Appendix

Field Theory and Vectorial Analysis

1 Fields

1.1 Scalar …eld

' = '(r; t):

For example, temperature T , mass density , scalar potential U , and charge
density :

T = T (r; t); = (r; t);

U = U (r; t); = (r; t):

1.2 Vector …eld

f = f (r; t):
In Cartesian system,

f = fxi + fy j + fz k;

fx = fx(r; t); fy = fy (r; t); fz = fz (r; t):

e.g.,

E = E(r; t); D = D(r; t); P = P(r; t);

B = B(r; t); H = H(r; t); M = M(r; t):

2 Field analysis

2.1 Gradient

1. De…nition

Consider the variation of the scalar …eld ',

@' @' @'

d' = dx + dy + dz:
@x @y @z
Obviously, d' can be rewritten as a scalar product,
!
@' @' @'
d' = i +j +k (idx + jdy + kdz ) :
@x @y @z
Introducing
@' @' @'
grad' i +j +k ; — gradient
@x @y @z
dr idx + jdy + kdz;
d' can be compacted as
d' = grad' dr:
It shows that the variation of ' is determined completely by its gradient.

Notice: The gradient of a scalar …eld is a vector …eld.

2. The sense of gradient

d' = jgrad'j jdrj cos :

Therefore,
d'
= jgrad'j cos ;
ds
where
ds jdrj :
When = 0, i.e., dr k grad', the directional derivative d'=ds = jgrad'j
is maximal. That is to say,
d'
= jgrad'j :
ds =0
This means that the …eld ' varies fastest along the direction of grad',
and the varying rate is exactly equal to jgrad'j.
2.2 Divergence

1. De…nition
I
f dS
divf lim s :
V !0 V

2. The expression for divergence

By using the Gauss theorem,
I Z !
@fx @fy @fz
f dS = + + dV;
@x @y @z
S V
 we have
Z
@fx @f
@x + @yy + @f z
@z dV
divf = lim V
V !0 V
@fx @f
@x + @yy + @f
@z
z
V
= lim c
V !0 V
@fx @fy @fz
= + + :
@x @y @z
That is,
@fx @fy @fz
divf = + + :
@x @y @z

Notice: The divergence of a vector …eld is a scalar …eld.

2.3 Rotation

1. De…nition
I
f dL
rotnf lim L ;
S!0 S
where
I I
f dL= (fxdx + fy dy + fz dz ) ;
L
L

rotnf = (rotf ) n
= rotxf cos(n; x) + roty f cos(n; y ) + rotz f cos(n; z );
with n being the normal of the circuit L. As is well known, n and L are
right-handed.
2. The expression for rotation
By using the Stokes theorem,
I Z " !
@fz @fy
f dL = cos(n; x)
@y @z
L S

@fx @fz
+ cos(n; y )
@z @x
! #
@fy @fx
+ cos(n; z ) dS;
@x @y
we have
I
f dL " !
L 1 @fz @fy
lim = lim cos(n; x)
S!0 S S!0 S @y @z
@fx @fz
+ cos(n; y )
@z @x
! #
@fy @fx
+ cos(n; z ) S:
@x @y c
!
@fz @fy
= cos(n; x)
@y @z
@fx @fz
+ cos(n; y )
@z @x
!
@fy @fx
+ cos(n; z ):
@x @y
 It follows that

rotxf cos(n; x) + roty f cos(n; y ) + rotz f cos(n; z )

!
@fz @fy
= cos(n; x)
@y @z

@fx @fz
+ cos(n; y )
@z @x
!
@fy @fx
+ cos(n; z ):
@x @y

Notice: The above equation is valid for any n.

It implies that
@fz @fy
rotxf = ; for n = i;
@y @z
@fx @fz
roty f = ; for n = j;
@z @x
@fy @fx
rotz f = ; for n = k:
@x @y
That is,
i j k
@ @ @
rotf = @x @y @z :
fx fy fz

Notice: The rotation of a vector …eld is still a vector …eld.

3 Hamilton operator r

3.1 De…nition

In Cartesian system,
@ @ @
r i +j +k :
@x @y @z
Notice:

Complex operation=vector operation+partial derivative operation.

r is a vectorial di¤erential operator.

The mathematical sense of r represents vectorial analysis.

3.2 Basic operations

1. Gradient:
!
@ @ @
r' = i +j +k '
@x @y @z
@' @' @'
= i +j +k :
@x @y @z

Obviously,
grad' = r':

Therefore, r' represents mathematically the gradient of the scalar …eld '.
 2. Divergence:
!
@ @ @
r f = i +j +k (ifx + jfy + kfz )
@x @y @z

@fx @fy @fz

= + + :
@x @y @z

Obviously,
divf = r f :

Therefore, r f represents mathematically the divergence of the vector …eld f .

3. Rotation:
!
@ @ @
r f = i +j +k (ifx + jfy + kfz )
@x @y @z

i j k
@ @ @
= @x @y @z
fx fy fz
! !
@fz @fy @fx @fz @fy @fx
= i +j +k :
@y @z @z @x @x @y
Obviously,
rotf = r f:
Therefore, r f represents mathematically the rotation of the vector …eld
f.
4. Laplacian:

r2 = r r
! !
@ @ @ @ @ @
= i +j +k i +j +k
@x @y @z @x @y @z
@2 @2 @2
= + + :
@x2 @y 2 @z 2
It is a scalar di¤erential operator.

' r2 '
@ 2' @ 2' @ 2'
= 2
+ 2
+ 2
:
@x @y @z
Notice: ' is still a scalar …eld.
 f r2 f
!
@2 @2 @2
= + + f
@x2 @y 2 @z 2

= ir2fx + jr2fy + kr2fz

!
@ 2f
x @ 2f
x @ 2fx
= i + +
@x2 @y 2 @z 2
!
@ 2f
y @ 2f
y @ 2fy
+ j + +
@x2 @y 2 @z 2
!
@ 2f z @ 2fz @ 2f
z
+ k + + :
@x2 @y 2 @z 2
Notice: f is still a vector …eld.
3.3 Properties

3.3.1 Linearity

r(' + ) = r' + r ;

r (f + g ) = r f + r g ;

r (f + g ) = r f +r g;

r 2 (' + ) = r 2 ' + r 2 ;

r 2 (f + g ) = r 2 f + r 2 g :
3.3.2 Product rule 1

r(' ) = (r') + ' (r ) ;

r ('f ) = (r') f + 'r f ;

r ('f ) = (r') f + 'r f;

r (f g ) = f (r g) + (f r) g + g (r f ) + (g r) f ;

r (f g) = (r f) g f (r g) ;

r (f g) = (g r) f (r f ) g (f r ) g + ( r g ) f :
Proof:

r(' ) = r(' c) + r('c ) = (r') c + 'c (r )

= (r') + ' (r ) :

r ('f ) = r ('fc) + r ('cf ) = (r') fc + 'cr f

= (r') f + 'r f :

r (' f ) = r ('fc) + r ('cf ) = (r') fc + 'cr f

= (r') f + 'r f;
 r (f g) = r (f gc) + r (fc g) ;

a (b c) = b(a c) c ( a b) ;

r (f g c ) = r (g c f ) = g c (r f ) + f (g c r )

= gc (r f ) + (gc r) f

= g (r f ) + (g r) f ;

r (fc g) = f (r g) + (f r) g;

r (f g ) = f (r g) + (f r) g + g (r f ) + (g r) f :
r (f g ) = r (f gc) + r (fc g) = r (f gc ) r (g f c)

= (r f ) gc (r g) fc = (r f ) gc fc (r g) ;

r (f g) = (r f) g f (r g) :

r (f g) = r (f gc ) + r (fc g)

= f (r g c ) gc (r f ) + fc (r g) g (r fc)

= f (g c r ) (r f ) gc + (r g) fc g (fc r)

= (g c r ) f (r f ) gc + (r g) fc (fc r) g

r (f g) = (g r) f (r f ) g (f r ) g + ( r g ) f :
3.3.3 Product rule 2

r (r') = 0;

r (r f ) = 0;

r (r f ) = r (r f ) r2f :
Proof:

r (r') = (r r) '; r r = 0;

r (r f ) = (r r) f ; r r = 0;

r (r f ) = r (r f ) f (r r) ; (r r) f = r 2 f :
3.4 Integral transformations

1. dV r =) dS
Z I
dV r f = dS f ;
V S
Z I
dV r f= dS f;
V S
Z I
dV r' = dS':
V S
The …rst is just the so-called Gauss theorem:
I Z
f dS = r f dV:
S V
Green’s theorems

Green’s …rst theorem:

I Z
r' dS = r2 ' + r r' dV:
S V
Notice:
r r' = r2 ' + r r':

Green’s second theorem:

I Z
( r' 'r ) dS = r2 ' 'r2 dV:
S V
Notice:
r ( r' 'r ) = r2 ' 'r2 :
2. dS r =) dL
Z I
(dS r) f = dL f ;
S L
Z I
(dS r) f = dL f;
S L
Z I
dS r' = dL':
S L
The …rst is just the so-called Stokes theorem:
I Z
f dL = (r f ) dS:
L S
Notice:
(r f ) dS = dS (r f ) = (dS r) f :
3. dL r =) d
Z Z r2
Z
dL r' = d' = d' = '(r2) ' (r 1 );
L L r1

Z Z r2
Z
(dL r) f = df = df = f (r2) f (r 1 ) :
L L r1
4 Irrotational …eld and solenoidal …eld

1. Irrotational …eld
r f = 0:
Introducing a scalar potential ',

f= r';
we have
r f = r2':
In other words, the potential ' will be given by

r2 ' = r f:
It is the Poisson equation to determine an irrotational …eld.
2. Solenoidal (nondivergent) …eld

r f = 0:
Introducing a vector potential A,

f =r A;
we have
r f =r (r A) = r (r A) r2A:
Paying attention to the gauge invariance,

r A=r (A + r ) ;

f =r A=r (A + r ) ;
we can set
r A = 0:
 It is a Gauge condition for the vector potential A.
Finally, we arrive at
r2 A = r f:
That is the Poisson equation for a solenoidal …eld.

3. A vector …eld() r f , r f , and Boundary condition.

4. A vector …eld=an irrotational …eld+a solenoidal …eld:

f = f1 + f2;

r f1 = 0;

r f2 = 0:
5 Formulae relative to r

r df r 1 r
rr = ; rf (r) = ; r = :
r dr r r r3

1
r2 = 4 (r ):
r

r r = 3; r(a r) = a:

r
r r = 0; r = 0:
r3
 1
f (r + d) = f (r) + (d r) f (r) + (d r )2 f (r ) +
2!
1
X 1
= (d r )n f (r )
n=0 n!

= ed r f (r);
where
1
X 1
ed r = (d r )n
n=0 n!

1
= 1+d r+ (d r )2 +
2!
Proof:
" #
@ @ @
f (r + d) = f (r) + d1 f (r) + d2 f (r) + d3 f (r)
@x @y @z
"
1 2 @2 @2 @
+ d1 2 f (r) + d2 2 f (r) + d23 f (r)
2
2! @x @y @z
#
@2 @2 @2
+ 2d1d2 f (r) + 2d2d3 f (r) + 2d3d1 f (r )
@x@y @y@z @z@x
+
!
@ @ @
= f (r) + d1 + d2 + d3 f (r )
@x @y @z
!2
@ @ @
+ d1 + d2 + d3 f (r ) +
@x @y @z
1
= f (r) + (d r) f (r) + (d r )2 f (r ) + :
2!
For example,
1 1 1
= a r +
jr aj r r
1 r
= a 3
+
r r
1 a r
= + 3 +
r r

1 1 1
= a r +
jr aj3 r3 r 3

1 r
= a 5
+
r r
1 a r
= + 5 +
r r