I: -

r "

RADIOGRAPIDC
TESTING
II
•
r RUANE & T P O'NEILL

Table of Contents
I RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING-OVERVIEW '" I
1.1 Principles I
1.2 Radiographic quality I
1.3 X-radiography versus gamma radiography I
1.4 Capabilities and limitations of radiography I

2 X AND GAMMA RADIATION I

2.1 General
2.2 Properties of x-rays and gamma rays 2
I
...!t
2.3 Measuring radiation 2
2.4 Gamma ray generation 3
2.5 X-ray generation 3
2.6 The x-ray equipment control panel 5
2.6.1 Timer 5
2.6.2 Milliamps (rnA) 5
2.6.3 Kilovoltage (kV) 5
2.7 Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography.......................... 6
2.7.1 Safety 6
2.7.2 Quality of radiographic images. 6
2.7.3 Handling 6
2.7.4Cost 6
2.7.5 Versatility 6

3 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM 7
3.1· The make-up of a radiographic film 7
3.2 Film types 8
3.3 Film speed 8
4 INTENSIFYING SCREENS 9
4.1 Lead screens 9
4.2 Fluorescent (salt) screens 9
4.3 Fluorometallic screens .. 10
4.4 Comparison of intensifying screens 10

5 IMAGE FORMATION II

6 FILM PROCESSING II
6.1 General I1
6.2 Developer I1
6.3 Stopbath :................ 12
6.4 Fixer 12
6.5 Final wash 13
6.6 Wetting agent 13
6.7 Drying the film 13

7 RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY 13
7.1 General 13
7.2 Density 7 14
7.2.1 General ; 14
7.2.2 Measuring density 14
7.2.3 Lack of density-causes 14
7.2.4 Excessive density-causes 15
7.3 Radiographic contrast 15
7.3.1 General 15
7.3.2 Measuring radiographic contrast 16

A:\RTMA5n.DOC e 20 Feb 92
I!
r RUANE .Ii T P O'NEILL
.
•

7.3.3 Insufficient contrast-causes .........•........................................................ 16

7.3.4 Excessive contrast-causes .................................•...................................
7.4 Definition
16
16
..
704.1 General 16
7.4.2 Measuring radiographic definition
7.4.3 Poor definition-causes
16
17 I
•I
704.4 Inherent (fum) unsharpness 17
704.5 Geometric unsharpness 17
7.5 Fog ~.................................... 18
7.5.1 General 18
7.5.2 Causes of fog .......................................................•................................•... 18
7.6 Artifacts .•..... 19
7.6.1 General
7.6.2 Static discharge
7.6.3 Reticulation ...............................................•...........................•....••............
19
19
19
., ,.

7.6.4 Diffraction mottle .............•....................................................................... 19

7.6.5 Causes of other artifaCts 19
7.7 Sensitivity 20
7.7.1 General ...............................................................•..................................... 20
7.7.2 Measuring sensitivity 20
7.7.3 Specific sensitivity terms 21
8 RADIOGRAPmC TECHNIQUES 21
8.1 General 21
8.2 SWSI: source outside, film inside 22
8.3 SWSI: (panoramic) source inside, film outside : 22
8.4 DWSI 22
8.5 DWDI 22
8.6 Sandwich technique 23
8.7 Parallax technique 23
9 DETERMINATION OF EXPOSURE 23 .J
9. I General
9.2 Considerations for exposures
9.2.1 Wavelength of radiation
23
24
24
I
9.2.2 Intensity of radiation and exposure time 24
9.2.3 X-ray equipment 24 .,
9.2.4 Type of flIm 25
9.2.5 Intensifying screens: 25
9.2.6 F.f.dJs.f.d 25
9.2.7 Object being radiographed: . 25
9.2.8 Processing the film: 25
9.3 Ex\X?sure chans 26
904 GUideline exposures using x-rays : 27

APPENDIX A DETERMINATION OF FOCAL SPOT SIZE 28

APPENDIX B SCATTER , 29
APPENDIX C CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF RLMS 30
APPENDIX D DUTIES OF A RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETER 31

APPENDIX E QUALITY ASSURANCE 32

E.I Aim of quality assurance 32
E.2 Benefits of adopting quality assurance 32
E.3 What is quality assurance? ~ 32

.\\RTMAST1.1XJC 020 Fcb92 ii

II
r RUANE &: T P O'NEILL

EA SCOpe of quality assurance 33

E.5 Inspection vs quality assurance 33
E.6 Inspection vs quality control 33
E.? Quality control vs quality assurance 33

A,\R,ThtA5n.DOC e 20 Feb 92 III

r RUANE &. T P O'NEru.
.
•

1 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING-"OVERVIEW
1.1 Principles
Radiographyiscaniedoutusing x-ray machines oranificial gamma sources (radio-isotopes).
X-rays or gamma rays pass through the object to be radiographed and record an image on a
radiographic film on the opposite side. The radiation' reaching the film will be determined
by the objects thickness and density, e.g. lack of root penetration in a weld will increase the
amount of radiation falling on the film in that area due to a reduction in thickness.
It is the wavelength of the radiation which governs its penetrating power; this is governed
by the kilovoltage (kV) I when using x-rays, and isotope type with gamma raysI. The intensity
of the radiation is governed by milli-amperage (mA) when using x-rays, and by the acrivity
of the isotope type with gamma'. "
When the film is processed a negative is produced. The thin areas of an object will be darker
than the thicker areas, therefore most weld defects will show up dark in relation to the
sWTOunding areas, exceptions are excess weld metal, spatter, copper inclusions and tungsten
inclusions.
1.2 Radiographic quality
An overall assessment of radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality indicarors
(lQl's)-these usually consist of seven thin wires decreasing in thickness. They are
pre-placed on the weld being examined and therefore show on the radiographic film. The
more wires visible the better the sensirivity.
The density-degree of blackness-of a radiograph is also measured to ensure it lies within
a specified range for optimum quality.
1.3 X-radiography versus gamma radiography
X-radiography requires bulky and expensive machinery in comparison with gamma
radiography, but x-radiography generally produces better quality radiographs and is safer.
X-ray machines can be switched on and off, unlike gamma sources.
1.4 Capabilities and limitations of radiography
A major advantage of radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced, i.e. the
radiograph.
A major limitation of radiography is that it will only detect defects which have significant
depth in relation to the axis of the x-ray beam', i.e. radiography will not usually detect plate
laminations, lack of inter-run fusion or cracks perpendicular to the x-ray beam.

2 X AND GAMMA RADIATION

2.1 General
Radiation can be either elecrromagneric energy, e.g. heat, visible light, infra-red, ultraviolet,
x-rays, gamma rays; or corpuscular energy (sub-atomic particle energy), e.g. electrons,
alpha, beta, neutrons.

I For x-mdiography 1S0-300 kV is Iypically used on steel weidmenlS up to approximately 40 mm 10UlI

thickness.
2 Coball60 (C060) has a very high peneuating power-very short wavelength-and can be used on malerials
up 10 200 mm thick. Iridium 192 (lrI92) is commonly used on steel weldmcnlS up 10 SO mm thick-Ihis
therefore produces longer wavelength radiation compared 10 Co6O.

I 3 Activily is measured in Curies (Ci) or gigabecqucrels (GBq).

4 As a rough guide: the minimum through thickness depth of a defecl capable of being delCCled is 2% of lhe
wall thickness in the same axis as the x-my beam.

I
r RUANE & T P O'NEIlL i.

Ionising radiation causes. the chargi,!g. of p~c~es. i.e. the fotmation of i~ns. in a medium
such as air or radiographIc film. IOnJsmg radianon may be electromagnenc or corpuscular
energy.
The two types of radiation we are mainly concerned with in industrial radiography are x-rays
and gamma rays'.
I
~
X-rays and gamma rays. like all types of electromagnetic radiation. are emitted in minute
energy packets known as phatons or quanta; x-rays and gamma rays only differ in their
source of production.
2.2 Properties of x-rays and gamma rays
Both x-rays and gamma rays have the following properties:
I
I. They have no effect on the human senses.
2. They have adverse effects on the body tissue and blood.
1
3. They penetrate matter.
4. They move in straight lines.
5. They are pan of the electromagnetic specnurn and therefore travel at the speed of
light - 3 X 108 ms· l • . .
6. They obey the inverse square law.
7. They ionise gases.
8. They may be scattered.
9. They effect photographic emulsion.
10. They make certain materials fluoresce.
11. They may be refracted. diffracted and polarized.

2.3 Measuring radiation

Wavelength
The wavelengtlJ of x-rays and gamma rays is measured in nanometres (nm). Inm = 1O··m,
or angstroms (A). IA =1O. IO m. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation governs its
penetrating power: the shorter the wavelength the greater the penetrating power.
Short wavelength radiation has an adverse affect on final radiographic quality; it also more
dangerous to living matter.
Radiation exposure
The unit of radiation exposure-which is related to the ionisation of air-is the
coulomb/kilogram. The old unit. the roentgen, however is still widely used.
1 roentgen = 2.58 x 10-4 coulomb/kilogram (C/kg).
Absorbed dose
The unit used for measuring how much radiation has been absorbed is the gray. I gray =
1 joule/kilogram (Jlkg), therefore the gray relates to energy acting on matter.
The old unit for absorbed dose-the rad-is still encountered; 100 rads = 1 gray.
Biological effect
The unit used for measuring the biological effect of radiation is the sievert. 1 sievert =
1joule/kilogram (Jlkg). therefore the sievert also relates to energy acting on matter.
The old unit for "'the
" biological effect of radiation-the rem-is still encountered; 100 rems
= I sievert.

1 Other ronns or radiation are also involved in producing an image on radiographic film.

Ii:) 20 Feb 92
2
r
I RUANE & T PO'NEILL

2.4 Gamma ray generation

Gamma rays used in industrial radiography are emitted from anificial radioactive
isotopesl-if a material is radioactive it spontaneously emits corpuscular and
elecb'Omagnetic energy-the gamma radiation is a by-product produced from the
disintegration of the radioactive isotope.
The activity or strength of a radioactive isotope is expressed in curies (ei) or becquerels
(Bq). The higher the activity value. the greater the intensilY of gamma rays produced.
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per second;
3.7 x 1010 becquerels = 1 curie;
therefore: 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second = I curie.
For industrial radiography. it is usually more praclical 10 lalk in lerms of gigabecquerels
(GBq):
Giga= 109
1 gigabecquerel = 109 becquerels
37 gigabecquerels = 1 curie.
Radioactive isolopes are used taking into consideration Iheir half-lives; the half-life of a
radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the activity to drop 10 one-halfofits initial strength.
The activity of a radioactive isotope does not relate [0 the penetrating power of the gamma
rays produced; penetrating power depends on the wavelength of the gamma rays produced
and this depends on the specific radioactiveelement involved. Forexample. cobalt 60 (C060)
has a very high penetrating power-up to 200 mm of steel-because the gamma radiation
emitted has a very shon wavelength.
There are three main radioactive isotopes used for industrial radiography: iridium 192
(lr192). cobalt 60 (C060) and Ytterbium 169 (YbI69).

2.5 X-ray generation

X-rays used in industrial radiography are produced from electrical machines usually referred
to as x-ray sets; the x-rays themselves being produced from within an x-ray rube or insen.
An x-ray tube consists of an evacuated glass bulb. enclosing an anode-the positive
electrode. and a cathode-the negative electrode. The cathode contains a filament within
a curved reflector or focusing cUp.
When the filament is heated to a white hot state by a current flow of a few amperes. elecb'Ons
are emitted and are attracted towards the anode' in a concentraled beam formed by the
focusing cup. The beam strikes a rarget set into the anode which results in the release of
energy; this energy consists of approximately 97 to 99% heat and 1 to 3% x-rays for
conventional x-ray tubes up 10 300 kY.

I A rndioaetive isotope is an unstable state of a chemical elemenl which has a differenl mass 10 the nonnal stale
of Ihe sam~ elemenL
2 The anode is sometimes referred 10 as Ihe anli-calhod~.

T.) 20 Feb 92 3
r RUANE & T P O'NEILL
I

F «using cup VIKUum f GIMs envelope

•. J

-----+--------\::----~--
ft
I '.'

I r"

Because of the high amount of heat energy produced, the anode is made from copper to
conduct the heat away. But, copper has a low melting point, so to prevent the copper melting,
a slip of metal with a high melting point is recessed into the anode at the point which is struck
by the electron beam.
This slip of metal also serves another purpose, because, the higher the atomic number of the
element struck by electrons, the greaterwill be the intensity and energy ofthe x-rays produced.
This slip of metal, or target, is usually made of rungsten because of its high melting point of
3370'C, and its high atomic number of 74.
The area on the target which is struck by the electrons is called the focal spot; this area should
be large enough to avoid local overheating, although from the radiographic image quality
J
point of view, the focal spot should be as small as possible to provide good definition
I I
(sharpness) on the radiograph.
Additional cooling is required to cool the anode; gas, oil or water normally being employed
for this purpose.
The cooling system and the insen are contained together in an earthed, lead lined container,
the complete unit commonly being referred to as the x-ray tubehead. The rubehead is
.,1
controlled from the control panel.

...

a 20 Feb 92
 RUANE & T P O'NEILL

2.6 The x-ray equipment control panel

6 1

To .....bl&'qG6.
4
TImer

)
Itt
~.
W •

The three controls that govern a radiographic exposure using x-rays are the timer, the rnA
control and the kV control.
2.6.1 Timer
The timer is usually calibrated in minutes. The exposure time for an exposure is preset;
when the equipment is activated, the timer counts down from the preset value. The
exposure time will partially govern how much radiation is going to reach the film.

2.6.2 Milliamps (mA)

The rnA controls the intensity or quantity of x-mys. When the rnA is increased. the
current flow through the filament is increased, which causes the filament to get hotter
resulting in an increase in the intensity of electrons released. The greater the intensity
of electrons striking the target, the greater the intensity of the x-mys produced.
The rnA control on conventional x-my equipment may only allow for a maximum of 6
to 12 rnA to be used, the value being measured across the tube. i.e. between the cathode
and the anode. The value required for a specific exposure is usually preset on the panel,
this value is usually at, or close to, the maximum rnA possible with the equipment for
the purpose of minimizing exposure time.

2.6.3 Kilovoltage (kV)

The kV govems the wavelengrh or quality of x-mys produced which pmctically governs
penetrating power. When the kV is increased, the speed of the electron flow from the
cathode to the anode is increased. Therefore, when the electrons strike the target. the
kinetic energy is increased. which results in a reduction of wavelength.
An increase in kV, i.e. a shortening of wavelength, has an adverse affect on the contrast
and definition of a radiographic image. Certain standard specifications, e.g. BS 2910 :
1986: The radiographic examination offusion welded circumferential burrjoints in steel.
state maximum kV values for this reason.

e 20 Fch 92
5
I!
r
RUANE &; T P O'NEILL

The kV meters on the control panels for conventional x-ray equipment arepeakkV values .J
measured across the tube. i.e. between the cathode and the anode. The maximum kV

•I
which can be used is primarily governed by the tubehead; typical maximum values are
200 kV,250 kV and 300 kV. The value required fora specific exposure is usually preset
on the panel.
2.7 Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography
2.7.1 Safety
Using x-ray machines is normally safer than using gamma sources because x-ray.
machines may be switched off like a light bulb. whereas there is a constant emission of
radiation with a gamma source. Gamma sources must always be returned to their shielding I
containers when not in use.
2.7.2 Quality of radiographic images
Assuming variables such as test material thickness, film type etc. remains constant. x-rays
produced by conventional x-ray equipment. say up to 300 kV, produce better quality
radiographic images than 1r192 or Co6O isotopes, because these x-rays have longer
wavelengths than the gamma sources.
Ytterbium 169 (Yb169) may produce radiographs comparable to those produced by using
x-rays.
2.7.3 Handling
Gamma sources are easier to handle in comparison with bulky and fragile x-ray
equipment. The size also allows for gamma sources to be used in difficult and inaccessible
areas for x-ray machines, e.g. on pipe racks.

2.7.4 Cost
Gamma sources and containers are much cheaper than x-ray equipment.
J
2.7.5 Versatility
I
The intensity and wavelengths of x-rays can be adjusted from the x-ray control panel.
The intensity and wavelengths of gamma radiation cannot be adjusted, although the
intensity (activity) reduces with time-see half-lives.
Certain gamma sources have a very high penetrating power which enables them to be
used on very thick material. e.g. 150 mm steel. Most conventional x-ray machines will
not penetrate more than 50 mm of steel although there are huge x-ray machines, e.g. the
.,
linear acceleraror and the berarron which can produce radiation of a wavelength which
can penetrate as much as. and usually more than, gamma radiation.

!
!
!
I
i) 20 Fch en
6 \
 r RUANE & T P O'NEILL

3 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
3.1 The make-up ora radiographic film
Radiographic film is uSually made up ofseven layer.;: a central base layer and three coatings
on either side consisting of a subbing layer; emulsion and supercoat.

E_ _
S",.rcOlll

S~j,qo, e
,~

B_
;.
E_ _
S~",,.r

S.,...- .'.
) Base
The physical characteristics of emulsion do not allow it to be used by itself without suppon,
therefore it is applied to a substrate known as the base. The base must be transparent·,
chemically inert and must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction. Glass is an ideal
substrate to meet these requirements, butfor applications where the objects to be radiographed
are curved, e.g. on pipes, it is necessary for a flexible base to be used. Polyester and cellulose
uiacetate, although not quite as stable as glass, are widely employed for such applications.
Subbing layer (substratum)
The subbing layers adhere the emulsion to the base; the material employed for this is gelatine
plus a base solvenL
Emulsion ,
The layer.; of primary importance are the two emulsion layers. These layers consist of
millions ofsilver halide crystals-usually silver bromide; the sizes of the crystals are usually
between 0.1 and 1.0 micrometreS (J.UIl) and are suspended in a gelatine binding medium.
Film emulsion is produced by mixing solutions of silver nitrate and salts, such as potaSsium
bromide, with a solution of gelatine. The rate and temperature of mixing governs the grain
size; rapid mixing at low temperature produces the finest grain structure, whereas slow
mixing at high temperature produces emulsions with larger grains. When large grain
structures are required, to produce a fast emulsion, some silver iodide is usually included in
the formula.
The sizes of these crystals and the disuibution, effect the final radiographic
quality/appeamnce;:thelarger the crystal size the greater the sensitivity to radiation. Various
shapes of crystals exist, but these shapes have virtually no effect on the final image.
The reason for two layers of emulsion is to give a faster film speed, i.e. the radiographs can
be produced quicker, and higher radiographic contrast.
Supercool (anli-abrasion layer)
Radiographic c;:rinJlsion is susceptible to mechanical and chemical damage, so to prevent, or
al least reduce this, the emulsio,n is coated with a layer of hardened gelatine.
Although the supercoat offers some protection against chemical attack, e.g. oil from the skin
during handling, it must allow for chemical reactions to take place in the processing tanks.

1 In practice lhe base will not be t013l1y transparent and lhercforc will possess some photographic density.

e ~O Feb 92 7
r RUANE &. T P O'NEn.L
1
•
3.2 Film types
Radiographic film may be graded in tenns of grain size or speed.: J
• Ultra fine grain-exceptional radiographic quality but very slow speed.
•
•
Fine grain-slow speed.
Medium grain-medium speed.
I
•I
• Coarse grain-poor radiographic quality but fast speed.
Radiographic films are also divided into two types: direct-type or salt screen type.
Direct-type films are intended for direct exposure to gamma or x~rays or for exposure using
lead intensifying screens. Some of these fl1ms may be suitable for use with f1uorometallic ,',
or salt (fluorescent) intensifying screens. i
Salt screen type films are designed to be used exclusively with salt (fluorescent) intensifying r
screens. They are able to produce radiographs with minimum exposure and are widely used
in medical radiography. l,
3.3 Film speed
A film factor is a number which relates to the speed of a particular filin and is obtained from
a films characteristic curve; see Appendix C.
The SCRATA scale is a scale often used for film factors; the smaller the film factor the faster
the film. Film manufacturers may have their own scale which may work in the same or
opposite way to the SCRATA scale.
Example to the SCRATA scale:
A film with a factor of 10 will be twice as fast compared to a film with a factor of 20.
This means to say of the film with a factor of 20 took fOUT minutes to expose. then the
film with a factor of 10 will require two minutes to give the same density.
Types of film with their corresponding SCRATA film factors:

Manufacturer Name Speed Grain Film Factor J

AgfaGevaen Fast
I
.,
RCF Coarse
Dupont NDT91 Fast Coarse

Dupont NDT75 Medium Fine 20

Kodak CX Medium Fine 25
Kodak AX Medium Fine 30
AgfaGevaen D7 Medium Fine 35

Dupont NDT55 Slow Very fine 80

AgfaGevaen D4 Slow Veryfme 95
Kodak MX Slow Veryfme 120

AgfaGevaen D2 Very slow Ultra fine 200

>

I The Ienninology used for grain size and speed can be misleading. The terms used are usually relative. e.g. a
fine grain film may be considered to be fast or slow depending on what it is being compared againsL
I
Q ~o Feb 92 8
\
 r
I RUANE & T P O'NEILL

4 INTENSIFYING SCREENS
4.1 General
A radiographic film is normally sandwiched between two intensifying screens when exposed
to x-rays or gamma rays. Intensifying screens have an extra photographic effect on the
emulsion thereby reducing the exposure needed to attain the required density.
There are three main types of intensifying screens:
I. Lead screens'. Y.
','
2. Auorescent (salt) screens.
3. Auorometallic screens.
Close contact between screens and film is essential in order to obtain sharp images. Screens
must be kept free from dust and scratches. if this is not done they may be seen on the
radiographic image-especially in the case of fluorometallic and fluorescent screens.

4.2 Lead screens

Lead screens consist of a thin lead foil of uniform thickness, usual1y stuck onto a thin base
) card in the case of reusable screens. or stuck onto a thin sheet of paper when used with
pre-packed film.
Lead screens intensify the image by emitting beta radiation (electrons) when struck by x-rays
or gamma rays of sufficient energy. The intensification action is only achieved with x-rays
above approximately 120 kV and gamma rays above similar energy levels.
Lead screens will also improve the radiographic image by partial1y filtering out scatter
radiation'.
Two lead screens are used; the thickness ofthe front screen must be matched to the wavelength
of radiation being used, SO that it wil1 pass the primary radiation while stopping as much of
the secondary radiation as possible.
The screens are usual1y between 0.02 rom and 0.15 mm thick and are commonly both the
same thickness, e.g. 0.125 rom; this avoids the problem of accidently loading a cassette with
the screens the wrong way round!
The rear screen cuts down the effect of back scattered radiation.
Lead screens are pliable and should be handled with care if buckling is to be avoided. If the
lead screens are to be used more than once. e.g. in cassettes as opposed to roll jilm or
pre-packedjilm, they become dusty and should be frequently dusted with a fine brush. If
screens become too dirty or splashed with liquid. they may be cleaned with cotton wool
damped with a weak detergent solution. When the screens become too scratched or dirty
causing the radiographic quality to be impaired. they should be replaced by new screens.
4.3 Fluorescent (salt) screens
Fluorescent screens are made up from micro crystals of a suitable metallic salt, usual1y
calcium tungstate. applied to a supporting thin base card.
These screens, when subjected to x-rays or gamma rays, e\TIit light radiation to which the
film is sensitive. This light radiation is in direct proportion to the received radiation and
results in a large increase of effective radiation.
...

I Othcr metallic screens exist for less common applications.

2 Scatter radiation has a longer wavelength than the primary beam from which it is derived and is thereforc less
penctrating: sec also Appendix B.

~ 1 Apr 92 9
I:
I RUANE &: T P O'NEILL '.
There are two types of fluorescent screen:
j
I.
High definition (fine grain) screens
2.
High speed or rapid screens
The intensification action of high speed screens is at least twice that of the high definition
screens.
I
A radiograph obtained using fluorescent screens will ,have lower definition compared to a
radiograph taken using lead screens or no screens, and the image produced has a grainy
appearance due 10 Ihe screens salt grains.
Because of the resulting loss of image quality, fluorescent screens are only used where
essential. to avoid excessively long exposure times, e.g. on thick walled specimens. .
•I
4.4 Fluorometallic screens
Fluoromelallic screens are a combination of a salt screen and a lead screen; they are made
up of from a base card, a lead layer, a salt layer (calcium tungslate) and a thin protective
layer.
There is more than one Iype of f1uoromelallic screen:
Type I-for x-rays up to 300 kY.
Type 2-for x-rays 300-1000 kY, Ir 192.
Type 3-for Co60.
Providing Ihe correCI type of f1uorometallic screen and film are used with the range of
radiation being used. subslanlial reductions in exposure time or kY can be achieved. Because
the lead layer will partially filter out scatter radiation, the image produced on the radiograph
will be better than one obtained using fluorescent screens. but the image will still retain a
grainy appearance due to the salt crystals.
These screens are nOI commonly used due to high cost. Their application is similar to those
applications where fluorescent screens may be used, i.e. on thick walled specimens.

45 Comparison of intensifying screens J

I
Lead
Screen type Order
of image
quality

I
Order
of speed

3
Intensification
, factor l

2-3
How intensification
is achieved

Bela particles and

characteristic x-rays
.,
Fluorescenl 4 I 8-15 Light radiation

Fluoromelallic 3 2 5-10 Light radiation

None 2 4 N/A N/A

t The intensification faclOr relates to lhe reduction in exposure time. e.g. an intensification faclOr of 3 will
reduce exposure from say six minutes to two minutes.

~) I.Arr 92 10
I!
r RUANE & TPO'NEn.L

5 IMAGE FORMATION
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially absorbed depending upon the
thickness and any differing material densities. The radiation finally emerging at the film side
of the object will largely detennine the final characteristics of the radiograph.
The ponionsofradiographic falm which receive sufficientquantities ofactinic radiation I undergo
minute changes. These changes are so small they are invisible to the naked eye and also invisible
when using conventional microscopes; this hidden image is known as the larem image. The
latent image can be defmed as the hidden image on a radiographic film after exposure to actinic
radiation but before developmenL .
Therefore, radiation alone does not convert a radiographic film into a visible readable image.
The sequence of processes to attain a radiographic image are as follows:
1. The silver halide.crystals·which have absorbed a sufficient quantity of radiation are
partially converted into.metallic silver-this is the latent image.
2. The affected crystals are then essentially amplified by the developer; the developer .'

completely converts the affected crystals into metallic silver.

3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixarion; the fixer removes the unexposed
and therefore undeveloped crystals.

6 FILM PROCESSING
6.1 General
Film processing may be carried out manually or by using automatic film processors.
Manual falm processing takes place in a darkroom under the illumination of sajelighzs which
usually consist of ordinary light bulbs behind orange filters. Other colours for filters exist,
but the colour chosen must emit light of a wavelength which does not detrimentally affect
the emulsion.
The darkroom should preferably be divided into twO sides, a dry side for loading and
unloading of cassettes and a wet side for processing; this is SO the films are not splashed
prior to developmenL The wet side of the darkroom will usually have five tanks arranged
in the following sequence:
L Developer tank.
2. Stopbath or rinse tank.
3. FIXer tank.
4. Fmal wash tank.
5. Wetting agent tank.
When the exposed film has been unloaded from its cassette, it is placed into aframe, or spiral
if its a long film, and placed into the developer.

6.2 Developer
Developer is usually supplied as a liquid concentrate and is to be diluted with water at a ratio
governed by the manufacturers instructions, e.g. 1 part developer to 4 parts water.
DevelOPEr temperature'should be in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations
or specification,1JUt is typically 2O·±1·C. Development time is again dependant upon the
manufacturers recommendations or specification; for manual processing developing time is
typically between four and five minutes. The time should be taken from when the film hilS
the developer with a suitable darkroom timer. Once the film is in the developer it is agitated
for approximately 20 seconds and then agitated approximately every 45 seconds thereafter.
Agitation allows for fresh developer to flow over the film and prevents the possibility of

I Actinic radiation, in this context, is thai which will affect the film emulsion, i.e. fonn a Iatenl image.

, 1
II
-.
RUANE & TPO'NEIU.

bromide streaking; agitation also cuts down development time. The frames or spirals should
_J
be tapped against the tanks to prevents any air bubbles settling on the film which can cause
light spots on the finished radiograph.
Developer is made up as follows:

Constituents Action Chemicals in common

use
I
I
-
Developing
agent(s)
Reduces the exposed silver halide
grains to metallic silver.
Metol
Hydroquinone.
Phenidone.
I ;-1

-"'
Accelerator A chemical which gives an alkaline Borax.
reaction which speeds up Sodium carbonate.
developmenL Sodium hydroxide.
Preservative Prevents oxidation of the developer. Sodium sulphate.

Restrainer Controls the level of development Potassium bromide.

fogging.
-
Sequestering Prevents the foIlIllltion of scale. Sodium
agent hexametaphosphate.

Replenishment
The activity of the developer gradually decreases with use and age. Replenishment ensures
that the activity of the developer and the developing time required remains constant
throughout the useful life of the developer. WhetJ approximately I m2 of f1lm has been
developed, about 400 ml (2 cups) of replenisher -needs to be added. After continuous
replenishment the quality of the image will be affected and the developer will have to be
J
changed. A common guide for the remixing time is when the replenisher added exceeds
twice the volume of the original developer.

6.3 Stopbath
The stopbath may be:
• An acid stopbath.
.,
I

• A water spray rinse.

• A fresh water tank.
The most efficient type of stopbath is an acid stopbath which is typically made up of
2% glacial acetic acid in water. This st0ps the reaction of the developer. due to the developer
being an alkali and the stopbath an acid. -
Films should be placed and agitated in the stopbath/rinse tank for at least 10 seconds; if this
is not done properly, the fixer will soon become neuttalised.
...
6.4 Fixer
Fixer is supplied as a liquid concentrate and is to be diluted with water, usually at a ratio of
I part fixer to 3 or 4 parts water (follow manufacturers instructions); a hardening agent is
also added.
Fixation is the process which removes the undeveloped silver halide crystals andfixes the
remaining developed crystals, thereby producing radiographs of a diagnostic (readable)
quality.

e 20 Feb 92 12
II
RUANE & T P O'NEn.L

The futer contains chemicals. e.g. ammonium or sodium thiosulphate, which conven the
unwanted unexposed, and therefore undeveloped, halides into water soluble compounds;
they are then readily dissolved or removed at the final wash stage.
The films must be agitated in the fixer. failing to do so may result in light spots on the film.
The fIXing time is twice the time it takes for tb,e image to clear, e.g. if the milky image
disappears in 3 minutes, after looking under the illumination of the safe lights. the films are
returned to the fixing tank for another 3 minutes. i.e. total fixing time 6 minutes. When the
fixer becomes exhausted-guideline: when the fixing time is over 10 minutes-the fixer
should be replaced; fixers are not usually replenished. Theexhausted fixer is retained because
silver may be reclaimed via electrolysis methods.

6.5 Final wash

Films should be washed preferably in a tank with constant running water. for at least
20 minutes. This removes any soluble silver compounds left behind in the emulsion after
fIXing and removes the fixer which is an acid. Yellow fog appears on films which have not
been sufficiently washed.
, 6.6 Wetting agent
Wetting agent reduces the surface tension of the water and results in even drying ofthe film;
this prevents black spots or streaks. Wetting agents are supplied as a liquid concentrate and
is to be diluted with water at a ratio of approximately 1 pan wetting agent to 4000 pans of
water.
Films are only dipped in and out of the wetting agent.

6.7 Drying the film

Initially excess water is removed from the ftlms with a squeegee and then placed in either a
drying cabinet, other specially designed drying apparatus or a dust free drying room. Care
must be taken not to allow drops of water to fall onto the drying films, as this will cause
black marks.
The drying time will depend on the temperature, air circulation and the relative humidity of
the warm air. Typical drying times are 15 minutes in a drying cabinet. 45 minutes in adrying
room.·
7 RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
7.1 General
Radiographic quality can be discussed using three main terms:
1. Density-The density of a radiograph relates its degree of blackness.
2. Contrast-Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference between density
fields on a radiograph. .
3. Definition-Radiographic definition is the degree of sharpness at the boundaries
of density fields.
A founh term widely used is sensitivity. Sensitivity is a term used to give an indication of
overall radiographic quality.
There are two qualities of a radiograph usually measured: density and sensitivity. Density
is measured using a densitometer and sensitivity is measured using an image quality indicaror
(l.QJ.).
Sensitivity measurements give an overall guide as to the radiographic technique's ability 10
detect fine defects. Sensitivity is affected directly by the contrast and definition, i.e. if either
of these qualities are lacking then the sensitivity is lacking.
II
RUANE & T P O'NEILL

7.2 Density
7.2.1 General
The density of a radiograph relates its degree of blackness.
A high density or dark area absorbs more light than a low density or light area. The
greater the amount of black metallic silver grains present in an area on a radiograph. the
more light is absorbed and the denser the area appears.
More radiation passes through the thinner sections of a specimen. e.g. areas where crac~
. or lack of fusion are present, therefore these areas will eventually show up on the
radiograph as dense areas.
7.2.2 Measuring density
Density on a processed radiograph is measured using an instrumentcalled a densitometer,
this compares the incident light with the transmitted light and expresses the result as a
logarithmic ratio. incident light is light from the viewer; transmitted light is light
transmitted through a film when the film is on the viewer\.
incident light
Density = Log\. transmitted light
If the incident light was 316 times greater than the transmi~ted light:
316
Density =Log,. 1

Density =Log\. 316

Density = 2.5 J
Note: If the transmitted light was 1110th of incident light D = 1.0. if it was III QOth
D = 2.0, 1/IOOOth D =3.0 etc..
Before use. densitometers should be calibrated using a calibrated density strip-a strip
I
~
of film containing known densities-on the same viewer which is to be used for
interpreting the radiograph.
The minimum density. in the area of interest, i.e. the weld, required by specifications is
typically betweenLS and 2.5: However. this is not always practical to determine when
the area of interest has many thickness changes and therefore density changes-as is the
case with certain types of m.m.a. welds. In this situation the specification may specify
that the density-is to be measured immediately adjacent to the weld reinforcement
The maximum density stated in a specification will typically be 3.0 or 3.5.

7.2.3 Lack of density-causes

• Under exposure to radiation.
• Insufficient development time.
• Developer temperature too low.
• Exhausted developer.
• Incorrect developer.
• Solution of developer too weak.

I The viewer mUSI be capable of white Iighl intensities suilable for viewing radiographs up 10 !he maximum
perm issible densilies.

Iii
II
RUANE & T P O'NEILL

7.2.4 Excessive density-causes

• Over exposure to radiation.
• Excessive development time.
• Developer temperature tOO high.
• Incorrect developer.
• Solution of developer too strong.

7.3 Radiographic contrast

7.3.1 General
Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference between density fields on a
radiograph.
When a radiograph contains only blacks and whites and no intermediate.tones the contrast
is high; when only tones ofa similardensity exist the contrast is low; the optimum contrast
may lie between these twO extremes, it depends on the aim of the radiographic technique.
If an application specification is not permitting any detected defects in the weld
whatsoever, then the contrast should ideally be as high as possible, Le. high contrast is
ideal for detecting defects.
If however, an application specification permitted certain defects, depending on the
defects through thickness dimensions, as well as length and/or width, then it would be
necessary to have a range of tones on the radiographs' so that the through thickness depth
of the defects and the height of weld reinforcements can be assessed.
Therefore, to gain more information about the through thickness dimensions of any
defects and the weld itself. we need to have intermediate tones, i.e. greys in addition to
black and whites.
Note: We are assuming that there are thickness changes or material density changes
present in order to give us density changes.
The following chart shows the criteria which affect radiographic contrast:

1 If a radiograph shows a wide range or lones il is said to have wide latitude.

IS
 •
RUANE &. T P O·NED..L
.'

7.3.2 Measuring radiographic contrast

Radiographic contrast is not usually measured exclusively; it is nonnally assessed
subjectively. but could be measured by the use of a step wedge type I.Q.I..
A wire type I.Q.I.-used to measure sensitivity-primarily gives infonnation about the
I ,
radiographic contrast. but the degree of definition also governs the result.

7.3.3 Insufficient contrast-causes

• Radiation wavelength tOO shon. i.e. kV/penetrating power too high.
I
• Over exposure to radiation. compensated for by shonened development time.
•
•
Prolonged development in too cold a developer or exhausted developer.
Unsuitable or wrongly mixed developer.
I
,
• Insufficient fixation.
• Fog; see also Section 7.5.
7.3.4 Excessive contrast-causes
• Radiation wavelengh too long-kV/penetrating power too low.
• Incorrect developer.
• Wrongly mixed developer.
• Under exposure. compensated for by a prolonged developer.

7.4 Definition
7.4.1 General
Radiographic definition is the degree ofsharpness at the boundariesofdensity fields.
There are many factors that govern the final definition on a radiograph. including the
geometry of the set-up during exposure and the film type used. Perfect definition can
never be obtained due to the existence of penumbra and the films inherenr unsharpness.

7.4.2 Measuring radiographic definition J

Radiographic definition is not usually measured exclusively; it is normally assessed
subjectively. but could be measured by the use of a duplex type I.Q.I..
A duplex type I.Q.1. is a type m I.Q.1. to BS 3971-1mage quality indicators, also
referred to as a CERL type B. It consists of pairs of parallel platinum or tungsten wires
I
of decreasing thickness. the thickness of the pairs usually being the same as the gap ...
between them. If a pair of parallel wires blend into one on the radiographic image it will . ,
be due to the poor definition. The largest pair of wires. the image of which has just
merged from that of two separate wires into the single fonn. is taken as the criterion of
discemability. The total image unsharpness. U, is given by:
U,(mm)=d+a

where:
d is the width of the wire
a is the spacing between the two wires
...
Note: Type III I.Q.l.s are placed in the centre of the film adjacent to the weld.

'('l '~() Fco tl2 16

II
I RUANE &; T P O'NEILL

7.4.3 Poor definition-causes

• Object to film distance (o.f.d.) too great
• Radiation source to film distance too shon.
• Dimensions of focal spot or gamma source tOO large.
• KV too high.
• Vibration/movement during exposure.
• Poor contact between film and screens.
• Salt screens.
• Coarse grained film.
• Fog; see also Section 7.5.
7.4.4 Inherent (film) unsharpness
Inherent unsharpness is the unsharpness on a radiograph caused by stray electrons
transmined from exposed crystals which have affected adjacent crystals. Inherent
unsharpness always exists. its magnitude depending on grain size, grain distribution and
radiation energy used; it increases with a reduction in wavelength.

7.4.5 Geometric unsharpness

Geometric unsharpness or penumbra is the unsharpness on a radiograph caused by the
geometry of the radiation beam in relation to the object being radiographed and the film.
Penumbra always exists and borders all density fields.
The dimensions of the focal spot or gamma source. object to film distance (o.f.d.) and
focal spot to film distance (f.f.d.)' all affect penumbra.
To minimise penumbra we must adhere to the following conditions:
• The source or focal spot should be as small as possible.
• O.f.d. should be as small as possible.
• F.f.d./s.f.d. should be as long as practicable.

1 Source 10 film distance (s.f.d.) if using gamma radialion.

'el20 Feh l.J2

17
II
I RUANE & T P O'NEILL

Penumbra size can be calculated by the following fonnula:

)

Penumbra =si::.ze::...=:of!-=..:so:..:ur~ce=--:-x..:.o-".f,-:d::..:.
:.:
!J.d. -o.f.d.
The maximum penumbra allowed on radiographs is specified in eenain standards. In I
contractual situations where the standards do not quote maximum penumbra values, they
may be agreed with the client; a maximum penumbra of 0.25 rom is often used.
The as 2910 does not quote a maximum penumbra value. but recommends that the
I 'l,
.,I
penumbra levels do not exceed the maximum levels specified for inherent unsharpness.
"
The minimum f.f.d/s.f.d. charts in as 2910 are primarily based on penumbra
considerations. i.e. if these charts are being adhered to the penumbra is considered to be I 'f
acceptable. ,
7.5 Fog
7.s.1 General
Fog is unwanted density on a radiograph and may be sub-divided into the following
terms:
o Grey fog-often simply termed fog.
o Yellow fog.
o Dichroic fog-greenish colour by reflected light, pink via transmitted light.
o Mottled fog.

7.5.2 Causes of fog

7.5.2.1 Grey fog
o Accidental exposure to actinic radiation-light, x-rays, gamma rays. When fog
is caused by light leaks. e.g. because of a faulty cassette, it is ofen termed light
fog.
o Scatter.
o Unsuitable darkroom lighting, e.g. wrong safelights, white light entering
darkroom.
o Bad film storage.

7.s.2.2 Yellow fog

o Insufficient final wash.
o Exhausted fixer.
o Prolonged development in badly oxidized developer.

7.5.2.3 Dichroic fog

o Prolonged development in exhausted developing bath.
o Film stuck to another film in fIXer.
o Developing tank contaminated with fixer..

7.5.2.4 Mottled fog

o Film badly stored, e.g. in damp surroundings.
Film out of date.

"1."120 Feb Q2 18
II
I" RUANE & T P O'NEILL

7.6 Artifacts
7.6.1 General
An artifact is a spurious indication on the radiographic image, e.g. a fault in or on the
film usually caused by mishandling or incorrect developing. An artifact may appear to
be a defect in the weld or parent material; an artifact may also mask a fault in the weld.
therefore, it is essential that artifacts should be avoided.

7.6.2 Static discharge

Static discharge marks may occur when the film is pulled quickly from between the
intensifying screens in a dry atmosphere. The appearance on the radiograph is usually
lightning like, but it may also be mottled.

7.6.3 Reticulation
Reticulation is a net like structure appearing in the emulsion due to rupture caused by ;'
excessive temperature differences between the processing tanks. It is a rare artifact
nowadays to to the flexible/plastic nature of modem day emulsions.

7.6.4 Diffraction mottle

Diffraction mottle may occur in a weld area on a radiographic image because of the grain
structure and grain orientation of certain materials matching the wavelength of the
radiation in a certain way. Austenitic stainless steels and aluminium welds are particularly
susceptable.
Diffraction mottle has the appearance of fine porosity throughout the weld area. It mar
be reduced or eliminated by changing the wavelength of radiation. i.e. increasing kV ,
or by changing the radiation angle by approximately 5'.

7.6.5 Causes of other artifacts

7.6.5.1 Light patches
Film was not agitated/tapped during development or fixation.
• Film insufficiently rinsed after development.
• Drops of fixer fell onto fUm prior to development.
• Mechanical damage to emulsion.
• Impurities between screen and film.

7.6.5.2 Dark patches.·lines or streaks

• Drops of developer fallen onto film prior to development.
• Drops of water fallen onto fllm prior to development.
• Mecbanical damage to emulsion after exposure.
• Slow and uneven drying of film, i.e. when there are still droplets of water on the
film.
• Uneven drying.
• Scratches on lead screens.
• Bending offilm afterexposun: (usually between two fingers causes dark crescent
shaped marks).
...
7.6.5.3 Whitish deposit
• Water used to make up processing solutions tOO hard.

I Diffraction moLlie oflen increases with a reduction in I:V!

10 20 F('b 92
19
II
.
•
I RUANE & T P O'NEILL

7.7 Sensitivity
j
7.7.1 General

•
The tenn sensitivity, when used in its general sense, is an overall assessment of quality
which relates to the radiographic technique's ability to detect fine defects on a
radiograph.
The sensitivity associated with a radiograph is directly affected by the radiographic
contrast and definition. therefore all those factors which affect contrast and definition
will also affect the sensitivity.

7.7.2 Measuring sensitivity

Sensitivity is measured by the use of image quality indicators (I.Ql.s), also known as a
•I
penetrameters. There are various types of I.Q.L; the type commonly used consists of
seven thin wires within a plastic .packaging. The wires are placed rransversely across
the weld area beingexamined duringexposure; The sensitivity on the resuhant radiograph
is then given a numerical value by dividing the thickness of the smallest wire visible on
the radiograph by the thickness of the specimen in the area being examined; this is then
multiplied by 100 in order to express the result as a percentage of the specimen thickness'.
•• • 111 _ thickness of thinnest wire visible x 100 .
Sensmvlty -10 - hi Icne .~ .
t c ss OJ specimen
The lower the figure obtained, the higher the sensitivity. It must be noted however, that
the obtained l.Q.I. sensitivity value does not directly relate to the minimum thickness
change or defect size detectable by the radiographic technique used
BS 397 I-Image quality indicators is a standard which specifies three types of I.Q.I.:
Type 1 -wire type.
Type II -step wedge/hole type.
Type III -duplex wire type for exclusively measuring definition; see Section
7.4.2.
Step wedge/hole type I.Q.I.s are placed adjacent to the weld in the cenrre of the film.
J
The sensitivity is assessed in the same way as for wire types except you use the hole
diameter instead of a wire thickness.
With the exception ofduplex wires. LQ.Ls are made of the same material2 as the specimen
I
~
being examined and are available in a variety of thickness ranges.
Technically,.the bestposition to ,place an I.Q.I. is on the source side of the specimen, but
for practical reasons I.QJ.(s) are often placed on the film side, Le. between the film and
the specimen. It may also be stated that they must be positioned in the area where the
worst sensitivity is expected. A specification relating to radiographic testing large
diameter pipe welds may state:
"For a panoramic exposure at least one I.Q.I. must be present', placed at the 6 o'clock
position". Reason: because this area is more susceptible to back scatter from the
ground.

1 Sometimes the minimum nwnbet of wires which have 10 be visible on the radiogrnph is specified instead.
2 Although it is desirable for the IQI and the specimen 10 be of the same material, it is not always possible or
practicable to accomplish due 10 lack of availability. For leSt specimens made from alloyed elements, the IQl
material chosen should have similar radiation absorptionllransmission properties 10 the leSt specimen.
3 BS 2910 calls for four IQl's placed at the 3, 6, 9, and 12 o'clock positions.

I
20
\
 ".'-

•
RUANE & TPO'NEILL

"For a multiple exposure technique two I.Q.Ls must be used, one at each end of the
film within 25 mmofthediagnostic film length, with the thinnest wire facing towards
the outside". Reason: the outside/end of a film on a multiple exposure shot is the
least sensitive area due to fade off.

7.7.3 Specific sensitivity terrns

There are many specific terms relating to sensitivity which may be encountered; the
following terms are in accordance with BS 3683-Terms used in non-destructive
tesring : Pan 3-Radiological flaw detection:
Contrast sensitivity
The density difference on a radiograph after processing, produced by a small change
in specimen thickness.
Note: It is usually expressed as a percentage of the total specimen thickness.
Defect detection sensitivity
In a radiograph. the minimum dimension of a specified defect that can be discerned,
measured in the direction of the primaJY radiation beam and usually expressed as a
percentage of the specimen thickness.
Flaw sensitivity
The minimum flaw size detectable under specified conditions usually expressed as
a percentage of the specimen thickness. (See also defect detection sensitiviry).
Image quality indicator sensitivity
The dimension in the direction of the radiation of the thinnest step-with-hole or wire
that can be clearly identified. expressed as a percentage of the thickness of the
material under examination.
Note: The duplex-wire image quality indicator is based on a different principle and
gives a measure of unsharpness only.
Thickness sensitivity
The smallest change in thickness which can be detected by radiography, usually
expressed as a percentage of the specimen thickness.

8 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
8.1 General
Radiographic techniques for welds on steel are listed in BS 2910-Radiographic
examinarion of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel and
BS 2600-Radiographic examination offusion welded burt joints in steel.
The radiographic examination of a plate weld would result in a single wall. single image
technique being used; however. there are essentially four ways to radiograph a girth/pipe
weld: .
1. Single wall. single image (SWSI)-film inside, source outside.
2. Single wall. single image (SWSI)-film outside, source inside (internal exposure.
usually full panoramic).
3. Douj>lo wall. single image (DWSI)-film outside. source outside (external
exposure).
4. Double wall. double image (DWDI)-film outside. source outside (elliptical
exposure).

~ I "." WI .21
II
r RUANE &. T P O'NEILL
, .

The panoramic technique is usually the preferred technique if the equipment is available.
access pennits and the minimum f.f.d. requirements are meL This is due to the fact that the .J
entire weld can be examined in one exposure. and good sensitivity can be achieved because
of a lower level of scatter and kV in comparison with a double walled exposure.

8.2 SWSI: source outside, film inside

For standard exposures, the radiation beam is positioned at normal incidence to the weld
face and film passing through the centre of the weld.
This technique is primarily intended for 100 mm diameter pipe welds and abOve, where
access to the internal weld area permits. The main disadvantages of this technique are the
number of exposures required due to a large amount of fade off, and the practical aspects of
positioning the radiation source at sufficient f.f.d. when dealing with fabrications in siru. It
is a technique more suited to large diameter pipes, vessels and tanks where the curvature is ...
closer to a flat.plate and .therefore has a reduced effect on the amount of fade off.
The required minimum number of exposures to cover the full circumference of the weld
depends on the wall thickness, pipe diameter and f.f.dJs.f.d.; see table in BS 2910.

8.3 SWSI: (panoramic) source inside. film outside

For standard exposures, the radiation beam is positioned at normal· incidence to the weld
face and film passing through the centre of the weld, with equal f.f.dJs.f.d. around the
circumference. This technique cannot be used if the minimum f.f.dJs.f.d. requirements
cannot be met.

8.4 DWSI
This technique is commonly applied to all welds where the use of a panoramic technique is
not possible or practicable, e.g. on small diameter pipe welds.
For standard exposures on any diameter of pipe weld, the radiation beam is positioned at
approximately 85" to the weld face and film. With this technique the radiation beam cannot
be positioned at normal incidence to the weld portion being examined because the weld on
the radiation source side will superimpose over the film side weld resulting in a reshoorable
J
radiograph. This problem mainly applies when using x-ray lUbeS; the x-ray lUbe must be
I
.,
moved approximately 60 mm to the side of the weld, so the central line of the x-ray beam
shoots past the tube side weld resulting in a diagnostic image of the film side weld. Care
must also be taken to ensure that the number tape on the source side does not interfere with
the image, Le. shoot through from the opposite side of the weld to that which the. number
tape is positioned.
The required minimum number of exposures to cover the full circumference of the weld
depends on the wall thickness, pipe diameter and f.f.d.; see table in BS 2910.

8.5 DWDl
This technique is only applied to welds on pipe or fittings 90 mm diameter or below.
The· film cassettes are not bent around the pipe circumference unlike with the other
techniques; flat cassettes are used which are usually offset to the weld to recotd an elliptical
image, purposely produced by offsetting the focal spot at least one fifth of the f.f.d.. From
the elliptical [mage of the weld, the tube side weld is interpreted as well as the film side
weld.
A minimum of three exposures are usually required, offset by lZO" to each other; this results
in a total ofsix interpretable areas on the radiograph which should cover the full circumference
of the weld.
Note: On small bore pipework, it is sometimes permitted by specification or client for the
radiation to pass through the centre of the weld at normal incidence to the pipe; this will
produce a radiograph with the tube side weld superimposed over the film side weld.

e lAp' 92 22
II
r RUANE &: T P O'NEILL

8.6 Sandwich technique

The sandwich technique is a radiographic technique sometimes used in order to save time.
I! may be used on components where there are substantial thickness differences causing the
density on a single radiograph to be out of specification on either the thicker side. the thinner
side or both. Rather than carry out two sepemte shots at different exposures for each weld
or position, cassettes may be loaded with two films. Two radiographs will therefore be
produced-one for the thick side and the other for the thinner side-but they will have been
produced in a single exposure.
The films are usually of different speeds. e.g. a fine grained film loaded with a very fine
grained film. however, the same effect will be produced by placing a lead screen, thicker
than usual, between two films of the same speed.

8.7 Parallax technique

The parallax radiographic technique' maybe.used to determine the depth of defects below
the surface of a component; this may be useful to know for repair purposes. I! is a technique
more applicable to thick specimens. e.g. over 50 mm, but is rarely used because ultrasonic
testing can usually give the same information quicker and at a lower cost.
The technique is used after a defect has already been detected by conventional methods. The
procedure involves the placement ofa lead marker on the source side of a specimen's surface
close to the plan view location of the defect. Two exposures are made. each at half the
normal exposure. and offset to each other in order to produce a double image of the lead
marker and defect. .
2
The following criteria are used to calculate the distance of the defect from the film:
a. Gap between defect images.
b. Gap between lead marker images.
c. F.f.d./s.f.d.
d. Specimen thickness.
e. Dimension of shift between source of radiation.

9 DETERMINAnON OF EXPOSURE
9.1 General
Many factors govern the final qUality] of a radiographic image; all these factors must be
considered and controlled in order to meet with a specifications requirements.
The time to use for an exposure is only one factor to consider for an exposure. but it is this
factor which changes most often. Gammaexposure times are usually calculated from special
slide rules. usually referred to as gamma exposure calculators. these take into consideration
the following:
a. Film density to be achieved.
b. Source type.
c. Activity of source.
d. Film speed.
e. Source to film distance.
f. Material type.
g. Material thickness.
...

1 The parallax technique is sometimes referred to as lhe tubl! shift ml!thod when an x·tay tube is used.
2 A formula or a special graph may be used to determine defect deplh.
3 Quality is referring to density. conuast and definition.

e 20 Feh 92
23
II
r RUANE & T P O'NEILL '.
When using x-ray equipment, the determination ofexposure is less straightforward. This is
because the wavelength and intensity of radiation may be adjusted. and different machines
produce different quantities and qualities of x-radiation even though they may be operated
on the same panel settings. The following methods are used to detennine correct exposures
when using x-ray equipment:
I ,
a. By reference to previous exposure records.
b. By trial and error-resr shors.
c. A combination of the above.
d. By using exposure charts.
I
9.2 Considerations for exposures
9.2.1 Wavelength of radiation
I
The wavelength of radiation used will affect the density. contraSt and definition of a
radiographic image.
X-ray equipment-The lower the kV used to penetrate the specimen. the higher will
be the contraSt, but enough kV must be used to keep the exposure time reasonable.
Gamma isotopes-Different radioactive isotopes produce different wavelengths of
gamma radiation. e.g. Co6O produces shorter wavelength radiation than Irl92 and is
therefore more penetrating. but a radiograph produced on the same specimen using Co60
will have lower contrast and definition.
9.2.2 intensity of radiation and exposure time
The intensity' of the radiation reaching the film and exposure time will affect the density
of the image'.
Radiation intensity and exposure time are related. Exposure time is proportional to the
intensity of radiation; this relationship is known as the reciprocity law:
Exposure = rime x inrensity
X.rayequipment-Ifyou had an exposure of say 4 minutes and 3 mAo then 4 x 3 = 12, J
therefore you would be using 12 mA-mins. You could also use 3 minutes and 4 mA to

I
.,
give you the same amount of exposure because 3 x 4 = 12. or 1 minute 12 mAo
1 x 12 = 12. or 2 minutes 6 mAo 2 x 6 = 12 etc.; all these give you the same amount of
exposure.
The higher the mA setting on the control panel. the greater the intensity of radiation
produced. and therefore the darker ,the image will be. unless the time is reduced to
compensate.
Gamma isotopes-If you had an exposure ,of say 5 minutes using an isotope with an
activity of 4 curies. then 5 x 4 = 20. therefore you would be using 20 Ci-mins.
The higher the acrivity of the isotope used. the greater the intensity of radiation produced.
and therefore the darker the image will be. unless the time is reduced to compensate.

9.2.3 X-ray equipment

The intensity of radiation (governed by mAl and quality of radiation (governed by kV)
can be affc;cted by the electric circuit of the equipment being used. The kV and mA may
be on the same panel setting. but the radiation intensity and wavelengths can vary from
one set to another.

I Remember thai density affects conlf3St, and conuast affects sensitivity.

1:\20 Feh 92
24
II
RUANE &; T P O'NEILL

Filter types and thicknesses also differ between x-ray tubes. Filters are used to cut out
secondary radiation to provide a more homogeneous x-ray beam with lower resultant
scatter levels. Filters affect the exposure time. e.g. an x-ray tube with a thick filter will
require more exposure than an x-ray tube with a thinner filter.

9.2.4 Type of film

The higher the speed of the film. the denser the image compared to that of a slow film
at the same exposure. However. the radiograph's definition for a slow film at the correct
exposure will be better than that for a fast film at the correct exposure.

9.2.5 Intensifying screens

Using intensifying screens reduces the exposure required to attain the required density,
but fluorescent and fluorometallic screens have an adverse affect on the definition of the
radiographic image.

9.2.6 F.f.dis.f.d
The greater the f.f.d./s.f.d. the smaller the penumbra. therefore the better the radiographic
definition. But. x-rays and gamma rays obey the inverse square law. The inverse square
law states:
"At twice the distance from the source. the same radiation covers four times the area
but the intensity of radiation is four times less. At four times the distance from the
source the same radiation covers sixteen times the area but the intensity of the
radiation is sixteen times less. etc.".
Therefore. with regard to exposure. the greater the f.f.d./s.f.d. the greater the exposure
should be to attain a given density.
The inverse square law can be shown mathematically in relation to intensity:

11 D22
/2 =Dl 2
/ =intensity
D = distance
The following formula. based on the inverse square law. can be used to determine new
exposures when the f.f.d./s.f.d. changes:
New Distance 2 x Old Exposure
New Exposure Old Dist(lnce 2

9.2.7 Object being radiographed

The radiation absorption and transmission characteristics of a material depends upon its
thickness. density and atomic mass. This will primarily govern penetrating power
required.
9.2.8 Processing the film
The density. d>ntrast and definition of a radiograph are affected by the type, temperature,
agitation and time in the developer. The development process should not be adjusted
outside a specifications requirements in order to compensate for incorrect exposures.
i.e. to adjust the density of a radiograph, the exposure should be changed; not the
developing process.

~ I Apr 92
25
 ,
•
r RUANE & T PO'NEIlJ..

9.3 Exposure charts .J

Exposure chans provide the exposure conditions fora given !hicknessofmaterial using x-ray
equipment. An exposure chan will show !he exposure to use in rnA-min for a chosen
specimen thickness and kV in order to attain !he density !hat the chan is based on. I
Exposure chans are drawn up from preliminary chartS made up from exposures using
different kilovoltages on step wedges. .
The venical scale on an 'exposure chan is logari!hmic and !he horizontal scale is arithmetic.
I \
."
l\

Each chan must show !he variables to which !he chan is applicable to:
I ; .'
~.-, J

.)
",;~:
a. Type of x-ray set.
b. Film density. ...,
c. Film type.
d. Intensifying screens
e. Focus to film distance.
f. Development conditions.
g. Material tested.

-
•
IT
/ 1/ / I

1
/ /
I I I / I
.
1/1../ //.1
/./ 1=Fj
I I
I I / I Y
-- -T! I / I / / 17/ if/ / / I if1 .j~-;-I . -l-rl (0

'iffi
!
i/
VV
/ "/ [7A - ,-.

I / 1/ 1/ / A
/ /11 I
I

It}
I.
,
~

~
I Of
-, + ~
II/
/.
I
/ /
/ 7 7
7 I
I.
'I(
!

II I I / / 1/ / I .,
I / I / 1/ /
/ / / IA/ 1/ I
II "/ ,'/ 1//VI i7 I
rl ~~ ~
1/ '(;/
PAJIT....~ \OO~V Ulil I- ,>,-
/ / STEEL
- I-
~
I I /1 1/ / J ~'1lUSTR&X C >- J
. I '/ :/ . LEAD SCR&&IIS I-
1/ f 'f, X-oIOAT PROCESS
~
900 on P.P.D.
1//,V DE"StTY 1.0 I-- 0·5'
1(;
I--
I

I IIIII
- Ie .
1':0 \,. 1,- J.o 7f ,.. u' SO r,- ,. IS "7. 7)

':.. :"!. ";';!!Cj(l1!.:SS (t.t1LLlloi!:!R£S),

II
r ..
~'
RUANE & T P O'NEILL ;.

9.4 Guideline exposures using x-rays

The following chan shows guideline x-ray exposures on standard wall thickness A.P.I. pipes
using fine grain film with lead screens.

Technique Dia. (mm) Time (min) rnA kV

(BS 2910)
2.5
130WDI*
130WSI
50
100 1.15
5
5
200
165
:j.
130WSI 300 2.5 5 220
130WSI 450 4.75 5 230
7SWSI 450 U5 5 175
13 OWSI 600 5 5 245
7SWSI 600 1.75 5 175
13 OWSI 900 5 5 270
7 SWSI 900 3 5 195
130WSI 1050 12 5 300
7SWSI 1050 3.5 5 210
• Focus to film distance = 650 rom.

" 'fl I:~l. U1 27

I!
•
r RUANE & T P O'NEILL

APPENDIX 8 seATIER
When radiographic exposures are being made, some of the radiation scatters in all directions by
the atoms which fonn the object. This scatter results in an overall fogging of the film and reduces
the contraSt and sharpness of the radiographic image. The thicker the object being radiographed.
the greater the amount of scatter.
Funhennore. the ground. a wall. or another object close to the object being radiographed which
is struck by the radiation, will partially reflect the rays in the fonn of back scatter, this is also
liable to fog the film.
Scatter radiation is less penetrating than primary radiation from which it is derived. Because
scatter rays have a relatively long wavelength, they can be intercepted by a sheet of lead; this
is one reason for using lead screens. although heavier filters may also be needed if the scatter
is heavy.

..,

29
II
r RUANE &. T P O'NEILL

APPENDIX A DETERMINATION OF FOCAL SPOT SIZE

The focal spot size of x-ray tubes can change over a period of time. To detennine the size of j
the focal spot, e.g. for penumbra calculations. the following procedure may be adopted.
I. Place a lead sheet, approximately 4 rom thick containing a small hole about 0.25 rom
diameter, exactly half way between the focal spot and a radiographic film. I
2. Expose-the exposure should not be excessive otherwise the image will be blurred.
The image on the film will be the size of the focal spot plus twice the diameter of the
hole.
I
- .,.\
--
3. Calculate the focal spot size by measuring the total diameter of the image and then ,-
deduct 2 x hole diameter. I f

J
I
.,

1
28
~ 20 Fch IJ2
I
,--
I RUANE &: T P O'NEILL
•
.

APPENDIX C CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF FILMS .j

A characteristic curve is a curve on a graph produced for a particular film which shows the
relationship between different exposures applied and the resulting densities.
A characteristic curve will show that the density does not always vary in the same proportion
I ,
as the applied exposure.
A curve is produced by applying increasing exposures to adjacent areas of a strip of film. After
development, the densities are measured with a densitometer and then plotted on a graph against
I
the corresponding exposures. Both the vertical axis (density) and horizontal axis (exposure)
are calibrated in a logarithmic scale (log,oE); this method is the most practical method for the
size and interpretation of a curve. When the points obtained are joined together a curve will be I
produced. .,

J
,.,

I
~

If characteristic curves..of various films were superimposed on one graph, it will be seen that
the faster films lie closer to the left vertical axis. because faster films attain density at lower
exposures. Therefore. it should be appreciated that it is possible to obtain the reiativefilmfactors
from the characteristic curves of films. .
The highest film contrast of a given film lies on the straight line portion of its characteristic
curve. this indicates the density range to work with to attain optimum contrast. Also. the steeper
the gradient of the straight line ponion the higher the film contraSt.

30
r •
I RUANE &. T P O'NEIlL

APPENDIX D DUTIES OF A RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETER

It is the duty of a radiographic interpreter to ensure that all interpretation and any associated
actions are carried out in accordance with the relevant specification(s) for the work being carried
out.
A radiographic interpreter must have access to the relevant specification(s) and must know
where to find and interpret relevant information.
Specific duties when interpreting radiographs of welds are typically as follows:
I. Mask off any unwanted light on the viewer.

2. View radiographs under subdued background light.

3. Ensure, as. far as is reasonably practicable; each radiograph is correctly identified to

the weld it represents.

4. Ensure that the weld locations are identified, e.g. has the correct number rape been
) used.

5. Assess the quality 'of the radiograph:

a. Measure radiographic density.
b. Calculate IQI sensitivity-also ensure the IQI's are of the correct type and
correctly positioned.
c. Assess radiographic connast; e.g. has gamma been used when only x-radiography
is permitted?
d. Assess definition/graininess; e.g. have salt intensifying screens been used when
only lead intensifying screens are permitted? Has a fast film been used instead
of a slow film?
e. Do artifacts interfere with interpretation?

.J 6. Check the radiograph to determine if any obstruction between the source of radiation
and the.fllm,interferes-··with·.interpretation, e.g. lead numbers.

7. Identify the type of weld if possible-normally already known.

8. Check the parent material on the radiograph for arc strikes, hard stamping, gouges.
minimum seam offset etc.• when applicable.

9. Check the weld on the radiograph for defects, stating type and region.
~
10. State action to be taken. e.g. accept the radiograph and weld. reshoot. repair. remove
the entire weld. visual check. grind and investigate, MPI check. ultrasonic check.

Other points-always note suspecr cracks or obvious defects on a reshootable radiograph. II

will probably not be necessary to reshoot a reshootable radiograph if the weld is to be removed
(cut-out).

co 20 Fch 97. 31
II
r
I
RUANE 8r. T P O'NEll

APPENDIX E QUALITY ASSURANCE

BS 5750 [ISO 9000 series I-Quality systems J
BS 4778-Quality vocabulary
E.l Aim of quality assurance I ,
The aim of quality assurance is to improve quality whilst keeping costs to an acceptable
level.
The objective of a system used to implement quality assurance. Le. a quality system, is to
detennine and rectify the root cause(s) ofany problems. thereby reducing faults and wastage.
I
This will in tum. improve quality and reduce costs. The emphasis is on prevention rather
than detection and cure. I
E.2 Benefits of adopting quality assurance
A properly implemented. and managed"luality:system should:
a. help to ensure that the company focuses on market needs and requirements;
b. make the company more competitive in the market place due to an increased
customer confidence in the company's output, Le. a product or service that a
customer wants-this includes timing;
c. lead to a reduction of costs due to a reduced number of faults and wastage;
d. give a measure of performance which will enable any areas for improvement to be
identified;
e. induce a more organized way of thinking which makes management more organized
and effective;
f. provide motivation; motivated employees provide a better working environment
in addition to the product or service output benefits.

E.3 What is quality asSurance?

The definition for quality assurance given in the British Standard for quality vocabulary
(BS 4778: Part 1) is:
J
,All those planned or systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that
I
a product or service will satisfy given requirements for quality.'
The quality of a prodilct or service is attained only by working in a controlled manner,
following formalised procedures which are designed to eliminate the occurrence of problems.
Quality assurancecprovides the objective evidence"needed to give maximum confidence for
quality.
.,
Quality assurance should be considered as a management tool when used within an
organization (internal quality.assur:aru::e).Asupplier who implements and maintains a
system for assuring quality, is providing maximum confidence to a purchaser. or potential
purchaser. that the supplied product or service attains. or is g9ing to attain, its fitness for
purpose.
Different people have different concepts for what is meant by a quality product or service,
therefore it is very important to be aware of the customers' requirements and/or expectations.
In industrial corttract situations, contract documents or purchasing specifications should
clearly define a company's requirements for a product or service. The quality of the product
or service is deemed to have been achieved when the exact requirements have been met
completely and consistent!y.

32
I! .'"
r
I RUANE &: T P O'NEILL •

E.4 Scope of quality assurance

Quality assurance should encompass all parts ofan organization and all phases ofan activity,'
i.e. planning, design, production, maintenance, administration etc.. Collaboration with
suppliers and purchasers should also be pan of an organization's quality system.

E.5 Inspection vs quality assurance

Quality assurance is not inspection. Inspection is one of the important elements within a
system for quality assurance which requires continuing evaluation in the same way as the
other elements; e.g. planning, design/specifications, production etc...
Inspection is defined inBS 4778 : Part 1 as, 'activities such as measuring, examining, testing,
gauging oneormorecharacteristics ofaproductorservice and comparing these with specified
requirements to determine conformity.'

E.6 Inspection vs quality control

Quality control is defined in BS 4778 : Part 1 as, 'the operational techniques and activities
that are used to fulfil requirements for quality.' This definition can be vague, so modifying
the term to be more specific is advantageous, e.g. manufacturing qualiry control is more
explanatory.
Quality control is involved with the monitoring of a process and eliminating the causes of
any deficient output with any process, or any phase during a contract, which has an effect
on quality. The information obtained from inspection, as defined above, is used for quality
control.
E.7 Quality control vs quality assurance
The comparison between quality control and quality assurance is more difficult to explain
because of different beliefs between expens. Assumptions are also made regarding the
applicability of the term quality control, e.g. is it referring to manufacturing qualiry control
or company-wide quality contron
Quality control deals with the actual measurement of quality performance, this performance
is compared against what is required, and action is taken on the difference? Quality control
is asking the question, "is the work/action being performed correctly?"
Quality control does not reach all elements which affect quality, e.g. quality control will
rarely do anything to correct problems relating to management, documentation, training and
staff motivation.
Quality assuran=applies to all areas which have an affect on quality, and asks the question,
"has the work/action been performed correctly?"

1 To/al Qualiry Management (TQM) is a concept adopted by some companies which applies quality assul1mcc
philosophy w all areas within a company, whether they are deemed w have a direct affect On quality or DOL
2 This philosophy has been taken rrom J M Jwan

e 20 F<b92 33
 •
r
I

LEVEL 2 • RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING· GENERAL

PAPER No. RTlG2

NAME: ...................................:.................... RESULTS: Go..mlf\Q. .

COMPANY: ................................................ 1.-1 '2.mm 9h, 6'1 .
DATE: ......................................................... IO-~Omm 1.R 1'12 .
SIGNED: ..................................................... 50/llll\L~ L.O 60 •
QuQ.(~ if 01\ reportS? '
1. \.CalclUm tungstate screens used in industrial radiography are usually used to: ~_
A. improve definition in radiographic images.
B. improve contrast in.radiographic images. BIZ.lOUf '2. I' .s<:r<tr
f' .
, '.
decrease exposure time.
make films with multi-million volt radiation.
'
~to a.,........... 150 k"
12-15-2.00k~
ma.)(
/V\a..)(.
2. The penetrating ability of an x-ray beam is governed by:
25-':P-300 Kv I'l\o..x. .
.fii!. ~lovoltage or wavelength.
''If.'
time.
C. milliamperage.
D. source-ta-film distance.

3. The two most common causes for excessively high-density radiographs are:
A. insufficient washing and overdevelopmenL
B. contaminated fixer and insufficient washing.
~ overexposure and contaminated fixer. 4 - "J(" rMm .J 20°C
~ overexposure and overdevelopment. 0.(,

4. When struck by x-rays or gamma rays, lead screens emit:

t&.. alpha particles.
-tlBJ beta particles.
>-:.. fast neutrons.
® ultraviolet lighL

5. The ability to deteet a small discontinuity or flaw on a radiograph is called:

~./ radiographic contrast
~ radiographic sensitivity.
C: radiographic density.
D. radio~phic definition.
"
6. Movement, geometry and screen contact are three factors that affect radiographic:
, ,"

.!u contrasL
~ unsharpness.
C. reticulation.
D. density.
I! ::!;~

'-." ::
~'.~

7. c
J

I ,

•I
8.

9. -,

\....

11. A cobalt-60 source has a half-life of:

A. 1.2 years.

l
6mOnthS.
. 5.3 years. J
D· 75 days.

I
~
 .
••
r 15. In~' er to increase the intensity of x-radiation: .
the'lUbe cum:nt should be increased· .
. the lUbe current should be decreased. .~ ,.' ,".- '.
C. the test specimen should be moved funher from the rdnf.
D. a lower Idlovoltage should be applied to the lUbe.

16. Excessive exposure of film to light prior to development of the film will most likely result
in:
a( a fogged film.
V poor definition.
C. streaks.
D. yellow stain.
17. White crescent-shaped marks on an exposed x-ray film will most likely result jr(: Fro'" •

r crimping fllm after exposure.

.' crimping fllm liefore exposure.
" sudden extreme temperature change while processing.
D. warm or exhausted fIXer.

18. Reti~ulation resulting in a puckered or netlike film surface is probably caused by:
AI crimping film after exposure.
q) sudden extreme temperature change while processing.
c:::. water or developer on unprocessed f11m.
D. excessive object-to-fllm distance.
19. If an exposure time of 60 seconds was necessary using a 4-metre source-to-film distance for
a particular exposure. what time would be necessary if a 2-metre source-to-rdm distance is
used and all other variables remain the same?

B., 15 seconds.
A.

~
secOnds.
120
30
seconds.
'D.. 240 seconds.
"-'
A penetrameter on the film side of the object is used to indicate:
20.
A. the size of discontinuities in apan.
B. the density of the film.
©
,..-;;'
the amount of mm contraSt.
~ the quality of the radiographic technique.

21. A fluorescent intenSifying~nCo will:. ,

ail.':
. tranSform 4l~{roll'4' . . '
x-ray en gy mto VlSlble or ultraVloletlightto •
which a photographiC
..-/ emulsion is sensitive.
B. result in reticulation.
C. decrease the graininess of the image when using gamma rays.
D. in~ the definition in a radiograph.
.
'

22. Lead f9il screens are used in radiography:

.:
A. to improve the quality of the radiograph by preferentially reducing the effect scatter.
to reduce the exposure time. "

¥
, " both A and B are reasons for using lead foil screens.
. neither A nor B are reasons for using lead foil screens.
Ii ,
r 23.

I
•I
24.

tu

';{;
25. -,

1\. •.

26.

27.

J
28. I
~
29.

- "-'"

'.'
.'-'

.. ~ '.. :.
II . "
•
I 30. With a given exposure time and Idlovoltage. a properly exposed radiograph is obtained with
a 6 milliarnperage-minuteS exposure at the distance of 20 inches. It is desired to increase
the sharpness of detail in the image by increasing the source-to-film distance to 40 inches.
The correct milliamperage-minutes exposure to obtain the desired radiographic density at

..
the increased distance is:

t 12 nt!ll!amperage-~utes.
" 24 ~lliamperage-mmuteS.
; 3 milliamperage-minuteS.
D. 1.7 milliamperage-minuteS.

.r
31. A graph showing the relation between material thickness. kilovoltage and exposure is
called:
a bar chart.
( an exposure chart or technique chart.
. a characteristic curve.
( D. aH&Dcurve.
32. A graph which expresses the relationship between the logarithm of the exposure applied to a
photographic material and the resulting photographic density is called:
)
_:
h. a bar chart.
an expos!U'C c~art.

+' -. the ch~tc:nstic curve.

. a logartthmic chart.

33. Two X-ray machines operating at the same nominal kilovoltage and milliamperage settings:
A. will produce the same intensities and qualities of radiation.
B. will produce the same intensities but may produce different qualities of radiation.

~
will produce the same qualities but may produce different intensities of radiation.
I may give not only different intensities but also different qualities of radiation.
W .

34. Whl producing radiographs, if the kilovoltage is increased:

the subject contraSt decreases. .
. the film contraSt increases.
C. the subject contraSt increases. ~
D. the film contraSt decreaseS. oIJJ "'-r..l''
1:]'",

35. An unshielded isotope source gives a dosage rate of 900 rr1 per hour at 10 feet. What
would the unshielded dosage rate be at 30 feet?
A. 300 mRIhr. ,.
--
~
6OOmRIhr.
loomRlhr.
Iv 2700 mRIhr.

36. Beta particles are:

~
. neutro~s.
Bj protons.
electrons.
D.. positrons.
II
r·
,
37.

'.
:'
I.'
:38.
:;
.-: !
I:
,
I,.

39.

.
40. X-rays and gamma rays are:
particulate radiations.

1 electromagnetic radiations.
. microwave radiations.
: all the above.

J
I
~

.~ : -0 ' ;• •: '

'." ~
,
..• J
:'"' 4 .
.- . . ', I
-