Limits & Continuity

Limit of a Function

x2 - 9
f(x) = is defined for all x except at x = 3.
x-3

(x2 - 9) (x - 3)(x + 3)
If x  3, f(x) = = = (x + 3)
x-3 (x - 3)

x 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.99 3.01 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

f(x) 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.99 6.01 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

As x approaches 3 from left hand Similarly, as x approaches 3 from right

side of the number line, f(x) hand side of the number line, f(x)
increases and becomes close to 6 decreases and becomes close to 6

i.e. lim f(x) = 6 i.e. lim f(x) = 6

x3- x3+
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Left Hand Limit

lim
x 3-

x takes the values

2.91 Y
2.95
2.9991
.. x
2.9999 ……. 9221 etc. X
O 3

x3

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Right Hand Limit
Y
lim
x 3+ 3
X
O
x

x takes the values 3.1

3.002
3.000005
……..
3.00000000000257 etc.

x3

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Existence Theorem on Limits

lim ƒ  x  exists iff lim ƒ  x  and lim ƒ  x  exist and are equal.
xa xa- xa+

i.e. lim ƒ  x  exists  lim ƒ  x  = lim ƒ  x 

xa xa- xa+

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Example
Which of the following limits exist:
x
i lim
x 0 x

x
Solution : i Let f  x  =
x

0-h -h
LHL at x = 0  = xlim f  x  = lim f 0 - h  =lim =lim = -1
0 - h0 h0 0-h h  0 h

0+h h
RHL at x = 0 = xlim f  x  = lim f 0 + h =lim =lim = 1
0 + h0 h0 0 + h h0 h

x
lim f  x   lim+ f  x  lim does not exist.
x  0- x 0 x 0 x

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Theorems on Limit:

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Theorems on Limit:

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Examples:

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Examples:

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Examples:

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 Analytic Techniques

Direct substitution
First substitute the value of x being
approached into the function f(x). If this is a real
number then the limit is that number.
› If the function is piecewise defined, you must perform the
substitution from both sides of x. The limit exists if both
sides yield the same value. If different values are produced,
we say the limit does not exist.
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 Analytic Techniques
Rewrite algebraically if direct substitution
produces an indeterminate form such
as 0/0
› Factor and reduce
› Rationalize a numerator or denominator
› Simplify a complex fraction

When you rewrite you are often producing another function that agrees with the
original in all but one point. When this happens the limits at that point are equal.
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Algebraic Limits (Substitution Method)
The limit can be found directly by substituting the value of x.


For example : lim 2x2 + 3x + 4
x2

2
= 2 2  + 3 2  + 4 = 8 + 6 + 4 = 18

x2 +6 22 +6 10 5
lim = = =
x2 x+2 2+2 4 2

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Example

𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 + 2
Find lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−4

Solution
𝑥 3 −6𝑥+2 23 −6 2 +2
lim = = 1
𝑥→2 𝑥−4 2−4

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Algebraic Limits (Factorization Method)
When we substitute the value of x in the rational expression it
0
takes the form .
0
x2 - x - 6 0 
For example: lim 3  0 form
x 3 x -3x2 +x -3

x2 -3x+2x - 6
=lim 2
x3 x (x -3)+1(x -3)

(x -3)(x+2)
=lim
x3 (x2 +1)(x -3)

x -2 3-2 1
=lim = =
x3 x2 +1 32 +1 10

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Example
x3 -125
Evaluate: lim 2
x5 x -7x+10

x3 -  5 
3
x3 -125
Solution: lim 2 =lim 2
x 5 x - 7x +10 x 5 x -5x - 2x -10

(x -5)(x2 +5x+25)
=lim
x 5 (x -2)(x -5)

(x2 +5x+25)
=lim
x5 x -2

52 +5×5+25 25+25+25
= = =25
5-2 3

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Find the indicated limit
0

x  x6
2 direct substitution fails
lim
x 3 x3 0

( x  3)( x  2) Rewrite and cancel

lim
x 3 x3
lim ( x  2) =-5 now use direct sub.
x 3

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Example
 1 1 
Evaluate: lim (x2 - 9)  +
x 3
 x +3 x - 3 

 1 1 
Solution: lim (x2 - 9)  +
x 3
 x +3 x - 3 

 x - 3+ x +3 
=lim(x +3)(x - 3)  
x 3
 (x +3)(x - 3) 

=lim 2x
x 3

=2×3=6

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Algebraic Limits (Rationalization Method)
When we substitute the value of x in the rational expression it
0 
takes the form , etc.
0 

x2 -16 0 
For example: lim  0 form
x 4
x2 +9 -5

x2 -16 ( x2 +9 +5)
=lim
x 4 2
×
2
Rationalizing the denominator 
( x +9 -5) ( x +9 +5)

x2 -16
=lim 2 ×( x2 +9 +5)
x4 (x +9-25)

x2 -16
=lim 2 ×( x2 +9 +5)
x4 x -16

=lim( x2 +9 +5) = 42 +9 +5 = 5+5=10

x4

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Find the indicated limit
0

x 1 1 direct substitution fails

lim
x 0 x 0

x 1 1 x 1 1 x
lim *  lim
x 0 x x  1  1 x 0 x[ x  1  1]
Rewrite and cancel

1 1
lim  now use direct sub.
x 0 x 1 1 2
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Example
a+2x - 3x
Evaluate:lim
x a
3a+ x - 2 x

a+2x - 3x
Solution: lim
x a
3a+ x - 2 x

a+2x - 3x 3a+ x +2 x
=lim × Rationalizing the denominator 
x a
3a+ x - 2 x 3a+ x +2 x

a+2x - 3x
=lim × 3a+ x +2 x
x a 3a+ x - 4x

3a+ x +2 x a+2x + 3x
=lim × a+2x - 3x × Rationalizing the numerator 
x a 3(a- x) a+2x + 3x

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Solution Cont.
3a+ x +2 x a+2x - 3x
=lim ×
x a
a+2x + 3x 3(a- x)

3a+ x +2 x a- x
= lim ×
x a
a+2x + 3x 3(a- x)

3a+ x +2 x 1
=lim ×
x a
a+2x + 3x 3

3a+ a +2 a 1 2 a +2 a 1
= × = ×
a+2a + 3a 3 3a + 3a 3

4 a 1 2
= × =
2 3a 3 3 3

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Example
3+ x - 5- x
Evaluate: lim
x 1 x2 -1

3+ x - 5- x
Solution: lim
x 1 x2 -1

3+ x - 5 - x 3+ x + 5 - x
= lim 2
× Rationalizing the numerator 
x 1 x -1 3+ x + 5 - x

3+x -5+x 1 2(x -1) 1

=lim × =lim ×
x1 x2 -1 3+x + 5- x x 1 (x -1)(x+1)
3+x + 5- x

→
2 2
=lim =
x 1
 x+1  3+x + 5- x  1+1  3+1+ 5-1 
2 1
= =
2( 4 + 4) 4
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Example
x5 - a5
If lim = 405, find all possible values of a .
xa x-a

x5 - a5
Solution: We have lim = 405
xa x-a

5-1  xn - an n-1 
5 a = 405 lim
 x a = na 
 x-a 

 a4 = 81

 a=± 3

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 Find the indicated limit
5
 x 2  1, x  2 calculate one sided limits
f ( x)  
5 x  3, x  2 7
lim f ( x)
x 2

lim f ( x)  5 lim f ( x)  7
x 2 x 2

Since the one-sided limits are not equal, we say the

limit does not exist. There will be a jump in the graph
at x =2
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 Figure 1.24: The graph of f () = (sin )/.
Determine the limit on y = sin θ/θ as θ
approaches 0.

Although the function is undefined at θ = 0, the

limit as θ 0 is 1.
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 Figure 1.37: The graph of y = e1/x for x < 0 shows
A one-sided
lim – e
limit 11)
= 0. (Example
1/x
x 0

lim x  0  0

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Limits that are infinite (y increases without bound)

1 1
lim x  4  lim x  3  
x4 x3

1
lim x 2  
2 x
An infinite limit will exist as x approaches a finite value when direct substitution produces
not zero
0
If an infinite limit occurs at x = c we have a vertical asymptote with the equation
x = c. SAIDA/JKBR/2016 29
2.5 Continuity
Figure in (a) at
1.50: The function x =is 0continuous
in (a) but notatinx =other
0; the
graphs.
functions in (b) through ( f ) are not.

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Conditions for continuity

A function y = f(x) is continuous at x = c if and only

if:

 The function is defined at x = c

 The limit as x approaches c exists
 The value of the function and the value of the limit
are equal.

f (c)  lim f ( x)
x c
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Figure 1.53: Composites of continuous functions are
continuous.

Composite Functions

If two functions are continuous at x = c then their composition will be continuous.

Example: f ( x)  x  4 2 is continuous for all reals.

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 Exploring Continuity

cx 2
if x  1

4 if x  1
 x3  mx if x  1


Are there values of c and m that make the function continuous

at x = 1? Find c and m or tell why they do not exist.

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Exploring Continuity
cx2
if x  1 lim f ( x)  c(1)2  c
x 1
 
 4 if x  1 f (1) 4
 x3  mx if x  1 lim f ( x)  (1)3  m(1)  1  m
 x 1

c4

1  m  4
m5

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Derivative : Tangent lines, velocity & general rates of
changes
Definition. Suppose 𝑥0 is in the
domain of the function 𝑓. The
tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
at the point P (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥)) is the line
with equation

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0

Where,
𝒇 𝒙 − 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒎𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒃→𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒙𝒐

Provided this limit exists

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 ∆𝒚 𝒇 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒉 − 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒄 = =
∆𝒙 𝒉
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Other form for Slope of secant line of tangent
line
Let h = x - a Then x = a + h

y f (a  h)  f (a )
msec  
x h

f ( a  h)  f (a )
mtan  lim h0
h
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Example

Find an equation of the tangent line to y = 2x3 – 4 at the point P(2, 12)
f ( x)  f (a)
mtan  lim x a
xa
(2 x3  4)  12 2 x3  16
lim x2  lim x2
x2 x2
2( x  2)( x 2  2 x  4)
lim x2 
x2

lim x2 2( x  2 x  4)  24
2

So, m = 24. Use the point slope form to write the equation

y  12  24( x  2) y  24 x  36
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Find an equation of the tangent line at (3, ½) to
2
y
x 1 m  lim
f ( a  h)  f (a )
tan h 0
h
2 2
 2(a  1)  2(a  h  1)

lim h0 a  h  1 a  1
lim h 0
h(a  1)(a  h  1)
h
2a  2  2a  2h  2 2h
lim h 0  lim h 0
h(a  1)(a  h  1) h(a  1)(a  h  1)
2 2
limh0  At a = 3, m = - 1/8
(a  1)(a  h  1) (a  1)2
Using the point-slope formula:

1 1 1 7
y    ( x  3) y x
2 8 8 SAIDA/JKBR/2016
8 39
Velocity

s s s

so s o

Elapsed time Ball Ball

moving moving
t up down t
0

Car moves only in the Position vs. time curve Position vs. time curve
positive direction

𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇 𝒕𝟎 +𝒉 −𝒇(𝒕𝟎 )
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒉

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Instantaneous Velocity

𝒇 𝒕𝟎 +𝒉 −𝒇(𝒕𝟎 )
𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 = lim
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

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Instantaneous Rate of Change

A function f when x = a can be

written as s
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
lim
𝑏→𝑎 𝑏−𝑎

f(b)
Provided this limit exists f(b) – f(a)
f(a)

h s = f(t)
t

a b

SAIDA/JKBR/2016 42
Example

› The distance in feet of an object from a starting point is

given by s(t) = 2t2 - 5t + 40, where t is time in seconds.

a) Find the average velocity of the object from 2 seconds

to 4 seconds.
b) Find the instantaneous velocity at 4 seconds.

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 Solution :

a) Find the average velocity of the object from 2

seconds to 4 seconds.

𝑠 4 −𝑠(2)
Average velocity is =
4−2

=7

SAIDA/JKBR/2016 44
Solution

b)Find the instantaneous velocity at 4 seconds.

𝑓 𝑡0 +ℎ −𝑓 𝑡0 𝑠 𝑏 −𝑠 4
lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑏→𝑎 𝑏−4

We first calculate s(b) and s(4), that is

s(b) = 2b2 – 5b + 40 and s(4) = 52 (replace this into eq above)

Then,
lim 2𝑏 + 3 = 11
𝑏→𝑎 SAIDA/JKBR/2016 45
 Try this !!!!
s(t) = 8(t3 – 6 t2 +12t) t s
0 0
Position of a car at t hours. 1 56
2 64
1. Draw a graph. 3 72

2. What is the average velocity for the following intervals

a. [0, 2],
b. [0.5, 1.5]
c. [0.9,1.1]

3. Estimate the instantaneous velocity at t = 1

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Let’s try some

Use the position function 𝑠 𝑡 = −4.9𝑡 2 + 150 which gives

the height (in meters) of an object that has fallen from a
height of 150 meters. The velocity at time t = a seconds is
given by
𝑠 𝑎 −𝑠 𝑡
lim
𝑡→𝑎 𝑎−𝑡
a) Find the velocity of the object when t = 3
b) At what velocity will the object impact the ground?

SAIDA/JKBR/2016 47