Lecture Medical Image

10/11/2018
Medical Imaging
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Techniques
Dr. K. Adalarasu
KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
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Textbook and Materials
Rafael C. Gonzalez, Richard E. Woods,
“Digital Image Processing”, 2nd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2003
Digital Image Processing by Jayaraman,
Veerakumar, 2012
Khandpur R.S, Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation, 3/e, Tata McGraw
Hill,New Delhi, 2014
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Reference
William K. Pratt, “Digital Image Processing” ,
John Willey ,2001
Steve Webb, The physics of medical imaging,
Adam Hilger, Bristol, England, Philadelphia,
USA, 1988
Jain A.K., “Fundamentals of Digital Image
Processing”, PHI, 1995.
X-Ray & Computed

Tomographic
Imaging
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X-Ray Imaging
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X-rays Machine
X-rays were discovered by the German
physicist Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen in
November 1895
Called the ‘new kind of ray’ or X-rays, X for the
unknown
Today, imaging with X-rays is perhaps the most
commonly used diagnostic tool with the
medical profession
Chest radiography to a digital subtraction
angiography or computer tomography depend
on the use of X-rays
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
 Radiological examination is one of the most
important diagnostic aids
 Various anatomical structures of the body have
different densities for the X-rays
 When X-rays from a point source penetrate a
section of the body
 The Internal body structures absorb varying amount of the
radiation
 Radiation that leaves the body has a spatial intensity
variation
 i.e. an image of the internal structure of the body
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Basic set-up for a diagnostic radiology image formation process
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 X-ray intensity distribution is visualized by a
suitable device like a photographic film
 Shadow image is generated
 Corresponds to the X-ray density of the organs in the
body section
 Main properties of X-rays
 Capability to penetrate matter coupled with differential
absorption observed in various materials
 Ability to produce luminescence and its effect on
photographic emulsions
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X-ray picture is called a radiograph
Shadow picture produced by X-rays emanating
from a point source
Skeletal structures are easy to visualize
Untrained eye can sometimes observe fractures
and other bone abnormalities
Chest radiographs
Examination of the lungs and the heart
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Air enclosed in the respiratory tract
Larger bronchi are seen as a negative contrast
Pulmonary vessels are seen as a positive contrast
against the air-filled lung tissue
Different types of lung infections
Diagnosis to be made from the location, size and
extent of the shadow
Heart examinations
Performed by taking frontal and lateral films
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Chest X-ray 13
 Negative contrast
 X ray easily penetrate
 Medium – air, oxygen, carbon dioxide
 Area appear dark in film
 Positive contrast
 High atomic number, either barium sulphate or iodine
 Absorbs x ray
 Appear light in film
 Bones
 Absorb much of the X-ray radiation
 While lung tissue (which is filled with mostly air)
 Absorbs very little
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Low density material such as air

is represented as black on the
final radiograph
Very dense material such as
metal or contrast material is
represented as white
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Chest X-ray
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 Evaluation is performed
 Partly by calculating the total heart volume
 Partly on the basis of any changes in shape
 Visualization of the rest of the circulatory system
 Use is made of injectible, water-soluble organic
compounds of iodine
 Contrast medium is injected into an artery or vein
 Usually through a catheter placed in the vessel
 All the larger organs of the body can be examined by
visualizing the associated vessels and this technique is
called angiography

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 Examination is designated according to the organ

examined
 Coronary angiography
 Coronary vessels of the heart
 Angiocardiography
 Heart
 Cerebral angiography
 The brain
 Entire gastro-intestinal tract
 Using an emulsion of barium sulphate as a contrast
medium
 Pathological conditions such as ulcers, tumours or
inflammatory conditions
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Negative and positive contrast media are used
for visualizing the spinal canal
Examination being known as myelography
Pneumography
Examine the central nervous system
Filling the body cavities with air
Computerized tomography
Greatly reduced the need for some of the invasive
neuro-radiological methods
Involve discomfort and a certain risk for the patient
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Nature of x-rays
 X-rays are electromagnetic radiation
 Located at the low wavelength end of the electromagnetic
spectrum
 Wavelength of the order of 10-10m
 Propagate with a speed of 3X1010 cm/s
 Unaffected by electric and magnetic fields
 Electromagnetic radiation consists of photons
 ‘packets’ of energy
X-rays, the wavelength is directly dependent on the voltage

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Properties of X - rays
 X-rays are able to penetrate through materials
which readily absorb and reflect visible light
 X-rays are absorbed when passing through matter
 Absorption depends upon the density of the matter
 X-rays produce secondary radiation in all matter
through which they pass
 Secondary radiation is composed
 Scattered radiation
 Characteristic radiation and electrons
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Properties of X - rays
Diagnostic radiology
Scattered radiation which is of practical importance
X-rays produce ionization in gases
Influence the electric properties of liquids and
solids
Ionizing property is made use of in the
construction of radiation-measuring instruments
X-rays also produce fluorescence in certain
materials to help them emit light
Fluoroscopic
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Production of x-
rays
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Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced
Whenever electrons collide at very high
speed with matter
Thus suddenly stopped
Energy possessed by the electrons
Parcel of energy in the form of highly
penetrating electromagnetic waves (X-rays)
of many different wavelengths
Which together form a continuous spectrum
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Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced in a specially
constructed glass tube
A source for the production of electrons
A energy source to accelerate the electrons
A free electron path
A means of focusing the electron beam
A device to stop the electrons
Stationary mode tubes and rotating anode
tubes are the two main types of X-ray tubes
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Stationary Anode Tube
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 Normal tube is a vacuum diode
 Which electrons are generated by thermionic
emission from the filament of the tube
 Electron stream is electrostatically focused on a
target on the anode by means of a suitably shaped
cathode cup
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https://www.tes.com/lessons/RnryLgKjh7ZrMQ/x-ray-generator
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 Kinetic energy of the electrons impinging on the
target is converted into X-rays
 Most electrons emitted by the hot filament become
current carriers across the tube
 Tube current by adjusting the filament temperature
 Tube voltage by adjusting primary voltage
 Some X-ray tubes function as a triode
 With a bias voltage applied between the filament and the
cathode cup
 Bias voltage can be used to control the size and shape of
the focal spot
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 Cathode block
 Which contains the filament
 Usually made from nickel or from a form of stainless steel
 Filament is a closely wound helix of tungsten wire
 0.2 mm thick, the helix diameter being about 1.0–1.5 mm
 Target is normally comprised of a small tablet of
tungsten about
 15 mm wide
 20 mm long
 3 mm thick soldered into a block of copper
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 Tungsten
 Combines a high atomic number (74)
 It has a high melting point (3400oC) enabling it to withstand
the heavy thermal loads
 In special cases, molybdenum targets are also used
 Case of mammography - where in improved subject
contrast in the breast is desirable
 Lower efficiency of X-ray production
 Lower melting point make molybdenum unsuitable for
general radiography
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 Tube will emit X-rays in all directions
 Protection needs to be provided except where the
useful beam emerges from the tube
 Lot of heat will be generated by the tube
 Hence this heat will cause the oil temperature to rise, the
oil will expand
 Being a liquid, oil is incompressible
 Either of oil resistant
 Rubber or thin metal, is provided to accommodate the
expansion
 Stationary anode tubes are employed mostly in small
capacity X-ray machines
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Rotating Anode Tube
 More penetrating X-rays, requiring higher tube
voltages and current
 X-ray tube itself becomes a limiting factor in the
output of the system
 Due to the heat generated at the anode
 Heat capacity of the anode
 Function of the focal spot area
 Absorbed power can be increased if the effective
area of the focal spot can be increased
 Accomplished by the rotating anode type of X-ray tubes
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Rotating Anode Tube
 Tubes with rotating anode are based on the removal
of the target from the electron beam before it
reaches too high a temperature under the electron
bombardment
 Rapid replacement of it by another cooler target
 Anode is a disk of tungsten or an alloy of tungsten
and 10% rhenium
 Alloy helps to reduce the changes in the anode track due
to stress produced in the track as a result of the rapidly
changing temperature
 Anode rotates at a speed of 3000–3600 or 9000–
10000 rpm
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Rotating Anode Tube
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Rotating Anode Tube
 Tungsten disk that represents the anode has a
bevelled edge that may vary from 5°–20°
 Typical angles are around 15°
 Keeping with the line focus principle
 With the rotating anode
 Heat produced during an exposure is spread over a
large area of the anode
 Thereby increasing the heat loading capacity of the tube
 Allowing higher power levels to be used which produces
more intense x-radiation
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Rotating Anode Tube

 Rotor is made from copper, either cast or from
special quality rod
 Anode rotation system is a high speed system
 Bearings must be properly lubricated
 Commonly used lubricants are lead, gold, graphite
or silver
 Lubricants are usually applied to the bearing
surfaces in the form of a thin film
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Rotating Anode Tube

Tube housing
Electrical isolation between the high voltage
circuits and the environment
Lead-lined to keep the amount of leakage
radiation below legal levels
Providing radiation protection for both the patient
and the operator
Waste-heat handling system
Circulating water through a heat exchanger
contained in the tube housing or by circulating
insulating oil through an external radiator
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X - rays
Diagnostic applications
It is usual to employ high milliamperes and
lower exposure time
Therapeutic
High kV and relatively lower mA
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x-ray Machine
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X-ray Machine
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Collimators and Grids
 Grids are
inserted
between the
patient and the
film cassette
 Order to reduce
the loss of
contrast due to
scattered
radiation
Flat Panel Detectors for Digital

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Radiography
 Switching element are controlled via corresponding
address lines in the row direction
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Flat Panel Detectors for Digital 45
Radiography
 Signal from the individual sensors is led to pre-
amplifiers, amplified and given to analog-to-digital
converters
 All the sensors are read out until the whole X-ray
image has been completed
 Pixel size in the X-ray image is determined by the
size of the sensors
 In the a-Si detector, it is 143 µm X 143 µm
 Detector size of 43 cm x 43 cm, a matrix of 3000 x
3000 pixels is created on the flat a-Si detector
Flat Panel Detectors for Digital

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Radiography
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Computed
Tomographic Imaging
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Computed Tomography (CT)
 Two main limitations of using conventional X-rays
to examine internal structures of the body
 Super-imposition of the three-dimensional information
onto a single plane makes diagnosis confusing and
often difficult
 Photographic film usually used for making radiographs
has a limited dynamic range
 Only objects that have large variations in X-ray absorption
relative to their surroundings will cause sufficient contrast
differences on the film to be distinguished by the eye
 It is difficult to discern the shape and composition
of soft tissue organs accurately
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 CT
 Invented and developed by G.N. Hounsfield at the Central
Research Laboratories of EMI Ltd, UK, and introduced on
a commercial scale in 1972
 Tomography is a term derived from the Greek word
‘tomos’, meaning ‘to write a slice or section’ and is
well-understood in radiographic circles
 Conventional tomography was developed to reduce
the super-imposition effect of simple radiographs
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 X-ray tube and photographic film are moved in
synchronisation
 So that one plane of the patient under examination remains
in focus
 While all other planes are blurred
 Early CT scanners were specifically designed for
neuro-radiological investigations
 Radiologists could easily visualize the ventricles of
the brain and repositories of the cerebro-spinal fluid
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 Computed tomography involves the determination of
attenuation characteristics for each small volume of
tissue in the patient slice
 Which constitute the transmitted radiation intensity
recorded from various irradiation directions
 Calculated tissue attenuation characteristics
 Monochromatic X-ray beam, the tissue attenuation
characteristics
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Contrast Scale
 Attenuation coefficient of tissue is represented by
the scanner computer as integers that usually range
in values from –1000 to +1000
 ‘Hounsfield units, and are abbreviated as H
 They are also denoted by CT numbers
 Relationship between the linear attenuation
coefficient and the corresponding Hounsfield unit is
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Contrast Scale
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 CT number scale is defined in such a way that 0 is assigned

to water
 –1000 to air
 +1000 represents highly dense materials
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System
Components
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System Components
 Four major sub-systems
 Scanning system
 Takes suitable readings for a picture to be reconstructed,
and includes X-ray source and detectors
 Processing unit
 Converts these readings into intelligible picture information
 Viewing part
 It presents this information in visual form and includes other
manipulative aids to assist diagnosis
 Storage unit
 This enables the information to be stored for subsequent
analysis
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Scanning System
 To acquire enough information to reconstruct a
picture for an accurate diagnosis
 Sufficient number of independent readings must be
taken to allow picture reconstruction with the
required spatial resolution
 Density discrimination for diagnostic purposes
 Readings are taken in the form of ‘profiles’
 Higher the number of profiles obtained, the better is
the resulting picture
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First Generation—Parallel Beam

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Geometry
 Collimated X-ray beam passes through the body
 Its attenuation is detected by a sensor that moves
on a gantry along with the X-ray tube
 Tube and detector move in a straight line
 Sampling the data 180 times
 At the end of the travel, a 1° tilt is made and a new linear
scan begins
 Assembly travels 180° around the patient’s position
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First Generation—Parallel Beam Geometry
 This arrangement is known as ‘Traverse and Index’
and was used in the earliest commercial system
 EMI MKI Brain Scanner
 Fairly slow procedure and requires a typical scan
time of 5 minutes
 Early scanners were limited in their use to only brain
studies
 This type of system is slow
 Its picture quality and hence its diagnostic utility, is
exceptionally good
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First Generation—Parallel Beam 61
Geometry
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First Generation—Parallel Beam
Geometry
 Chances of blurring the reconstructed image
caused by movement of the patient or of internal
organs
 Which necessitates reduction of the examination
period to within breath-holding times
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNaCxhhhZTE
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Second Generation—Fan Beam,

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Multiple Detectors
 An improved version of the traverse-index
arrangement consists in using a bank of detectors
and a fan beam of X-rays
 System effectively takes several profiles with each
traverse and thus permits greater index angles
 Using a 10° fan beam
 It is possible to take 10 profiles
 At 1° intervals
 With each traverse and then index through 10°
before taking the next set of profiles
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Second Generation—Fan Beam, Multiple
Detectors
 A full set of 180 profiles can be obtained with 18 traverses
 Permitted a reduction in the scan time
 At the rate of approximately 1 s for each traverse
 It has led to the systems operating in the 18–20 s range
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ni4Hsi3GhXo
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Third Generation—Fan Beam, Rotating
Detectors
 Linear scanning movement can be avoided by using
a sufficiently wide fan-shaped X-ray beam
 Which encompasses the whole object cross-section
 Multiple detector system mechanically tied to the tube
 Which permits a simultaneous measurement of the whole
absorption profile in one projection direction
 X-ray tube and detectors
 Rotational movement must not be stepwise but continuous
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Third Generation—Fan Beam, Rotating
Detectors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdf0kXn5Eeg&list=PL
f13HXeCb7OYmjfjojg03N3dzs1fy2uaR&index=3
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Third Generation—Fan Beam, 67
Rotating Detectors
X-ray source and detectors mounted on a
common frame
Rotate around the patient, usually through 360
System gives a wide fan beam, typically
between 30° and 50°
Frame can be made to travel quite fast
So that a complete rotation takes only a few
seconds
Third Generation—Fan Beam,

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Rotating Detectors
 Two major disadvantages
 First
 It has a fixed geometry
 With a fan beam set for the largest patient
 Arrangement proves to be inefficient for smaller objects,
particularly heads
 Secondly
 Calibration of the detectors during scanning is not
possible since the patient is always within the beam
 Therefore, any drifts or faults in the detection system tend
to produce a significant degradation in the picture quality
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Fourth Generation—Fan Beam, Fixed

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Detectors
 Rotational machines have been designed in which
 Only the X-ray source rotates within a full circle of
stationary detectors arranged around the patient
 As 2000 detectors to maintain a good spatial
resolution
 Individual detectors are lined up practically without
gaps
 So that the radiation which has penetrated the patient is
optimally used
Fourth Generation—Fan Beam, Fixed

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Detectors
 System permits calibration during scanning
 Which eliminates the problem of detector drift
 However, the cost of such machines would obviously
be high
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWVz3yke_bY&lis
t=PLf13HXeCb7OYmjfjojg03N3dzs1fy2uaR&index=4
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Fifth Generation—Scanning Electron

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Beam
 0.7 to 1 second time resolution limit of mechanical
CT scanners makes phase-resolution imaging of the
beating heart
 Electron beam tomography (EBT) scanner
 Electron beam computed tomography differs from
conventional CT in terms of speed and the method of
generating the X-ray
 In conventional CT scanning
 An X-ray tube and an X-ray detector are mounted across
each other on a circular frame and rotate around the
patient
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Beam
 EBT
 Electron beam sweeps back and forth through a magnetic
field
 Impact of the electron beam on a semi-circular tungsten
array underneath the patient generates the X-rays
 X-ray detectors are mounted on a semi-circular array
above the patient
 Because an X-ray tube and X-ray detector are heavy
moving parts, weighing as much as 250 kg
 Takes one second or more to take all the snapshots
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Beam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvw2TZBagDc&index=5&list=PLf1
3HXeCb7OYmjfjojg03N3dzs1fy2uaR

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Beam
 Time for scanning a slice can be of the order of 50
ms with electron beam tomography
 When combined with ECG triggering, EBCT can
permit a comprehensive cardiac imaging
 Examination including the quantitation of flow rate over
multiple heart beats
 Cardiac images obtained with a conventional CT
may be blurred due to motion artifact
 In contrast, images of the heart obtained with
electron beam tomography are precise and
reproducible
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Fifth Generation—Scanning Electron 75
Beam
 Detector array consists of two continuous ranges of
216° with 432 channels each
 Luminascent crystals coupled to silicon photo-diodes are
used
 Scanning electron beam emitted by an electron gun
is accelerated by 130–140 kV
 Electromagnetically focused and deflected over a
target in a typical time of 50–100 ms
 It was originally designed for cardiac examinations
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Beam
 Four anode rings and two detector rings which
enabled eight contiguous slices
 An area of approximately 8 X 8 mm
 Scanned without movement of the patient
 Basic difference between an electron beam scanner
and conventional units is that the patient is encircled
by stationary anode rings
 Which can thus be cooled directly
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Data Acquisition System in a CT

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Scanner
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Magnetic Resonance
& Radio Isotope
Imaging
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Magnetic Resonance
(MR)
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Magnetic Resonance
 Magnetic resonance
 Absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation by
electrons or atomic nuclei in response to the application of
certain magnetic fields
 MRI scanners use
 Strong magnetic fields
 Electric field gradients
 Radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body
 MRI does not involve X-rays and the use of ionizing
radiation
 Magnetic resonance imaging is a medical application
of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
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Magnetic Resonance
 MRI was originally called 'NMRI' (nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging) and is a form of NMR
 Certain atomic nuclei are able to absorb and emit radio
frequency energy when placed in an external magnetic field
 In clinical and research MRI
 Hydrogen atoms are most often used to generate a detectable radio-
frequency signal that is received by antennas in close proximity to the
anatomy being examined
 CT provides details about the bone and tissue structure of an
organ
 NMR highlights the liquid-like areas on those organs and can
also be used to detect flowing liquids, like blood
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Principle of MRI System
 Magnetic Moment
 All materials contain nuclei that are either protons or
neutrons or a combination of both (Show, 1971)
 Nuclei containing an odd number of protons or neutrons or
both in combination
 Possess a nuclear ‘spin’ and a magnetic moment which has
both magnitude and direction
 Magnetic moments of the nuclei making up the tissue are
randomly aligned
 Have zero net magnetization (M = 0)
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 Material is placed in a magnetic field B0
 Some of the randomly oriented nuclei experience an
external magnetic torque
 Which tends to align the individual parallel or anti-parallel
magnetic moments to the direction of an applied magnetic
field
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 Slight excess of nuclei aligned parallel with the
magnetic field
 This gives the tissue a net magnetic moment M0
 With the magnetic moments being randomly oriented
with respect to one another
 Components in the X-Y plane cancel one another out
 While the Z components along the direction of the applied
magnetic field add up to produce this magnetic moment M0
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 Electromagnetic theory
 Nucleus such as a hydrogen proton which possesses a
magnetic moment attempts to align itself with the magnetic
field in which it is placed
 Applied magnetic field with a resonant angular
frequency, w0 (called the Larmor frequency)
 Determined by a constant ᵞ (the magnetogyric ratio) and
the strength of the applied magnetic field B0
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RF pulse band width (BW) in Hz
constant ɣ (the magnetogyric ratio)
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Basic MRI Components
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A magnet
Which provides a strong uniform, steady, magnet
field B0
An RF transmitter
Which delivers radio-frequency magnetic field to
the sample
A gradient system
Which produces time-varying magnetic fields of
controlled spatial non-uniformity
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A detection system
Which yields the output signal
An imager system
Including the computer, which reconstructs and
displays the images.
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Sub-systems of a
typical NMR
imaging system
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 Functions such as gates and envelopes for the
NMR pulses
 Blanking for the pre-amplifier and RF power
amplifier
 Voltage waveforms for the gradient magnetic fields
are all under software control
 Computer
 Various data processing tasks including the Fourier
transformation, image reconstruction, data filtering, image
display and storage
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 Magnet
 Base field must be extremely uniform in space and constant
in time
 Its purpose is to align the nuclear magnets parallel to each other in
the volume to be examined
 SNR increases approximately linearly with the magnetic field
strength of the basic field
 It must be as large as possible
 Four factors characterize the performance of the
magnets used in MR systems
 Field strength
 Temporal Stability
 Homogeneity
 Bore size
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Magnet
 Temporal stability is important
 Since instabilities of the field adversely affect resolution.
 Gross non-homogeneities result in image distortion
 While the bore diameter limits the size of the dimension
of the specimen that can be imaged
 Magnetic field can be produced by means of four
different ways
 Permanent magnets
 Electromagnets
 Resistive magnets
 Super-conducting magnets
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Magnet
 Permanent magnet
 Patient is placed in the gap between a pair of
permanently magnetized pole faces
 Permanent magnet materials
 High carbon iron alloys such as alnico or neodymium iron
(alloy of neodymium, boron and iron)
 Ceramics such as barium ferrite
 Advantages of producing a relatively small fringing
field and do not require power supplies
 Produce relatively low fields of the order of 0.3 T or
less
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97
Magnet
Electromagnets
Make use of soft magnetic materials such as pole
faces
Which become magnetized only when electric
current is passed through the coils wound around
them
Require external electrical power supply
98
Magnet
Resistive magnets
Use of large current-carrying coils of aluminium
strips or copper tubes
Electrical power requirement increases
proportionately to the square of the field strength
Which becomes prohibitively high as the field strength
increases
Total power in the coils is converted into heat
which must be dissipated by liquid cooling
0.2 T, the power requirement is nearly 70 kW
Used except for very low field strength
applications, generally limited to 0.02 to 0.06 T
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99
Magnet
Modern NMR machines utilize
superconductive magnets
Which lose their electrical resistance fully below a
specific temperature
Commonly used superconducting material is Nb
Ti (Niobium Titanium) alloy
Which the transition temperature lies at 9 K (–264°C)
Superconductive magnet coils are cooled with
liquid helium
Which boils at a temperature of 4.2 K (–269°C)
100
Magnet
Superconductive magnets
Helium container with its superconductive
windings is enclosed in a vacuum
To keep the evaporation rate low
Internal shields cooled with liquid nitrogen prevent
heating due to radiated heat passing through the
vacuum vessel
Connection to a current supply is only necessary
for energizing up to the required field strength
After this, the coils are short-circuited and require
no further electrical energy
Magnetic field is temporarily stable
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101
Magnet - Superconductive Magnets

 Due to evaporation of the liquid helium and liquid
nitrogen
 Monthly topping of helium
 Weekly topping of nitrogen is necessary
 Evaporation rate in the earlier scanners
 About 0.5 l/h for liquid helium
 2 l/h for liquid nitrogen
 Make use of cryogenic refrigerators that reduce or
eliminate the need for refilling the liquid helium
reservoir
102
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103

 Superconducting magnets have become the most widely
used and preferred source of the main magnetic fields for
MRI scanners
 Produced for field strengths of up to 2 T
 1.5 T magnetic field, the current required by the
superconducting coils is of the order of 200 amp
 Diameter of the coils is about 1.3 m and total length of the
wire could be 65 kms
 A field strength of 0.5 T means that a nuclear resonance
frequency of 21.3 MHz is required for protons
 A field strength of 2 T means that 85.2 MHz is needed
104
Magnet
 NMR imaging systems usually incorporate magnets with a
maximum flux density of 0.5 T to 1.5 T
 In the system of international units (SI units), the ‘Tesla’ (T) is
the unit of magnetic flux density
 In some countries, the unit ‘Gauss’ (G) is also used
 For conversion 1 T=10,000 G = 10 kG
 Image quality of NMR scans depends upon
 Uniformity of the static magnetic field
 On its stability over a long period of time
 Short periods
 Uniformity of this magnet must be at least 20 ppm
 Stability at a level of 2 ppm
 Long periods
 10ppm
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105
106
RF Transmitter System
 Transmitter Function
 To activate the nuclei
 So that they emit a useful signal
 Energy must be transmitted into the sample
 Element
 RF transmitter
 RF power amplifier
 RF transmitting coils
 RF transmitter
 RF crystal oscillator at the Larmor frequency
 To generate RF pulses that excite the resonance
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107
RF power amplifier
Pulses are amplified to levels varying from 100 W
to several kW depending on the imaging method
Fed to the transmitter coil
RF coils
Either a single coil serving as both transmitter and
receiver or
Two separate coils that are electrically orthogonal
In both cases, all coils generate RF fields
orthogonal to the direction of the main magnetic
field
108
 Saddle-and solenoidal-shaped RF coils are typical geometries
for the RF coils
 Magnetic fields in the range of 0.05 to 2 T used for imaging of
the human body
 Resonant frequencies fall in the radio-frequency band
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109
 Example, in a field of 1 T
 1H resonates at 42.57 MHz
 19F at 40.05 MHz
 31P at 17.24 MHz
 13C at l0.71 MHz
 Resonance is extremely sharp
 Widths in the range of 10 Hz are typical of biological
systems
Detection System 110
 Function
 To detect the nuclear magnetization and generate an output signal for
processing by the computer
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111
Detection System
 Receiver coil usually surrounds the sample
 Acts as an antenna to pick up the fluctuating nuclear
magnetization of the sample
 Converts it to a fluctuating output voltage V(t)
 Where
 M(t, x) is the total magnetization in a volume
 Bc(x) -sensitivity of the receiver coil at different points in
space

112
Ultrasound &
Thermal Imaging
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113
Ultrasound & Thermal

Imaging
114
Diagnostic Ultrasound
 Ultrasound has become increasingly important in
medicine and has taken its place along with X-ray and
nuclear medicine as a diagnostic tool
 Non-invasive character and ability to distinguish
interfaces between soft tissues
 X-rays
 Respond to atomic weight differences
 Often require the injection of a more dense contrast medium
for visualization of non-bony tissues
 Nuclear medicine techniques
 Measure the selective uptake of radioactive isotopes in
specific organs to produce information concerning organ
function
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115
 Radioactive isotopes and X-rays are, thus, clearly
invasive
 Obtaining images of almost the entire range of
internal organs in the abdomen
 Kidney, liver, spleen, pancreas, bladder, major blood
vessels and of course, the foetus during pregnancy
 To present pictures of the thyroid gland, the eyes, the
breasts and a variety of other superficial structures
 Ultrasonic diagnostics has made possible the
detection of cysts, tumours or cancer in these organs
116
Main limitation of ultrasound, however, is that

it is almost completely reflected at boundaries
with gas
Is a serious restriction in investigation of and
through gas-containing structures
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Generation and Detection of

117
Ultrasound
 Piezoelectric effect
 Quartz, tourmaline and Rochelle salt
 Converting electrical energy into mechanical energy and
vice versa
 Natural crystals
 It is difficult to establish the appropriate axis and cut the
crystal in the required form
 Quartz has generally been replaced by synthetic
piezoelectric materials namely
 Barium nitrate and lead zirconate titanate

118
Ultrasound
 Materials with high mechanical Q factor
 Suitable as transmitters
 Low mechanical Q and high sensitivity are
 Preferred as receivers
 Lead zirconate Titanate (PZT) crystals
 Much better than quartz crystals upto a frequency of about
15 MHz
 High electro-mechanical conversion efficiency and low
intrinsic losses
 Operate at temperatures up to 100°C or higher and it is
stable over long periods of time
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Generation and Detection of 119
Ultrasound
 Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)
 Ferro-electric polymer that has been used effectively in high
frequency transducers
 Three parameters that are important in optimizing
transducers
 Frequency, active element diameter and focusing
 Higher frequencies (10-15 MHz) are used for
superficial organs, such as the eye, where deep
penetration is not required

120
Ultrasound
 Active Element Diameter (AED)

 Transducer face diameter increases
 Beam width decreases and therefore, lateral resolution
improve
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121
Generation and Detection of Ultrasound
 Patients’ body the transducer is to be positioned
 Depth in the body to the structures of interest
 Focusing
 Minimizing the beam width and adjusting the focal zone to
give optimum results for a particular examination
 Acoustic lenses can be used to shape the ultrasonic beam
pattern
 Modern transducers are internally focused and externally
are of flat face
122
Basic Pulse-echo
Apparatus
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123
Basic Pulse-echo Apparatus
 Probe
 Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator
 Transmitter
 Receiver
 Transmitter-Receiver Matching
 Wide Band Amplifier
 Swept Gain Control
 Detector
 Video Amplifier
 Time Delay Unit
 Display
124
 Pulse-echo technique of using ultrasound for
diagnostic purposes in medical field
 Transmitter
 Generates a train of short duration pulses at a repetition
frequency determined by the PRF generator
 Converted into corresponding pulses of ultrasonic
waves by a piezoelectric crystal acting as the
transmitting transducer
 Echoes from the target or discontinuity are picked up
by the same transducer and amplified suitably for
display on a cathode ray tube
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125
126
 X plates of the CRT are driven by
 Time base which starts at the instant when the transmitter
radiates a pulse
 Probe
 Transducer consists of a piezo-electric crystal which
generates and detects ultrasonic pulses
 Barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate
 Crystal is cut in such a way that it is mechanically resonant of
an increased efficiency of conversion of electrical energy to
acoustic energy
 Transducer is excited at its resonance frequency
 It will continue to vibrate mechanically for some time after the
electrical signal ceases
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127
 Transducer must have a good transient response
 Consequently a low Q is desirable
 Backing material is made thick enough for complete
absorption of the backward transmitted ultrasonic
waves
 Probes are designed
 To achieve the highest sensitivity and penetration
 Optimum focal characteristics and the best possible
resolution
 Single quarter wavelength design, however
 Provides optimal transmission of ultrasonic energy at a
particular wavelength only

128
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129
 Single quarter wavelength matching layer transducer
 Concave curvature
 Lead to air bubble entrapment or patient contact problems
 Multi-layer matching technology overcomes these
problems by interposing two layers between the
piezo-electric element and body
 Two materials are chosen with acoustic impedances
between the values for ceramic and tissue
 Stepwise transition of impedance from about 30 for
ceramic to about 1.5 for tissue
130
Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator
 Produces a train of pulses which control the
sequence of events in the rest of the equipment
 PRF is usually kept between 500 Hz to 3 kHz
 Blocking oscillator or some form of the astable multi-
vibrator
 Width of the output pulse
 Order of a micro-second
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Pulse Repetition Frequency Generator

131
Only a few micro-seconds are occupied by the

emission of the pulse
Transducer is free to act as a receiver for the
remainder of the time
Transmitter
Driven by a pulse from the PRF generator
Made to trigger an SCR circuit
Which discharges a capacitor through the piezo-electric
crystal in the probe to generate an ultrasonic signal
132
 Astable – A free-running multivibrator that

has NO stable states but switches continuously
between two states this action produces a train of
square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.
 Monostable – A one-shot multivibrator that has
only ONE stable state and is triggered externally
with it returning back to its first stable state.
 Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states
that produces a single pulse either positive or
negative in value.
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133
 Under normal conditions
 SCR is non-conducting
 Capacitor C1 can charge through the resistance R to the +V potential
 Short triggering positive pulse is applied to the gate of the
SCR
 It will fire and conduct for a short time
Circuit diagram of a transmitter

used in pulse-echo application
134
 Voltage at ‘A’ will fall rapidly resulting in a short
duration
 High voltage pulse at ‘B’
 This pulse appears across the crystal which
generates short duration ultrasonic pulse
 SCR 2N4203 can be used because
 Its high peak forward blocking voltage (700 V)
 High switching current capability (100 A)
 Fast turn-on time (100 ns)
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135
 Receiver
 Function of the receiver is to obtain the signal from the
transducer
 To extract from it the best possible representation of an
echo pattern
 Receiver bandwidth is about twice the effective transducer
bandwidth
 Transmitter-Receiver Matching
 A common source-receiver of ultrasound - sensitive input
stage of the receiving amplifier must be protected from the
high voltage transmission pulse
136
 During reception, the presence of Rs degrades the signal-to-
noise ratio due to signal attenuation
 Johnson noise and increased receiver amplifier noise due to
raised source impedance
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137
 Improved circuit to provide more effective transmitter/
receiver switching
138
 Echo-signals received at the receiving transducer are in
the form of modulated carrier frequency and may be as
small as a few microvolts
 Sufficient amplification before being fed to a detector
circuit for extracting modulating signals which carry the
useful information
 Desirable gain of wide band amplifier is of the order of 80-
100 dB
 Amplifier does not operate in the non-linear regions with
large input signals
 Low noise level to receive echoes from deep targets
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139
 A dual gate MOSFET which is very suitable for high
frequency signals and provides a high input impedance to
the signals from the transducer
 Log amplifier is usually utilized
 One can see small relative differences in both low amplitude and
high amplitude echoes in the same image
 Stronger echoes are received from the more proximal
zones under examination than from the deeper structures
 Receiving amplifier can only accept a limited range of
input signals without overloading and distortion
140
 Reduces the amplification for the first few centimetres of
body tissue and progressively increases it to a maximum
for the weaker echoes from the distal zone
 Detector
 After the logarithmic amplification, the echo signals are
rectified in the detector circuit
 Conventional diode-capacitor type with an inductive filter to
have additional filtering of the carrier frequency
 Demodulator circuit - synchronous demodulation intended
for FM sound demodulation in television receivers
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141
 Video Amplifier
 Signal requires further amplification after its demodulation
in the detector circuit before it can be given to the Y-plates
of the CRT
 Output of the detector circuit is typically around 1 V
 But for display on the CRT, the signal must be amplified to
about 100 to 150 V
 Amplifier must have a good transient response with
minimum possible overshoot
 Video amplifier is the RC coupled type
142
 Time Delay Unit
 SCR is fired
 Start of the trace can be delayed by the time delay unit so
that the trace can be expanded to obtain better display
 Time Base
 Time base speed is adjusted
 So that echoes from the deepest structures of interest will appear on
the screen before the beam has completely traversed it
 Speed of ultrasound in soft tissue to be about 1,500 m/s, a
time of 13.3 µs must be allowed
 Horizontal sweep generator is controlled by the PRF
generator
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143
Time Marker
Produces pulses that are a known time apart
Therefore correspond to a known distance apart
in human tissues
Marker pulses are given to the video amplifier and
then to the Y plates for display along with the
echoes
Display
CRT is not only a fast-acting device but also gives
a clear presentation of the received echo signals
‘Reject’ and ‘Damping’ controls
144
Thermal Imaging
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Medical Thermography 145
 Medical thermograph
 Sensitive infrared camera which presents a video image of
the temperature distribution over the surface of the skin
 Providing fairly good evidence of any abnormality
 Thermography still cannot be considered as a
diagnostic technique comparable to radiography
 Radiography
 Provides essential information on anatomical structures and
abnormalities
 Thermography
 Indicates metabolic process and circulation changes
146
Medical Thermography
 Human body absorbs infrared radiation almost
without reflection
 Emits part of its own thermal energy in the form of
infrared radiation
 Intensity of this radiant energy
 Corresponds to the temperature of the radiant surface
 Normal healthy subject
 Body temperature may vary considerably from time to time
 Skin temperature pattern - characteristic features, and a
remarkably consistent bilateral symmetry
73
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147
 Thermography
 Science of visualizing these patterns and determining any
deviations from the normal brought about by pathological
changes
148
 Advantages
 Completely non-invasive
 No contact between the patient and system as with
ultrasonography
 No radiation hazard as with X-rays
 Real-time system
 Mammary glands were the first organs that
thermography was clinically applied
 Cancer tissue metabolizes more actively than other
tissues and thus has a higher temperature
 Heat produced is conveyed to the skin
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149
150
 Application
 Assessment and monitoring of inflammatory joint diseases
 Diagnosing deep vein thrombosis
 Problem of peripheral circulation
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Thermographic Equipment
151
152
Digital Analysis System
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153
Digital Analysis System
 Analog outputs from the camera are converted into
digital thermo-profiles by the A-D converter of a
computer
 Control processing unit of the computer
 Converts digital values into true temperature values
based on the calibration data stored in the memory or
magnetic tape
154
Pyroelectric Vidicon
Camera
77
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155
Pyroelectric Vidicon Camera
 Pyroelectric vidicon is a thermal imaging tube
 Glass envelope
 Fitted with a germanium faceplate, matching the 8 to 14
mm atmospheric window
 Pyroelectric target mounted on a metal backing
plate
 That also acts as the video output electrode
 An electron gun and beam shaping electrodes like
those of a standard vidicon
 Gas reservoir heated by a tungsten filament
156
 Tube is surrounded by focusing and deflection coils
 Incoming thermal radiation
 Focused by an infrared transmitting lens through the
infrared transmitting face plate of the tube onto the target
 Target is a triglycine-sulphate (TGS) pyroelectric
 High sensitivity in the 8 to 14 µ mm range of the spectrum
 Certain types of crystals (ferro-electric) get polarized
in a well-defined direction, known as the polar axis
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157
 Slice of such a crystal will create an accumulation of
charge (on the faces normal to the polar axis)
 That is proportional to the variation in polarization caused
by the temperature change
 Called the pyroelectric effect
 Increase in pyroelectric coefficient with temperature
 Accompanied by a very rapid increase in the dielectric
constant of the material
 That reduces the efficiency with which the pyroelectric
changes can be read by the electron beam
158

 Pyroelectric materials also exhibit piezo-electric properties
79
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159

 Pre-amplifier and video amplifier
 Output signal current from the pyricon tube is low (0
to 50 nA)
 High current gain, low noise pre-amplifier must be used
 Typical pre-amplifier would have a bandwidth of 2.5
MHZ and a load resistance of 3.3 MΩ
 Temperature change of 1°C gives a tube signal
current of around 1 µA
 Pre-amplifier output signal of 3.3 mV
160
Video amplifier has a voltage gain of 60, its
output signal will be 3.3 X 60 = 200 mV
Clipping circuit is provided in the pyricon camera
Pyricon camera provides 0.5°C resolution at
ambient temperature
Common errors
Noise and thermal blurring
80

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10/11/2018

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

X-Ray & Computed

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Basic set-up for a diagnostic radiology image formation process

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Basics of Diagnostic Radiology

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Basics of Diagnostic Radiology

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Low density material such as air

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Basics of Diagnostic Radiology

 Examination is designated according to the organ

Basics of Diagnostic Radiology

X-rays, the wavelength is directly dependent on the voltage

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Stationary Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Stationary Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Stationary Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Stationary Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Stationary Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Rotating Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Rotating Anode Tube

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Flat Panel Detectors for Digital

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Flat Panel Detectors for Digital 45

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Flat Panel Detectors for Digital

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Computed Tomography (CT)

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University

Computed Tomography (CT)