CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION

A. Translation

1. Definitions of Translation

The term of translation offered by the experts is varying, according to their view

on the language and translation. However, in simply, translation is an operation

performed in languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in

another.1 Based on Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, translation is “the process

of changing something that is written or spoken into another language”. 2 Cartford

stressed the notion of translation as the process of substituting a text from one

language into another language.3 Nida and Taber state that the translation should be

the closest natural equivalent of source language, both in the meaning and the style of

receptor language.4 In other words, a translator optimally attempts to convey the

content and the style of source language. Newmark defines translation as “rendering

the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the

text”.5 According to Larson, “translation consists of transferring the meaning of the

1
J. C. Catford, A Linguistics Theory of Translation, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965) p.1
2
A.S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (New York: New York Oxford University
Press, 2000), p. 1438
3
J.C. Cartford (1965), Op.Cit. p. 20
4
E.A. Nida and C. Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1982), p. 12.
5
Peter Newmark, A Textbook of Translation (UK: Prentice Hall International, 1988), p.5

9
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source language into the receptor language”.6 Thus, they agree that something which

is transferred in a translation is meaning, not form. Besides that, there should be

naturalness in the meaning as the rules of receptor language.7 Wills argues that the

purpose of translation is to get the optimal equivalent and there must be semantic and

pragmatic understanding in receptor language text and there also must be analytical

processing in finding the equivalent. He also pointed that translation is a written

transferring.8 In their book, Hatim and Mason propose the definition of translation

which is suitable to literary translation. It can be used as a foundation for

understanding of literary text translation. They say that translating is looked upon as

“an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic

boundaries, another act of communication (which may have been intended for

different purposes and different readers/hearers)”.9

2. Translation Process

The process of translation can be acquired as in the figure10 below:

6
Mildred L. Larson, Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence (Lanham:
University Press of America, 1984), p. 3.
7
Maurits. D.S. Simatupang, Pengantar Teori Terjemahan (Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi:
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 1999/2000), p. 2.
8
Wolfram Wills, “Translation Equivalence”, Ten Paper on Translation, ed. Richard B.Noss
(Singapura: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 1982), p. 3.
9
Basil Hatim and Ian Mason, The Translator as Communicator (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 1
10
E.A. Nida and C. Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1982), p. 33
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Source Language Text Receptor Language Translation

Analysis Restructuring

X Y

Transfer

The figure explains that translation process starts in analysis phase, where the

message is understood and decoded from the source language text. The message got

from understanding SLT, then, results proposition X will be transferred into TL

proposition, Y, in the second phase. The proposition Y is recoded in the third phase

then, where the message is restructured into TL in the form of target language text.

The result of this phase is the receptor language translation.

3. Types of Translation

According to Cartford, type of translation differentiates one another at the

category of extent, levels, and ranks. Category of extent is determined by the length

of text is translated: it may be a whole library of books, a single volume, a chapter,

paragraph, a sentence, a clause...etc. meanwhile, the category of levels is determined

by the level in which the translation is made: it can be at grammatical or lexical level.

Finally, the category of ranks is determined by the ranks at which translation occur: at
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one point, the equivalence is sentence-to-sentence, at another, group-to-group, at

another word-to-word, etc. the discussion below explains each type of translation in

the every category.

At the category of extent, Cartford distinguished translation into:

1. Full translation where the entire text is submitted to the translation

process: that is, every part of the SL text id replaced by TL text material.

2. Partial Translation which left some part of part of the SL text untranslated:

they are simply transferred to and incorporated in the TL text.11

At the category of levels, there are two types as well:

1. Total Translation is the replacement of SL grammar and lexis equivalent

TL grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of SL

phonology/graphology by (non-equivalent) TL phonology/graphology.

2. Restricted Translation is the replacement of SL textual material by

equivalent TL textual material, at only one level. 12

At the category of ranks, Cartford distinguishes the other two types:

1. Rank-bounded translation is the one in which the selection of TL

equivalents is deliberately confined to one rank (or a few ranks, low in the

rank scale) in the hierarchy of grammatical units. The popular term of this

type may be called as word-for-word translation.

11
J. C. Catford, A Linguistics Theory of Translation, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965) p. 21
12
Ibid., p. 22
 13

2. Rank-unbounded translation is the one in which equivalences shift freely

up and down the rank scale. The popular term for this type is the free

translation.13

Besides the mentioned type of translation above, Cartford distinguishes the other

two types, they are:

1. Phonological Translation in which SL phonology is replaced by

equivalent TL phonology, but there are no other replacements except such

grammatical or lexical changes as may result accidentally from

phonological translation: e.g. an English plural, such as cats, may come

out as apparently a singular cat in phonological translation into a language

which has no final consonant clusters.

2. Graphology Translation is the replacement of SL graphology by

equivalent TL graphology, with no other replacements, except accidental

changes.14

4. Method and Technique in Translation

Method of Translation is varying as well since the translator cannot be faith with

only one method to translate SL into TL. Method is the way used in translation

process that works on the whole text as a united context. Newmark distinguishes the

method into eight types as Word-for-word translation, Literal translation, faithful

13
Ibid., p. 24-25
14
Ibid., p. 23
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translation, Semantic translation, adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation,

and communicative translation. However, applying Hervey and Higgins ideas, Hoed

has simplified the method into six types as follow:

1. Exotic Method is the translation that keeps the original exotic word or

expression in order to maintain the exoticism. The term is clearly seen in

translating the sentence:

SL: “Would you like some bacon and egg?’’ Mrs. Henry Rice said

coaxingly.

TL: “Mau bacon dan telur?” kata Nyonya Henry Rice lemah embut.

It is clear that the word of bacon is kept in its original form to keep the

exoticism of the text. It is uncommon to use bacon in bahasa Indonesia,

and the translator keep it to make it has exotic sense in the translation.

2. Cultural Borrowing is the way to translate the specific term such as

Gestalt in Psychology and Philosophy. The word Gestalt is left as its

original form in TLT. This method does also cover the borrowing words

which adopt the SL words into TL words. Example in word gender is

translated into jender; or management is translated into manajemen.

However, this method works as well in loan word which SL word is

directly used in TL like in the word email, save, on, and chatting, that

bahasa Indonesia has accepted the word in its usage of the language.

3. Calque is the method to translate idiomatic expression from SL into TL

although the translation senses uncommon. Calque way occur in words as

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it may be classified to be cultural borrowing, but calque occur more in

phrase or sentence as well. Example:

SL: To be or not be. That is the question.

TL: Ada atau tiada. Itu pertanyaannya.

It can be seen that the idiomatic expression ada atau tiada. Itu

pertanyaannya is uncommon used in bahasa Indonesia usage.

4. Communicative Translation is focusing on transferring the message while

the translation is made in the acceptable and natural TL. The idiomatic

expression of chercher la femme may be literally translated as carilah

perempuan itu. However, the translation does not convey the full sense of

the original expression. Using the communicative translation, the

expression, the expression is translated into carilah penyebabnya pada

perempuan. Now it is clear that both of the translation result keeps the

different equivalence; but, since the communicative translation focuses on

the transferring message, this method seems to be accurate in translation.

5. Idiomatic Translation is the method of translating SL idiom into TL

idiom. The example is the idiom of It’s raining cat and dog that can be

translated with adaptation as Hujan bagaikan dicurahkan dari langit. The

idiom of De aap komt uit de mouw can be equivalent in bahasa Indonesia

idiom of Ketahuan belangnya or Ketahuan aslinya (depends on the

context).
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6. Adaptation is the term, used by Newmark as well, that the SL cultural

elements is substituted with the TL cultural elements. Example is in the

translation of Lafontaine’s fable, where the character of fox is substituted

with kancil that has similar characteristics: smart, cunning, and tricky.

Meanwhile the cheese in the fable is substituted with dendeng in bahasa

Indonesia. The dendeng is more common in this language than cheese, so

the translation should adapt it.15

Method of translation is working together with the technique of translation which

works on the smaller unit of translation such as sentence, clause, phrase, and word;

and it will be discussed below:

1. Transposition is the technique which changes the SL structure into TL

structure to create an equivalent effect. Example: musical instruments are

translated into alat musik, where in musical instruments structure; nominal

of instrument precedes the adjective of musical. Meanwhile, in alat musik,

nominal of alat precedes the adjective of music.16

2. Modulation is the technique used to give equivalent contextual meaning

but semantically different in view or scope of meaning. Hoed says about

it: “Penerjemahan memberikan padanan yang secara semantik berbeda

15
Benny Hoedoro Hoed, Penerjemahan dan kebudayaan, (Jakarta: PT Dunia Pustaka Jaya, 2006) p.
59-65
16
Zuchridin Suryawinata and Sugeng Hariyanto, Translation: Bahasan Teori dan Penunutn Praktis
Menerjemahkan, (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius, 2007) p. 68-69
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sudut pandang atau cakupan maknanya, tetapi dalam konteks yang

bersangkutan memberikan pesan/maksud yang sama.” Example:

SL: The laws of Germany govern this agreement.

TL: Perjanjian ini diatur oleh hukum Jerman.

It is seen that the translation of the SL sentence is translated into passive

form meanwhile the SL sentence itself is active. Although there is change

in the translation of govern, the equivalent contextual meaning is remain

similar.17

3. Descriptive equivalent, as its name, tries to describe meaning and function

of SL words. The descriptive equivalent is done since the translator cannot

find SL equivalent words because he doesn’t know the equivalence or

there is actually no equivalence in TL words so that he makes a

description of the TL words. Example: Licensed software is translated into

Perangkat lunak yang dilisensikan.18

4. Contextual conditioning is the technique that gives special word to explain

a certain strange word (for instance, the name of food or drink). Example:

SL: She prefers the black Label rather than the ordinary Johny Walker.

TL: Ia lebih suka wiski Johny Walker Black Label dari pada yang biasa.

17
Benny Hoedoro Hoed, Op. Cit., p. 74
18
Ibid., p. 74-75
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Notice that TL word of wiski explains the name of Johny Walker alcoholic

drink.19

5. Addition gives additional information of SL word. Addition of additional

information can be put in the body of the text or out the body of the text in

footnotes. Example:

SL: The skin, which hard and scaly is grayish in color, thus helping to

camouflage it from predators when underwater.

TL: kulitnya yang keras dan bersisik, berwarna abu-abu. Dengan

demikian, kulit ini membantunya berkamuflase, menyesuaikan diri dengan

keadaan lingkungan untuk menyelamatkan diri dari predator, hewan

pemangsa, jika berada dalam air.

Notice that camouflage and predator are given the additional information

in TL in the body text.20

6. Phonologic translation is made as the translator cannot find the

appropriate equivalence in TL (especially in bahasa Indonesia) so that he

makes a new word taken from SL word sound to be suited with TL

phonology and graphology. Example: emitent into emiten,cryptographic

software into perangkat lunak kriptografi, and democratie into

demokrasi.21

19
Ibid., p.75
20
Zuchridin Suryawinata and Sugeng Hariyanto, Op. Cit., p. 74-75
21
Benny Hoedoro Hoed, Op. Cit., p. 76
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7. Legal translation is made by using the available SL equivalence in TL.

There are some expression, name, area, or institution that is legally

available translated so that the translator can use it directly. Example:

Receiver (in law) into kurator, input into masukan (general) or asupan (in

medicine) or input (in economy, electricity), and Munich into Munchen.22

8. Borrowing is the technique when SL words are given no equivalence as

the translator cannot find the SL equivalence in TL so that the SL word is

just used in TL.23 This may use the addition technique as well,

Example:

SL: Some products of XYZ may require you to agree to additional terms

through an on-line “click-wrap” license.

TL: Beberapa produk XYZ dapat mewajibkan anda untuk menyetujui

ketentuan-ketentuan tambahan mealui suatu lisensi “on-line click-wrap”24

9. Cultural equivalence is the technique that substitutes the SL cultural word

with the equivalent TL cultural word. Example:

SL: Next week the Attorney General Andi Ghalib will visit Switzerland.

TL: Minggu depan Jaksa Agung Andi Ghalib akan berkunjung ke Swiss.

It can be realized that the SL cultural word of Attorney General has an

equivalent TL cultural word of Jaksa Agung. The words keep the same

content.25

22
Ibid., p. 76-77
23
Zuchridin Suryawinata and Sugeng Hariyanto, Op. Cit., p. 70-71
24
Benny Hoedoro Hoed, Op. Cit., p. 78
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10. Omission or Deletion is done to the word or part of SL text in the TL text.

This means that there are some words or part of the SL text is, in

realization, deleted or not translated in the TL text. It is done may be

because the deleted part is not really important or give no an essential

implication to the general message of the SL. Example:

SL: “Sama dengan raden ayu ibunya.” Katanya lirih.

TL: “Just like her mother.” She whispered.

It is seen that raden and ayu are deleted in translating the sentence into

TL. The message is still the same although the word raden and ayu are not

translated, it is about mother

B. Borrowing

Thirumalai states borrowing is generally resorted to when the target language has

no equivalent for the source language word. Borrowing may be structural or

conceptual. Even in languages which are generally the same as loan translation (idea

translation). In some cases the source language equivalent may be translated using an

expression not of the target language but of another familiar language.26

25
Zuchridin Suryawinata and Sugeng Hariyanto, Op. Cit., p. 72
26
M. S. Thirumalai, http://www.languageinindia.com/jan2002/howlang.html#chapter9, 2006 (July 6,
2012)
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Similarly, Larson states borrowing word is a word borrowed from another

language which is completely new to the receptor language speakers. 27 Borrowing

word will have no meaning unless it is modified is some way to build the meaning

into the context. For example, the word ‘Amazon’ could be translated river called

Amazon (Aguaruna, Peru). The word ‘Amazon’ has not meaning unless it is modified

with the other word. Furthermore, Duff uses the term ‘original’ for a word or a phrase

that translated as the original text. He says that, “The ordering of the word and ideas

in the translation should match the original as closely as possible...it will be better if

the translator doesn’t change the style of the original”.28 The translator should find

the closest meaning of the borrowing word which should match to the source

language meaning.

From the definition of translation, based on Duff says that in translating text

sometime the study has problem to translate idiomatic expression including similes,

metaphors, slang and colloquialisms. To solve these problems, there are some hints

that can be used. For example, keep the original in inverted commas, keep the

original expression with a literal explanation in the bracket, and use a non idiomatic

translation.29 In addition, the word “original” in all three statements above is used to

explain the original written text that should be translated (source language) but not all

27
Mildred L. Larson, Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence (Lanham:
University Press of America, 1984), p. 186
28
Alan Duff, Translation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 10
29
Ibid.
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the words has the equivalent in the target language. Those ways are used in order to

easily understand by the target readers.

Hence, the borrowing word is a word adopted by the speakers of one language

from a different language (the source language). Then, the borrowing word can be

defined by the translator to transfer the messege or the idea from one language into

the other without changing the style. The translator usually does not find the

equivalent meaning from the source language into the target language. Th translator

also does not want to change the cultural aspects. The cultural aspects is important in

translation when the source language is different from the target language. For

instance, football is translated as football. The word football is not an Indonesian

word so this word is included in the original classification or borrowing word. “Sepak

bola” is more familiar in Indonesia than “football”. “Football” means a game for two

teams in which a ball is thrown away across the field to get a goal, while “sepak bola”

means a game for two teams in which a ball is kicked in the field in order to get a

goal. It is obvious that what is meant by “football” is different from “sepak bola” in

Indonesian. From the explanation before, Indonesian has the similiar word for

“football”; i.e. “rugby”.

According to Ronald Wardaugh in his book, Introduction to Linguistics,

borrowing is another way of adding new vocabulary items to language. 30 Borrowing

30
Ronald Wardaugh, Introduction to Linguistics (USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company 1972), p.181
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generally deliberates the absorption of lexicon in which Hocket classified this into

three types, as follows:31

1. Loanwords: “Loanword is the process of morphological importation

involving no morphological replacement but with or without substitution in

phoneme.” Example: Data: Data

2. Loan blends: “Loan blend is the combination of morphological substitution

and importation, but the structure fits the model.” Example: Instruction:

Instruksi

3. Loan shifts: “Loan shift is the morphological substitution without

importation but involves loan translation and semantic loans.” Example:

umpan balik: feedback, penyerapan: borrowing

In addition, loanwords can be classified into two types: verbal and non- verbal

loanwords. Verbal loanwords are the loanwords which can be found in verbal

communication, while non-verbal loanwords are the loanwords used in written

text.

C. Change meaning

According to Albert C. Baugh in his book A Story of English language stated that

there are four kinds of the change meaning:32

31
Charles F. Hocket, A Course in Modern Linguitics (USA: MacMillan Publishing co., inc:1958), p.
408-413
32
Albert C. Baugh, A History of the English Language, Fourth Edition, (London: Routledge, 1993),
pp. 302-303
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1. Extension of meaning: “That is process of word experience the change of

meaning from specific into general meaning. It is also called widening or

generalization, it means the word is widening from the special meaning.

When the word became widening its meaning, that word means have several

meaning, not only in one field of science but also in another field.” For

example: the word ‘putera’ and ‘puteri’ used to mean King’s sons or

daughters, but now boy also can called ‘putera’ and girl also called ‘puteri’.

2. Narrowing of meaning: “Narrowing also called specialization. This is a

process of word experience of meaning from general into specific meaning.

In narrowing, the general word change became narrow meaning.” For

example: the word of ‘sarjana’ used to mean a smart person, but now

‘sarjana’ have meaning university graduated.

3. Regeneration of meaning: “Regeneration is a process of meaning change,

the new meaning goes up more higher or better than the old meaning,

regeneration is also called ameliorative, the positive and pleasant meaning is

aimed in it.” For example: the word of ‘wanita’ is better to use than

‘perempuan’.

4. Degeneration of meaning: “Degeneration also called pejorative is a process

of meaning changes where the new meaning changed goes down lower than

the old meaning. Degeneration aim to the negative or unpleasant meaning.”

For example: the word of ‘hostes’ now have negative or lower meaning

whereas originally the meaning of ‘hostes’ was not low.