bipyridine
moiety which hinders the rotation of the adjacent
triptycene unit such that the bipyridine unit appears to
be functioning as a molecular brake. Treatment of
Hg2+ complex with EDTA removes the Hg2+ ions
and releases the brake restoring the free rotation to
the triptycene wheel and rendering the system
reversible.
Digital processing and molecular logic gate:
Presently computer data in the network are elaborated
electronically by microprocessor (60) and exchange
optically between remote location (61). Data
processing and communication require the encoding
of information in electrical and optical signals in the
form of 0 and 1. Different types of gate like AND,
OR, NOT and NAND are used to process the signals.
But the concept of binary logic can be extended to
chemical, mechanical optical or any other type of
signals. First it is necessary to design the device that
can respond to these stimulations in the same way
transistors respond to the electrical signals. Molecular
switches respond to the variety of input stimulation
producing specific outputs and can therefore be
exploited to implement logic function (62-63).
Researchers long ago proposed a potential strategy to
execute logic operations at the molecular level (64)
with the help of a fluorescent molecule (65). Later the
analogy between molecular switches and logic gates
demonstrated the AND, NOT, and OR operation.
Fluorescent signaling system: A fluorescent signaling
system [66] is a switch and/or sensor in which the
fluorescence of one of the components of the molecule
can be switched on or off by the presence of external
chemical species that can interact with different part
of the molecules, giving rise to a supermolecule whose
photophysical properties differ from those of the original
molecules. A fluorescent ion signaling system is one in
which the fluorescence is controlled by the presence
of an ionic species. The design of such a system
requires the presence of a component with fluorescent
properties and ion receptor components which are
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS 21

Fig 10 The excitation source sends three monochromatic light beams (275,357 and 441 nm) to a quartz cell
containing an equimolar acetonitrile solution of naphthalene,anthracene and tetracene. The three
fluorophores absorb the exciting beams and reemit at 305, 401 and 544 nm respectively. The emitted
light passes through another quartz cell containing an acetonitrile solution of the three state molecular
switches.

separated by a spacer unit. The choice of the
components is crucial, and even the spacer unit is of
crucial importance, because it has to allow electronic
interactions between the fluorescent group and the
receptor components of the molecule (Fig 10).
reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
based on periodic sequence methodology holds promise
in this direction (67). In this combined method, film is
grown layer-by-layer method in stead of island growth
model mentioned earlier in the text.

CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK We also discussed on a range of important nano-

In this review article, we summarized the most
commonly used techniques of nano-fabrication, and
the diversity of nano-products generated by the industry
and the reason for tremendous interest in the research
communities worldwide on nanoscience. There exist a
number of concepts, hypotheses and ideas about the
different means of generating novel nano-material and
their possible usage in various sectors of the society.
For example, life of soldiers in the battlefield, rescue
workers, fire-fighters, and personnel working in the
difficult climatic conditions and working in extreme
situations could be improved by using nanotechnologies.
By our past efforts in this direction clearly shows that
there exists a number of difficult areas in the nano-
fabrication process which needs active input from
soft-computing methods for generating cost-effective
nanoparticles. Once achieved these nanoparticles could
have huge impact in Agriculture, Medicine and computer
industry. There is also an urgent need for research to
develop precision nanoparticles in the range of 1-10
nm. Research is also progressing to develop
nanocomposite for flame retardant and some
nanocomposites namely EVA based products are
already being developed on this front. Research is also
carried out in conducting nanofibre and nanocomposite
for electrical electronics and drug deliveries. Pulsed-
laser deposition (PLD) technique combined with
particles, which has revolutionized the material science
one way or the other. Research is going on in fullerene
glasses for diode emission. Finally, it is expected that
the importance of the well-defined nano-particle is the
key to this development, which needs optimization of
the techniques for nano-fabrication. Therefore, inter-
disciplinary initiatives coming from material scientists,
soft-computing application aided surface and growth
design experts, physicists, chemists and biologists are
essential at this stage of nanoscience development.
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24 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
Authors
Dwijesh Kumar Dutta
Majumder, PhD, FNA, FNASc, FCSI,
FNAE, FIAPR, FIE(I), FTWAS, FIETE,
was born in 1932 in Dharmaghar Syllet,
Bangladesh. He received his BSc degree
in Physics from Guwahati University,
Assam, India in 1952, MSc and PhD
degrees from the University of Calcutta
University in 1955 and 1963
respectively. He is currently Professor
Emeritus of the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata and an
Emeritus Scientist of CSIR. He is the Director of the Institute of
Cybernetics Systems and IT, Kolkata. He is a member of the
board of Directors of the World organization of Systems and
Cybernetics, Paris, France. He is a member of Indo-US program
on Neuroscience between NIH, USA and National Brain Research
Center, India. He was a visiting scientist at Carnegie Melon
University, USA; Stanford University, USA; University of
Maryland, USA and Oxford University, UK. His current interests
include developing knowledge-based systems that incorporate
his unitary formalism, unifying observing, observed and the act
of observing in mathematical framework of second order
cybernetics. He is also interested in the design and modeling of a
cancer detection paradigm for early detection of breast, cervical
and oral cancer. He is presently associated with an international
group of scientists working on nanoscience. He is author of 490
research papers and 8 books.
Dr Majumder is fellow of the Third World Academy of
Science (TWAS), Indian Physical Society; Indian Cryogenics
Council, Indian National Science Academy (FNA), Computer
Society of India, West Bengal Academy of Science & Technology,
The National Academy of Science (FNASc), Indian National
Academy of Engineering (FNAE), The Institution of Engineers
(India) (FIE). He received the UN fellowship from the University
of Michigan, USA. He served as Chairman, Computer Society of
India; National Coordinator, EGCS/KBCS program, DOE, Govt.
of India; Chairman, panel of experts of AI in power systems,
DOE and Member Think Tank of CSI. His received CV Raman
award; PC Mahalanobis award; Gold Medal, INSA; Jawaharlal
Nehru Birth Centenary Lecture and Award, INSA; K S Krishnan
Gold Medal, IETE; R N Tagore Purashkar 2001, VBU, India;
Omprakash Bhasin Award; Dr A S Narayanan Award;
International Frank George Research Award; S K Mitra memorial
Best Paper Award; Prof Jnan Chandra Ghosh Memorial Award;
Life time Achievement award, Indian National Academy of
Sciences; Award for outstanding contribution in Fuzzy
Mathematics and Applications, Benaras Hindu University, 2002;
Award for outstanding contribution in Bio-Medical Science &
Technology, Kalyani University, 2003; Nobert Wiener award
for excellence, 2005. He is the founding president of the Indian
Society of Fuzzy Mathematics and Information Processing
(ISFUMIP) and governing board member of the International
Fuzzy Systems Association (IFSA) and IAPR. He is also the
Founder and President of Indian unit for Pattern Recognition and
Artificial Intelligence.
* * * *
Christian Ulrichs, PhD was born
in 1968. Christian Ulrichs is Professor
of Urban Horticulture at the Humboldt-
University Berlin (HUB) where he
teaches Nanobiotechnology, Plant Stress
Physiology, Chemical Ecology, Pest
Management, and urban Horticulture. He
received two PhDs from HUB in Post-
harvest Plant Physiology and Technical
University Munich (TUM) in Molecular
Integrated Pest Management. In his career he served as a Research
Associate with the USDA at Delaware State University, DE,
USA and as Research Affiliate with the Asian Vegetable Research
and Development Center (AVRDC) and TUM. At the USDA he
was responsible for developing climate site matching tools for
beneficial insect introductions. At AVRDC and TUM he worked
as System Analyst for tropical vegetable production systems.
Christian Ulrichs serves as the founder bead of the International
nanosilica network since 2001 and a long term collaborator of
Prof Mewis.
* * *
Inga Mewis, PhD, born in 1971, is
Professor of Molecular entomology at
the Humboldt University, Berlin. Inga
has done PhD from “Technische
Universität München” (TUM) and the
“Freie Universität Berlin” (FUB) in
Germany in molecular entomology.
Inga’s long term interests in the field of
chemical ecology are those compounds
which act as information chemicals
between plants and herbivores as well as which mediate interactions
in the tritrophic context. Hereby, my research is focused on the
phytophage/host-plant molecular interaction of insect pests in
horticulture. Inga has extensive research experience working in
tropics and long term collaboration with Central Luzon State
University (CLSU) in the Philippines and Indian Statistical
Institute, India. She serves as the co-coordinator of the International
Nanosilica Network. She has collaborations with DFG (Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft), Pennsylvania State University, the
Max Kade-Foundation (NY) and Prof C Ulrichs’s group at
Humboldt.
* * *
Rajat Banerjee, PhD specializes
on nano-physics and nano-mathematics.
He has done post-doctoral work under
the guidance of Prof Mark Wellman and
has a long experience in making different
kinds of nano-particles with varying
shapes and sizes. As a full time employee
of Central Glass and Ceramic Research
Institute, his major research interest is
centered on the understanding the
fabrication, computation and modeling of surface properties of
nanoparticles.
* *
 D D MAJUMDER et al : NANO-MATERIALS
Arunava Goswami, PhD, born in
1966, in Berhampore, India completed
bachelor and masters’ degree in Plant
Genetics, Molecular biology and Breeding
from BC KV and Calcutta University
respectively. He then did his PhD in
molecular biology at the Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research.
Dr Arunava did his post-doctoral work
at the Harvard University, USA (1997-
2000) and was selected as Burroughs Wellcome Fund Fellow at
Marine Biology Laboratory. He served as visiting faculty at the
Brown University, USA in 2004 and Humboldt University at
Berlin in 2005. Dr Arunava traveled widely during his graduate
25
studies for doing experiments in different laboratories of USA
and several European countries with generous funding from Tata
trusts and Prof C Nusslein-Volhard (Nobel Prize winner,
Physiology and Medicine, 1995). Arunava’s mentor at Harvard,
Prof Linda Buck was awarded Nobel Prize, Physiology and
Medicine in 2004. Dr Arunava research centers around the
central thought ‘Agriculture in relation to human health’. Arunava
specializes in insect-pest genetics and molecular biology,
nanotechnology, plant and animal biotechnology. His passion is
also to teach basic and advanced biology and gives training a large
number of biotechnology students coming from all over India.
* * *
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 27-30

Nanobiogenomics: Education & Research

KAMYA BHATNAGAR AND AJIT VARMA
Amity Institute of Herbal and microbial studies, Amity University Uttar Pradesh,
Sector-125, Noida, India.
e-mail: ajitvarma@aihmr.amity.edu

INTRODUCTION cellular activity in response to stimuli and for single

cell studies of cell biology.

N ANOTECHNOLOGY is a field of expertise

that creates and uses materials, equipment and
systems that deal with matter structured on the scale
Studies of cell surface receptor function are leading
the way for a new class of experiments facilitated by
advances in high spatial resolution surface biochemical
of 1 to 100 nanometers, that is, on the scale of atoms,
patterning. Yet, biologists are still mostly unable to
molecules and supramolecular structures.
answer many questions about molecular dynamics at
Nanobiotechnology is a subset of nanotechnology
the nano-scale. And these questions must be addressed
dealing with atom and molecule level engineering and
to build nano-structures or nano-machines that are
manufacturing using biological precedents or directed
compatible with living tissues and can safely operate
to biologically relevant applications.
inside the body for therapeutic purposes.
Several industries are likely to integrate
nanotechnology into their production processes now AIM
or in the near future. Among these industries, the
rapidly advancing biotechnology and pharmaceutical It is burgeoning as one of the multi-disciplinary
sector is already interested in developing and using approach which is going to provide benefit in each and
nanotechnology. This would create a demand for highly every aspect of our life.
specialized workforce that industry must be in readiness
The teaching and research programme in current
to fulfill the demand. Nanobiotechnology is a rapidly
subject will increase knowledge of biological scientists’
advancing area of scientific and technological prospect
and students in the field of nanoparticles, networking
that pertains the tools and processes of nano/
and their applications in myriad fields of human interest.
microfabrication to build devices for studying
It will develop both qualitative and quantitative research
biosystems. Researchers learn from biology to create
skills; theoretical and practical aspects of computational
new micro-nanoscale devices to better understand life
biology and an understanding of tools and techniques
processes at the nanoscale. It’s a highly interdisciplinary
of whole World Wide Web. This cutting edge course
science and features a close collaboration between
deals with the most up-to-date application of
life scientists, chemical scientists, and engineers. Our
nanotechnology to the life/ biological sciences. This
aim is to explore nanofabrication to perform individual
course also covers the following discussion topics in
molecule analyses in biological systems, to study cellular
the field of Nanobiotechnology: one is the application
response to structured interfaces and to interrogate
of nano-scaled tools to biological systems and the
dynamic life processes at reduced dimensions. This
other is the use of biological systems as templates in
need interaction and coordination of collaborative
the development of novel nano-scaled products. Special
research efforts. This covers the basics of biology as
applications include nanomedicine, nanobiosensor,
well as the principles and practice of microfabrication
nanofluidics, and nano-bio devices and systems.
techniques.
Studies of dynamics of cellular chemical PROPOSED COURSES
communications were made possible by new integrated
Section I: Principles of Biochemistry and
sub cellular electrochemical probes, integrated with
Cell Biology
optical systems. These will be used for analysis of
A) Biochemistry
Paper No 73-B; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE. • Structure of biological macromolecules
27
28 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
• Introduction to building blocks of biological
macromolecules
• Principles of protein structure
• Principles of DNA structure
• Sequence/Structure relationships and
Structural motifs
• Protein biosynthesis and turnover-regulation
and degradation
B. Cell Biology
• Introduction to the cell and its organization
(from prokaryotes to eukaryotic cells, distinct
cellular compartments, main organelles and
related functions)
• Cell membranes - structure and topography
• Cell signaling: relaying the signal from the
cell membrane to the nucleus
• The cell cycle – deregulated cell division and
cancer
• Cell-Surface Interactions
• A wide range of cell-types, including
mammalian cells, higher plant cells, fungal
cells, and bacteria
C. Nanoscale Cell Biology
• Development of nano- and microfabricated
devices that probe cellular function in highly
parallel devices for proteomics and drug
testing
• Protein-protein interactions and fusion pore
openings, single molecule and vesicle tracking
using nanoparticles and nanosensors
Section II: Physics and Nano-structured
Materials for Bioapplications
A. Bioengineered Nanomaterials
• Principles of structure and self-assembly of
natural biomaterials
• Natural composite materials and interfacing
role of proteins
• Design of biological nanofibers, nanotubes,
and closed-caged nanoassemblies
B. Imaging of Biomaterials
• X-ray diffraction
• Transmission Electron Microscopy
• Magnetization measurements
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
• Spectroscopy
• 2-D electrophoresis and mass spectrometry
of proteins
• Confocal microscopy
C. Cellular Microdynamics Program
• Utilization of microfabricated devices to
fractionate and characterize cells based on
their morphology, density, charge, antigenicity,
or function
• Sonic MEMS technology in conjunction with
microfluidics to separate particles, including
blood cells
• Immunosensors: Principles of optical
Immunosensors
Section III: Cell Signaling Pathways
• Cyto-nucleoplasmic transport, nucleus
organization and dynamics
• ER and mitochondrial structural dynamics
and function
• Relocation of proteins and their activation
• Molecular motors involved in cell motility
and contractility
• Cell-cell interactions
• Pathogen infection, intracellular trafficking,
cytoskeleton remodeling, axonal transport,
and chromosomal segregation at mitosis
Section IV: Proteomics and Analysis
A. Gel-based Protein Analysis Methods
• Definition and significance of proteomics
research
• Introduction to protein separation
methodologies: Principle of two-dimensional
electrophoresis (2DE) and liquid
chromatography
• Isoelectric focusing , vertical polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis
B. DNA and Protein Arrays: Fabrication,
Detection and Applications
• The DNA molecule: structure and biological
significance
• DNA analysis by conventional methods
(Southern Blotting)
• DNA arrays versus DNA chip
 BHATNAGAR & VARMA : NANOBIOGENOMICS: EDUCATION & RESEARCH
• Fabrication of DNA arrays and chips
• Target DNA amplification and labeling by
PCR
• Main applications and limitations of DNA
arrays
• Protein structure & sources
• Immobilization of proteins onto solid surfaces
• Fabrication of protein arrays
• Detection schemes for protein chips
• Antibody arrays: specificity and cross-
reactivity
Section V: Bioinformatics
A. Introduction to Bioinformatics
• Bioinformatics – A Rapidly Maturing Science
• Biological Databases
• Genome Analysis
• Proteome Analysis
• The Bioinformatics Revolution in Medicine
B. Applied Bioinformatics in Bionano-
technology
• Simulations of biomolecular interactions with
inorganic material
• Molecular Modeling in Bionanotechnology
• Bioinformatics insights for designing
biomaterials
Section VI: Nanobiotechnology
A. Introduction To Nanobiotechnology
• Micro-and Nano-fabrication science and
technology
• Experiment to the lab-on-chip level
B. Drug Delivery Methods/ Materials
• Drug Release and Delivery Systems-Methods
• Engineer drug and DNA nanoparticles to
reach the cells in lung epithelium,
gastrointestinal tract, muscle, liver, and spinal
cord
• Develop multifunctional nanoparticles with
imaging and therapeutic capacity
• Fabricate nanofibers endowed with biological
signals of encapsulated drugs and growth
29
factors for functional tissue engineering
applications
• Small-scale Systems for in vivo Drug Delivery
C. Pre- Clinical Trials
• Pre- clinical trials and clinical trials
• Toxicological certification
Section VII: Integrated Nanobiotechnology
A. Principles of Biosensing Devices
• Applications of acoustic biosensors to biology
and biotechnology
• Detection of protein-protein, protein-cell and
membrane-ligand interactions
• Nanofabrication techniques for quantifying
the behavior of biomolecules Molecular
separation and analyses at the nano-scale
• Development of miniaturized “chip-like”
devices for high throughput quantitative
analysis of dynamic bioprocesses
B. Micro-and Nano-fabrication
• Patterning technologies for silicon, glass and
plastics
• Microfluidics device fabrication
• Biomolecules in molecular electronics
PERSPECTIVE
Nanobiotechnology is still rapidly maturing as a
science, let alone a technology. A nanometer is about
100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human
hair, which means nanotechnology-based devices work
on a very small scale. Nanobiotechnology is a hybrid
discipline that combines biology and nanotechnology
(Fig 1) to develop drugs and make diagnostic
instruments. New product concepts with innovative
technologies are mushrooming every day. In this the
microfabricated devices are used efficiently to
fractionate and/or characterize cells based on their
morphology, density, charge, antigenicity, or function.
Sonic MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems)
technology in conjunction with microfluidics is being
used to separate particles, including blood cells, based
on their zeta potentials and diffusion characteristics.
Nanobiohybrids are engineered as novel gene and
30 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007

INFRA STRUCTURAL FACILITIES

Organization chart

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

DIRECTOR

Scientific Corporate Services

Support
• Administration Student Research
Research
• Facilities • Corporate Program
• Safety communications
• Nanobiotechnology • Human resources
• Pre- clinical and
• Finance
• Delivery of drugs, proteins clinical trials
• Information Technology
and genes • Toxicological
• Cell and Tissue engineering certification
• Medical and biological
devices
• Biological and biomedical
imaging

drug delivery systems. Many successful products are
manufactured in the nanoscale range (drugs,
sunscreens, cosmetics etc). There has been significant
development of novel and sophisticated applications
in drug delivery systems also. Today, significant
research dollars are being invested in
Nanobiotechnology.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• Martin Schleef Ed, DNA Pharmaceuticals:
Formulation and delivery in Gene therapy, DNA
vaccination and immunotherapy, Wiley- VCH
Verlag GmbH P & Co. KgaA (2005).
• C M Niemeyer, C A Ed, Nanobiotechnology:
Concepts, Applications and Perspectives, Mirkin.
Wiley- VCH Verlag GmbH P & Co. KgaA (2004).
• Website Sources:
http://www.jnanobiotechnology.com/content/2/1/3
http://www.sciencemag.org/products
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/adis/add/
2006
http://www.jnanobiotechnology.com/home/
http://www.nanobiology.techbio.info/
http://inbt.jhu.edu
http://www.nbtc.cornell.edu/
http://nanoscience.bu.edu/
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 31-35

Nanobiotechnology Human Resource Development

S AHMAD, FIETE

Jamia Hamdard University, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi 110 062, India.
email: sahmad@jamiahamdard.ac.in

Human resource development is very important component of any development activity

of national and international importance. A careful planning and implementation besides mid
course corrections and feedbacks are essential for success in this area. In spite of very
rapid progress made in several fields of late the human resource crunch is being faced
today very seriously. How to overcome the difficulties being faced in preparing ourselves to
generate appropriate type of human resources is the subject discussed here with special
reference to the typical requirements of Nanobiotechnology. Multidisciplinary and
multiinstitutional approach is the key to success as discussed in the present paper. The
proposed guidelines are equally valid for any modern discipline emerging in future and
therefore the total plan should be prepared by taking into account all the components
appropriately and then implementing monitoring and midcourse corrections based on the
feedbacks.

1. INTRODUCTION scientific studies, engineering aspects of various basic

processes so studied and then developing and using

M ATERIALS made out of nanosize (at least

one dimension in 1-100 nm range) building
blocks in sheet, rod and particle shapes behave
differently as compared to their bulk counterpart due
to quantum size effect associated therein [1,2]. Well-
known physical, chemical and biological behavior of
such a material component is considerably modified
and essentially becomes building block size dependent
[1,2]. Scientifically most interesting aspect of such
nanostructures is their pronounced interactions with
biological systems. Various kinds of physico-chemical
reactions taking place in a biological structure, which
are rather larger in size as compared to nanostructure,
are at nanometer length scales [3,4] and therefore the
resultant interactions in between biological species
and nanostructures are vigorous due to their matching
sizes. Consequently, the sharp boundaries, considered
existing in between the behavior of living organisms
and nonliving nanostructures, is progressively getting
diffused. As a result of that, the presence of
nanostructures is bound to influence the biological
processes and the technologies based on these
processes in a substantial manner [3,4]. These
influences could be predicted once the fundamental
scientific behavior of nanostructures and biological
systems are known in detail together [4].
Nanobiotechnology is the synthesis of
nanotechnology and biotechnology [2,4]. Fundamental
Paper No 72-A; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE.
31
them in form of a technology to enhance the utility of
conventionally existing technologies or starting newer
technologies - all these could thus be taken care of
together using the domain knowledge bases from both
the disciplines. In order to understand and solve
problems related to welfare of the humanity such an
approach is necessary to adopt. Biotechnological
investigations are helping to realize a number of
industrially important processes, which are in
conventional manner more energy and cost intensive
besides causing environmental pollutions [2,4].
Biomimetic processes [2] are progressively being
explored for material synthesis on various scales in a
better manner using agricultural and other wastes.
From the brief introduction given above, the
following situation becomes quite clear. That in order
to train manpower to teach science and technology
subjects to the students such that after completing
their graduation degree they are fit to participate in the
field of nanobiotechnology in their future career, proper
integration of various disciplines in modified form is
rather essential to start with. For example, it will not
be sufficient to teach quantum mechanics using
examples of atomic species or nuclear particles alone,
as it has been the practice in past in conventional
physics course, but effort should also be made to
understand the structure and behavior of DNA or a
protein molecule for the purpose of explaining biological
processes better. How should this synergy be worked
out is the objective of the present discussion in this
32 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
work. Since the subject of nanobiotechnology is still in
evolutionary phase, there are a number of areas still
not very well established. For example, lot of work is
expected to be devoted to develop family of biosensors
employing nanobiotechnology principles. Even then, in
order to initiate actions in evolving the right kind of
interdisciplinary approach, a general guideline is
necessary to start with. An effort is made in this paper
to highlight this approach.
2. CHANGING DEMANDS
For the future advancements in nanosciences, the
basic objective is to correlate the internal structure of
the nanosize building block with the associated physical,
chemical and biological behavior [2,3] of the macro
scale component made out. For this, one should start
from the basic chemical constituents i.e. atoms or
molecules. What are the attributes of a cluster made
of few atoms or molecules in a nanostructure is what
is investigated theoretically and confirmed
experimentally in nanoscience. Theoretically, in a very
simplified description of a cluster of atoms, one could
consider it to be jelly like structure known as ‘jellium’
model [1,3], where all the nuclei are lumped in a core
around which the available free electrons are arranged
in quantized shells like arrangement quite similar to
well-known Bohr atom model. Thus a cluster behaves
like a quasi-atom with discrete energy levels occupied
by the electrons. In a still refined form, as next level,
even a combined solution of wave function of a number
of atoms in a specific spatial arrangement could be
solved starting from ab-initio solutions of each
constituent and mixing them appropriately [1,3]. This
exercise is easier to handle today using fast computing
machines and a number of softwares are developed
and are commercially available for this purpose with
different levels of approximations. Here extensive
computer simulation is involved for which sufficient
knowledge of numerical analysis, physics, simulation
tools and chemistry is essential. Thus, while deciding
the course content for a specific need, the main
objective is to have atomic and molecular modeling
[1,3] related contents to be included in the associated
physics, chemistry and mathematics courses. Next
comes the synthesis of a variety of nanoparticles [2,3]
in which it is not only physics and chemistry but an in-
depth knowledge of material science with special
emphasis on characterization is equally important. Phase
equilibrium, stability of nanophases, agglomeration and
other phase related energetic conditions need detailed
knowledge of thermodynamics of nanostructures in
solid, liquid and gaseous phases and their interactions
with the surrounding environments [2,3]. The entire
description of these states in nanophases is certainly
quite different from normal ones already known.
Chemical synthesis route of nanomaterials is one of
the preferred methods because of lower cost involved
but the control on size and shape is rather difficult
when compared to physical processes. Here chemical
thermodynamics is the area to provide the desired help
[2,3]. There are a number of methods based on quasi-
equilibrium situation especially in gaseous plasma based
processes where further complications arise due to
additional degree of freedom added accordingly [2,3].
Once the nanomaterials are synthesized, the next
question is to characterize them thoroughly [2]. This
area is growing very fast. Sufficient number of
characterization equipment is yet to be developed.
Some of them have been developed recently but are
very expensive and not available in most of the
academic institutions. Imaging of nanostructures is an
area where proximity probe analysis based on Scanning
Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic Force
Microscopy (AFM) has been used extensively [2].
Scanning electron microscopy in reflection and
transmission modes (SEM and TEM) has also been in
frequent use [2,3]. In order to prepare course structures
in this important area of characterization, it does not
need only topics from physics and chemistry but also
needs combination of topics from advanced electronics
instrumentation, sensor technology, information and
communication technology (ICT), computer application
as well as software analysis to use the sophisticated
characterization equipment available today [2,3].
Introduction of information technology and
microminiaturization has already made enough impact
on enhancing the capabilities of these intelligent
instruments of today. With the introduction of
nanobiosensors and on board intelligence provided by
advanced very large scale integrated circuits (VLSIC)
process control instrumentation will reach to ultimate
precision at atomic or molecular scale which could be
foreseen to influence the impact of science and
technology to much greater heights. This is one area
out of so many expected to come up in near future
having equally important relevance.
3. MEETING THE DEMANDS
In most of the conventional courses of physics
and chemistry, the simplest atomic or molecular
structures are taken as example to elucidate the
theoretical analysis. But for practical applications,
properties of the actual atomic or molecular clusters
and macromolecules should be included in these studies.
Thus, instead of spending considerable effort in
explaining the behavior of hydrogen atom (H) and
hydrogen molecule (H2) using quantum mechanics –
 S AHMAD : NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY HRD
which is no doubt very important fundamental concept
still, it will be more appropriate to include examples
like nanoclusters (metal, compound and
multicomponent), organic/inorganic fullerenes and
nanotubes which will be of direct relevance [2,3].
Similarly, enzymes, proteins and other polymeric
macromolecules like a large variety of dendrimers are
more relevant from nanoscience point of view [2,3].
Completely newer families of organic-inorganic hybrids,
nanoparticle-biomolecules combinations [6,8] and many
similar nanostructures are emerging as nanosize building
blocks for the synthesis of nanomaterials and study of
such material systems are going to be extremely useful
tools in the hands of nanomaterials scientists and
technologists. In the syntheses of such macromolecules
an in-depth understanding of polymer chemistry,
molecular recognition, self-assembly and similar other
mechanisms [2,3] are becoming more and more
relevant from nanotechnology point of view.
Functionalization of nanoparticles and macromolecules
and then joining them together to form one, two and
three dimensional lattice structures will open immense
possibilities of incorporating features not possible under
normal circumstances [6-8] existing today. For
example, attachment of hydrophilic and hydrophobic
chemical constituent to a macromolecule using micelle
techniques and then studying their interactions with
biological molecules is gaining importance at a fast
pace [6,7]. The detailed knowledge of organic chemical
synthesis is a must for giving this course to the students
of nanotechnology.
4. TEXTBOOKS, REFERENCES AND
TEACHING AIDS
Along with the developments taking place in any
specific area of future promise the advanced research
monographs appear first of all where the experts in
the field are asked to contribute chapters and the
volume is edited by some leading author/authors.
Sometimes these monographs take the shape of
reference books at a later stage again in form of an
edited volume with contributing author chapter wise.
In another form, the classic papers published in the
field concerned are put together in a reprint volume
and with introductory notes the reference volume is
brought out for the benefit of researchers and graduate
students. With the passage of time when the subject
relatively matures and takes a reasonable shape, the
proper textbooks are prepared from the materials
compiled by subject teachers over a period of years.
The teaching work done for some time provides proper
feedback from the students and a number of useful
questions are also prepared accordingly to the class
tests conducted to test the comprehension of the
33
students. In this process, the bringing out of proper
textbook takes rather quite some time – roughly few
years sometimes. In case of Nanotechnology, such
useful examples are already there [1]. Multi-authored
volumes prepared in detail are sometimes compiled in
form of encyclopedia to serve as reference of
researchers and graduate students.
Visualization of various processes taking place in
nano and biotechnological interactions is nowadays
being made easier using animation and video clips on
personal computers (PCs) having appropriate software
loaded therein. In this context, the special efforts
made by NSF and NIST in United States of America
and some from Europe are very much laudable. Quite
a few of these examples [9] and video lectures [10]
are free downloaded from their corresponding web
pages. Adding newer topics this could further be
extended and such tools are rather very effective in
giving very clear picture of the whole process without
much of ambiguity. As a matter of fact, nanoprocesses
could be very difficult to image in real time because of
lack of availability of appropriate imaging technologies.
Numerical simulation is one way to explain such
processes again with the help of compiling the simulation
results in some suitable form and sequence. This could
be made possible because of improved performance
of the microprocessors available today.
There is another interesting trend to have a set of
demonstration kits in which some of the chemical and
biochemical processes are shown to the students at
high school level to introduce nanotechnology. These
demonstration kits are very helpful in making the
desired paradigm shift realized among the young
students right from the primary school level so that by
the time they reach under graduation level they do not
find the nanoscience principles apparently contradicting
to the conventional understandings. For example,
change in color due to different size of nanoparticles in
colloidal suspension of the same constituent is one
such example that can be used at primary school level.
Similarly, hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces created
in simple experiments explain the non-wetting
characteristics of lotus leaf. There are many more
simple experiments which can be set up to demonstrate
various physical, chemical and biological effects to
help the young minds to start thinking in a way
appropriate for appreciating the nonscientific principles
later on.
5. MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH
The basic concept of ‘Multidisciplinary Approach’
is not merely to make an effort where teaching faculty
34 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
from different conventional departments are pooled
together to offer their expertise in delivering lectures
independent of other participants and the needs of the
students being taught. Rather, it is assumed that first
of all the major areas of activities to be pursued will be
identified according to the need of the target training
program and then faculty with relevant expertise will
be invited to develop course structures followed by
laboratory experiments such that the training of the
graduate students under consideration provides wide
knowledge base for undertaking research and
development efforts in R&D institutions and industry
later. For example, the faculty from material science
stream should be fully equipped with the knowledge
base of material synthesis involved in nanomaterials
and then some specific discussions on the topics,
relevant to the synthesis of nanomaterials needed in
the broad area of interest, should be carried out in the
class. It is quite natural to expect that the special
knowledge of material growth and characterization
needs to be tilted towards nanocomposites especially
for those who are going to pursue higher studies in the
field of active and passive implants [1-3]. Similarly,
physicist participating in such a interdisciplinary course
structure development has not to conclude only with
all physical properties like energy band diagram,
effective mass of the charge carriers and related
issues but also should introduce the functionalization
of nanoparticles such that it could be attached to DNA
molecule or enzymes [1-3]. This effort of applying the
basic knowledge of the conventional parent subjects
(e.g. physics, chemistry and biology) to the fast growing
application oriented disciplines is the essence of the
proposed interdisciplinary method of teaching in times
to come. For this to succeed, the involved faculty and
the researchers should work in the relevant fields with
strong personal interactions and participation in research
and development programs. Participation in multi-
institutional R&D projects will be one of the most
efficient ways to prepare oneself to enter into such a
program. It is not only to teach the students to understand
the basic scientific principles involved alone but after
such training the students should be able to work out
their own area of interest once they are exposed to the
recent development taking place in such fields [2,3].
Exposure of faculty, students and researchers to
national and international symposia, seminars,
workshops and conferences [2,3] will be immensely
useful in this multidisciplinary approach. Such
interactions will not only broaden the knowledge base
of the participants but also encourage them to enter
into national and international collaborations for
undertaking sponsored projects in which there are
always dearth of trained manpower and associated
expertise from various disciplines involved. Similarly,
industry – academia get-togethers [2,3] will also let
the academic institutions know the changing manpower
requirements of the industries from time to time. This
will put the academic institutions on right track to
prepare them for offering programs such that the
students trained therein fit better in the upcoming
industries.
6. MULTI-INSTITUTIONAL EFFORTS
Various components of R&D projects to be taken
care of successfully in the stipulated period of the
project duration is a critical step in project completion
as it solely depends upon the availability of the
respective expert knowledge bases and relevant
experiences of the participating human resources. In
today’s context, keeping in view the enormous goals
set by the funding agencies as the deliverables of
ambitious programs run by them, the availability of all
the component expertise is rather difficult to meet
such ambitious requirements in general [2,3]. To join
hands together with a number of R&D teams from the
same institution as well as well from other institutions,
to successfully complete such programs, it is rather
unavoidable. But such concerted efforts do need a
very carefully thought out networking approach keeping
in view the appropriate dovetailing of the expertise
from various team members as well as the final goal
of the program under consideration. There may be a
number of constraints besides human interfaces. It
may not be difficult to assign the different tasks to
various teams and their partners but how to ensure
that the developments taking place at a number of
places at different geographical locations is going to
be exactly fitting into a shape required for the ultimate
success of the program. But inter-personal relationships,
the way to interact with other R&D teams and their
members and to convince them to follow a required
path of investigation or execution is rather a difficult
set of constraints to work with. Frequent interactions,
revision of the individual as well as team’s progress
made and the interim goals set at suitable points of
time are some of the known techniques of the project
management needed to be used.
Modern advances taking place in the areas like
Nanobiotechnology force us to go in for very
sophisticated tools of characterization and testing of
materials, devices and components [2,3] as these
equipment are very cost intensive. It is rather
inconceivable for all academic institutions to think of
having them. The other alternative is to set up few
special ‘centers of excellence’ in the country where
from various sources funds are provided to have
 S AHMAD : NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY HRD
appropriate modern nanomaterials and devices
characterization facility. This facility should be made
available to all the research teams in and around that
center on conveniently worked out terms and
conditions. Such an approach is essential to adopt for
the development of R&D and teaching in academic
and R&D institutions in fields like nanotechnology,
nanobiotechnology and similar other combinations which
may emerge in future. This has already been initiated
and is working in advanced countries with substantial
funding from the Government. It is high time that the
same process is started in the country as soon as it is
possible. Setting up of a national initiative, identifying
the areas and setting up of a road map for coming 5 to
10 years period by involving the experts from the
academic and R&D institutions in the country is highly
desirable. Department of Biotechnology, Government
of India, constituted a working group to prepare 11th
Five Year Plan layout for nanobiotechnology under
the chairmanship of the author. The recommendations
were submitted in form of a five-year’s roadmap very
recently. Another similar effort is in progress for
Network Program on Nanotechnology in Agriculture
and Food Sector. Such brainstorming sessions held
frequently help in identifying the relevant fields where
we could take up some meaningful programs relevant
to our needs.
Another difficulty faced while running multi-
disciplinary and multi-institutional programs is the
exchange of views using altogether different technical
terminologies, which has been recognized as one of
the major hurdles faced by researchers in physical
sciences and life sciences areas. It takes extra efforts
to make both the teams familiar with these terminologies
for better exchange of ideas in their fields of
specializations. Extra efforts should be made to teach
communication skills to minimize such problems. May
be in future one has to devise means to simplify this
situation by adapting some suitable changes as followed
in case of chemical sciences where some internationally
recognized methods are used to name a chemical
which may be otherwise rather complex in nature.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Proper networking of efforts and available
resources for targeted objectives in form of national
and international programs of research and development
is the way to go in future in the upcoming areas like
nanotechnology and nanobiotechnology. In order to
meet the project requirements of such natures in terms
of human resource development and training/retraining,
35
multi-institutional efforts based on multidisciplinary
approach catering to the needs of required broad
based and specialized need based programs should be
taken up in times to come. The way in which such
programs of training and educations could be taken up
is highlighted in this paper in very brief. Words of
caution are also mentioned regarding probable difficulties
to be faced while implementing such programs.
Substantial support from the Government besides
comprehensive coordination and monitoring from
various agencies involved are essential for meaningful
progress in these areas of activities. Participation of
the teams working in these areas in various symposia,
seminars, workshops and conferences held nationally
and internationally is strongly recommended for better
exposure and interactions to establish very useful
contacts to be further developed into collaborations
and cooperation.
REFERENCES
1. C P Poole Jr & F J Owens, Introduction to
nanotechnology, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2003.
2. S Ahmad, Materials by design, Indian J
Engineering and Materials Science, vol 12, August
2005, pp 299-316.
3 Chemical Industry R&D Roadmap for Nanomaterials
by Design: From Fundamental to Function;
www.ChemicalVision2020.org
4. Sixth Framework Programme, Nanomaterials
Roadmap 2015, Roadmap Report covering the use of
Nanomaterials in the Medical and Health Sectors;
http://www.nanoroad.net/download/roadmap_
mh.pdf#search=’Nanotechnology%20in%20Health%
20Sector’
5. Nano2Life, Bringing Nanotechnologies to Life, CEA
France, http://ec.europa.eu/research/conferences/
2004/cer2004/pdf/12_4_1_nano2life.pdf
6. C Sanchez G J de A A Soler-Illia, F Ribot & D Grasso,
Design of functional nanostructures through the
use of controlled hybrid organic-inorganic
interfaces, C R Chimie, vol 6, 2003, pp 1131-1151.
7. C Jianrong, M Yuqing, H Nongyue, W Xiaohua &
L Sijiao, Nanotechnology and biosensors,
Biotechnology Advances, vol 22, 2004, pp 505-515.
8. J Panyam & V Labhsetwar, Biodegradable
nanoparticles for drug and gene delivery to cells
and tissues, Advanced Drug Delivery Review, vol
55, 2003, pp 329-347.
9. Following web sites are useful for reference:
http://www.nnin.org/nnin_k12teachers.html,http://
mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/, http://www.nanosonic.com/
schoolkits/revised%20sheets.doc,http://dev.nano-
cemms.uiuc.edu/content/education_kits/index.php
10. http://www.cneu.psu.edu/edTools.html
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 37-41

Nanotechnology Education and Research

Activities in Indian Universities
E N GANESH AND LAL KISHORE
JNTU Hyderabad, BSA Crescent Engineering College, Chennai 600 048, India.
email: enganesh50@yahoo.co.in

Nanotechnology is the interdisciplinary field which brings engineers and science people
work together. A lot of research opportunities available at the miniature scale materials.
Educating students in the nanosceince and technology is the requirement at present.
Universities should modify their curriculum to include the newer technologies. This paper
concerns about the research and education of nanoscience and technology in the
universities. We discussed about ideas of incorporating and teaching methodologies in the
universities, research links in the nano-science and education, nanocontent in the
professional development, conceptual approaches in the professional development, goals of
nanosceince education and research activites in nanotechnology. We conclude that
Instructional approaches, development programmes, educational programmes, elements of
scientific and research activites are required for our universities and industries to take part
in the newer revolution.

1. INTRODUCTION and goals for research activities. Figure 1 shows the

nanometer scale with examples.

N ANOTECHNOLOGY is inherently an inter-

disciplinary field that encompasses physics,
chemistry, biology, and engineering. Recent years (and
months) have seen significant scientific and technological
advances in nanotechnology. Many industries are
investing heavily in nanotechnology research and
development. So many future developments and
technologies have been promised. The researchers
should have a vision to redefine engineering education
in materials, devices, circuits, and systems. Today’s
engineers would have to be educated differently if
they were to realize the opportunities that the new
field of nanoelectronics presented and totally reshape
the teaching of electronics. We are now at the dawn
of what could be a new era in technology, but to
exploit the opportunities that nanoscience is giving us,
engineers will need to learn how to think about materials,
devices, circuits, and systems in a new way—from
the bottom up. Nanocurriculum is designed to be a
resource to the community and a model for new ways
of educating engineers. This paper discuss about the
science education and research links at the nanoscale,
nanocontent in the professional development, teaching
approaches in the universities, conceptual development
and change, goals for practice nanoscience in education
Paper No 72-D; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE.
37
The main idea of teaching nanotechnology is to
equip the students with the following:
(1) Study how the structure of materials can be
controlled down to the nanometer scale
through various processing methods.
(2) Study structure-property relationships at the
nanoscale.
(3) Study applications involving nanotechnology
materials.
(4) Develop effective interdisciplinary
communication skills.
(5) Critically evaluate topics in the emerging
field of nanotechnology.
The evaluation for the new courses should have
i) Collaborative group problem solving and
analysis
ii) Group presentations and writing assignments
iii) Peer assessment
The history of industrial and information revolution
is essential for the future nanotechnology revolution.
We are now in the information revolution and it takes
atleast another decade for nanotechnology revolution.
So there is a gap between science and engineering
38 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007

Fig 1 Nanometer scale explanation [3]

Basic advancements in science and technology come about

twice a century and lead to massive wealth creation.

Fig 2 Industrial and information revolution in western countries from 18th century to
21st century. (Courtesy [1] )

curriculum. Figure 2 shows the industrial and information
revolution from 17 th to 21st century. By looking at the
future revolutions there should be roadmap for our
universities to change the curriculum and effective
learning and teaching methodologies to be created in
the curriculum for our students [2].
2. RESEARCH LINKS BETWEEN SCIENCE
AT THE NANOSCALE AND SCIENCE
EDUCATION
The outcome of the research should be more than
the knowledge acquired. Generally in the future teaching
methodology for the nanotechnology should be framed
in such a way that the students capable of developing
their own models and designs in the nano world. When
we mention about the education in research level,
there should be educational practice, policy and reforms.
We can describe this as PPR policy (practice, policy
and reforms) in education. PPR policy depends on the
analysis, goals served and drivers in a time bound
manner. For example educational practice has class
room serves as unit of analysis and learning as goals
served with standards in the given time for a student.
Similarly educational policy should have public discourse,
career decisions and knowledge as the analysis and
 GANESH & KISHORE : NANOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIAN UNIVERSITIES 39

goals. Finally education reforms should have proper and behavior of the models developed can be understood.
planning, school systems in limited period of time as Tools are the enabling artifacts. So developing tools
per the nanocurriculam. The science at the nano scale from the conceptual level to the simulation is difficult
level should have multi scale simulation in femtosecond. in the nano regime. The reason for this is integration of
For this we need theoretical multi physics to the physical and chemical concepts with the technology
advanced engineering concept at the nano level. existing may differ. So at every module level in the
Understanding and bringing out the concepts at the hierarchy testing and verification is needed. Then we
nano level requires lot of theoretical study and will get efficient design and modules in the
simulations. nanotechnology. Eight new concepts called nano-
educational concepts with respect to nano science and
Figure 3 shows the how the hierarchy of simulation
technology are framed. They are:
approaches in nanoelectronics. When we note down
the accuracy and cost in the Fig 3 there is increase 1. Scale
from circuit simulation to nanoconcepts. So industries 2. Energy
and R&D along with the universities can work together
3. Quantum Principles
to bring out the nano innovations needed [3].
4. Surface phenomena
3. NANO CONTENT IN THE PROFESSIONAL 5. Relation between structure and properties
DEVELOPMENT 6. Unique properties at the nanoscale
Professional development for the engineers, 7. Self –assembly
scientist and teachers requires integrating the 8. Control of fabrication.
knowledge of science and engineering, learning and These concepts can help us to frame big ideas,
pedagogy. The following points give you the determining the principles and framing the learning
developments in the nanosceince education methodologies [6].
1. Identify the big ideas
4. TEACHING APPROACHES FOR
2. Determine the fundamental concepts and INCLUDING NANOTECHNOLOGY IN
principles UNIVERSITIES
3. Essential understandings with learning
objectives. Scientific research is fundamentally about the
creation of new knowledge. Research activities results
The above points can be fulfilled by framing the from questions, often based on observations only.
set of rules and procedures. Then only the structure There is a need for research and scientific activities at

Fig 3 Device simulation approaches with physical accuracy and

computational cost [3]
40 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
the university level. The elements of scientific activities
are listed below
1. Observation
2. Questioning
3. Experimental designs
4. Measurements
5. Analyses
6. Revising the approach
7. Presentations
8. Repetitions
Except measurements, analysis and presentations
the other elements are missing elements among the
students in our universities. To overcome the above
limitations, education research is needed. From the
various types of studies and learning methodologies
available, the best way of learning is inquiry learning in
the class room that takes advantage of student’s innate
curiosity. Students are encouraged to device their own
experiments to test their scientific questions. Teachers
should be given first hand experience in the Research
and development laboratories to carry out the scientific
research. The limitations of scientific elements can be
overcome by conducting series of workshops,
symposiums and conferences to be organized by the
industries and the universities. So funding agencies,
societies, government and industries should come
forward to carry out these activities along with the
universities. So students are encouraged to participate
in the workshops, symposium and conferences. To
conclude we should fulfill the scientific and research
elements mentioned above and to give a way to the
students to develop their knowledge [4,5].
5. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT AND
CHANGE
Learning occurs within the framework of the
learner’s current concepts. The learner relies on current
concepts to interpret and organize new information.
Conceptual Change Theory specifies a set of conditions
that must exist in order to modify existing conceptions.
Existing concepts are likely to be rejected when learners
encounter a class of problems which they appear to
lack the capacity to solve. A competing view will be
accepted when it appears to have the potential to
solve these problems. This form of the theory espouses
relatively “radical” conceptual change. The
Refinements to Conceptual Change are:
1. Gradual dynamic and continuous process,
during which existing structures are
“Continuously enriched and/or restructured.
2. Student maintains substantial elements of
old conceptions while gradually Incorporating
new ones.
3. Social processes and situational contexts
should initiate, facilitate and consolidate
Conceptual change.
Creating links is an important feature of conceptual
change; otherwise there is no difference between
conceptual change and simple route learning. Use
applications to provide context as the link to the learner
conceptual framework (anchor meaning). Incorporate
authentic tasks to provide a basis for comparison or
judgment (relational setting). In context, new information
is more likely to be meaningful to the learner: intelligible,
plausible, and fruitful.[4,5]
6. THE GOALS FOR PRACTICE NANO-
SCIENCE IN EDUCATION
1. Introduce an authentic research experience
into freshman and sophomore Course
laboratories in order to increase student
retention in the nanoscience.
2. Laboratory experiments should be based on
authentic research modules.
3. Access to research-level instrumentation.
4. Create a research group / scientific
Community environment.
7. THE GOALS FOR RESEARCH
ACTIVITIES OR MODULES
• Understand the process of scientific research
• Develop skills in asking scientific questions
and designing experiments.
• Develop a sense of intellectual responsibility
for the data since it will contribute to current
Research– validity and reliability of
measurements.
• Learn how to communicate research results
• See how the basic concepts are integrated
throughout research topics.
8. CONCLUSIONS
In Summary
1. There are creative instructional approaches
that lend themselves well to include
nanotechnology/ nanoscience as part of the
university curriculum
 GANESH & KISHORE : NANOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIAN UNIVERSITIES 41

2. Teacher development programs can provide REFERENCE

large numbers of students with new
educational experiences
3. Through Educational practice provides a way
to introduce authentic science practice in the
curriculum.
4. Research links between science and
education should be established through
Practice, Policy and reforms.
5. Nano educational concepts can be used to
frame big ideas, determining the principles
and framing the learning methodologies.
6. The elements of scientific activities and
research activities are fullfiled by the
universities and industries.
7. Sure research module on nanoscience would
be very well received by students.
1. ratner-nan0201.pdf – www.nanohub.org / ratner /
nano201.pdf
2. Mark C Hersam, Introduction to nanometer scale
and science and technology Dept of Material
science Purdue university – Nanoscience lecture
series www.nanohub.org/hersam-nclt.pdf
3. Naora sabelli, Center for technology and learining –
Purdue university, Www.nanohub .org / sabelli.pdf
– Lecture series
4. Brown, J S, Collins, A & Duguid P (1989), Situated
cognition and the culture of learning , Educational
Researcher, 18(1), pp 32-41, 1989.
5. Chinn, C A & Brewer, W F. The role of anomalous
data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical
framework and implications for science instruction.
Review of Educational Research, vol 63, no 1 -49,
1993.
6. Dreyfus, AJungwirth E., & Eliovitch, R. (1990).
Applying the cognitive conflict strategy for
conceptual change some implications, difficulties and
problems, Science Education vol 74, no 555-569, 1990.

Author
E N Ganesh obtained his MTech
degree in Microelectronics and VLSI
design from IIT Madras. He is a research
scholar at JNTU Hyderabad. He has 10
years teaching experience. At present
working as Assistant Professor in ECE
Dept BSA crescent Engineering college,
Chennai. His research interests are
Nanoelectronics and Low power VLSI
design.

* * *
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 43-49

Nanotechnology - An Indian Perspective

D N SINGH
Department of Information Technology, University Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Punjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India.
email: dina_singh@yahoo.com

Looking into the future is though hazardous, yet given the rate of technology innovation
the society is undergoing presently, it is imperative to ponder over the upcoming technologies
and to evolve the national strategy in that regard. In this article an overview of the
nanotechnology, which is billed as the technology of the future, is given. Requirement of the
type of education and training in this area has been spelt out. A perspective with regard to
evolving a national programme in nanotechnology is brought out.

1. INTRODUCTION The fundamental nature of nanotechnology is the

D URING the last forty years, rapid progress of
microelectronics has revolutionized all aspects
of human life. This revolution rides on miniaturization
of semiconductor devices, which have direct impact
on performance and cost of the integrated circuits
(ICs). Presently dimension of transistor is below 100
nanometer (10–9 meter) and billions of transistors with
dimensions of this order are working together on a
single chip. However, the practical limits associated
with materials and process technology at very small
dimension will soon prevent continuous progress of
microelectronics technology. Considering these
limitations many alternative techniques are being
investigated. An era of nanotechnology is emerging
which is concerned with materials, devices and system
through control of matter on nanometer or atomic
scale. It is expected that nanotechnology is going to
bring another technological revolution, which will again
change the human life.
Nanotechnology is a broader term and used to
describe various aspects of science and technology
involved in the study, manipulation and control of
individual atoms and molecules, to build machines on
the scale of human cells or create materials and
products with nanoscale structures that enable novel
applications. Although nanotechnology still in its budding
phase, it is predicted to be the next industrial revolution.
As with information technology in the past decade, it
could have major impacts on virtually every aspect of
human life.
Paper No 73-A; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE.
43
ability to work at the molecular level, atom by atom, to
create large structures with fundamentally new
molecular organization. Compared to the behaviors of
isolated molecules and bulk materials, behaviors of
structural feature in the range of about 10–9 to 10–7m
(1 to 100 nm) exhibit important changes. Nano-
technology is concerned with materials and systems
whose structures and components exhibit novel and
significantly improved physical, chemical and
biological properties – and that enable the exploitation
of novel phenomena and processes – due to their
nanoscale size.
2. NANOTECHNOLOGY COMPONENTS/
AREAS
Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field such
as physics, biology, microbiology engineering, chemistry,
computer science and more. Nanotechnology can
emerge in three broad and extensively overlapping
categories
• Nano-electronics
• Nano-materials/particles
• Nano-biotechnology
2.1. Nanoelectronics
One of the main motivations for nanotechnology
comes from the evolution of microelectronics towards
miniaturization. The famous empirical Moore’s law
states that the number of transistors per chip doubles
every 18 months. The Semiconductor Industry
Association (SIA) has developed a roadmap for
44 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
continued improvements in miniaturization, speed, and
power reduction in information processing devices,
sensors for signal acquisition, logic devices for
processing, storage devices for memory, displays for
visualization, and transmission devices for
communication. SIA roadmap predicts that ICs will
use transistors of dimensions equivalent to few tens of
nanometer by 2020. Reducing the size of electronic
circuits permits ever-faster data transmission. However,
with ongoing scaling the laws of quantum mechanics
and limitation of fabrication technology may soon prevent
continuous scaling of transistors. Besides, increased
power dissipation, reliability and other secondary effects
no longer allow effective functioning of transistors in
ultra-densely integrated circuits. Considering these
limitations of present silicon technology, many
alternative means to implement the nanoelectronic
function are being investigated. Different approaches
to nanoelectronics technologies are
• Quantum effect solid state nanoelectronics
• Carbon nanotube based nanoelectronics
• Molecular nanoelectronics
Quantum effect solid state nanoelectronics will
evolve based on the newer upcoming quantum effect
solid state devices which include quantum dots,
Nanowire, single electron transistor (SET),
semiconductor spintronic devices etc. Quantum dot is
an object with nanoscale extension in all three spatial
directions. These are called artificial atoms as these
posses atom like energy states, characteristics of a
QD is defined during fabrication process.
Semiconductor nanowires are mainly cylindrical
nanostructures with a diameter somewhere between
20 and 100nm but contain working electronic and
optical devices. Single Electron Transistor (SET) can
be viewed as an electron box that has two separate
junctions for the entrance and exit of single electrons.
It can also be viewed as a field-effect transistor in
which the channel is replaced by two tunnel junctions
forming a metallic island. The voltage applied to the
gate electrode affects the amount of energy needed to
change the number of electrons on the island.
Spintronics or spin electronics, studies the electron
spin in materials with the goal to develop a new
generation of microelectronics devices that use both
the charge and spin of electron to carry information.
Spintronic devices can either be realized by doping
magnetic elements or injecting spin-polarized carriers
in semiconductor materials.
The most energetic research probably concerns
carbon nanotubes. Nanoparticles of carbon - rods,
fibers, tubes with single walls or double walls, open or
closed ends, and straight or spiral forms - have been
synthesized in the past 10 years. There is good reason
to devote so much effort to these. Carbon nanotubes
have been shown to have unique properties, stiffness
and strength higher than any other material as well as
extraordinary electronic properties. Carbon nanotubes
are reported to be thermally stable in vacuum up to
2800 degrees Centigrade, to have a capacity to carry
an electric current a thousand times better than copper
wires, and to have twice the thermal conductivity of
diamond (which is also a form of carbon). Carbon
nanotubes are used as reinforcing particles in
nanocomposites, but also have many other potential
applications. They could be the basis for a new era of
electronic devices smaller and more powerful than
any previously envisioned. Nanocomputers based on
carbon nanotubes have already been demonstrated.
Molecular nanoelectronics is electronics based on
individual molecules, at a scale of nanometer. Molecules
are in natural nanometer scale. Individual covalently
bonded molecules act as wires and switching devices.
Methylene groups create “barriers” along a molecular
wire to control transmission of electrons through a
quantum well.
Nanoelectronics could form the basis of increasingly
powerful components for tomorrow’s computers,
telephones, automobiles, domestic appliances and
automation systems. This could extend the validity of
Moore’s Law, well beyond its expected demise between
2010 and 2020.
The breakthroughs for nanoelectronics include (a)
nanostructured microprocessor devices that continue
the trend in lower energy use and cost per gate,
thereby improving the efficacy of computers by a
factor of millions; (b) communications systems with
higher transmission frequencies and more efficient
utilization of the optical spectrum to provide at least
ten times more bandwidth, with consequences in
business, education, entertainment, and defense; (c)
small mass storage devices with capacities at multi-
terabit levels, a thousand times better than today and
(d) integrated nanosensors systems capable of
collecting, processing, and communicating massive
amounts of data with minimal size, weight, and power
consumption. Potential applications of nanoelectronics
also include affordable virtual reality stations that provide
individualized teaching aids / entertainment
computational capability sufficient to enable unmanned
combat and civilian vehicles and communication
capability that obviates much commuting and other
business travel in an era of increasingly expensive
transport fuels.
 D N SINGH : NANOTECHNOLOGY - AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
2.2. Nanomaterials
Over the past decade, nanomaterials have been
the subject of enormous interest. These materials,
notable for their extremely small size in the range of
1-100 nanometers and material properties, are affected
by the laws of atomic physics rather than bulk
materials and have the potential for wide-ranging
industrial, biomedical and electronic applications.
Nanomaterials can be metals, ceramics, polymeric
materials, or composite materials and their range of
properties and possible applications appear to be
enormous, from extraordinarily tiny electronic devices,
miniature batteries to biomedical uses, as packaging
films, superabsorbants, components of armor, parts
of automobiles, anti-corrosion coatings, tougher and
harder cutting tools, longer lasting medical implants
and for applications in industrial processing and
pollution control.
The extremely small size of these materials is
critical for explaining their nanomaterial behavior. In
bulk materials, only a relatively small percentage of
atoms will be at or near a surface or interface. In
nanomaterials, the small feature size ensures that many
atoms, perhaps half or more in some cases, will be
near interfaces. Surface properties such as energy
levels, electronic structure, and reactivity can be quite
different from interior states, and give rise to quite
different material properties.
Nanotechnology is fundamentally changing the
way materials and devices will be produced in the
future. The ability to synthesize nanoscale building
blocks with precisely controlled size and composition
and then to assemble them into larger structures with
unique properties and functions will revolutionize
segments of the materials manufacturing industry.
Some of the benefits that nanostructuring can bring
include lighter, stronger, and programmable materials
reductions in life-cycle costs through lower failure
rates, innovative devices based on new principles and
architectures and use of molecular/cluster
manufacturing, which takes advantage of assembly at
the nanoscale level for a given purpose. Researchers
will be able to develop structures not previously observed
in nature. Challenges include synthesis of materials by
design, development of bio and bio-inspired materials,
development of cost-effective and scalable production
techniques. Applications include (a) manufacturing of
nanostructured metals, ceramics and polymers at exact
shapes without machining; (b) improved printing
brought about by nanometer-scale particles that have
the best properties of both dyes and pigments; (c)
nanoscale cemented and plated carbides and
45
nanocoatings for cutting tools, electronic, chemical,
and structural applications; (d) new standards for
measurements at nanoscale, and (e) nanofabrication
on a chip with high levels of complexity and functionality.
2.3. Nanobiotechnology
Nanobiotechnology is the combination of nano-
scale engineering and capability to manipulate living
systems directly to build biologically inspired materials
and devices at the molecular level. This has the potential
to bring many health-related innovations – from
precisely targeted drug delivery systems to increasingly
biocompatible implants and prosthetics. Single cell
analysis and treatments can be imagined.
Physicophysics is another fascinating field of application
that would, for example, allow images to be processed
and seen by blind people. Biomolecular analogues also
hold out tremendous promise in areas such as molecular
computation, optoelectronic devices and bioelectronics.
Molecular motors, as found inside living cells, form
one of the most intriguing areas of study. Proteins can
be built into complex molecular structures – but as yet
it remains to be determined how they can be
constructed, used and powered.
Living systems are governed by molecular behavior
at nanometer scales where the disciplines of chemistry,
physics, biology, microbiology and computer simulation
all now converge. Such multidisciplinary insights will
stimulate progress in nanobiotechnology. The molecular
building blocks of life—proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
carbohydrates and their non-biological mimics—are
examples of materials that possess unique properties
determined by their size, folding, and patterns at the
nanoscale. Recent insights into the uses of
nanofabricated devices and systems suggest that
today’s laborious process of genome sequencing and
detecting the genes’ expression can be made
dramatically more efficient through utilization of
nanofabricated surfaces and devices. Expanding our
ability to characterize an individual’s genetic makeup
will revolutionize the specificity of diagnostics and
therapeutics. Beyond facilitating optimal drug usage,
nanotechnology can provide new formulations and
routes for drug delivery, enormously broadening their
therapeutic potential. Increasing nanotechnological
capabilities will also markedly benefit basic studies of
cell biology and pathology. As a result of the
development of new analytical tools capable of probing
the world of the nanometer, it is becoming increasingly
possible to characterize the chemical and mechanical
properties of cells (including processes such as cell
division and locomotion) and to measure properties of
single molecules. These capabilities thus complement
46 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
(and largely supplement) the ensemble average
techniques presently used in the life sciences. Moreover,
biocompatible high performance materials will result
from controlling their nanostructure. Based on these
biological principles, bio-inspired nanosystems and
materials are currently being formed by self-assembly
or other patterning methods. Potential applications,
therefore, include (a) rapid, more efficient genome
sequencing enabling a revolution in diagnostics and
therapeutics; (b) effective and less expensive health
care using remote and in-vivo devices; (c) new
formulations and routes for drug delivery that
enormously broaden their therapeutic potential by
targeting the delivery of new types of medicine to
previously inaccessible sites in the body; (d) more
durable rejection-resistant artificial tissues and organs;
(e) enable vision and hearing aids and (f) sensor
systems that detect emerging disease in the body,
which will ultimately shift the focus of patient care
from disease treatment to early detection and
prevention.
3. NANOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIAN
CONTEXT
Nanotechnology is being provided as a future
candidate that would challenge the semiconductor
industry, which is a major economic driver of today
and for coming few decades. A four dimensional view
is required to be taken with regard to this new area
from the technology and applications point of view.
The researchers have found two possible approaches
for obtaining nanostructures within the size regime of
1-100 nanometer. The first one is the “top-down”
approach based on lithography which is currently used
to fabricate integrated circuits. It has been considerably
successful but lacks control on the single atom level.
The second is the “bottom-up” approach in which
complex structures are assembled from single atoms
and nanostructures. With regard to applications, both
commercial/market considerations and societal
considerations are in vogue today. In commercial
applications the segment being addressed are
electronics, health, transport, food processing,
packaging, computing and defense. From societal point
of view, the issues, which are being addressed, are in
three major categories namely, “Green, Red and Black”.
The Green issues involve water, energy and
environment. The Red issues involve the human
conditions with health at its centre and Black issues
relates to the Military, such areas as Bio-warfare. It is
envisaged that issues related to any of these categories
could be addressed by employing Nanotechnology and
in turn could lessen to a large extent the societal
stresses and make the world a safer and more secure
place to live in.
In order to evolve a pragmatic programme for a
developing country like India a very cautious study of
all the four dimensions related to Nanotechnology and
its applications are required.
If one looks at the top-down approach employed
for Nanotechnology, it basically relates to extension of
on-going research and development in the area of
microelectronics and this approach would primarily
lead to evolution of technologies and applications in
the area of computation, nanoelectronics,
telecommunication and transportation. In fact, presently
this approach appears to be dominating in
nanoelectronics, which is dominating applications of
Nanotechnology today.
The bottom-up approach which essentially is the
approach of the nature by which inexpensive, abundant
and inanimate, nanoscale ingredients are transferred
into self-generating, self-perpetuating, self-repairing,
self-aware, creatures that walk wiggle, swim, see,
think and even dream. Now a human brand of
nanoengineering is emerging and the question is this
“What if we could build things the way nature does –
atom by atom and molecule by molecule”. In the top-
down approach, nanoscale engineering achieves the
functionality and speed but control on the basic unit of
atom or molecule is not obtained. This does not remove
the dependence of functionality on the process
parameters. While in the bottom-up approach the
attributes of basic units atoms/molecules is controlled
and the functionality is not dependent on the process
parameters.
In the area of application of nanotechnology,
commercial and industrial applications have begun to
appear on the horizon. In the nanoelectronics area
carbon nanotubes and molecular electron devices have
emerged viable candidates of the future ICs enhancing
the IC business further. There are several serious
efforts in the area of nanoscale engineering having
potential of generating businesses in the coming years
in the area of pharmaceuticals, paints, packaging
materials etc.
Applications having societal implications are
envisaged to start appearing in the present decade
itself e.g. low cost technologies for water purification,
self cleaning, evaporation reduction and desalination
could have tremendous impact by providing continuous
supplies of clean water. Nanotechnology may be able
to ameliorate energy problem both on the supply side
and on the user side. In the near turn, high strength
 D N SINGH : NANOTECHNOLOGY - AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
nanostructured magnets, nanolubricants and other
improved materials may greatly improve motor
efficiency. In the long term nano-engineered fuel cells,
bio-catalyst for crops, nanostructured photo-voltaic
films etc, may permit cheaper alternative energy source.
In the area of human health nanotechnology holds the
promise to provide prosthetic limbs that adjust to the
changes in the body, more bio-compatible implants,
artificial retinas, ears etc. Evolution of cheaper drugs
employing nanotechnology for incurable diseases or
expensively curable diseases will improve human health
conditions. In the area of security, advances in
nanosciences, nanotechnology may range from early
warning assessment and response system to enhance
decision support systems new non-lethal weapons may
also emerge.
Keeping in view all the four dimensions of the
nanotechnology and taking into consideration, the Indian
technological strengths and weakness in the related
areas, the following scenario emerges:
i) India is presently ill-equipped to compete in
top-down kind of research or commerciali-
zation. India has a limited microelectronics/
semiconductor industry or chemical industry
that is comparable of those in US, Europe,
Japan and Korea. It is hard to see unless
there is a huge investment in this area, how
India can be up to the level where Japanese
and Koreans have already reached.
ii) In the bottom-up technology approach if early
efforts are made, India stands a chance to
play some meaningful role in bio-molecular
electronics devices and related application
areas. The development of nanomaterials
and application around those employing
bottom-up approach may be the most
significant area to be focused on for being a
significant player in the nanotechnology area.
iii) Having a reasonable strong pharmaceutical
and bio-technology capability in the country,
drug research may be the focal candidate
for applications of nanotechnology in the
near term scenario.
iv) In the societal applications area India stands
a chance to be benefitted most by way of
applications of nanotechnology. Some of the
major issues coming in the way of India
becoming a developed nation like Water and
Energy could be addressed through
nanotechnology.
47
4. EDUCATION AND TRAINING
In order to develop nanotechnology and products,
we need to combine a lot of things. People in medicine
have to work with electrical engineers, chip designers,
computer engineers, system designers, software
engineers etc. We would, therefore, need to develop
experts having multi-disciplinary skills. Courses in
nanotechnology can be offered at graduation level as
a subject of engineering and science degrees. This will
help to spread awareness of the subject among the
young minds. Special masters programs (MTech and
MSc) can also be initiated in different disciplines of
nanotechnology. For this some of the institutes need to
be funded by Government for these programs. Initially,
faculties of these institutes can be trained in universities
abroad, which are offering courses on nanotechnology.
A comprehensive education and training programme
in this area is essential for the success of the programme.
The concept at the nanoscale – atomic, molecular and
super molecular levels are not the same as at the
micro-scale level. It is, therefore, essential to have
nanoscale concepts penetrate in the education system.
A dedicated advanced institute of Microelectronics
and Nanotechnology may be set up for this purpose
5. INDIAN PROGRAMME
5.1. Structure
Nanotechnology is a cross disciplinary field merging
physics, biology, microbiology, chemistry, engineering
and medicine. In order to evolve a result oriented
structure to carry out national programme in the area
of nanotechnology, visionary macro scale management
measures need to be employed. It would include defining
vision of nanotechnology, establishing R&D centres,
inter-agency implementation plan integrating short term
technological developments into the broader loop of
long term R&D opportunities and societal implications,
developing effective review of programmes, developing
a suitable legal frame work and integrating some
international efforts. The estimation of fund
requirements for running the programmes, allocation
of funds, various programme institutes and monitoring
of the programme will be required. The main challenge
will be to educate and train a new generation of skilled
workers in the multi-disciplinary perspective necessary
for the progress in nanotechnology.
The structure to be evolved to implement the
Indian nanotechnology programme (Fig 2).
48 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007

Center of Center of
Excellence Excellence
1 2

Centre of
Nanotechnology

Center of Center of
Excellence Excellence
3 4

Fig 1

Center of Center of
Excellence Excellence
1 2

Centre of
Coordinating
Agency

Center of Center of
Excellence Excellence
3 4

Fig 2

In the first type of structure a major infrastructure 5.2. Programme

will be created at one centralized place and all key
R&D activities related to chosen national goals will be
carried out at the centre. This centre in turn will
interact with researchers from various centres of
excellence in the country either existing or to be
developed as per the programme.
In the second type of structure a centralized
coordinating nanotechnology development agency
(NDA) will be created. This agency would include
scientists, industrialists, engineers, management
personnel, planners etc. This coordinating agency
will identify centres of excellence required and
consequently develop existing ones or create new
ones keeping in view the chosen national goal.
5.2.1. Long term Fundamental Research
Indian nanotechnology programme must address
the fundamental research in nanoscience and
nanoengineering. This can include topics from
chemistry, materials, molecular biology, computing,
maths, geo-sciences and social sciences. Majority of
the projects in this arena should be given to centers of
excellence preferably academic institutions. However,
the fundamental research required in near future, should
be carried out either at centre of nanotechnology
research in type one structure or related centre of
excellence in type two structures.
 D N SINGH : NANOTECHNOLOGY - AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
5.2.2. Core programme
The areas where major R&D efforts to focus
should be chosen in two categories. One which could
bring product based economic benefits to the nation
and make India a significant player in the world’s
future economy. In category two, those products should
be chosen which could improve the quality of life in
general and poor masses in particular.
The areas in the category 1 should include (a)
Nanostructure materials (b) Nanoelectronics based
on molecular electron devices (c) Advance health
care (d) Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS).
In the category 2 the following could be included: (a)
water purification systems, (b) water conservation
system (c) Energy conversion and storage (d) Security
(e) Safe transportation.
6. CONCLUSION
An overview of the different segments of
nanotechnology is given. Based on the importance of
this technology and present scenario in this regard a
national programme including education and training is
suggested. The focus areas have been indicated based
on present strength and weaknesses in the related
fields.
Author
D N Singh is a microelectronics
professional. He did his PhD in
microelectmics from IIT, Delhi. Dr Singh
got trained in VLSI design and
manufacturing from USA. Dr Singh was
Executive Director at Semiconductor
Complex Ltd (SCL), Mohali, Punjab and
worked there for 24 years.
Dr Singh established first
commercial VLSI fabrication plant in India at SCL. He also
established the first MEMS fabrication facility in the country at
49
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author is thankful to Mr Raj Kumar and Mr P B
Sahoo for providing valuable materials on the topic.
Author is also thankful to Dr M J Zarabi, Ex-CMD of SCL
for his encouragement.
REFERENCES
1. Phaedon Avouris et al, Carbon Nanotube
Electronics, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol 91, Nov
2003, p 1772.
2. Leland Chang et al , Extremely Scaled Silicon Nano-
CMOS Devices, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol 91,
Nov 2003, p 1860.
3. Mircea R. Stan et al, Molecular Electronics:From
Devices and Inerconnected to Circuits and
Architecture, Proceedings of the IEEE,vol 91,
Nov 2003, p 1940.
4. David Goldhaber-Gordon et al, Overview of
Nanoelectronic Devices, Proceedings IEEE, vol 4,
April 1997.
5. G Yonas et al, National Needs Drivers for
Nanotechnology, Societal Implications of Nano-
science and Nanotechnology Workshop, September
2000 Sandia National Laboratories.
6. National Nanotechnology Initiative : The Initiative
and its Implementations Plan, Washington,DC:
Office of Science and Technology Policy, July 2000.
SCL. Dr Singh has led the teams at SCL to develop submicron
CMOS technologies and to design and develop over 100 ASICS.
Dr Singh has guided two PhDs and several MTech students. He
has over 30 publications in international and national journals.
He is member IEEE and Vice-President of Indian Microelectronics
Society (IMS). Dr Singh joined PU as Professor, Bharti Chair in
Telecommunication and Information Technology at UIET in
mid-August, 2006. He is in the process of setting up an advanced
Bharti research and training centre in telecommunication,
microelectronics and nanoelectronics.
* * *
IETE Technical Review
Vol 24, No 1, January-February 2007, pp 51-58

Education in MEMS
V K JAIN
CSIO (Delhi Centre), CSIR Complex, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India.
email; vk_mems@yahoo.com

The next revolution in silicon technology is presently due to the development of micro-
electromechanical systems (MEMS). The power of the chips will not be limited simply to
store and process the information. Incorporation of new type of functionality on the chip is
making the structures to sense, act, and communicate as well. To fabricate MEMS devices,
existing facilities for ICs fabrication is not sufficient, some more facilities have to be added,
like bulk and surface micromachining, dry etching, integration of electronic, new type of
packaging facilities and many others. Several devices are now produced and sold in very
large quantities, for example, silicon accelerometers and pressure sensors for automotive.
Due to the rapid growth of this technology, the demand has increased for qualified
engineers having expertise in this technology. It is clear that there will be a huge demand in
the next few years. For this reason, companies are taking qualified employees from other
fields like mechanical, electrical and precision engineering to meet their demand for research
and development. These engineers have to be trained on the job with regard to micro
systems technology (MST) specific needs. The translation of MST from development into
application and then to mass production requires not only engineers, but also skilled workers
with a specific practical training. The educational institutions need to set up appropriate
infrastructure, have trained teachers, fully equipped laboratories as well as training and
teaching materials has to be made available.
The teaching of MEMS must be moved to many education centers on a wide
interdisciplinary basis which requires the extension of the basic knowledge of scientists of
micro technologies, material science developed by physicists, chemists, biologists, and
engineering sciences.

INTRODUCTION capability to perform a variety of functions like physical

and chemical sensing, analyzing the information and

M EMS are intelligent micro machines having

sensors, actuators and signal processing
electronics at one place. This technology has
communication. The most important factors are that
these devices are very small in size and also of low
cost as these devices can be batch fabricated in
revolutionized every field by bringing together silicon thousands at a time. In these devices inertia and
based microelectronics and micromachining gravity is less important than effects of atomic forces
technologies. The power of the chips will not be and surface science.
limited simply to store and process the information.
No machines are available to make the very small
Incorporation of new type of functionality on the chip
thicknesses of the membranes or can machine a
is making the structures to sense, act, and
particular shape to make a micron size device. Bulk
communicate. MEMS are also known by different
and surface micromachining of silicon has made it
names as smart systems and MST. These are non-
possible to decrease the thickness of the structure to a
biological systems but analogous to biological systems.
few microns or even less than a micron and can give
Human body is the perfect example of a smart system,
the required shape of the device. In addition to many
having sensors, actuators and brain as intelligent control.
more facilities needed for fabrication of integrated
Consider the same system at micro scale that a
circuits (IC) are required to make MEMS devices.
mosquito or an insect having the similar systems. A
Now, IC manufacturing industries are geared up more
machine developed of the insect size having the same
to make MEMS fabrication, as many process
functions called MEMS. These systems have the
technologies are same as required for IC fabrication.
It is also clear that these MEMS manufacturing
Paper No 72-E; Copyright © 2007 by the IETE.

51
52 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
technologies are not as uniform as exist for ICs rather
it is a combination of design techniques, knowledge of
materials, process, and applications. Processes may
vary considerably from device to device. Common
facilities are like photolithography, growth of silicon
dioxide, silicon nitride, and metal coatings dicing and
bonding. But for MEMS fabrication some more facilities
have to be added, like bulk and surface micromachining,
dry etching, dicing, integration of electronic circuitry
with MEMS, new type of packaging facilities and
many others. In some devices materials, like
ferroelectric, piezoelectric and several dielectric
materials are required, which are generally not used in
CMOS foundry. Gold, which is required in the
manufacture of optical MEMS, will contaminate an IC
fabrication. Separate facilities have to be introduced.
MEMS devices do not have a common base technology.
For example, to make an accelerometer and MEMS
based night vision system, different technology and
materials are required. In view of this requirement,
many standard IC foundries have been upgraded to
take up MEMS production. MEMS microstructures
can be manufactured in batch mode similar to computer
microchips. Recent trends are to make electronics on
the MEMS chip; if the requirement is on very large
scale otherwise hybrid systems are made. Due to this
revolution, there is a need to have the standard
technologies like IC manufacturing, which can be
used across different manufacturers. Although many
tools are available to design these systems, but more
efforts are required to develop more special tools.
Similar difficulties are with the packaging and
characterization facilities for each device, it is different.
MEMS devices have applications in a variety of
fields, but some of the major areas are like aerospace,
defense, automobiles, biomedical and communications.
Presently the production is highly concentrated for
inertial sensors. Accelerometers and gyroscopes have
always been the devices for MEMS technologies.
These sensors can be divided in to two groups. The
first group has large volume requirement, linked to
automotive and consumer markets. The second group,
which is of medium volume, is required for various
applications like in defense, aerospace and medical.
MEMS devices required for biomedical applications
are known as BioMEMS. The commercial success
and the technical potential of these devices have
compelled to do more research in this area. Some
areas in which efforts are going in a big way like
analysis of DNA and protein on a chips, lab on a chip,
drug delivery systems, miniaturized sensors for
catheters, micro cantilevers for chemical and biological
sensors, micro needles and thermal imaging, micro
cutting tools and many others. Here also some devices
have been developed and several devices are under
process of development, like IR sensor for night vision,
pressure sensors, micro turbine and blood pressure
measurement systems, to find hot spots in artery for
cardiology and for Intra Cranial Pressure (ICP)
monitoring in neurology.
MEMS FABRICATION
MEMS are made using the same standard process
steps used in IC manufacturing, including
photolithography, wet and dry etching, oxidation,
diffusion, low-pressure chemical vapor deposition
(LPCVD) and sputter deposition. Some unit processes,
such as micromachining, plating, molding and substrate
bonding are more common in MEMS than in mainstream
of IC manufacture. All MEMS processes contain two
primary types of micromachining: bulk (also called
substrate) micromachining and surface micromachining.
Bulk micromachining can preferential etch silicon, glass
or other substrates to form micromechanical structures.
It has been widely used in making membranes for
pressure sensors and nozzles for inkjet printing. Surface
micromachining creates microstructures out of thin
films on the substrate surface. Commercial examples
of components made from surface micromachining
include airbag accelerometers and micro mirror
projection arrays.
Bulk Micromachining
Bulk Micromachining can deeply etch into the
silicon wafer [1,2]. There are several ways to etch the
silicon wafer. Anisotropic etchants and isotropic
etchants can be used according to the requirements.
Several anisotropic silicon etchants can be used like
KOH, ethylene diamene pyrocatechol (EDP) and
tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH)), which
exhibit preferential etching along the <100> and <110>
crystallographic directions and orders of magnitude
smaller etch rate in the <111> direction. A membrane
[3] made using bulk micromachining in silicon <100>
wafer is shown in Fig 1. In these alkaline etchants,
silicon oxide or silicon nitride must be used as the
masking materials. The etch rate is reduced by about
50 times for heavily boron doped silicon, which can
serve as an etch stop for making very thin membranes.
Anisotropic etching can produce V- grooves, pyramids,
and channels into the surface of the silicon wafer.
Isotropic etchant etches all directions in the silicon
wafer with nearly the same rate.
Surface Micromachining [1,3]
Surface micromachining process is based on the
 V K JAIN : EDUCATION IN MEMS 53

building up of material layers selectively retaining or
removed by continued processing. The multiple
alternating layers of structural and sacrificial material
are deposited and patterned to realize micromechanical
structures. The sacrificial material is then dissolved in
a chemical etchant that does not attack the structural
parts. The bulk of the substrate remains untouched.
The substrate wafer is used primarily as a mechanical
support. Surface micromachining can generate
structures much smaller than bulk wet-etched devices.
With this technology, it is also easier to integrate
electronics below the surface microstructures. In
surface micromachining technique, most widely used
materials are polysilicon as the structural material and
SiO 2 as the sacrificial material. In surface
micromachining, the MEMS sensors are formed on
top of the wafer. The freely suspended or rotating
structures can be made on the silicon wafer as shown
in Figs 1 and 3. Requirement of materials in a surface
micro machined structure is shown in Fig 2.
Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)
Deep Reactive Ion Etching [4-6] uses plasma to
etch straight walled or deep straight trenches in the
silicon wafer. This process can make trenches in
silicon with depth to width aspect ratios over 20:1 and
with nearly vertical sidewalls. The mask is usually
either photoresist or silicon oxide can be used. A high
density inductively coupled SF6 plasma etch achieves
selectivity to the mask of around 100:1. The gas in the
plasma chamber is then switched to C4F8 for around
8 sec, which deposits a thin fluorocarbon polymer onto
the wafer surface. The following etch step uses physical
ion assist to etch the polymer at the bottom of the
trench, leaving some sidewall polymer. The polymer

Fig 1 Three types of micro machining technologies used in MEMS

active
Structure
surface
spacer

substrate

Fig 2 Type of Materials required in surface micromachined devices

54 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
masks lateral etching and thereby maintains the vertical
sidewall profile. The desired trench depth is obtained
by cycling etch steps and deposition step, with an
effective etch rate of around 1 µm/ min. In some
systems the etch rate can go to 5 µm per minute and
even higher than this.
MICROMACHINING USING POROUS
SILICON [7]
Deep cavities can be made by using porous silicon.
Generally deep cavities have been made by using
normal etching process, which takes very long time.
Instead of this, silicon in the cavity can be made
porous before growing polysilicon on it and then etched.
Etching of porous silicon takes very short time to etch
because of large surface area of porous silicon.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Some MEMS devices developed here using bulk
and surface micromachining are given below.
Micro Air Turbine
A new type of microflowmeter [8] based on
MEMS technology has been made here. In this device
silicon rotor has six blades of the 60-µm thickness and
it can rotate with a speed of 50,000 rpm with the help
of air jet. The system has been housed in a silicon
cavity of about 200µm deep in the silicon wafer. The
silicon cavity has two fine channels one for inlet and
other for outlet of the gas. Complete modeling has
been done for proper angles of the inlet and outlet. An
optical photovoltaic sensor of 200 µm radius has been
generated at bottom in the cavity of silicon under the
Fig 3 MEMS based microflowmeter
blades of the turbine. A small light source has been
used to generate the electric pluses in the optical
sensor during the rotation of the actuator i.e. rotor.
The number of the output pulses of the sensor due to
the chopping of the incident light, by rotation of the
rotor, has been correlated with input flow of the gas.
The control circuit commands the input flow based on
closed loop system. This micro flow meter (Fig 3) has
the response in microsecond. It can be used in many
industrial applications and also in medical uses.
Infra-Red Sensor Array
Uncooled infrared (IR) sensors are entering in a
new phase due to their large number of applications
both in military and many commercial sectors. Apart
from their uses in night vision system these are thought
to be used in micro-vehicles, robotics, and in biomedical
for thermal imaging. These detectors are gaining
importance over the HgCdTe photon based detectors
because of their room temperature operation, low
power consumption and smaller in size. Surface
micromachining has made it possible to make these IR
sensors. We have developed these sensors using
titanium bolometer as the IR sensing elements on the
freely suspended silicon nitride membranes (1.0µm
thick and 50×50µm in area) on the silicon substrate.
The membrane is supported by two small hinges at the
corners and has air gap of 2µm between membrane
and the silicon substrate. This provides a thermal
isolation, which is a very important requirement for
making an IR sensor. It has been made using surface
micromachining. The technology is quite difficult, but
here it has been developed and transferred to an
industry to make the array having a large number of
elements. Finally the sensors are to be integrated with
 V K JAIN : EDUCATION
4×4 Bolometer IR array
Fig 4 IR sensor array developed by the author
CMOS on the same chip. The array of 16×16 made is
shown in Fig 4. More details of design and fabrication
process can seen from earlier publication [9].
Nano Materials Integration with Micro
Systems
The nanoscale materials are completely different
from the macro world. Basic fundamental concepts
that are valid in the macroscopic world cannot easily
be applied to the nanoworld. By patterning the material
to nanometer length, it will vary the fundamental
properties of the materials. The melting point,
magnetization, charge retaining capacity and color will
change without changing the chemical composition. It
is also found that this change improves the
functionalities of these nanostructures and materials.
This opens the new possibilities to integrate the
nanostructures with Microsystems and make use these
new properties of nanomaterials. Integration of
nanocomponents to these microstructures gives new
applications like gas sensors and microcantilever based
detection in biomedical diagnostic tools and for explosive
detection also.
TRAINED MANPOWER NEEDS
Although the demand of the trained engineers
having expertise in this technology is difficult to estimate,
it is clear that there will be a huge demand in the next
few years. For this reason, MST (Micro System
Technology) companies currently have to ask for
qualified employees from other fields like mechanical,
electrical and precision engineering to meet their
demand for research and development. These engineers
IN MEMS 55
16×16 Bolometer IR array
have to be trained on the job with regard to MST-
specific needs. The translation of Microsystems
technologies from development into application and
then to mass - production requires not only engineers,
but also skilled workers with a specific practical training.
Staff members have to deal with microstructures and
they need to be experienced in clean rooms, new
materials and basic scientific methods. The profession
deals with two main subjects: semiconductors and
microsystem.
EDUCATION
Due to the rapid growth of this technology, the
demand has increased for qualified engineers with
proper training in the cutting-edge technology of smart
systems. Currently, MST is being used in some key
industries like automotive, aerospace, life sciences
and information and communication technologies, but
will soon reach other industries as well. The success
of industrial innovation depends on the relevant and
actual knowledge of new technology. A basically
general scientific background is required that enables
engineers to solve relevant future technical problems.
MEMS represent the most dynamic developing
interdisciplinary area and require the experience in
experimental science, theoretical analysis of modern
electrical, mechanical and biomedical engineering, the
latest results of solid state physics, chemical and
biochemical technologies, and also informatics.
In order to observe the guidelines, the educational
institutions need to set up proper infrastructure, have
trained teachers, fully equipped laboratories as well as
training and teaching materials has to be made available.
56 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
Present professional system of college and other types
of trainings do not create specialists in this technology
to take up the production challenges in MEMS. It is
also true that in near future, the existing staff needs to
be re-trained with these new processes, new
components or production facilities to meet
requirements to produce these systems. As a
consequence, there is a huge demand for further
education. The dynamics of innovation and
technological development requires up to date set of
skills, knowledge and practice in relevant technical
subjects. That’s why a feasible infrastructure of further
education is necessary. The training courses should
combine theoretical background with practical
experience. MEMS technology is not a new field from
research point of view, but definitely new for providing
education to create trained manpower in this field.
There is a great demand to prepare teaching material
and established curricula for training courses, which
could cater to the different classes of participants.
In last few years due to the great commercial
success of MEMS has compelled every one to think to
produce new and new systems using this technology.
Up to last few years it was a subject only for research
to get PhD degree and that is at very few places. The
technology is more near to VLSI technology and that
is why scientists working close to this field were
mostly interested in this area.
Education in this field is coming in a reverse
direction. It has started from PhD level down to
MTech and now coming to M.Sc and even to graduate
level. There is a strong need to educate students in the
area of MEMS to meet the great demand of the
industries. Many universities around the world offer
MEMS courses for undergraduate students and even
more universities / institutions conduct research
programmes for PhD degrees. These courses generally
deal with theoretical aspects and very few universities
offer practical hands-on MEMS courses.
The technology has been developed about ten
years back, but a very few teaching programmes have
been established. Although some European
organizations offer training courses, mainly treating
single topics in their own fields of specialization. Many
institutions keeping in mind the needs of industry also
established a continuing education programme. The
totally autonomous courses are targeted towards
industry engineers and are very application oriented.
The teaching of MEMS must be moved to many
education centers on a wide interdisciplinary basis
which, require the extension of the basic knowledge of
scientists of micro technologies, material science
developed by physicists, chemists, biologists and
engineering sciences.
It requires formation of proper syllabus for each
degree programme. Administration requires the
syllabus, schedule, projects and experiments to be
done. This should contain the in house multi projects
suitable for teaching practical MEMS.
EDUCATION MATERIAL PLAN
Course contents
The topics below are cross-linked to let the student
focus on the connection between basic theoretical
backgrounds through technological realization and the
application. Some contents are given below:
1. Introduction to MEMS - History, scale,
materials, importance of the technology,
applications, requirements of future.
2. Materials - Requirement of the materials,
properties of the material, characterization
and how to tailor the properties of the material
for a particular system.
3. Fabrication Technologies - Diffusion,
oxidation, metallization, Surface and bulk
micromachining, etching, deep reactive
etching, Photolithography, LIGA process,
integration of MEMS with electronic circuitry,
bonding and packaging.
4. Chacterisation and Testing Techniques -
Optical, analytical and electrical
5. Transducers - Mechanical, optical, thermal,
electrostatic,
6. Modeling and Simulation
7. Signal conditioning electronics
8. Reliability
9. Special Topics - Current MEMS research,
Commercial prospects for MEMS, Properties
and manufacture of silicon
Micromachining Materials
a) Silicon (single crystal, amorphous,
polycrystalline, epitaxial) and compound
semiconductors
b) Silicon compounds (oxides, nitrides, carbides)
c) Metals and metal compounds
d) Glass, Ceramics, Polymers and other organics
e) Biomaterials
 V K JAIN : EDUCATION
Micro-machined structures - Trenches, cavities,
micro-channel system, membrane, bridge, cantilever,
suspended mass, spring, and many other micro-
structures.
MEMS Devices
Sensors: mechanical, thermal, magnetic, chemical,
biosensors
Actuators: electrostatic methods, micro pumps, micro
gripper, micro motors, micro positioning system
Optoelectronics: waveguide coupling elements, micro
lens array, bidirectional waveguide micro switch, micro
mirrors, micro display elements, spectrometer and
Infrared sensor arrays.
Passive electronic components: variable capacitors,
High Q inductors, RF switches, antennas, micro strip
line, micro sieves
Applications: Biomedical, informatics, instrumenta-
tion, telecommunication, automotive, military, acoustics,
night vision camera, aerospace, consumer electronics.
Practical training
Every one should get the general practical
experience in the following technologies.
i) Fabrication facilities - like diffusion,
oxidation, metallization and photolithography,
micromachining of silicon, DRIE, micro
fabrication and polymer replication, packaging
and wafer bonding, nano structuring.
ii) Surrounding techniques - using design tools,
reliability and test, but also more economical
aspects.
iii) Applications - what is the need in biomedical,
micro fluidics, micro sensors, biosensors, RF
and imaging devices.
The course should have following main
goals
a) To give the student a deeper insight in modern
silicon based micro-sensor technology (also
including actuators and MEMS sensors) and
the fabrication technology of such sensors
b) To give a general overview of basic,
conventional, principles for measurement of
mechanical and other parameters
c) To provide experience in independently
performing practical measurements on real
devices. Detailed information should also be
given for piezoresistive, piezoelectric,
capacitive, inductive, magnetic, thermal and
closed-loop resonant detection and excitation
IN MEMS 57
principles. Fundamental physical parameters
like Seebeck effect and the piezoresistive
effect in semiconductors and transfer function
of a closed loop accelerometer operating in
a feedback mode should also be included. It
should also include the electronics required
for detecting small and noisy signals from
sensors. Packaging technologies applied to
sensors are also very important. This expertise
will provide deep insight both in MEMS
research and commercial applications of
MEMS-sensors.
d) Experts from industry may be invited to give
some lectures, which focus on specific sensor
applications.
e) The second part of the course involves
project work with groups of three to four
students during five to six weeks (minimum
required work of 60 hours which often
became much more). After the introduction
to the MEMS-field with practical experience
and knowledge of different sensors, each
group should choose a specific problem and
also to make the measurement of its specific
property. Starting with a literature search,
each group can investigate various
principles, sensor concepts and applications
for their chosen problem / sensor type.
Many of these problems are the same as
those faced by the teaching researchers in
their own research.
f) When having achieved a deeper insight in
the problem, the next step for the students is
to fabricate their own micromachined sensors
in their laboratory. The student should be
evaluated on practical part of the course
through a written report and an oral
presentation.
g) During the course student can be deputed
for summer training practical course to some
Industry working in the area of MEMS or to
some well-equipped laboratory. In the last
part of the course he must do a project work
of at least six months duration under the
supervision of some expert of this field. The
students can actively follow the design,
fabrication and evaluation of real MEMS
sensors. During the studies the student can
design and fabricate some devices like
classical piezoresistive bulk-micromachined
sensors: pressure sensors, flow sensors,
accelerometers and gyros. Different
piezoresistor geometries and configurations
58 IETE TECHNICAL REVIEW, Vol 24, No 1, 2007
for each of the five sensor types can be
included on each wafer, giving the students
the flexibility to choose sensors for specific
applications during their sensor evaluation.
FUTURE TRENDS
As micro- and nanotechnology will generate more
and more commercialized products, the need for
continuing education will increase in the coming years.
Technology will continue to develop and the
application fields will become more and more
multidisciplinary. Engineers and scientists will need
to get some understandings in other fields, such as
biology, molecular chemistry and material sciences.
Recent efforts are also to make more learning and
teaching programmes to provide trained manpower
to industries.
REFERENCES
1. Gary K Fedder, ITC International Test Conference,
IEEE Paper, vol 27, no 3 (2003) p 691.
Author
V K Jain, completed his PhD in
Solid State Physics in 1970 from IIT
Delhi. Joined Solid State Physics
Laboratory in 1972. He was Director
grade scientist and head of the silicon
and MEMS device division. He has
developed the technology of space
quality silicon solar cells and also many
other silicon devices. His observation of
the electroluminescence in porous silicon
2. Jain, V K, & Jalwania, C R, Recent Trends in Smart
Technology, Defense Science Journal, vol 48, no 1,
(1998) pp 21-29.
3. Jain V K & Jalwania C R, SPIE, vol 3903, 1999, p 206.
4. Douglas M A, Trench etch process for a single-
wafer RIE dry etch reactor, U.S. Patent, vol 4, 784, p
720, Nov 15,1988.
5. Laermer F & Schilp A, Method for anisotropic
plasma etching of substrates, U.S. Patent 5,498,312,
Nov 15, 1996.
6. McAuley S A, Ashraf H, Atabo L, Chambers A, Hall
S, Hopkins J & Nicholls, G, Phys D: Appl Phys, vol
34, (2001) 2769.
7. Jain V K, Gupta A Kumar, Singhal G K & Vikram
Kumar, Pure Appl Opt, 3 (1994) 225.
8. Jalwania C R, Singh R and, Jain V K, SPIE, vol
3321(2000)274, (II), Jain V K, Jawania R, Swarankar
NK, Singh R, Micro-flow meter integrated with an
optical sensor SPIE 3321 (2000) pp 758-770.
9. Jain V K, Jalwania C R, Development of IR Sensor
using MEMS Tech Int Conf on Smart mater,
Structure and Systems ISSS, 1999 July p 190.
was the first International observation. He has more than 95
publications in National and International journals and edited
two books. He is also associated from the very beginning with
the National Programme on Smart materials and MEMS and
also involved in the development of many MEMS based devices.
He has organized many International and conferences. Presently
he is working as Emeritus Scientist of CSIR.
* * *
 INDIAN NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING

INAE YOUNG ENGINEER AWARD 2007

Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) invites nominations of young engineers from the Academia,
Government, R&D Laboratories, Industry and Defence Services having age not more than 35 years as on 1st
January, 2007 to recognize their outstanding achievements/contributions made to any branch of engineering.
The criteria for the award is Engineering research, excellence in engineering design, technology
development and technology transfer which should have been carried out totally in India. The sponsor must be
a Fellow of INAE or Head of the Organisation/Institution where the nominee is working.
The Award shall consist of a citation, a gold plate silver medallion and Rs. 20,000/- in cash. In addition, the
Awardee will be considered by the Academy for a research support of Rs. one lakh to pursue high quality research
in his/her field of specialization.

The last date of receipt of nominations is May 31, 2007.

INNOVATIVE STUDENTS PROJECTS AWARD 2007

The Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) invites nominations from Heads of Engineering
Institutions at Doctoral, Master’s and Bachelor levels for assessing their innovative potential and intrinsic merit on
two best projects in each of major engineering disciplines as per following eligibility criteria.
(a) B.E./B.Tech projects completed upto June 30 during the academic year 2006-2007
(b) M.E./M.Tech these examined upto June 30, 2007
(c) Ph.D. theses examined and accepted/recommended during the calender year 2006

Degree/Provisional Certificate should accompany the nomination proforma

The award money in each of the three categories will consist of a certificate, a medallion and Rs. 10,000/-

The last date of receipt of nominations is July 15, 2007.

AICTE-INAE DISTINGUISHED VISITING PROFESSORSHIP SCHEME

Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) launched a Distinguished Visiting Professorship (DVP)
Scheme jointly with AICTE during 1999. The Scheme envisages promotion of industry-institute interaction by
facilitating the dissemination of knowledge through the expertise of experienced and knowledgeable persons from
industry to integrate rich industrial experience with technical education. The selection of the Distinguished Visiting
Professors is done by a high level Steering Committee consisting of experts from Academic Institutions, Industry
and representatives from AICTE and CII.
The Scheme has received very enthusiastic response from industry and engineering institutions over the years.
INAE invites nominations from the Industry, DRDO/CSIR R&D Labs and Engineering Institutions/Colleges.
The last date of receipt of nominations is April 30, 2007.

For further details and Academy profile, visit our website (www.inae.org)
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