10.86 10.

87
10 Connected Sets If we let
C = x ∈ R2 | kx − (1, 0)k ≤ 1

10.1 Example
Suppose that A and B are two subsets of E2 defined as follows: and

D = x ∈ R2 | kx − (−1, 0)k ≤ 1 and x 6= (0, 0)


2

A = x ∈ R | kx − (1, 0)k ≤ 1 or kx − (−1, 0)k ≤ 1 ;
B = x ∈ R2 | kx − (1.1, 0)k ≤ 1 or kx − (−1.1, 0)k ≤ 1 .

then
A = C ∪ D and C ∩ D = 0,
/
that is, A is the union of the two disjoint sets C and D.
10.2 Definition
Suppose that (M; d) is a metric space. Then a subset A of M is
said to be disconnected (or separated) if and only if there are
two open subsets of M, U and V , such that
A
(i) A ∩U 6= 0/ and A ∩V 6= 0.
/
(ii) U ∩V = 0.
/
(iii) A ⊂ U ∪V .

U
B V

Although both A and B are the union of two closed disks of

radius 1, B differs from A in that the two disks of A meet at the A
point (0, 0) but there is ‘empty space’ between the two disks of
B.
Notice that it is not enough to say that B differs from A
because B is the union of two disjoint sets. 10.3 In Example 10.1, B is disconnected but A is not
disconnected.
 10.88 10.89
10.4 A metric space M is disconnected (or separated) if and Since A is closed, M \ A is open.
only if there are two subsets U and V of M that have the Since A < M, that is, A is a proper subset of M, M \ A 6= 0.
/
following properties. Clearly, (M \ A) ∪ A = M and (M \ A) ∩ A = 0. / Therefore M is
disconnected. 
(i) U 6= 0/ and V 6= 0.
/
10.8 Corollary
(ii) U is open and V is open. M is connected if and only if the only subsets of M that are
(iii) U ∩V = 0.
/ both open and closed are 0/ and M. 
10.9 Definition
(iv) M = U ∪V .
A function f : A → B is said to be two-valued if and only if the
We say that U and V form an open partition of M. set of all values of f is a doubleton, that is, if and only if
# f (A) = 2.
10.5 Definition
A subset of a metric space is said to be connected if and only if 10.10 In this chapter we shall take the set of all values of any
it is not disconnected. In particular, a metric space is two-valued function f : A → R (or E1 ) to be {0, 1}.
connected if and only if it does not have an open partition.
10.11 Theorem
10.6 Recall that every metric space M has two subsets that M is disconnected if and only if there is a continuous
are both open and closed: 0/ and M itself. two-valued function f : M → E1 .
10.7 Theorem Proof
M is disconnected if and only if there is a proper non-empty
subset of M that is both open and closed. (i) Suppose that M is disconnected. Then there are two
Proof (i) Suppose that M is disconnected and that U and V disjoint non-empty open subsets U and V of M such that
form an open partition of M. M = U ∪V . Let
Since U ∩V = 0/ and U ∪V = M, V = M \U. Therefore, since (
0 if x ∈ U,
U is open, V is closed. f : M → E1 : x →
Since U 6= 0,
/ V 6= M. Therefore V is a proper, non-empty 1 if x ∈ V .
subset of M that is both open and closed.
Since U 6= 0/ and V 6= 0,
/ f is two-valued. We shall show that
(ii) Suppose that A is a proper non-empty subset of M and f is continuous.
that A is both open and closed.
 10.90 10.91
Let W be an open subset of E1 . What is the inverse image 10.12 Corollary
of W by f ? There are four possibilities, one of which must A subset A of M is disconnected if and only if there is a
be true. continuous two-valued function f : A → E1 . 

(a) If 0 ∈ / W then f −1 (W ) = 0.
/ W and 1 ∈ / 10.13 Recall that a subset I of R is an interval if and only if,
for all a, b ∈ I, if x lies between a and b then x ∈ I.
/ W then f −1 (W ) = U.
(b) If 0 ∈ W and 1 ∈
10.14 Theorem
/ W and 1 ∈ W then f −1 (W ) = V .
(c) If 0 ∈ A subset of E1 is connected if and only if it is an interval.
(d) If 0 ∈ W and 1 ∈ W then f −1 (W ) = M. Proof (i) Let I ⊂ E1 be an interval.
Suppose that I is disconnected. Then, by Theorem 10.11, there
Thus, for any open subset W of E1 , f −1 (W ) is open in M. is a continuous two-valued function f : I → E1 . Since
Therefore Theorem 6.9 implies that f is continuous. f (I) = {0, 1}, there exist x and y ∈ I such that f (x) = 0 and
(ii) Suppose that f : M → E1 is a continuous two-valued f (y) = 1. Let J be the compact interval whose end-points are x
function. and y.
Let U = f −1 (0) and V = f −1 (1). Then it is clear that U and Since I is an interval, J ⊂ I. Therefore f is a real-valued
V are both non-empty, that U ∩V = 0/ and that U ∪V = M. function that is defined and continuous on a compact interval J
To complete the proof we shall prove that both U and V are and that takes the values 0 and 1 at the end-points of J. The
open. Intermediate Value Theorem implies that f is not two-valued.
The open ball B(0; 0.5) is an open subset of E1 that Therefore I is connected.
contains 0 but no other value of f — since it does not (ii) Let A be a subset of E1 that is not an interval. We shall
contain 1. Therefore prove that A is disconnected.
f −1 B(0; 0.5) = f −1 (0) = U. Since A is not an interval, there exist a, b, and x ∈ A such that

Also (a) a < x < b,

f −1 B(1; 0.5) = f −1 (1) = V. (b) a ∈ A and b ∈ A,
Therefore, since f is continuous, Theorem 6.9 implies that
(c) x ∈
/ A.
U and V are both open sets. Therefore M is disconnected.
 Let U = (←, x) and V = (x, →). U and V are open subsets of
E1 .
 10.92 10.93
Since a ∈ U, U ∩ A 6= 0;
/ since b ∈ V , V ∩ A 6= 0.
/
Clearly, U ∩V = 0./
Since x ∈/ A and U ∪V = E1 \ {x}, A ⊂ U ∪V .
Therefore A is a disconnected subset of E1 .  A

10.15 Theorem
Suppose that M and N are metric spaces, that A is a non-empty
connected subset of M, and that f : M → N is continuous.
Then f (A) is a connected subset of N.
Proof
We shall prove this theorem by showing that if f (A) is
disconnected then A is disconnected.
Suppose that f (A) is disconnected. Then Corollary 10.12
implies that there is a continuous two-valued function
g : f (A) → E1 . Clearly,
g ◦ f (A) = g( f (A)) = {0, 1}.
Thus g ◦ f : A → E1 is two-valued. But, since f and g are
continuous, g ◦ f is continuous. Therefore, by
Corollary 10.12, A is disconnected. 
f (A)
a b c
Proof Theorem 10.15 implies that f (A) is a connected
subset of E1 . Therefore, by Theorem 10.14, f (A) is an
interval. Therefore, since a and c ∈ f (A), [a, c] ⊂ f (A).
Therefore b ∈ f (A). 
10.17 Corollary 10.16 is an extension of the Intermediate
Value Theorem where an interval has been replaced as the
domain of a continuous real-valued function by a connected
subset of a metric space.

10.16 Corollary
Suppose that A is a connected subset of M and that f : A → E1
is continuous. Suppose also that a, b, and c ∈ R are such that
(i) a ≤ b ≤ c;
(ii) a and c ∈ f (A).
Then b ∈ f (A).